{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1908natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^^\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF\n\nFORTY-SIXTH\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\nHELD\n\nMEETING\n\nAT\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nOHIO\n\nJUNE29-JULY3\n1908\n\n1908\n\npublisbcD bl? tbe Hgsociation\nsecretary's\n\noffice,\n\nWINONA,\n\nMINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n/3\n\nComposf^d and Printed By\nThe University of Chicago Press\nChicago, Illinois, U. S. A.\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nPAGE\n\n10\n\nAct of Incorporation\nBy-Laws\n.\nCertificate of Incorporation\nCalendar of Meetings\n.\nOfficers for 1907-8\nOfficers for 1908-9\nReport of Treasurer\nReport of Board of Trustees\n\nI\n\n5\n8\n\n16\n13\n20\n\naa\n\nSecretary's Minutes of General Sessions\nAnnual Report of Committee on Resolutions\nAnnual Meeting of Active Members\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1907-8\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1908-9\nGENERAL\n\n33\n49\n\nSESSION\n\nAddresses of Welcome — Mather; Cooley; Howe\nResponse — Thompson ........\nEducation for Avocation — Schaeffer\nVocational Education in London — Brereton\n....\nThe Adaptation of the Schools to Industry and Efficiency — Draper\nProposed Work of Commission for Conservation of National Resources — Van Hise\nThe Function of Education in a Democracy — Brumbaugh\nNegro Education and the Nation — Washington\nThe Reconcilement of Cross-Purposes in the Education of Women — Miss Arnold\nThe Public School and the Immigrant Child — Miss Addams\nThe School and the Practice of Ethics — Mrs. Young\nThe Personal Touch in Teaching — West\n....\nThe Personal Power of the Teacher in Public-School Work — Maxwell\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\n99\n93\n\n1 03\n\n108\n116\n\n(Washington Meeting, 1908)\n\nSecretary's Minutes — Cook\nOpportunities for Economy in the Course of Study — Heeter\n....\nModifications Necessary to Secure Recognition for Pupils of Varying Ability —\nKendall\nSymposium: The Place of Industries in Public Education —\n1. Democracy and Education; Equal Opportunity for M— Russell\n2. Equality of Opportunity: How Secured — Elliott\n.\n3. Urgency of Provision for Vocational Needs of Children— McElroy .\n4. Importance of Constructive Activities in the Elementary-School Course—\nMiss Langley\n5. An Intermediate Industrial School — Morse .\n■\n■■\n•\n•\n6. A Technical High School— Mar//»\nAgriculture, Industries, and Home Economics in Our Public Schools— Hay5\nNurture and Protection of Physical Wellbeing of Public-School Pupils—\n. I . How Can the School Contribute to Physical Development ?—Gulick\n....\n2. Medical Inspection in Public Schools— Harrington\n\n▼\n\n42\n83\n54\n\n129\n138\ni47\n155\nIS9\n161\n\n^\"8\n'73\n'76\n177\n\n195\n200\n\n87\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "VI\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAddress at White House Reception — Roosevelt\n.\n.\nDesirable Uniformity and Diversity in American Education — Draper .\n.\nThe Function of the School in Training for Right Conduct — Miss Schallenherger\nThe School as an Instrument of Character-Building — Teitrick; Williams\n.\nThe School and the Family (An Abstract) — Mrs. Glenn .\n/\nA Plan of Moral Training — Miss Brownlee\n.\nROUND-TABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nA. Round Table of State and County Superintendents —\n1. What a County Superintendent Should Know — Olsen .\n.\n.\n.\n2. How Can Trained County Superintendents Be Provided and How Should\nThey Be Selected ?— Cotton\n3. When Inspecting Schools, What Should a County Superintendent See\nand Do ?— Joynes\n..........\n4. What Can the County Superintendent Lead the People to Do ?— Evans .\n5. By Whom Shall Teachers Be Selected ?— Blair\n.....\n6. The Relation of the County Superintendent to the School Board — Nelson\n7. The Relation of the County Superintendent to the State Superintendent —\nStetson\n............\n8. The Relation of the State Superintendent to the County Superintendent —\nJoyner\n............\nB. Round Table of Superintendents of Larger Cities —\n1. Conditions of Mental Growth of Teachers in Service — Greenwood\n.\n.\n2. The Supply of Teachers and Their Training after Appointment — Davis\nC. Round Table of Superintendents of Smaller Cities —\nState Uniformity Laws — Carr; Gibson\n.......\nPrinciples and Methods of Pupil Government\n1. Child-Citizenship and the School City — Gill\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n2. School Cities — Cornman ........\nD. Round Table on Agricultural Education —\nInformal Remarks to the Department — True\n......\nNotes on the Training of Teachers of Agriculture — Brown\n.\n.\n.\nCo-operation of State Agricultural Colleges and State Normal Schools —\nButterfield; Bayliss\n..........\nCo-operation between the United States Department of Agriculture and State\nSchool Authorities — Crosby ........\nNATIONAL\n\n212\n215\n232\n246\n251\n251\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n252\n254\n260\n263\n264\n266\n268\n269\n271\n274\n280\n285\n289\n294\n295\n297\n303\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nConstitution\n.........\nOfl&cers and Members ........\nSecretary's Minutes\n........\nReport of Committee on Investigations and Appropriations\nPresident's Address — Joseph Swain\n.....\nThe Progress of Education for the Year — Thwing\n.\nReport of Committee of Investigations on the Scarcity of Teachers — McNeill\nPreliminary Report of the Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children in\nthe Public Schools — Van Sickle\nList of Books and Articles Available on the Subject .\nSpecial Classes in St. Louis, New York, Baltimore, etc.\n.\nExtracts from Reports of 1904-7 on Treatment of Backward Children\nBerlin's New School Idea\n. .\nAbnormal Children — Farrington\n......\n\n329\n315\n\n323\n333\n345\n318\n359\n\n322\n\n369 326\n375\n374\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "vu\nCONTENTS\n\nReport of the Committee on Industrial Education in Schools\nfor Rural Communities— Harvey\n•\n.\n.\n.\n.\nReport on Investigation of Work of Waterford and Calvert School&\n-CVo%\nReport on Investigatipn of Work of John Swaney School, and\nthe Congressional District Agricultural Schools of Georgia.— Kern\nPreliminary Report of Committee on Moral Training in Public Schools\nA. The Problem Stated — Brumbaugh\nB.\nThe Home\nTreatment\nof Pupils—\nC. The\nand School\nLife —Carr\nGreenwood...\"\nD. Relation of Moral and Religious Tra,imng— Barnes\nDistinctive Functions of University, College, and Normal School in the Prepara\n.\n• tion of Teachers — Brown\n\nPreliminary Report on Need of Investigation of the Culture Element and Economy\nof Time in Education — Baker\nReport of Committee on Co-operation with Educational Organizations in Other\nCountries — Harris\n.\n•••.....\nPossible Co-operation between the Educational Associations of Different Countries\n— Brown .\n.\n••......\nHome Economics in Elementary and Secondary Education— Mw^ Richards\nMemorial Addresses —\nF. Louis Soldan — Blewett\nRufus Henry Halsey — Keith\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nFundamental Factors in the Making of a Kindergarten Curriculum — Barnes\nThe Factor of Environment — Miss Temple\nThe Relation between the Ideal and the Practical in the Kindergarten Program —\nMiss Palmer\n.\nThe Art Impulse; Its Early Forms and Relation to Mental Development — Miss\nCushman .\n.\n..........\nDrawing in the Kindergarten — Mrs. Putnam\nThe Use and Abuse of Design — Miss Higgons\nMotive and Method in Primary Art Work — Miss Weller\nConservative and Progressive Phases of Kindergarten Education (An Outline) —\nMiss Hill\nThe Co-ordination of the Kindergarten and the Elementary School— Mrj. Putnam\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\n395\n\n449\n453\n420\n\n457\n\n448\n479\n\n452\n\n466\n\n482\n486\n492\n507\n498\n\n515\n523\n\n501\n502\n\n537\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.......••••\nThe Physiology and Psychology of Elementary Education — Brown\n...\nIs the Technique of Reading, Arithmetic, and Writing Receiving Due Attention\nin the Elementary Schools Today ?— Van Sickle\nMoral Training an Essential Factor in Elementary School \"Work—Reeder\nMathematics in the Grades — Aley\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n385\n\n543\n544\n\n526\n\n553\n562\n5^9\n\n536\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n•\n•\n-577\nThe High-School Situation — Morrison\n.\n.\n579\nA Shifting of Ideals Respecting the Efficiency of Formal Culture Studies for All\n584\nPupils— Bw/to^\n59^\n.\n?—Kratz\nIt\nNeed\nThey\nWhen\nOnly\nand\nWhen\nPupils\nOur\nAssist\nHow Shall We\n\n531\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "Viii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe Cosmopolitan High-School Curriculums from the Standpoint of Colleges of\nEngineering — Magruder\n599\nThe Cosmopolitan High-School Curriculum — Smith ....\n606\nSchool Athletics: What They Are; What They Should Bq— Gordon\n.616\nReport of Committee on Six- Year Course of Study — Lyttle\n625 634\nROUND-TABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nA. Mathematics —\nThe Teaching of Algebra in Its Relation to the Present Educational Trend —\nMcKinney ...\nv\n.....\n,\nThe Teaching of Geometry in Its Relation to the Present Educational Trend\n—Betz\nB. Foreign Languages —\nObjective Aids in Teaching Modern Languages — WolJ\nThe Position of Grammar in Language Instruction — Kromer\nThe Teaching of Ancient Languages by Modern Methods — Can\nWhat Can We Do for the Two- Year Pupil ?— Miss Benson\nC. English —\nIdeals versus Realities in High-School English — Noyes; Miss Van Metre\nSome Practical Problems in the Teaching of English — Hitchcock\nPractical Problems in English — Miss Apgar\n.....\nD. Science —\nWhat Should the Science Laboratory Notebook Contain ?— Butler\nBotany Notebook— -What It Should Contain and How It Should Be Mad\nStuart\n...........\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\n645\n628\n644\n\n653\n640\n\n664\n\n658\n661\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nLiberal Education in the Twentieth Century — Craig\nCollege Ethics — Fordyce\nCare of Freshmen in Large Universities — Aley\n......\nThe Relation of the Work of the Colleges to the Work of the Medical School—\nCrawford ............\n\n686\n\nPedagogical Departments in Colleges and Universities — Snedden\nSome Avenues of Usefulness for the Small Colleges — Stearns\n....\n\n691\n696\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\n669\n670\n675\n680\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nPresident's Address — ^Thomas\nIndustrial Arts in Normal Schools — Seerley\nWhat Is an Ideal Course for a Normal School ?— Lyte\n.\nWhat Relation Should the Head of Theoretical and Scientific Education Sustain\n\n703\n704\n710\n715\n\nto the Practice School ?— Keith\nThe Relation of Observation to Practice-Teaching in the Preparation of the\nYoung Teacher — Jones\nReport of Committee on Preparation and Qualification of Teachers of Elementary and High Schools — Van Liew\n.......\n\n723\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\n728\n735\n\nTRAINING\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nReport of Committee on Collecting Data for Courses of Manual Training in\nPublic Schools — Keyes\n.........\n\n649\n\n739\n740\n\n665\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nDemocracy in Education — Chancellor\n\nEquality of Opportunity: How It Can Be Secured—\nMiss Dopp\nPeriod at Which Secondary Education Should Begin—\nSnedden\nIndustrial Development Has Exerted a Pre-em\ninent Influence in Social Progre\nJr (IT RCT\n•\n•\n•\n•\n\nss-\n\nThe Industrial Aspect of Social Life Affords\nSubject-Matter Essential in a System\nof Education Controlled by Social Standard\ns-G^'ft^ow\nThe Important Function of Constructive Activitie\ns in Education Is to Reveal the\nSocial Significance of Industrial Activities— iVoye^\nThe Most Urgent Educational Need of Today is\nin Public Schools — Morse\n....Provision for Industrial T;aining\nThe Relation of Manual Training to Industrial Education— A/wrray\n*\nIntermediate Industrial Schools as a Requirement\nof a Program in Industrial\nEducation — Barney\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n76s\n\n740\n\n746\n752\n803\n793\n772\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n••....\nPresident's Address — Eggers\n\nOF MUSIC\n\n799\n780\n786\n800\n\nArt\na Factorof in\n— Hughes\n.\n.\n.\n'\nThe asBearing\nArt Culture\non Industry\n— Zueblin.\nSome Educational Deductions from the Art of the Great Vexiods—Bonser\nThe Place of Art in a Constructive Education— Mo«»y\nA New Basis of Art Education — Miss Church\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n757\n\n808\n820\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\ng\nReport of Committee of Resolutions Regarding Uniformity of National Songs\n.\n835\nPresident's Address — Mrs. Clark .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.8^6\nMusic in the Schools from the Viewpoint of the Superintendent— Fflm:«\n.\n.\n840\nMusic in the High School— McConathy\ng^\nThe Psychology of Music and the Light It Throws upon Musical Education— Ha//\n848\nChild-Song — Its Verse — Mrs. Riley\n.854\nChild-Song — Its Music — Mrs. Gay nor\n857\nEducational Rhythm-Training— Mm Goedhart\n859\nROUND TABLE\nPreparation by the Normal School of the Grade Teacher and Supervisor for the\nTeaching of Music —\n1. Fullerion ............\n2. Miss Crane\n...........\n3. Gebhart\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\n862\n863\n866\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nPresident's Address — Brown\n' .\n.\nThe High-School Commercial Course: Its Subjects; Their Practical and Educational Value — Garbuti\nThe Teaching of Shorthand — Moran\n........\nTo What Extent May a Commercial and Industrial Training Be Properly Included\nin the Grammar-School Course ?— Row^\n......\n\n871\n872\n876\n881\n888\n\n813\n827\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWhat Should Be Done to Encourage College Education beyond the Commerical\nCourse in High Schools ?— Twiggs\n.......\nPreparation and Improvement of Commerical Teachers — Herrick\n.\n.\n.\nMethods of Preparing Teachers for Commercial Schools in Germany — De Garmo\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD-STUDY\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nPresident's Address — Burnham\n.........\nThe Study of Growth in Children — Tyler\nChild-Study on the Playground — Johnson\nPhysiological Age and Child-Labor — Bruere .......\nThe Physical Basis of Attention — Talbot\nThe Visiting Nurse and the Children Requiring Special Attention — MacMurchy\nWhat the Regular Class Teacher Should Know of Mental and Moral Deficiency —\nSherman\n............\nRecent Advances in Child-Study — Hall\nWhat England Is Doing to Secure Healthy School Children — Barnes\n.\n.\nThe Study of Exceptional Children — Miller\nDEPARTMENT\n\n891\n895\n902\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\n907\n908\n913\n917\n924\n932\n936\n943\n948\n952\n957\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.........\nHome Geography — Miss Genthe\n.......\nGeography in the Elementary Schools — Whitbeck .\n.\n.\nGeography in the Secondary Schools — Hubbard\nThe Function of the Lecture Demonstration in Secondary School PhysicsMillikan\n........\n\n965\n\n985\n\nPreservation of Natural Resources of the United States — Smith\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nSystematic Training for the Teaching of Physical Education — Hastings\n.\n.\nShould the Public-School Teacher of Physical Education Have the Training of\na Physical Director or That of a Physician ?— Sargent\n....\nElements of Strength and Weakness in Physical Education as Taught in Colleges\n— Hall\n\n............\n\n966\n971\n999\n978\n1000\n1006\n992\n1013\n\nCriticisms of the Teaching of Physical Education — Thwing\n.\n.\n.\n.1018\nElements of Strength and Weakness in Physical Education as Taught in Preparatory Schools — Nason .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n1019\nElements of Strength and Weakness in Physical Education as Taught in Public\nSchools — Wittich\n1024\n1047\nThe Essential Elements in the Training of the College Physical Director and the\nPubhc-School Physical Director — Seaver\n......\n1033\nEssential Elements in the Training of Teachers of Gymnastics — Miss Newton\n1039\n105\n4\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.........\nPresident's Address — Thompson\n.......\nThe Centralization of Rural Schools in Ohio — Jones\nAdministration of Industrial Education, State and Municipal — Lindemann\nSchool Architecture — Ittner ........\nInnovations in School Architecture — Mills\n\n11006458\n106\n10710\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "1079\nXI\n\nCONTENTS\nLIBRARY\n\n1087\n1095\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n•••....\nThe Library of Today as Compared with the Library of Thirty Years Ago—\nBrett\nExtent to Which Normal Schools and Teachers' Colleges Should Teach\nthe\nUse\nof School Libraries — Felmley\n.....\nThe Methods of Administering Public Libraries for the Benefit of Public Schools\n— Canfield .......\nHow to Make the Library More Serviceable to Students of School Age from\n1. The Superintendent's View-Point — Wolfe\n2. The Library Worker's View-Point — Power\nThe Library and the School — Seerley\n.....\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nOF INDIAN\n\n099\n\n1 104\n\n1113\n\n1114\n11\n\n27\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.••......\nPresident's Address — Johnstone\n.........\nThe Public School and the Special Child — Barnes\nThe Home and the Special Child — Miss Addams\n......\nThe Problems of the Special Class — Miss Farrell\n......\nThe Education of the Blind Child with the Seeing Child in the Public Schools—\nMiss Adams\n...........\nSome Urgent Needs for Advancement in the Education of Mentally Defective\nChildren — Miss Smart\n.........\nDEPARTMENT\n\n1080 1\n\n\"37\n1131\n18\"43\n11\n\n\"53\n\"5\n\"54 5\n\n\"59\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..........\nAddresses of Welcome — Elson; Jones; Westwood\n.....\nResponses — Compton; Miss Reel\n........\nUtilization of Experience in Home Environment — Miss Young\nProgress the Indian Is Making toward Citizenship and Self -Support — Seger\nHow Far are the Principles of Education along Indigenous Lines Applicable to\nAmerican Indians ?— Hall .......\nHorticulture and Landscape Gardening — Hoffman ....\nDemonstration Lessons by Teachers in the Service ....\n\n1156\n1 164\n\n\"73\n\n1161\n1171\"75\n1166\"75\n\nOration \"My People\" — Miss Penny\n......\nDemonstration in Rug- weaving by Class of Indian Girls — Mrs. Dietz\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF TECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.......•••■\nPresident's Address — Monin\n.....■■■•\nReport of the Committee of Seven on Admission Requirements to Colleges of\n.....•■••\nEngineering — Atkinson\nFive- Year Engineering Course of Study — Marston ...■■■\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF RURAL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n•\n•\n•\n•\n•\n■\n•\n.\nWhat Constitutes Successful Work in Agriculture in Rural Schools f— Davis\nThe Work of the Normal School in Preparing Teachers to Teach Agriculture—\nEvans; French .....••••*\nSome Notes 6n Agricultural Education — Brown\nWhat Is Agriculture— Elementary, Secondary, and Collegiate ?—True\n•\nSchool Gardening as Conducted in Cleveland Schools— Orr .\nSipe\nMiss\nCapital—\nNational\nthe\nat\nGardens\nSchool\nof\nt\nDevelopmen\n\nE78\n1 187\n[81\n\n\"99\n\"94\n1 188\n1209\n1213\n\n1202\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "xii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF NATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nOF WOMEN\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n•\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.1217\nThe Work of Women's Organizations in Education:\nSuggestions for Effective\nCo-operation — Brown\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.1218\nLaws for Children's Welfare.\nAn Ideal Attainable in 1920: Child Labor; Compulsory Education; Registration of Births; Juvenile Courts — Mrs. Kelley\n1222\nCompulsory School Attendance in the South — Mrs. Mengal\n.1229\nWomen's Work in the Socialization of the Schools — Mrs. Barmtm\n1231\nGeneral Index\n............\n1239\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nOF\n\n1857-1870\nThe National Teachers' Association\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nPurpose— To elevate the character and advance the interest\noj the profession\nof teaching, and to promote the cause oj popular education in the\nUnited\nStates.\nThe name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August\n15, 1870, to the *' National Educational Association.\"\n1870-1907\nNational Educational Association\n\nIncorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name, \"National Education Association,\" which was\nchanged to \"National Educational Association,\" by certificate filed November 6,1886.\nNational Education Association 1907of the United States\nIncorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\n\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\" The charter was\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\nAN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nTION OF THE UNITED STATES\n\nASSOCIA-\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled:\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now the officers and directors\nand trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews,\nof Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, Josiah\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chambedain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of\nDelaware; J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of\nColumbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann,\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles 1. Parker; John W. Cook, Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A.\nMott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V.\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of Louisi♦ Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W, Eliot,\n*Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G, White,\nWiUiam E. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A, Cranston, of\nMinnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood,\nWillam J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of\nNebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M.\nGreen, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\nPitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs,\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas;\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nL. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F, Griffiths,\nof Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by\nthe name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation sh^ll be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States, This corporation shall include the National Council of\nEducation and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by\norganization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth,\nof Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth,\nof Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education;\neleventh, of Child-Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science\nInstruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department;\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education\nmay be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in\nany court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws\nnot inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia,\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation;\nprovided, however, that this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation\nwhich shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational\n* Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\npurposes of the corporation; and, provided further, that the corporation shall annually\nfile, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\nin detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\nmembers— viz., active, associate, and corresponding— whose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and\na Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of a President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the terra of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as\nshall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\nas may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\nex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\none trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\nshall forfeit his membership.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safe-keeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nfunds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the\nprincipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a twothirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, ui^on\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been\napproved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed\nThe income of the\nall active members of the Association.\nexpenditure' has been mailed to only\nto meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the\nPermanent Fund shall be used\nof the\nAssociation and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, -unless the terms\nother^^'lse\nshall\nDirectors\nof\nBoard\nthe\nor\ndonation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify,\non the Treasurer\norder. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders\nPresident and\nthe\nby\nor\nDirectors,\nof\nBoard\nthe\nby\napproved\nbills\nall\nof\nfor the payment\n^\\ hen\nDirectors.\nof\nBoard\nthe\nof\nauthority\nthe\nSecretary- of the Association acting under\nall surplus\nFund,\nPermanent\nthe\nof\npart\nas\ninvest,\nshall\nTrustees\nof\npracticable, the Board\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after\npaying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed\nexpenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\noffice for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, provided that the meetings of the corporation, its oflricers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted,\nand an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as\nmay be determined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the\nBy-Laws.\nSec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew By-Laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said\nAssociation shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such\nuntil the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and\nuntil their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the\nNational Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the\ncharter granted by this Act and adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Education Association of the United States;\" and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever; and\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\nperson having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees\nof the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the\npresiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further ^ That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted\nby this act at said annual meeting, then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day\nof July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be\nextended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District\nof Columbia.\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities,\nand contracts, of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no\naction or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been\ndiscontinued by reason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired\nshall thereby be divested\nor impaired.\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the Constitution of the National Education Association\nof\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in\nannual\nsession at Los Angeles, CaL, July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Adopted at meeting of active members held in Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.)\nARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSection i. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\neducational institutions, including libraries and educational publications, may become\nactive members.\nSec. 2. Any eligible person may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual\ndues for the current year.\nSec. 3. Active members only shall have the right to vote and to hold office in the\nAssociation, in the National Council of Education, or in the several departments.\nSec. 4. All active members shall pay annual dues of two dollars, and shall be entitled\nto the volume of Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions.\nSec. 5. The annual membership fee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, orby remittance to the Secretary before September first of each year.\nSec. 6. Any active member may discontinue membership by giving written notice\nto the Secretary before September first in any year, and may restore the same only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. A\nwritten application for active membership shall constitute an agreement to continue such\nmembership and pay annual dues, unless written notice of discontinuance is sent to the\nSecretary before September first of the fiscal year for which such discontinuance shall apply.\nCORRESPONDING\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 7. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of\nDirectors to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall\nat no time exceed fifty.\nSec. 8. Corresponding members shall be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without\nthe payment of fees or other conditions.\nASSOCIATE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 9. Any person on paying an annual membership of two dollars may become\nan associate member.\nSec 10. Associate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance\nwith the usual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. II. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members and\nprivileges of such members without the payment of annual\nshall\ndues. enjoy all the powers and\nROLL OF MEMBERS\n\nshall be printed\nSec. 12. The names of active, life, and corresponding members only\noffices, and addresses,\nin the annual Yearbook, with their respective educational titles,\nn.\nand the list shall be revised annually by the Secretary of the Associatio\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\nARTICLE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nII— OFFICERS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAND\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Directors, and Treasurer shall be chosen\nby the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third\nday of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. They\nshall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election and\nuntil their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided,\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nSec. 2. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nSec. 3. At the third session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be\nappointed by the President a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one member from\neach state and territory represented. Such a committee shall be appointed by the President on the nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory\npresent at the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination; provided, however, that such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination,\nwhen the active members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a\nnomination.\nSec. 4. The meetings of the active members of the several states to nominate members\nof the nominating committee shall be held at 5:30 p. m. on the first day of the annual\nmeeting of the Association, at such places as shall be announced in the general program.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— DUTIES\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer.\nIn his absence the first Vice-President in order, who is present, shall preside; and in the\nabsence of all the Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nthe secretary\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the\ngeneral meetings of the Association and of all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall\nconduct such correspondence and transact such other business of the Association as the\ndirectors or Executive Committee may assign, and shall have his records present at all\nmeetings of the Association and the Board of Directors.\nthe treasurer\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\nhold in safekeeping, the current income of the Association; shall expend the same only\nupon order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures,\nwith vouchers for the latter; which accounts, ending the first day of July in each year, he\nshall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall report\nto the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge\nof his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office\nuntil the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the\nAssociation next succeeding that at which he is elected, and until his successor has been\nelected and has qualified.\n• AUDITOR\n\nOF accounts\n\nSec. 4. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Perma-\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\n7\n\nnent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the ronditi,.n r.f tUsaid fund, shall be attached to the annual report of the Board of Trustees.\nCERTIFICATION\n\nOF BILLS\n\nSec. s. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n\nARTICLE IV— THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS\nSection i. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular annual meeting at the place\nof the annual convention, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or\nthe President shall determine.\nSec. 3. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election.\n\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nNATIONAL COUNCIL\nobjects and duties\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of public and professional interest;\nthe proposal to the Board of Directors, from time to time, of suitable subjects for investigation and research, and the recommendation of the amount of appropriations that should\nbe made for such purposes; the appointment and general supervision of such special\ncommittees of investigation and research as may be provided for and authorized by the\nBoard of Directors of the Association; the consideration, discussion, and recommendation\nto the Board of Directors for disposition of all reports by such special committees of\nresearch as may have been appointed on its recommendation or by its authority; the\nannual preparation and presentation to the Association at its annual convention of a\nreport on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year;\" and in other ways shall use its\nbest efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education\nin general.\nmembership of the council\nSec. 2. *The Council shall consist of one hundred and twenty members, selected from\nthe membership of the Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council.\nSec. 3. *The Board of Directors shall annually elect ten members, and the Council\nshall elect ten members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected.\nAt the meeting of 1908 enough additional members shall be elected in the same manner to\nmake the total number of members one hundred and twenty. The terms of the members\n\nso elected shall expire as follows: one-sixth in one year, one-sixth in two years, one-sixth\nin three years, one-sixth in four years, one-sixth in five years, one-sixth in six years.\nSec. 4. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection\nwith the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nto fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nreason,\nCouncil.\nthe\n\nof the\nSec. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings\nshall\nCouncil\nthe\nand\n,\nmembership\nof\nresignation\nto\nequivalent\nCouncil shall be considered\nvacanci^\nas\nwell\nas\ndefined,\nherein\nas\nCouncil\nthe\nfrom\nabsence\nby\ncaused\nfill vacancies\nwho have belonged\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons\nhonorary members,\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become\nng m its discussions.\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participati\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nOhio, July i, 1908.\n* As amended at meeting of active members held in Cleveland,\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBY-LAWS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\nCOUNCIL\n\nSec. 6. The Council may establish by-laws for its government not inconsistent with\nthe Act of Incorporation or of the By-Laws of the Association, provided such by-laws shall\nbe submitted to and approved by the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall\nbecome operative.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. A department shall consist of those members of the Association who are\nespecially interested in the consideration of a particular group of educational problems.\nEach department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and\nsuch other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs.\nSec, 2. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time of the annual convention of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold\nits annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined\nby the officers of said department.\nSec. 3. The objects of the annual department meetings shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of\nthese meetings shall be organized and conducted by the respective presidents, in conference\nwith, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, at the time of the annual convention, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference may be\nheld at the discretion of the department ofijcers.\nSec. 4. Upon the written request of twenty active members of the Association for\npermission to establish a new department, the Board of Directors may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges\nas the departments named in the Act of Incorporation.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five directors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of\nits departments, in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon the\napproval of the Executive Committee.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— AMENDMENTS\n\nSection 1. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by the\nunanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present,\nprovided that the substance of the alteration or amendment has been proposed in writing\nat a previous annual meeting.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNOW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nKNOWN\n\nAS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nTHE\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June\n30, 1906.\n\n,\n\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C. SchaefiFer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard.\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nthe secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Asso^\nciation held next after the passage of an Act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate\nthe National Education Association of the United States, \"\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\nand accepted the Charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected\noflficers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said Charter granted by said Act of Congress, and has adopted by-laws, and\nis the lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907.\n(Signed) Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer.\n(Signed) Irwin Shepard, Secretary.\nVERIFICATION\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nJULY\n\nlO,\n\n1907\n\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the Charier\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the Charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting\nof the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \"1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize\nunder the Charter granted by the Act of Congress.\n\nFiled in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4,\n1907.\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nTEACHERS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\n1864— OGDENSBURG. N. Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\n1865— HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1859— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\n1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. Wickersham, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\ni860— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nJ. W. Bulkley, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n1861, 1862 — No session.\n\n1867 — No session.\n1868— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D; Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1869— TRENTON, N. J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nDaniel B, Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\n\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1871— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. Pickard, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1878 — No session.\n1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1873— ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1874— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n188 1— ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n187s— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "II\n\nCALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\n1884— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1895— DtNVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray Butler, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n188s— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1896— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President,\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1886— TOPEKA, KAN.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer\n\n1887— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1898— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n1. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1889— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President,\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\ni9oa-CHARLESTON, S. C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\n1890— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1901— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treas rer.\n\n1891— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\n\n1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilliam M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nTreasurer.\n\n1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\n1903— BOSTON, MASS.\nCHARLfes W. Eliot, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\n1893— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1904— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1894— ASBURY PARK, N. J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1 90s— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE,\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\n1906 — No session.\n1907— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\n, President.\nSchaeffer\nC.\nNathan\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCHANGED\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION. OF THE\n\n1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nEdwin G. Cooley, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nN. J.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR 1907-8\n\nGENERAL\nEdwin G. Cooley\nIrwin Shepard\nArthur H. Chamberlain.\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nChicago, 111.\nWinona, Minn.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nNathan C. Schaeffer, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nWilliam H. Elson, Superintendent of Schools\nCharles H. Judd, Professor of Psychology, Yale University\nH. A. UsTRUD, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nJ. F. Stillwell, Superintendent of Public Schools\nJoseph H. Hill, President of State Normal Schools\nW. A. Clark, Professor of Psychology, State Normal School\nWalter M. Kern, President of State Manual Training School\nWilbur F. Gordy, Superintendent of Schools\nJ. T. Kingsbury, President of University of Utah\nElmer Ellsworth Robey, Superintendent of County Schools\nJames H. Baker, President of University of Colorado\nBOARD\nCarroll G. Pearse\nJames M. Greenwood, Secretary\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman\nHenry B. Brown\nEdwin G. Cooley\n\nOF\n\nIrwin Shepard.\n\nTRUSTEES\n\nMilwaukee, Wis\nKansas City, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nValparaiso, Ind\nChicago, 111\nEXECUTIVE\n\nEdwin G. Cooley\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nNicholas Murray Butler\nW. T. Harris\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nCleveland, Ohio.\nNew Haven, Conn.\nPierre, S. Dak.\nPhoenix, Ariz.\nEmporia, Kans.\nKearney, Neb.\nEllendale, N. Dak.\nSpringfield, Mass,\nSalt Lake City, Utah.\nKokomo, Ind.\nBoulder, Colo.\n\nTerm expires July, 1908\nTerm expires July, 1909\nTerm expires July, 1910\nTerm expires July, 1911\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\n\nChicago, 111.\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nPasadena, Cal.\nNew York, N. Y.\nWashington. D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\nEdwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nLife Directors\nBicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education. Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D. C.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\n*CooK, E. H.. Madison. Wis.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\n* Deceased.\n\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N. Y.\nParker, Charles I.. Chicago, 111.\nPiCKARD, Josiah L., Los Angcles, Cal.\nPike Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nSchaeffer, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa.\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N. Y.\n♦SoLDAN, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\nLife Directors— c<jn/««ucd\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham. H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N. J.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\nDirectors\n\nState Teachers' Association, lUinoi*\nStratton, C. C, St. Johns, Oregon\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, III.\n\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia. Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWilson, J. Ormond. Washington. D. C.\nby Election\n\nNorth Atlantic Division\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\nPayson Smith, State Superintendent of Public Schools\nAuburn\nJames E. Klock. Principal, State Normal School\nPlymouth\nMason S. Stone, State SuperintendeDt of Education\nMontpelier\nJohn T. Prince, Agent, State Board of Education\nWest Newton\nWalter Ballou Jacobs, Professor of Education. Brown Univ.. Providence\nCharles H. Keyes, Supervisor, South District Schools\nHartford\nJames C. Byrnes, Member, Board of Examiners, City Schools. . New York\nJohn Enright, Superintendent of County Schools\nFreehold\nJohn Morrow, Superintendent of Schools\nAllegheny\nSouth Atlantic Division\n\nDelaware\nGeorge W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools\nWilmington\nMaryland\nM. Bates Stephens, State Superintendent of Public Education . Annapolis\nDistrict of Columbia . . W. T, Harris, 1360 Fairmont St\nWashington\nVirginia\nJoseph L. Jarman, Prcsir^ent, State Female Normal School\nFarmville\nWest Virginia\nThomas C. Miller. State Superintendent of Free Schools\nCharleston\nNorth Carolma\nJ. I. Foust. President State Normal and Industrial College\nGreensboro\nSouth Carolina\nD. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College,Rock Hill\nGeorgia\nWilliam M. Slaton. Superintendent of Schools\nAtlanta\nFlorida\nMiss Clem Hampton, Department of Education\nTallahassee\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\n\nW. H. Bartholomew. Principal of Girls' High School\nI. C. McNeill. Superintendent of Schools\nIsaac W. Hill, Superintendent of Schools\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of SchooLs\nWarren Easton, Superintendent of Schook\n\nLouisville\nMemphis\nOpelika\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\n\nTexas\nArkansas\nOklahoma\nIndian Territory\n\nCree T. Work, President of College of Industrial Arts. . . .'\nGeorge B. Cook. Superintendent of SchooLs\nE. E. Balcomb, Department of Agriculture, State Normal School\nJohn F. Benedict, Territorial Superintendent of Schools\n\nDenton\nHot Springs\nWeatherford\nMuskogee\n\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\n\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nNorth Central Division\nHenry G. Willl\\ms. Dean, Normal College, Ohio University. . . Athens\nRiclunond\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nWalter R. Hatfield, Prin., Elementary School, 6030 Monroe Ave., Chicago\nDetroit\nDavid MacKenzie, Principal, Central High School\nMadison\nCharles P. Gary, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nKeokuk\nP. C. Hayden. Director of Music, Public Schools\nSt Paul\n'•\nS. L. Heeter, Superintendent of Schools\nKu-ksviUe\nJohn R. Kirk, President, State Normal School\nLidgerwood\nNeh. C. MacDonald. Superintendent of Schools\nPierre\nInstruction\nPublic\nof\nM. A. Lange, State Department\nLmcota\nGeorge L. Towne. Editor, Nebraska Teacher\nTopeka\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\nWestern Division\n\nMontana\n\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\n\nOscar J. Craig. President, State University of Montana\nEstelle Reel, Superintendent of Indian Schools\nCharles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nW. H. Decker. Superintendent of Schools. •••;••••••;\nA. J. Matthews. President, Territorial Normal School\nWilliam Allison, Superintendent of Schools\n. . J. E. Stubbs, President, State University of Nevada\n\nidalo .\\:::::::... s.BELLECHAMBERLAiN,statesu^^^^^^\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\n..\nEdward T. Mathes, Principal, State Normal School\nent of Pubhc InstrucUon\nJ. H. Ackerman, State Superintend\nSchools\nof\nndent\nSuperinte\nBarr.\nA.\nJames\n\n?f,^.\"t\n^ ^\nWashmgton. U. C.\nDenver\n\nJj^P\nlempe\n\n^8a«°\n• • Keno\n\nMnghan,\nS^m^^\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOFFICERS\nNational Council\nPresident\nJoseph Swain, President, Swarthmore College\nVice-President\nJames M. Green, Princip)al, State Normal School\nSecretary\nJohn W. Carr, Superintendent of Schools\nExecutive Committee . . James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools\nExecutive Committee . . Elmer Ellsworth Brown, U. S. Commissioner of Education\nExecutive Committee. . W. T. Harris, 1360 Fairmont Ave., N.W\n\nSwarthmore, Pa\nTrenton, N. J.\nDayton, Ohio\nKansas City, Mo.\nWashington, D. C.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nKindergarten\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBertha Payne, School of Education, University of Chicago . . . Chicago, 111.\nBarbara Greenwood, Supervisor of Kindergartens\nPomona, Cal.\nHarriet Rockwell, Director, Kentucky School Kindergarten . . Cleveland, O.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJohn K. Stableton, Superintendent of Schools\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Superintendent of Schools\nS. Belle Chamberlain, State Supt. of Public Instruction\n\nElementary\nBloomington, 111.\nWabash, Ind.\nBoise, Idaho\n\nSecondary\nPresident\nGilbert B. Morrison, Principal, McKinley High School\nFirst Vice-President. .. H. H. Cully, Principal, Glenville High School\nSecond Vice-President. Fletcher Durell, Lawrenceville School\nSecretary\nLewis B. Avery, Principal, High School\n\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nCleveland, Ohio\nLawrenceville, N. J.\nRedlands, Cal.\n\nHigher\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nOscar J. Craig, President, University of Montana\nWilliam O. Thompson, President, Ohio State University\nLillian G. Berry, Indiana University\n\nMissoula, Mont.\nColumbus, Ohio\nBloomington, Ind.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAugustus O. Thomas, President, State Normal School\nKearney, Neb.\nMorris E. Dailey, President, State Normal School\nSan Josd, Cal.\nHenry G. Williams, Dean, Normal College, Ohio University. . . Athens, O.\n\nNormal\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nFrank B. Cooper, Superintendent of Schools\nFirst Vice-President. . . Stratton D. Brooks, Superintendent of Schools\nSecond Vice-President . Ella C. Sullivan, District Supejintendent of Schools\nSecretary\nGeorge B. Cook, Superintendent of Schools\n\nSeattle, Wash.\nBoston, Mass.\nChicago, 111.\nHot Springs, Ark.\n\nManual\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJesse D. Burks, Principal, Teachers Training School\nAnna C. Hedges, Supt., Hebrew Technical School for Girls\nWilliam E. Roberts, Supervisor of Manual Training\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nGeorge W. Eggers, Chicago Normal School\nMary A. Woodmansee, Supervisor of Drawing\nFlorence E. Ellis, Supervisor of Drawing\n\nChicago, 111.\nDayton, Ohio\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMrs. Frances Elliott Clark, Supervisor of Music\nGeorge E. Krinbill, Supervisor of Music\nEdward B. Birge, Supervisor of Music,\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nH. B. Brown, President, Valparaiso University\nValparaiso, Ind.\nJames Ferguson Department of Commerce, High School\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nJames S. Curry, Commercial Department, Central High School Cleveland, Ohio\n\nPresident\nVice-President.\nSecretary\n\nWilliam H. Burnham, Professor of Pedagogy, Clark University Worcester, Mass.\nWilliam L. Bryan, President, Indiana University\nBloomington, Ind.\nH. Austin Aikins, Prof, of Philosophy, Western Reserve Univ., Cleveland, O.\n\nArt\n\nMusic\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nBisbee, Ariz.\nIndianapolis, Ind.\n\nBusiness\n\nChild-Study\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nj^\n\nScience\nPresident\n\nIrving O. Palmer, Science Master, High School\n\nNewtonviUe, Man\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nFrank F. Almy, Professor of Physics, Iowa College\nHenry Kerr, Principal, High School\n\nGrinnell, la.'\nNorwalk, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWilliam W. Hastings, Y. M. C. A. Training School\nClark W. Hetherington, University of Missouri\nMartha J. Johnson, Supervisor of Physical Education\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWilliam O. Thompson, President, Ohio State University\nColumbus, O.\nJ. W. McClymonds, Superintendent of Schools\nOakland, Cal.\nWilliam George Rruce, Editor, Am. School Board Journal . . Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJohn R. Kirk, President, State Normal Schocil\nMary Eileen Ahern, Editor, Public Libraries\nIda J. Dacus, Librarian, Winthrop Normal College\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nE. R. Johnstone, Superintendent, School for Feeble Minded . . Vineland, N. J.\nO. H. Burritt, Institution for the Blind\nOverbrook, Pa.\nJennie Smith, Day School for the Deaf\nEau Claire, Wis.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nL. M. Compton, Superintendent of Indian School\nHarwood Hall, Superintendent of Indian School\nEstelle Reel, Superintendent of Indian Schools\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nLouis C. Monin, Armour Institute of Technology\nAlbert B. Storms, President, Iowa State College\nGeorge A. Merrill, Principal, School of Mechanical Arts\n\nPhysical\n\nSpringfield, Mass.\nColumbia, Mo.\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nSchool Administration\n\nLibrary\n\nKirksville, Mo.\nChicago, 111.\nRock Hill, S. C.\n\nSpecial Education\n\nIndian\n\nEducation\nTomah, Wis.\nRiverside, Cal.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nTechnical Education\n\nSecretary\n\nChicago, III.\nAmes, Iowa\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nDepartment of Rural and Agricultural Education.\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nSecretary\n\nLincohi, Neb.\nE. C. Bishop, Deputy Superintendent of Pub. Inst\nRock Hill, S. C\nD. B. Johnson, Pres. Winthrop Nor. and Indus. Coll\nE. E. Balcomb, Agricultural Dept., State Normal School. . . . Weatherford, Okla.\n\nDepartment of National Organizations of Women.\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLaura Drake Gill, Pres., Association of Collegiate Alumnae Washington, D. C.\nMrs. Frederic Schoff, President, Juvenile Court Association Philadelphia, Pa.\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nMrs. PnaiP N. Moore, Trustee of Vassar College\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nIrwin Shepard\nArthur H. Chamberiain\n\nOF\n\n1908-9\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident. .\nSecretary . .\nTreasurer.\n\nMenomonie, Wis.\nWinona, Minn.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nEdwin G. Cooley, Superintendent of Schools\nJohn C. Byrnes, Member of Board of Examiners, City Schools\nArnoldas H, McClure, Superintendent of Schools\nCarleton B. Gibson, Superintendent of Schools\nJoseph Rosier, Superintendent of Schools\nJasper L. McBrien, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nGeorge M. Philips, Principal, State Normal School\nBenjamin F. Moore, Superintendent of Schools\nCharles Evans, Superintendent of Schools\nJames A. Edwards, Editor, Iowa Normal Monthly\nGeorge H. Martin, Secretary, State Board of Education\nKatherine L. Craig, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nBOARD\nJames M. Greenwood, Secretary\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman\nHenry B. Brown\nCarroll G. Pearse\nLorenzo D. Harvey\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nKansas City, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nValparaiso, Ind\nMilwaukee, Wis\nMenomonie, Wis\nEXECUTIVE\n\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nEdwin G. Cooley\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nNicholas Murray Butler\nJohn H. Phillips\nIrwin Shepard.\n\nChicago, 111.\nNew York, N. Y.\nYuma, Ariz.\nColumbus. Ga.\nFairmont, W. Va.\nLincoln, Neb.\nWest Chester, Pa.\nMarion, Ind.\nArdmore, Okla.\nDubuque, la.\nWest Salem, Mass.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nTerm expires July, iqoq\nTerm expires July, igio\nTerm expires July, 1911\nTerm expires July, 1912\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by Election.\n\nMenomonie, Wis.\nChicago, 111.\nPasadena, Cal.\nNew York, N. Y.\nBirmingham, Ala.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nDirectors\n\nDIRECTORS\nex oflleio\n\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nEdwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nLife Directors\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D. C.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, lU.\nCooley, Edwin G., Chicago, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\n\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall. T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N. Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nPiCKARD, Josiah L., Los Angeles, Cal.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C, Harri.sburg, Pa.\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N. Y.\nState Teachers' Association, Illinois\n\nr6 Stratton, C. C, St. Johns, Ore.\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nj-\n\nLife Directors— aw/»»ii«d\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N. J.\n\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, III.\n\nGreenwood,\n\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nJ. M., Kansas City, Mo.\n\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nWhite, Charles\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington,\nD. C. G., Lake Linden,'Mich.\nDirectors\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\n\nby Election\n\nJohn W. Abercrombie, President, University of Alabama\nA. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School\nGeorge B. Cook. State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nDuncan MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools\n\nColorado\nCharles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools .'.\nConnecticut\nCharles H. Keyes, Superintendent of Schools, South District\nDelaware\nGeorge W. Twitmyer. Superintendent of Schools\nDistrict of Columbia. , W. T. Harris, Ex-United States Commissioner of Education\nFlorida\nMiss Clem Hampton, Department of Education\nGeorgia\nCarleton B. Gibson, Superintendent of Schools\nIdaho\nWalter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools\nIllinois\nWalter R. Hatfield, Principal of Elementary School\nIndiana\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nIowa\nFrank L. Smart, Superintendent of Schools\nKansas\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts.\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi. . . . ;\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\n\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey.\nNew Mexico. '.\nNew' York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\n\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\n\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\n\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\n\nUniversity P. O.\nTempe\nlittle Rock\nSan Diego\nDenver\nHartford\nWilnungton\nWashington\nTallahassee\nColumbus\nPocatello\nChicago\nRichmond\nDavenport\nTopeka\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal of Girls' High School\nLouisville\nWarren Easton, Superintendent of Schools\nNew Orleans\nPayson Smith, State Superintendent of Schools\nAugusta\nM. Bates Stephens, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . . Annapolis\nIrving O. Palmer, Science Master, Newton High School\nNewton villa\nDavid McKenzie, Principal of Central High School\nDetroit\nS. L. Heeter, Superintendent of SchooLs\nSt. Paul\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools\nGreenville\nJohn R. Kirk, President, State Normal School\nKirksville\nS. D. Largent, Superintendent of Schools\nGreat Falls\nAlbert A. Reed, Associate Professor of Secondary Education\nLincobi\nRomanzo Adams, Professor of Education, University of Nevada\nReno\nHenry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . . Concord\nFreehold\nJohn Enright, Superintendent of County Schools\nR. R. Larkin, Superintendent of Schools.\nLas Vegas\nAugustus S. Downing, First Assistant Commissioner of Education . Albany\nSalisbury\nIsaac G. Griffin, Superintendent of Schools\nPark River\nB. A. Dunbar, Superintendent of Schools\nDelaware\nWilliam McK. Vance, Superintendent of Schools\nGuthrie\nE. D. Cameron, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSalem\nJ. H. Ackerman, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nHarrisburg\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy State Sup't. of Public Instruction\nHerbert W. Lull, Superintendent of Schools\n^^Thti,\nDavid B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal & Industrial CoU... ^<^/J'\"\nFreeman H. Hoff, Superintendent of Schools\n^\nh'\n• • Memphis\nI. C. McNeh-l, Superintendent of Schools\nDenton\nCree T. Work, President of College of Industrial Arts\nOgden\nWttiiAM Allison, Superintendent of Schools\nMontpeher\nMason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education\n^\"^ J\"'\nJoseph L. Jarman, President. State Female Normal School\nEdward T. Mathes, Principal, State Normal School\n^\nw\nIT^L\n. . . . Morgantown\nRobert A. Armstrong, Head. English Dep'tW. Virginia Univ..\nJ?.^'^\"\nCharles P. Gary, State Superintendent of Public InstrucUon\nClieyenne\nn\nA. D. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instructio\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\nPresident\n\nJoseph Swain, President, Swarthmore College.\n-p^^on °N T *\ni « t .^^o •\nJames M. Green. Principal, State Normal School\njj c.\n'.\n• .....•.• •\nJohn W- Carr, Superintendent of Schools\nU.S. Commissioner of Education. .. W-^ington, ^^\nExecutive Committee. Elmer Ellsworth Brown,\nN.W\nExecutive Committee. W. T. Harris. 1360 Fairmont Ave.,\nJames M. Greenwood, Superintendent\nExecutive Committee.\nKansas City. Mo.\nofSchools\n\nVice-President\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKindergarten\nPresidettt\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMabel A. McKinney, Supervisor, Public School Kindergartens Cleveland, Ohio\nLuella A. Palmer. Teachers Coll., Columbia University.. ,\nNevr York, N. Y.\nCaroline Sewall, Director of Kindergartens\nDenver, Colo.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJames F. Chamberlain, State Normal School\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Superintendent of Schools\nMargaret McConkey, Supervisor of Primary Schools\n\nElementary\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nWabash, Ind.\nSpringfield, Mass.\n\nSecondary\nPresident\nJ. Stanley Brown, Principal, High School\nFtrst Vice-President. . S. A. Underwood. Principal, Westport High School\nSecond Vice-Prestdent Wm. H. Smiley, Principal, East Side High School\nSecretary\nSolomon Weimer, Central High School\n\nJoliet, 111.\nKansas City, Mo.\nDenver, Colo.\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHigher\nFrank Strong, Chancellor, University of Kansas\nLawrence, Kans.\nW. F. Book, Professor of Phil, and Edu., State University\nMissoula, Mont.\nFred. E. Bolton, Director, School of Edu., State University. . Iowa City, Iowa\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHenry G. Williams, Dean, Normal College, Ohio University. . Athens, Ohio\nD. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial Coll. Rock Hill, S. C.\nLouise M. Hannum, State Normal School\nGreeley, Colo.\n\nNormal\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nWilliam H. Elson, Superintendent of Schools\nCleveland, Ohio\nFirst Vice-President. . D. B.Johnson, President.Winthrop Normal and Industrial Coll.. Rock Hill, S. C.\nSecond Vice-President Ida C. Bender, Supervisor of Primary Grades\nBuffalo, N. Y.\nSecretary\nA. C. Nelson, Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nManual\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJames E. Addicott, Newman Manual Training School\nEdna D. Day, Home Economics, University of Missouri\nAlvin E. Dodd, N. Bennett St. Industrial School\n\nNew Orleans, La.\nColumbia, Mo.\nBoston, Mass.\n\nArt\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nFlorence E. Ellis, Sui)ervisor of Drawing\nC. Valentine Kirby, Manual Training High School\nEmma Church, School of Applied and Normal Arts\n\nCleveland, Ohio\nDenver, Colo.\nChicago, 111.\n\nPresident\n\nFrances E. Clark, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCharles I. Rice, Durector of Music, Public Schools\nP. C. Hayden, Director of Music, Public Schools\n\nWorcester, Mass.\nKeokuk, Iowa\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nS. R. Hoover, Principal of Commercial Dept.,West High School Cleveland, Ohio\nD. W. McMillan, Head of Commercial Dept., West High School Detroit, Mich.\nH. C. Spillman, Teacher of Commercial Branches, High School Butte, Mont.\n\nPresident\nV tee-President\nSecretary\n\nGeorge E. Johnson, Superintendent of Playground Association Pittsburg, Pa.\nA. Caswell Ellis, Professor of Education, University of Texas Austin, Texas\nWill G. Chambers, Prof, of Psychology, State Normal School. Greeley, Colo.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWm. W. Hastings, Y. M. C. A. Training School. .'.\nSpringfield, Mass.\nW. P. Bowen, Professor of Education, State Normal College. . Ypsilanti, Mich.\nRebecca Stoneroad, Director, Physical Training\nWashington, D. C.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nOtis W. Caldwell, Asso. Prof, of Botany, University of Chicago Chicago, 111.\nFranklin T. Jones, Teacher of Science, University School\nCleveland, Ohio\nN. Henry Black, Roxbury Latin School\nBoston, Mass.\n\nMusic\n\nBusiness\n\nChild-Study\n\nPhysical\n\nScience\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nSchool Administration\nPresidenl\nFrancis H. Haserot, President, Board of Education\nFirst Vice-President. . Otto C. Schneider, President, Board of Education\nSecond Vice-President Danford E. Ainsworth, President, Board of Education\nSecretary\nWm. George Bruce, Editor, American Scftool Board Journal. .\nChairman Ex. Com. . William O. Thompson, President,\nLibrary Ohio State University\n\nCleveland, Ohio\nChicago, 111,\nAlbany, N. Y.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nColumbus, Ohio\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nChicago, 111\nNormal, 111.\nFort Collins, Colo.\n\nMary E. Ahern, Editor, Public Libraries\nDavid Felmley, President, State Normal University\nJoseph F. Daniels, Librarian, State Agricultural College\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecref-ary\n\nSpecial\nJennie C. Smith, Public School for the Deaf\nCornelia D. Bingham, Normal School\nJennie C. Smith, Principal, Oral Day School for Deaf\nIndian\n(Vacant)\nL. M. Compton, Superintendent of Indian School\nEstelle Reel, Superintendent of Indian Schools\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLouis C. Monin, Dean, Armour Institute of Technology\nAlbert B. Storms, President of Iowa State College\nGeorge A. Merrill, Principal, School of Mechanical Arts\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nRural and Agricultural\nD. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial Coll. Rock Hill, S. C.\nA. B. Graham, College of Agriculture, State University\nColumbus, Ohio\nE. E. Balcomb, State Supervisor of Industrial Education\nStillwater, Okla.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLaura Drake Gill, President, Association Collegiate Alumnae Washington, D. C.\nMrs. Sarah S. Pratt Decker, Member of Educational Council Denver, Colo.\nMrs. Herbert W. Mengel, Member State Education Committee Louisville, Ky.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nEau Claire, Wis.\nChicago, LI.\nEau Claire, Wis.\n\nTomah, Wis.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nTechnical\n\nOrganizations of \"Women\n\nChicago, 111.\nAmes, Iowa\nSan Francisco\n\njg\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "S\nTREASURER'\nTO THE\n\nREPORT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNATIONAL\n\nJuly i, 1907, to June 30, 1908\n\nArthur H. Chamberlain,\n\nTreasurer, in account with the National Education\nAssociation\n\nBALANCE\n\nON HAND\n\nJULY i, 1907\n\nBalance brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ending June 30, 1907\nRECEIPTS\nFrom Annual Meeting:\nAdvance enrollment\nFrom Mark Keppel\n$4,652.00\nFrom James A. Barr\n3,232.00 $7,884.00\nConvention registration\nAfter convention registration\nFrom railroads:\nSouthern Pacific\nSan Pedro, Los Angeles, & Salt Lake Ry\nAtchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry\n\n9.315.00\nS>^5^-oo\n$3,812.00\n22.00\n28.00\n\nTotal from Los Angeles Convention\nFrom Memberships, Washington Meeting of Department of\nSuperintendence\nFrom Secretary's oflSce during the year:\nMembership fees\nEnrollment fees\nExchange\nSale of back volumes\nSale of committee reports, etc\n\n$2,480 . 43\n\n$22,350 . 00 .\n\n3,862 .00\n$26,212 . 00\ni,354,oo\n$ 9,610.00\n432 . 00\n11 . 29\n585.11\n215 . 73\n\nFrom interest on Permanent Fund\nFrom Royalty on Sale of Reports of Committees of Ten and\nFifteen\nFrom interest on deposits in First National Bank of\nChicago\n\n56. 75\n238.81\n\nTotal receipts for year\nBoard of Trustees:\nFor investment\nFor expenses\n. Committee\n.\nExecutive\nexpenses:\n\n$10,854.13\n6,742-60\n\n$47,938 . 72\nDISBURSEMENTS\n$10,000.00\n384 . 28\n$10,384.28\n\nPresident\nFhst-Vice President\nTreasurer\nChairman Board of Trustees\nMember by election\n^\nGeneral Secretary's, office:\nSalary of Secretary\nPostage\nTelegrams\nFreight and express\nClerical services\nExchange\nStationery and office supplies\nTraveUng\n\n$341-75\n20. 20\n373.05\n98.35\n282 . 25\n$1,115.60\n$4,000.00\n2,069-25\n187. 10\n129. 52\n2,339-33\n3.91\n201 . 35\n„4.63\n\n*^ent\n\n600.00\n\nMiscellaneous.\n\n46.65\n\n20\n\n^\n$10,356.74\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "21\n\nTREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nPrinting:\n\nVolumes of Proceedings (8,500 volumes)\nYearbook (5,500 copies)\n\n$6,241 . 34\ngg- .^\n\nReprints from volume\nSpecial reports, extra editions\nExecutive Committee Bulletins\n\n'\n\n'\n187 8\n1272 fi\n\nMiscellaneous\n\n'c6? 2\n\n$9,920.29\n\nExpress and freight\n267.15\njj 686\n52\n\nvolumes and\nand reports\nreports\nDistribution of volumes\nMiscellaneous\n\n$2,953.68\n\n00\n\nSpecial appropriations:\nCommittee\nCommittee\nCommittee\nCommittee\nCommittee\n\nof Seventeen on Preparation of Teachers.\non Moral Education\non Exceptional Children\non Shortage of Teachers\non Industrial Education\n\nV.30\n148.81\n10\n497 02\n180\n202\n\n$1,058.23\n\nAnnual Convention:\nDepartment expenses\nState directors and managers\nClerical services:\n\n$450. 16\n404.59\n\nRegistration bureau\nStenographers and typewriter operators\n\n920.65\n477 . 28\n\nBadges for Department of Superintendence, Washington Meeting\n\n$2,232.68\n30\n$ 206 . 25\n\nPrinting:'\nPrograms\nMiscellaneous\n\n$\n\nStationery\nTelegrams\nMiscellaneous\n\n330.00\n44 • 50\n$47. 70\n14. 19\n1,624.21\n\n$\n\n374.50\n\n$1,686.10\n\nUnclassified disbursements:\nLegal services in re. railroad rates (John B. Pine)\nLegal services and expenses attending Los Angeles convention\nBonds of Secretary and Treasurer\nAuditing books of Secretary and Treasurer\nRefund to Permanent Fund of premium payments to Treasurer\nDesk room at Lo§ Angeles and validation expenses\nMiscellaneous:\nPress clippings\nRefunds of duplicate payments\nDating stamps\nPurchase reports Committees of Ten and Fifteen\nRefund to J. N. Wilkin.son\n\n$i,i45 • 73\n....'.\n\n$56 • 5°\n78 . 00\n71-75\n6- 00\ni2-oo\n\n1,230. 29\n50.00\n30.00\n1,112. 50\n1,500. 00\n\n.\n22425\n$ 5,274-77\n\nTotal disbursements for year\n\nS45.581 • la\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSUMMARY\nReceipts\nBalance brought forward from the Treasurer's report for year ending June 30, 1907\nReceipts for year July i, 1907, to June 30, 1908\n\n% 2,480.43\n45,458. 29\n\n$47,938.72\n\nDisbursements\nAmount transferred to Permanent Fund, as per vouchers Nos. 190, 191\nTotal expeiises for the year\n\n$10,000.00\n3S.s8i . 12\n$45,581 . 12\n$2,357.60\n\nBalance in treasury, June 30, igo8\n\nWe, the undersigned Trustees of the National Education Association, hereby approve the above Report\nof Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman\nJames M. Greenwood\nHenry B. Brovs^n\nCarroll G. Pearse\nBoard of Trustees\n\nNovember 18, 1908\nBoard of Trustees ,\nNational Education Association of the United States.\nGentlemen: We have audited the books and accounts of the National Education Association of the United\nStates, kept by the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, and the Treasurer, Arthur H. Chamberlain, for the year ending\nJune 30, 1908, and compared them with the relative vouchers and cheques, and find the books to be correct.\nWe compared the Treasurer's records with those kept by the Secretary and find them to be in accord.\nWe annex herewith a statement of the Receipts and Disbursements for the year under review, which we\nhave checked with the books, and we certify it to be in accordance therewith.\nYours very truly,\nThe International Audit Company\nBy\n(Signed)\n\n(Signed)\n\n' President\nJohn McLaren\n\nRobert Nelson\nCertified Public Accountant\nManager\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n23\n\nTWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD\nOF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\nJULY\n\ni, 1907, TO\n\nJULY\n\nCleveland,\n\ni, 1908\n\nOhio, July i, 1908\n\nTo the Board oj Directors of the National Education Association:\nThe Board of Trustees of the National Education Association has the honor to submit\nthe following report on the Permanent Fund of the Association for the year ending June 30,\n1908.\nThe amounts collected as income of the Permanent Fund and the disposition made of\nthe income are shown in the following Income Account.\nThe changes in the investments held for the Permanent Fund, including payments\nreceived on account of principal and new investments, are shown in the following Principal\nAccount.\nThe present state of the investments held for the Permanent Fund is shown in the\nfollowing Statement of Securities held for the Permanent Fund.\nThe Permanent Fund amounts at this date to $170,028.00, having been increased\nduring the year under review by $9,928.00, as follows:\nAmount of the Permanent Fund, July i, 1907\nTransferred from the Treasurer, in accordance with Sec. 7\nof the Act of Incorporation\nTransferred from the Treasurer to cover adjustments of\npremiums and discounts on former investments (see\nStatement B)\n\n$160,100.00\n$10,000.00\n1,112.50\n\n$11,112.50\n\nLess\nNet reduction in inventory value of Securities, resulting from scheduling them at cost instead of at face\nvalue\nExpenses incident to investments, charged to principal\n(see Principal Account)\n\n$1,112.50\n\nAmount of the Permanent Fund, June 30, 1908. . .\n\n72 . 00\n\n$ 1,184.50\n\n$170,028.00\n$9,928.00\n\nThe item of $1,112.50 is the result of action taken by the Trustees providing that hereafter all securities held for the Permanent Fund shall be entered in the statements of\naccount not at the par value of such securities, but at the price actually paid for the same.\nHeretofore it has been customary to carry the securities held for the Permanent Fund\nat their par value and to treat any premium or discount arising in connection with the\npurchase of securities as either a charge upon, or an addition to, income. The Trustees\nbelieve that the policy now adopted is more business-like and sets out the state of the Fund\nwith greater accuracy.\n\nIn adjusting the statements of account in this regard, it became necessary to recover\nfrom the Treasurer, as shown in Statement B, the sum of $1,112.50, being the excess of\ndiscounts over premiums heretofore transferred to him by the Trustees.\nStatement A shows the net income of the property at No. 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago,\nIllinois, to which title has been taken by the Trustees under proceedings for foreclosure of\nmortgage.\n\nThis property is the item reported in the last annual report as the Hord\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMortgage Certificate, valued at $5,500.\nThe Trustees do not intend to hold the property\nas an investment, but to offer it for sale whenever satisfactory terms can be had.\nThe operations of the year and the present state of the Permanent Fund are set out in\ndetail in the accounts and statements which follow.\nINCOME\n\nACCOUNT\n\nRECEIPTS\n$ 7,000\n15,000\n20,000\n\nSt. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co. refunding gold bonds, 1951, at 4 per cent.. .\nTerminal Association of St. Louis, general refunding sinking fund gold bonds, 1953,\nat 4 per cent\nPittsburgh, Lake Erie and West Virginia System refunding gold bonds, 1941, at\n\n10,000\n8,000\n2,500\n1,000\n2,000\n10,000\n40,000\n9,000\n10,000.\n5,000\n5,000\n\n4 per cent\n*.\n800 . 00\nOregon Short Line R. R. Co. guaranteed refunding gold bonds, 1929, at 4 per cent.\n200.00\nCity of New York registered gold bonds, 1957, at 4^ per cent\n76 . 96\nVillage of Morgan Park, Illinois, gold bonds, it)ii *\n,\nVillage of Morgan Park, Illinois, gold bonds, 1913 j\nLemont, Illinois, school bonds, at 5 per cent\n^\n100.00\nChicago drainage bonds, 1916 )\n„, .\n, .\n,\nJ\nr at 4 per cent\n2,000 . 00\nChicago dramage bonds, 191 7 )\nWest Chicago park bonds, 1918 \\ ^\n^\n,\n\\XT\nu J 1919 )h at 4 per cent\n760 . 00\nWest ^ r>^^■\nChicago park1 bonds,\nBond and mortgage on 5136 Hibbard Ave., Chicago (Ritchie), 1908, at 5 per cent.\n250.00\nBond and mortgage on 5603 Madison Ave., Chicago (Lewis), 1909, at 5 per cent.\n250.00\n\n11,000\n\nBond and mortgage on 5239-41 Cornell Ave., Chicago (Dickinson), 1909, at 4^ per\ncent\nInterest to date of payment of principal on bond and mortgage on\n5526-28 Jefferson Ave., Chicago, $10,000 at 5 per cent\n$506.98\nInterest to date of payment of principal on Lemont, III., school bonds,\n$500 at 5 per cent\n12 . 50\nInterest on cash balances in First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago\n1 78 . 80\n^\"^\nNet income of property 4762 Lake Ave., Chicago (see Statement A)^^—330.24\n\n280.00\n600 . 00\n\n495 . 00\n\n1 ,028 . 52\n$6,997 98\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nAccrued /interest on $8,000 of City of New York 4^ per cent, bonds\n$\n15.00\nFee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, 111., on investment of\n$18,000, i of I per cent\n,\n45 • 00\nAnnual fee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, 111., for care\nof principal of Permanent Fund — J of i per cent\n195-38\nNet income, paid to the Treasurer of the National Education Asso^^^\"\"\n■\"■\"\nciation\n6,742.60\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\n$\n\n$6,997.98\n\nACCOUNT\n\nRECEIPTS\nCash on hand for investment, July i, 1907\n$ 6,600 . 00\nMortgage on 5526-28 Jefferson Ave., Chicago (Wallace), paid February 15, 1908\n10,000.00\nLemont, 111., school bonds, paid December 2, 1907\n500.00\nReceived from Treasurer of the National Education Association, to\ncover adjustment of premiums and discounts on former investments\n(see Statement B)\n1,112.50\n\"\"\"•\"\"\n\"■\"\nReceived from Treasurer of the National Education Association\n10,000.00\n\n$28,212.50\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n$10,000\n8,000\n9,000\n\nOregon Short Line R. R. Co. guaranteed refunding 4 per cent, gold\nbonds, 1929, $8,000 at 89 — $2,000 at 88i\nCity of New York registered 4i per cent, gold bonds, 1957, at io6|\nCity of New York 4J per cent, gold bonds, 1957, at 109\nAccrued interest on $9,000 New York City bonds\nFee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, 111., on investment of\n$9,000 — i of I per cent\nCash on hand for investment, June 30, 1908\n\n$8,895 . 00\n$8,510.00\n9,810.00\n49. 50\n22 . 50\n\"\"^^mm\nmm^. 50\n925\n\n$28,212.50\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\nSTATEMENT\n\nOF\n\nOF THE\n\n$ 8,000\n9,000\n2,500\n1,000\n2,000\n\n9,000\n10,000\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nSECURITIES HELD\nFOR\nJUNE 30, 1908\nMUNICIPAL\n\nPar Value\n\nBOARD\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTHE\n\nPERMANENT\n\nBONDS\nInterest\n\nSecurity\n\nAcquired\n\nCity of New York registered gold bonds,\ndue November i, 1957\nCity of New York Gold bonds, due November I, 1957\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111., gold bonds,\ndue November i, 191 1\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111., gold bonds,\ndue July i, 1913\nLemont, 111., school bonds, Nos. 22, 24,\n30, and 32, payable $500 December i,\nyearly\nSanitary District of Chicago, drainage\nbonds, Nos. 24,516-24,525, due Decem\nber I, 1916\nSanitary District of Chicago drainage\nbonds, Nos. 24,591-24,625, 24,63624,640, due December i, 1917\nWest Chicago park bonds, Nos. 1,101i,T09, due April i, 1918\nWest Chicago Park bonds, Nos. 615, 629631, 1,243-1,248, due April 1, 1919.. .\n\nFeb. 29, 1908\n4i% May and Nov.\nJime 12, 1908\n1897\n\nArWo May and Nov.\nArh% Jan. and July\n\nXQ05\n5\n[189\n1904\n\nPar Value\n\nSecurity\n\n$ 7,000\n\nSt. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co.\nrefunding gold bonds, Nos. 47,435.\n47,437, 47,537, 49,oi2, 49.670, 57,373,\n57,514. due July.i, I95I. •••••;\nTermmal As.sociation of St. Louis general refunding sinking-fund gold bonds,\nNos. 16,311-16,325 due January 1,\n\n10,000\n\n9,810.00\na,soo.oo\n1,000.00\n2 ooo.oo\n\n5% June and Dec.\n4% June and Dec.\n4% June and Dec.\n\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% Apr. and Oct.\n\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% Apr. and Oct.\n\n10,000.00\n\n40,000.00\n10,075.00\n9,045.00\n\nBONDS\n\nAcquired\n\nPittsburgh, Lake Erie & West Virginia\nSystem refunding gold bonds, Nos.\n13,496-13,500, 21,236-21,250, due November 1 1941\nOregon Short Line R. R. Co. guaranteed\nrefunding\ngold bonds,\nNos. 4,0134,017, 4,025-4,027, 4,976, 13.810, due\nDecember 1, 1929\n\nJan. 3, 1907\n\nJan. 30, 1905\n\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\n4% Jan. and July\n% 5,775 --JO\n4% Jan. and July\n15,050.00\n\nJan. 13, 1906\n\n4% May and Nov.\n\nFeb. 3. 1908\n4% June and Dec.\n\n$52,000\n\n19,942.50\n8,895.00\n$49,662.50\n\nREAL\n\nESTATE\n\nMORTGAGES\n1899\nAcquired\n\nPar Value\n\nSecurity\n\n$ 5.000\n\nBond and mortgage on 5136 Hibbard\nAve., Chicago, 111. (Ritchie), dueNovem-\n\n5,000\n\nBond and mortgageTon 5603 Madison\nAve., Chicago, 111. (Lewis), due July 1,\n\n11,000\n\n18,510.00\n\n$92,940 00\nRAILROAD\n\n20,000\n\nBook Value\n\n4i% May and Nov.\n\n891.500\n\n15,000\n\nFUND\n\nInterest\n\n5% May and Nov.\n\nBond and mortgage on 5239-5241 Cornell Ave., Chicago, 111. (Dickinson),\ndue January 1, 1909\n\n1900\n1904\n\nREAL\n\nESTATE\n\nBook Value\n\n$ 5,000.00\n\n5% Jan. and July\naWo Jan. and July\n\n$21,000\n\n5,000.00\n11,000.00\n$21,000.00\n\n$5,500\n\nTotal\n$170,000\n\n4762 Lake Ave.,\nproperty)\n\nChicago,\n\n111. (Hord\n\n1907\nRent $30 monthly\n\nCash on hand awaiting investment.\nTotal\n\n$5,500.00\n$925-50\n$170,028.00\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n26\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSTATEMENT\nPROPERTY\n\nAT 4762 LAKE\n\nAVENUE\n\n(hORD\n\nA\nPROPERTY^\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILLINOIS\n\nRECEIPTS\n\nRents collected by receiver pending foreclosure\nRents collected by First Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago, Illinois\n\nS590 • 00\n120.00\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\n$710. ©o\n\nReceiver's charges\nAttorney for receiver\nMaster's deed\nRecording deed\nTitle guarantee policy, No. 146,964\nFire insurance policy\nRepairs\nTaxes and special assessments\nFee of First Trust and Savings Bank on $120 rents collected\n\n$ 52.68\n10 . 00\n2 .00\ni 05\n31 oS\n24.00\n43 • So\n209.48\n6 . 00\n$379-76\n$330.24\n\nNet income\n\nSTATEMENT\nPREMIUM\n\nDate\nJanuary 30, 1905\nJanuary 13, 1906\nJuly 31, 1906\nJanuary 3, 1907\n\nAND\n\nDISCOUNT\n\nB\nACCOUNT\n\nDr.\nItem\nPremium on $15,000 Terminal Association of St. Louis 4 per\ncent bonds\nDiscount on $20,000 Pittsburgh, Lake Erie & West Virginia\nSystem 4 per cent, bonds\nPremium on $19,000 West Chicago Park 4 per cent, bonds\nDiscount on $7,000 St. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co.\nBalance\n\nCr.\n\n$\n\n$ 57-50\n1,225.00\n$1,282.50\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nNicholas Murray\n\n50.00\n120.00\n1,112.50\n\n$1,282.50\n\nButler, Chairman\n\nJames M, Greenwood\nHenry B. Brown\nCarroll G. Pearse\nTrustees\nThe above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the\nNational Education Association of the United States from July i, 1907, to July i, 1908,\nas the same appears on the books of this bank.\nFirst Trust and Savings Bank\nBy Louis Boisot\nTrust Officer\nCERTIFICATE\n\nOF EXAMINER\n\nOF SECURITIES\nChicago, III., June 17, 1908\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education Association:\nGentlemen: I have this day examined the securities belonging to the permanent\nfund of the National Education Association in custody of the First Trust and Savings\nBank, Chicago, and find all the bonds and securities named above, in their possession.\n(Signed)\nOrville T. Bright, Examiner\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nFORTY-SIXTH\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\n\nCONVENTION\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nCLEVELAND,\n\nOF\n\nO., JUNE 29— JULY 3, 1908\n\nSUNDAY\n\nSERVICES\n\nIn response to an invitation by the Executive Committee of the National Education\nAssociation the following special services on educational topics were held by the pastors\nof the various churches of Cleveland on Sunday, June 28, as an appropriate introduction\nto convention week:\n\n\"The Twentieth Century; A Century of Education\" — Rev. Dr. Dan F. Bradley, Pilgrim\nCongregational Church.\n\"Education and Religion\" — Rev. Frank DuMoulin, Dean, Trinity Cathedral (Protestant\nEpiscopal).\n\"Religion in the Public Schools\" — Rev. Worth M. Tippy, Epworth Memorial Church.\n\"Mind, as tional\nthe Church.\nServant of Personality\" — Rev. Nathaniel M. Pratt, Plymouth Congrega\"The School Teacher in the Republic\" — Rev. Charles Bayard Mitchell, First Methodist\nEpiscopal Church.\n\"Education as a Factor in National Life\" — Rev. Dr. Charles A. Eaton, Euclid Avenue\nBaptist Church.\n\"Character\nChurch. in Education\" — Rev. William McMahon, Saint Bridget's (Roman Catholic)\n\"The Church.\nCatholic Idea of Education\"— Rev. Gilbert P. Jennings, St. Agnes (Roman Catholic)\n\"Moral Education\" — Rev. Minot O. Simons, Unity Church.\n\"Religion in the PubUc Schools\" — Rabbi S. Margolies, Anshe Emeth Congregation.\n\"The Public School, the Hope of Democracy\"— Rev. N. W. Stroup, Windermere Methodist Episcopal Church.\n\"The Three H's in Education\"— Rev. Charles H. Lemmon, North Congregational\nChurch.\n\"Education, a Power\" — Rev. J. J. Tisdall, Crawford Road Christian Church.\n\"Jesus\nChrist, the Great Educator\"— Rev. Lee H. Richardson, Mayflower Presbyterian\nChurch.\n\"Education and Its True Aim\"— Rev. E. D. Salkeld, Lakewood Christian Church.\n\"TheChurch.\nValue of Knowledge \"—Rev. H. C. Hadley, Cedar Avenue Memorial Lutheran\n\"The Quest of Truth\"— Rev. O. Badgley, Peari Street Methodist Episcopal Church.\nHighest Education\"— Rev. Harvey D. Fleming, Detroit Avenue Methodist Episcopal\n\"The Church.\n27\n\nas One Who Is Taught\"— Rev. Charies L. Parker, First Congregational Church,\n\"Hearing\nCollinwood.\n\n\"The Present Relationship of Educadon and Chrisrianity\"— Dr. Charles F. Thwing,\nWestern Reserve University and Adelbert College, Euclid Avenue ConPresident ofgregational\nChurch.\n\n\"At the Feet of the Great Teacher\"— Rev. E. B. Bagby, Franklin Circle Church of Christ.\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\"The Relation of the School to Life\"— Rev. R. W. Bagnall, St Andrew's Episcopal\nChurch.\n\"Freedom thru Truth\"— Rev. Millard Brelsford, East Cleveland Baptist Church.\n\"The Method of the Master Teacher\" — Rev. Henry Seymour Brown, First Presbyterian\nChurch, East Cleveland.\n\"Jesus Christ, the Master Mind in Psycho-Physical Development\" (morning); \"The\nBible as a Textbook for Children\" (evening) — Rev. R. M. Church, St. John's Protestant Episcopal Church.\n\"Educational Ends\" — Rev. S. DeMiller, Glenville Disciple Church.\n\"The Missing Factor in Our Public-School System\" — Rev. Harold B. Ernsberger, Calvary\nEnglish Lutheran Church.\n\"True Education,\ntional Church. Some Things It Implies\" — Rev. George Extence, Kinsman Congrega\"Principles of Life Which Education Should Develop\" — Rev. Milford W. Foshay, Madison Avenue Baptist Church.\n\"The Complete Life, or Education Plus Religion\" — Rev. Charles H. Haucr'ir First\nMethodist Episcopal Church Mission.\n\"Our Educational System the Key to Our National Progress\" — ^: . I'. J. Johnson,\nMethodist Episcopal Church.\n\"Christian Training a Necessar}' Element of True Culture\"- -Ke. Orin A. Keach, Lakewood United Presbyterian Church.\n\"Education in Its Relation to the New Patriotism\" — Rev, T. E. Lewis, .\\nh\\v od\nAvenue Congregational Church.\n\"The Moral Education of the Child\" — Rev. Wilbur C. Mickey, Bethany Presbyterian\nChurch.\n\"TheChurch.\nLiberating Power of Knowledge\" — Rev. F. J. Monschke, Fremont Street Baptist\n\"Teaching and Training\" — Rev. F. W. Mueller, First German Methodist Church.\n\"The Acquiring of Knowledge and Its Use\" — Rev. W. A. Myers Scranton Avenue\nFree Baptist Church.\n\"Education\nChurch. the Basic Principle of Christianity\" — Rev. J. H. Neuhauser Bethany Lutheran\n\"The Mind and How to Use It\"— Rev. R. H. Park, Second United Presbyterian Church.\n\"The Highest Education\" — Rev. Gerard F. Patterson, Church of the Incarnation.\n\"Our Public Schools\" — Rev. Luman H. Royce, Westminster Presbyterian Church.\n\"Drawing Some Lessons from the National Education Association\" — Rev. W. L. Lemon,\nSuperior Avenue Baptist Church.\n\"The Value of an Education\" — Rev, J. Grant Walter, Hough Avenue Reformed Church.\n\"The Public School — Its Triumph and Its Task\"— Rev. Thomas C. Lawrence, Fidelity\nFree Baptist Church,\n\"Some\nPresent-Day Tendencies in Education\" — Rev.\nChurch.\n\nH, F. Stillwell, First Baptist\n\n\"Education and the Religious Life\" — Rev. R. M. Freshwater, D.D., Woodland Avenue\nMethodist Episcopal Church.\n\"Jesus Christ, the Teacher\" — Rev. Albert Ehrgott. Cedar Avenue Bapdst Church.\n\"Necessity\nHigher Education\nAvenue ofChristian\nChurch. to the Enjoyment of Life\" — Rev. T. Alfred Fleming, Miles\n\"The Teacher's Influence in the Church Life of Americans\"— Rev. M. L. Buckley,\nChurch of Christ (Disciple), Collinwood\n\"The Banefulness of Ignorance \"—Rev. H C. Bailey, Andoch Baptist Church.\n\"Educadon as a Moral and Religious Factor\"— Rev. John H. Blackburn, Lakewood\nMethodist Episcopal Church.\n\"Intellectual Integrity \"—Rev. Charies Steele Davidson, St. Mark's Episcopal Church.\n\"The Highest Education\" — Rev. Thos. S. Mc Williams, Calvary Presbyterian Church.\n\"The Church and Our Pubhc Schools\"— Rev. W. B. Slutz, Franklin Avenue Methodist\nEpiscopal Church.\n\"The Religious Element in Education\"— Rev. Walter R, Breed, D.D., St.'Paul's Church.\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n2q\n\nOPENING\n\nSESSION.— Monday Afternoon, June 29\nThe forty-sixth annual convention opened in the Hippodrome, at 2:30\np. m., with\nmusic by Signor A. Liberati's band.\nInvocation by Rev. Paul F. Sutphen, D.D., of the Second Presbyterian Church.\nHon. Samuel Mather, president of the Citizens' Committee of Cleveland, who presided welcomed the Association.\nIn the absence of Mayor Tom L. Johnson, a welcome on behalf of the city was given\nby Dr. Harris R. Cooley, director of charities and corrections of the city of Cleveland.\nDr. Charles S. Howe, president of the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce and president\nof the Case School of Applied Science, extended a welcome on behalf of the business and\neducational interests of Cleveland.\nA Boys' Chorus of five hundred voices, under the direction of J. Powell Jones, san^^ the\n\"Soldier's Chorus\" from Faust and the \"Intermezzo\" from Cavalleria Rusticana. Led by\nthe chorus the audience joined in singing \"The Light of Learning,\" a song, words bv\nWilliam Ganson Rose, music by Albert Ross Davison of Cleveland, dedicated to the\nNational Education Association.\nIn the absence of President Edwin G. Cooley, Nathan C. Schaeffer of Pennsvlvania,\nfirst vice-president of the Association, was introduced by Chairman Mather and took\ncharge of the meeting.\nWilliam O. Thompson, president of Ohio State University, Columbus, was introduced\nand responded to the addresses of welcome, on behalf of the Association.\nThe following committee on resolutions was appointed by Acting President Schaeffer:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nHoward J. Rogers, Albany, N. Y.\nGeorge M. Philips, West Chester, Pa.\nOrviile T. Bright, Chicago, 111.\nCharles E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo.\n\nEdgar H. Mark, Louisville, Kv.\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C.\nJ. E. Dyche, Guthrie, Okla.\n\nThe following resolution, submitted to the Association by the Board of Directors, was\nadopted by unanimous vote:\nResolved, that in the enforced absence of their President, Superintendent Edwin G.\nCooley, the members of the National Education Association testify to their affectionate\nregard for him, send him cordial greeting across the sea, and confidently look forward to\nhis complete recovery of health and strength.\nThe remainder of the session being under the auspices of the National Council of\nEducation, the gavel was surrendered to Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa., president of that\nbody.\nAn address on \"Educational Progress for the Year\" was delivered by Charles F.\nThwing, president of Western Reserve University, Cleveland, O.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Monday Evening, June 29\n\nThe session was called to order by Vice-President W. H. Elson, superintendent of\nschools, Cleveland.\nInvocation by Rev. Charles A. Eaton, D.D., of the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church.\nMusic by the Ionic Quartet: H. W. Whitney, V. V. Woboril, T. G. Protheroe, B. W.\nWillard:\n\"Night Witchery\"\n\" When the Bird a Pilfering Goes\"\n\"Mammy Loo\"\n\nStorch\nKremser\nC^rtwrighi\n\nThe annual presidential address was given by Acting President Nathan C. Schaeffer,\nupon the subject \"Education for Avocation.\"\nAn address on \"The Problem of Vocational Education in London\" was given by\nCloudlesley S. H. Brereton, divisional inspector for the County Council, London, England.\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOwing to Mr. Brereton's illness, part of the address was read by Howard J. Rogers, first\nassistant commissioner of education, Albany, N. Y.\nViolin solo — \"Souvenir de Hayden,\" by Sol Marcosson, of Cleveland.\nAn address on \"Adaptation of the Schools to Industry and Efficiency\" was given by\nAndrew S. Draper, commissioner of education of the state of New York.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday Evening, June 30\n\nVice-President James H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado, presided.\nInvocation by Rev. Gilbert P. Jennings, of St. Agnes Church.\nMusic — Mendelssohn's \"Quartet in D Major,\" by the Philharmonic String Quartet:\nSol Marcosson, first violin; Carl Dueringer, second violin; James D. Johnston, viola;\nCharles Heydler, cello.\nActing President Schaeffer announced the following Nominating Committee in accordance with sections 3 and 4, Article 2, of the By-Laws:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nBen Blewett, of Missouri, Chairman\nAlabama\nJ. W. Abercrombie\nArizona\nA. H. McClure\nArkansas\nGeo. B. Cook\nCalifornia\nJ. F. Chamberlain\nColorado\nZ. X. Snyder\nConnecticut\nChas. H. Keyes\nDelaware\nBird T. Baldwin\nDistrict Columbia . . . W. T. Harris\nFlorida\nMiss Clem Hampton\nGeorgia\nC. B. Gibson\nIdaho\nS. Belle Chamberlain\nIllinois\nW. H. Campbell\n\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth. Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\n\nGeo. L. Towne\nRomanzo Adams\nH. E. Walker\nMiss L. A. Doren\n(Vacant)\nH. J. Rogers\nJ. T. Foust\nNeil C. Macdonald\nJ. A. Shawan\nDavid R. Boyd\nA. E. Breece\nM. G. Brumbaugh\n\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\n\nR. J. Aldrich\nAley\nWm.\nE. T. Fairchild\nH. H. Cherry\nCatherine Kelly\n\nRhode' Dakota\nIsland\nSouth\nSouth Carolina\nTennessee\nTexas\n\nW. A.\nH. Ustrud\nHolmes\nII.\nD. B. Johnson\nH. W. Louis\nL. E. Wolfe\n\nMaine\nMaryland.\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\n\n(Vacant)\n'\nJ.\nH. Van Sickle\nWm. E. Hatch\nLuther L. Wright\nJ. W. Olsen\nM. Rose\n\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\n\nGeo.\nA. Eaton\n(Vacant)\nJ. L. Jarman\nH. M. Shafer\nA. J. Wilkinson\nChas. McKenny\n\nMissouri\nMontana\n\nBen\nW. F.Blewett\nBook\n\nWyoming\n\nS. S. Stockwell'\n\nCharles R. Van Hise, president of the University of Wisconsin, was introduced and\naddressed the convention on the subject of \"Conservation of the National Resources of\nthe United States.\"\n\"The Function of Education in a Democracy\" was the subject of an address by Martin\nG. Brumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nMusic by the Philharmonic String Quartet:\n\"Andante Cantabile\"\nTschaikowsky\n\" Serenade Badine \"\nGahriele Marie\nBooker T. Washington, president of Tuskegee Institute, Alabama, spoke on \"Negro\nEducation and the Nation.\"\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION. — Wednesday\n\nAfternoon, July i\n\nThe session was called to order at 2:30 o'clock by Vice-President N. C. Schaeffer.\nInvocation by Rev. Charles Bayard Mitchell, D.D., of the First Methodist Episcopal\nChurch.\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nMusic by the Boys' Chorus:\nHoly City\n^illarney\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n,1\n\nAdams\nBalse\n\nMiss Sarah Louise Arnold, dean of Simmons College, Boston, Mass., read a paper on\n\"Reconcilement of Cross-Purposes in Education of Women.\"\nMiss Jane Addams of Hull House, Chicago, spoke on \"The School and the Immigrant\nChild.\"\nViolin solo by Louis Rich:\n\"Adoration\"\nBorowski\n\"Zigeunerweisen\"\nSaraste\n\"The School and the Practice of Ethics\" was the subject of a paper by Mrs. Ella\nFlagg Young, principal of Chicago Normal School.\n\nFIFTH SESSION.— Friday Morning, July 3\nThe closing session of the convention was called to order at 9:30 a. m. by Vice-President\nSchaefifer.\nInvocation by Rev. Frank DuMoulin, LL.D., of Trinity Cathedral.\nVioloncello solo by Charles Heydler:\nAndante from Concerto\nGolterman\nCapriccio\nGoetz\nAndrew F. West, dean of the graduate school, Princeton University, spoke on \"The\nPersonal Touch in Teaching. \"\nVocal Solo by Miss Delta A. Harris:\nDer Tod und das Madchen\nSchubert\nBlackbird Song\nCyril Scott\nWilliam H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools of New York City, delivered the closing\naddress of the convention, on \"The Personal Power of the Teacher in Public-School\nWork.\"\nVice-President Schaeffer: The last three years have indeed been critical years\nfor the National Education Association. During those three years it has passed thru fire\nand earthquake, it has faced the perplexities of Congress and of disturbed railroad conditions. Irejoice in the fact that Congress has given the Association a new charter guaranteeing the security of its invested funds and the continuation of its usefulness. The National\nCouncil of Education has been rejuvenated and enlarged. The various departments have\ngrown in popularity and effectiveness, and the general sessions of the Association have taxed\nthe capacity of the largest auditoriums. The city of Cleveland has surpassed itself and all of •\nits former efforts in the hospitality and the provisions for meetings extended to this Association.\nI cannot refrain from expressing my profound gratitude to persons in all parts of the\nUnited States for helping us in the last three years to bring the Association thru its critical\nperiod into the new era which has just dawned.\nI have very great pleasure in passing the gavel over to the President-elect, Lorenzo\nD. Harvey of Menomonie, Wis., and I bespeak for him the same cordial, loyal support that\nhas been accorded to all of his predecessors by the members of the National Education\nAssociation.\nPresident Harvey: Members of the Association, I wish to express to you as well as\nI am able, my sense of the honor extended to me as a humble member of this Association,\nchosen as your servant to render such service as I may during the ensuing year; and I\nassure you that with the sense of appreciation of the honor is an equal sense of the appreciarion of the responsibilities that go with it. This sense of appreciation and of responsibility grows out of a somewhat intimate knowledge of the work— the magnificent work\ndone by this Association, by the able men who have preceded me in this position, emphasized\nby the high standards that have been set at this great meeting of the Association.^ I regard\nthis Association as the most potent influence in the shaping, molding, and directing of the\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\neducational forces of this country. In its ranks are the men and women who are the leaders\nof the educational world. In our meetings — in the general sessions, in the departments, in\nthe reports of committees — we have considered, discussed, and brought out conclusions from\nwhich come clearer ideas, more definite purposes, higher standards,, better organizations for\nthe educational forces of this country. In such an organization as this, standing for these\nthings, there is no place for private or personal ambition or petty, private interests. It is the\nindividuals who give generous service, and that in the very highest degree, who have made\nthis Association what it is. With such a view of this Association you may understand my\nsense of responsibility. I beg to say to you that whatever service I may be able to render\nshall be cheerfully given. And I ask — as I know I shall receive — the hearty co-operation\nof every member of this Association, during the short time I shall serve you, to further the\nends for which it exists.\nAfter music by the Fisk Jubilee Singers, Acting President Schaefifer declared the\nforty-sixth annual convention of the National Education Association adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING\nACTIVE MEMBERS\n\nOF\n\nCLP:VELAND,\nOHIO— 12 m., Wednesday, July i, 1908\nThe meeting was called to order in the Old Stone Church by Vice-President Nathan\nC. Schaeffer.\nThe minutes of the last meeting of active members were, upon motion, approved,\nwithout reading, as printed in the volume of Proceedings for 1907.\nThe report of the Board of Trustees was presented, and on motion, accepted and\nadopted.\nThe Treasurer, Arthur H. Chamberlain, gave a synopsis of his report. Upon motion,\nthe Treasurer's report was accepted and adopted.\nChairman Schaeffer: Consideration of the amendments to the By-Laws, proposed\nat the meeting of active members, July 10, 1907, is in order.\nThe first amendment is that Article 5, section 2, of the By-Laws be amended to read:\nSec. 2. The Council shall consist of one hundred and twenty members, selected from\nthe membership of the Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council.\n•Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.: I am in favor of increasing the membership of the\nCouncil, but I doubt the wisdom of doubling it. In a body of this character the best work\nis done, as a rule, with small numbers. But it is true that this Association is much larger\nthan when the present number was determined, and that a larger membership would be\nmore representative. I suggest that the number be either seventy-five or ninety. If we\nfind that the larger number increases the efficiency of the Council in the work of education,\na further increase can then be made. If, however, we should find a membership of one\nhundred and twenty not as efficient as a smaller number, it would not be so easy to decrease,\nas it is to increase, the number.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.: At the time of the formation of the National\nCouncil, the National Educational Association had only a few hundred members. As the\nAssociation has grown, the Council has remained at the original number. There has been\na feeling for a number of years that the Council should include a larger number of the members of the Association. With this new blood and new strength added, its work can be\ndone more effectively. This work is done thru committees whether the membership is\nsixty or one hundred and twenty. With the active membership of this Association running into the thousands, I believe that to limit the Council to less than one hundred and\ntwenty is to limit it unnecessarily and unwisely. For these reasons I introduced last year\nthis amendment to double the membership of the Council, and I most earnestly hope it may\nprevail.\nI move that the amendment be adopted.\nMotion seconded.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.: I believe that this movement to double the\npresent membership is a wise one. With the larger number divided into committees it\nwill be possible to secure a greater efficiency since more questions can be considered.\nGrace C. Strachan, Brooklyn, N. Y.: I wish to ask how the present Council is\nselected, and how the other sixty will be selected.\nChairman Schaeffer: At present five are selected by the Councjl and five by the\nBoard of Directors each year. If the number is to be increased, the method of the selection\nof additional members will have to be determined.\nThe motion to amend Article 5, section 2, was then carried.\nChairman Schaeffer: The second amendment is that section 3 of the same article be\namended to read:\n33\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 3. The Board of Directors shall annually elect ten members, and the Council\nshall elect ten members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected.\nMoved to adopt the amendment; seconded.\nChairman Schaeffer: I should like to call attention to the fact that this amendment\nif adopted will increase the number gradually and that we would not at once have the full\nIs this the purpose of the motion to amend ?\none hundred and twenty.\nAfter discussion by several members Mr. Pearse moved to amend the amendment by\nadding the words:\nAt the meeting of 1908 enough additional members shall be elected in the same manner\nto make the total number of members one hundred and twenty. The terms of the members\nso elected shall expire as follows: one-sixth in one year, one-sixth in two years, one-sixth in\nthree years, one-sixth in four years, one-sixth in five years, one-sixth in six years.\nSeconded.\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, 111.: I do not believe the motion to amend the proposed\namendment is in order. According to the By-Laws it is necessary to give notice of a new\namendment one year in advance. An amendment thus previously proposed cannot be\nchanged without making it substantially a new amendment.\nMr. Greenwood: It is not necessary to give notice of a change in an amendment.\nAn amendment proposed in a previous year may be changed in any way desired by the\nmajority of active members not contrary to the original intention and may then be adopted.\nChairman Schaeffer: The chair rules that Mr. Greenwood's position is correct.\nAny other interpretation would enable any member by offering an amendment to prevent\naction for a year on an amendment duly proposed.\nThe motion was then carried.\nThe amendment to Article 5, section 3, as amended, was then on motion adopted.\nChairman Schaeffer: The next item on the docket is a report of progress by the\nCommittee on the Establishment of a National University in Washington, D. C, by President Charles R. Van Hise, a member of the Committee.\nPresident Van Hise: Since President Wheeler, the chairman, and President Angell\nof the Committee are not present, it devolves upon me to make this report. The National\nAssociation of State Universities appointed a similar committee for a like purpose, which\ncommittee consists of President James, of Illinois State University, President Thompson,\nof the Ohio State University, and President Baker, of Colorado State University. It was\nobvious that it would be an advantage for these two committees to co-operate. They therefore met together in Washington and agreed upon a bill, of which 1 shall read a part.\n(Reads sections i to 7 inclusive of Bill H. R. 19,465.)\nSections 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 are concerned with the method of government\nunder the Advisory Council and the trustees. I need not read those sections for I can\nstate the points in a moment. The trustees are the active corporation and they will control\nthe university. The Advisory Council has the vetoing power to the extent of suspending\nthe action of the trustees unless the trustees again pass the same ordinance by a threefourths vote. By this method the whole authority is finally vested in the trustees, but\nthese trustees may be checked for a time by the Advisory Council, and the Council may\nbring measures before them for their instruction. It is believed that full authority should\nremain in one body but that great advantage could be obtained from having an Advisory\nCouncil which would represent every state in the Union. The two features in this bill to\nwhich I need to call your especial attention are that no student shall be admitted until he\nshall have received the degree of Master of Arts or Science, or an equivalent training. It\nis the purpose to create strictly a graduate university. It is believed that there is at the\npresent time no necessity for the national government to undertake the maintenance of an\nundergraduate university.\nIt is well understood by your committee that there are a num-\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nANNUAL\n\nBUSINESS\n\nMEETING\n\nber of universities in this country that can maintain graduate schools. It is believed that by\nfar the larger number of colleges and universities should not undertake to maintain graduate\nschools. Therefore it is proposed to make this university an advanced institution which\nwill take the students from the colleges and universities of the country, wherever they may\nbe, to do the advanced work. No degree, however, is to be granted. It is the purpose to\nencourage the local universities and the colleges and universities by giving them the opportunity to confer the higher degrees, such as Doctor of Philosophy, upon their own students.\nFor instance, if there is a college in Illinois or Ohio, let them maintain work to the point of\ngiving training to the Master of Arts degree; let that student go to the National University\nand get the training which will entitle him to the degree of Master of Science, the National\nUniversity will certify back to the original institution from which the student came, and the\ninstitution will grant the degrees. There is a concurrence on the part of a very large number of institutions in this plan. Some few institutions that maintain strong graduate\nschools are doubtful about it.\nChairman Schaeffer: What action do you recommend us to take today ?\nPresident Van Hise: It seems to me that the number of students for advanced work\nwill become greater, if the great opportunities at Washington may be taken advantage of\nfor this work. We now have students by the hundreds doing the work for Doctors of Philosophy, but we ought to have students by the thousands. If this bill meets with the approval\nof the active members present it should be approved in its principles, and the committee\ncontinued. I make that suggestion; but as a member of the committee I do not feel like\nmaking a motion.\nE. O. Vaile, of Illinois: I move we approve the principles of that bill and continue the\ncommittee to work in its behalf.\nSeconded and carried without discussion.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was then presented by its chairman, Ben\nBlewett, of St. Louis, Mo.\nMr. Blew^ett: The nominating committee met at the time appointed, 44 members\nbeing present. The following mode of procedure was agreed upon: that, credentials having been established, the roll of states should be called for nominations to the presidency and\nother offices; that a majority of those voting should decide the nomination; that, should\nmore than two names be presented for any office, after a second ballot the name having\nthe lowest number of votes should be withdrawn. Three states presented names for the\npresidency. On the fourth ballot, one name received a majority of the votes. Immediately, upon motion of the other states presenting candidates, the nomination was made\nunanimous.\nIn all other cases the action of the committee was by unanimous vote.\nI have the honor to present the following nominations for your consideration:\nREPORT\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nVice-Presidents\n\nTreasurer\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nL. D. Harvey\nEdwin G. Cooley\n\nMenomonie, Wis.\nChicago, 111.\n\nJohn C. Byrnes\nArnold AS H. McClure\nCarleton B. Gibson\nJoseph Rosier\nJasper L. McBrien\nGeorge N. Philips\nBenjamin F. Moore\nCharles Evans\nJames A. Edwards\nGe;orge H. Martin\nKatherine L. Craig\nArthur H. Chamberlain\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nYuma, Ariz.\nColumbus, Ga.\nFairmont, W. Va.\nLincoln, Neb.\nWest Chester, Pa.\nMarion, Ind.\nArdmore, Okla.\nDubuque, la.\nWest Salem, Mass.\nDenver Colo\nPasadena, Cal.\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nSTATE\n\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey.\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nJohn W. Abercrombie\nA. J. Matthews\nGeorge B. Cook\nDuncan MacKinnon\nCharles E. Chadsey\nCharles H. Keyes\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nW. T. Harris\nMiss Clem Hampton\nCarleton B. Gibson\nWalter R. Siders\nWalter R. Hatfield\nThomas A. Mott\nFrank L. Smart\nJohn MacDonald\nW. H. Bartholomew\nWarren Easton\nPayson Smith\nN. Bates Stephens\nIrving O. Palmer\nDavid McKenzie\nS. L. Heeter\nE, E. Bass\nJohn R. Kirk\nS. D. Largent\nAlbert A. Reed\nRomanzo Adams\nHenry C. Morrison\nJohn Enright\nR. R. Larkin\nAugustus S. Downing\nIsaac C. Griffin\nB. A. Dunbar\nWilliam McK. Vance\nE. D. Cameron\nJ. H. Ackerman\nReed B. Teitrick\nHerbert W. Lull\nDavid B. Johnson\nFreeman H. Hoff\nI. C. McNeill\nCree T. Work\nWilliam Allison\nMason S. Stone\nJoseph L. Jarman\nEdward T. Mathes\nRobert A. Armstrong\nCharles P. Gary\nArchibald D. Cook\n\nUniversity\nTempe\nLittle Rock\nStockton\nDenver\nHartford\nWilmington\nWashington\nTallahassee\nColumbus\nPocatello\nChicago\nRichmond\nDavenport\nTopeka\nLouisville\nNew Orleans\nAugusta\nAnnapolis\nNewtonville\nDetroit\nSt. Paul\nGreenville\nKirksville\nGreat Falls\nLincoln\nReno\nConcord\nFreehold\nLas Vegas\nAlbany\nSaHsbury\nPark River\nDelaware\nGuthrie\nSalem\nHarrisburg\nNewport\nRock Hill\nMitchell\nMemphis\nDenton\nOgden\nMontpelier\nFarmville\nBellingham\nMorgantown\nMadison\nCheyenne\n\nUpon motion the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the Association for the\ncandidates named.\nThe ballot was so cast and the nominees declared elected.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by the chairman, Howard\nJ. Rogers, Albany, N. Y., who moved its adoption.\nDECLARATION\n\nOF\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nThe National Education Association, now holding its Forty-sixth Annual Convention\nin Cleveland, and representing teachers and friends of education in every state in this Union,\nmakes the following declaration of principles and aims:\nI. Fully realizing that trained and skilled labor is a primary essential to the industrial\nand commercial welfare of the country, we cordially indorse the establishment by municipal\nboards of education of trade schools, industrial schools, and evening continuation\nschools; and further recommend that the instruction in these schools be practical and\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "ANNUAL\n\nBUSINESS\n\nMEETING\n\n_ — .\n\n^___\n\n\"Z\n\nefficient, and have the advice and the approval of the trade interested, to the end\ngraduates of these schools may at once become advanced apprentices or joumevmen that\n2. We recommend the subordination of highly diversified and overburdened courses\nof study in the grades to a thorough drill in essential subjects; and the sacrifice of quantitv\nto an improvement m the quality of instruction. The complaints of business men that\npupils from the schools are inaccurate in results and careless of details is a criticism that\nshould be removed. The principles of sound and accurate training are as fixed as natural\nlaws and should be insistently followed. Ill-considered experiments and indiscriminate\nmethodizing should be abandoned, and attention devoted to the persevering and continuous drill necessary for accurate and efficient training; and we hold that no course of study\nin any public school should be so advanced or so rigid as to prevent instruction to any\nstudent, who may need it, in the essential and practical parts of the common English\nbranches.\n3. We assert that the individuality of the pupil should be carefully considered, to the\nend that he may be instructed in the light of his limitations and capacity; and we commend\nto all local authorities the necessity of greater care in the arrangement of courses of .studv\nthat they may be adapted to the pupils to be instructed, rather than that pupils should be\nadapted to fixed courses of study and an inflexible system of grading.\n4. There is concededly a grave moral depression in our business and social atmosphere.\nThe revelations of the financial and legislative world for the past two years denote a too\ngeneral acquiescence in questionable practices and standards. We earnestly recommend\nto boards of education, principals, and teachers the continuous training of pupils in morals,\nand in business and professional ethics, to the end that the coming generation of men of\naffairs may have a well-developed abhorrence of unfair dealing and discrimination. The\nestablishment of the honor system in schools, the ostracism of the dishonest or unfair pupil,\nthe daily exemplification in the routine life of the school of the advantage of honest and\ntruthful methods, are commended to the especial attention of teachers as a partial means\nto this end.\n5. The Bureau of Education at Washington should be preserved in its integrity and\nthe dignity of its position maintained and increased. It should receive at the hands of\nCongress such recognition and such appropriations as will enable it not only to employ\nall expert assistants necessary, but also to publish in convenient and usable form the results\nof investigations; thus making that department of our government such a source of information and advice as will be most helpful to the people in conducting their campaigns of\neducation. We are of the opinion that the importance of the subject under its control, and\nthe dignity of this country require that this Bureau be maintained as an independent\ndepartment of the government.\n6. The National Education Association notes with approval that the qualifications\ndemanded of teachers in the public schools are increasing annually, and particularly that\nin many localities special preparation is demanded of teachers. The idea that anyone\nwith a fair education can teach school is gradually giving way to the correct notion that\nteachers must make special preparation for the vocation of teaching. The higher standards\ndemanded of teachers must lead logically to higher salaries for teachers, and constant\nefforts should be made by all persons interested in education to secure for teachers adequate\ncompensation for their work.\n7. It is the duty of the state to provide for the education of every child within its\nborders, and to see that all children obtain the rudiments of an education. The constitutional provision that all tax-payers must contribute to the support of the public schools\nlogically carries with it the implied provision that no persons should be permitted to defeat\nthe purposes of the public-school law by forcing their children, at an early age, to become\nbread-winners. To this end the child-labor and truancy laws should be so harmonized\nthat the education of the child, not its labor, shall be made the chief concern.\n8. The National Education Association indorses the increasing use of school buildings for free vacation schools and for free evening schools and lecture courses for adults,\nand for children who have been obliged to leave the day school prematurely. We also\napprove of the use of school grounds for playgrounds and the use of school gymnasiums\nand bathrooms for the benefit of the children in the crowded districts during\nsummer.\n9. Local taxation, supplemented by state taxation, presents the^ best means for the\nsupport of the public schools, and for securing that deep interest in them which is necessary\nefficiency. State aid should be granted only as supplementary to local\nto their greatest\ntaxation,\nand not as a substitute for it.\n10. The National Education Association observes with great satisfaction the tendencv\nand towns to replace large school committees or boards which have exercised\ncities\nof\nexecutive functions thru subcommittees, by small boards which determine general policies,\nbut intrust all executive functions to salaried experts.\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nir. We cannot too often repeat that close, intelligent, judicious supervision is necessary\nfor all grades of schools.\n12. The rapid establishment of rural high schools and the consolidation of rural district schools are most gratifying evidences of the progress of education. We believe that\nthis movement should be encouraged until the children of rural communities enjoy the\nbenefits of public education to an extent approximating as nearly as practicable the education furnished in urban communities.\n13. The National Education Association wishes to record its approval of the increasing appreciation among educators of the fact that the building of character is the real aim\nof the schools and the ultimate reason for the expenditure of millions for their maintenance.\nThere are in the minds of the children and youth of today a tendency toward a disregard\nfor constituted authority, a lack of respect for age and superior wisdom, a weak appreciation\nof the demands of duty, a disposition to follow pleasure and interest rather than obligation\nand order. This condition demands the earliest thought and action of our leaders of\nopinion and places important obligations upon school boards, superintendents, and\nteachers.\n14. It is apparent that familiarity with the English Bible as a masterpiece of literature\nis rapidly decreasing among the pupils in our schools. This is the direct result of a conception which regards the Bible as a theological book merely, and thereby leads to its exclusion\nfrom the schools of some states as a subject of reading and study. We hope for such a\nchange of public sentiment in this regard as will permit and encourage the reading and\nstudy of the English Bible, as a literary work of the highest and purest type, side by side\nwith the poetry and prose which it has inspired and in large part formed.\n15 The National Education Association wishes to congratulate the secondary schools\nand colleges of the country that are making an effort to remove the taint of professionalism,\nand other abuses, that have crept into students' sports. This taint can be removed only by\nleading students, alumni, and school faculties to recognize that inter-school games should\nbe played for sportsmanship and not merely for victory.\n16. It is important that school buildings and school grounds should be planned and\ndecorated so as to serve as efifective agencies for educating, not only the children, but the\npeople as a whole, in matters of taste. The school is becoming more and more a community center, and its larger opportunities impose new obligations. School buildings\nshould be attractive as well as healthful, and the adjoining grounds should be laid out and\nplanned with appropriateness and beauty.\n17. The highest ethical standards of conduct and of speech should be insisted on\namong teachers. It is not becoming that commercialism or self-seeking should shape\ntheir actions, or that intemperance should mark their utterances. A code of professional\nconduct clearly understood and rigorously enforced by public opinion is being slowly\ndeveloped, and must one day control all teachers worthy of the name.\n18. In teaching, as in every other kind of work, the best service is secured by finding\nthe individual best fitted to the particular place as indicated by training, experience, and\nmeritorious service; the National Education Association therefore heartily approves a\nmerit system of promoting teachers and filling vacancies. We assert, furthermore, that\nthe grounds upon which a teacher may apply for a position are preparatory training, experience, and meritorious service — in a word, professional fitness, alone; and that the use of\nother personal and political arguments to secure appointment is deplorable in the teacher\nand a serious menace to a high professional standard.\nThe foregoing principles and aims have been fully considered by the committee and\nunanimously recommended to the Active Members of the National Education Association\nfor adoption.\nRespectfully submitted,\nHoward J. Rogers, of New York, Chairman\nOrville T. Bright, of Illinois\nCharles E. Chadsey, of Colorado\nEdgar H. Mark, of Kentucky\nGeorge M. Philips, of Pennsylvania\nDavid B. Johnson, of South Carolina\nCommittee on Resolutions\nThe motion to adopt the declaration of principles was seconded and carried.\nThe following resolutions were also presented by the Committee on Resolutions for\nthe consideration of the Association:\nI. Resolved: That the thanks of the National Education Association are due and\nare hereby most cordially tendered to the residents of Cleveland for their courteous reception and generous hospitalit)J; and to the teachers of Cleveland and the stale of Ohio for\ntheir splendid support and entertainment.\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "ANNUAL\n\nBUSINESS\n\nMEETING\n\n3^\n\n2. Resolved: That the thanks of the National Education Association be tendered the\nfollowing gentlemen for their active and efficient interest in the welfare and entertainment\nof the Association: F. F. Prentiss, chairman Executive Committee, Cleveland Local\nOrganization; Samuel Mather, president Citizens Committee; E. H. Baker, chairman\nCommittee on Publicity; S. M. Bond, chairman Committee on Halls and Headquarters;\nRev. Dan F. Bradley, chairman Committee on Reception; N. D. Chapin, chairman\nCommittee on Transportation; William H. Elson, chairman Committee on Membership;\nF. H. Haserot, chairman Advisory Committee; William H. Hunt, chairman Entertainment Committee; George W. Kinny, chairman Committee on Decorations and Badges;\nThomas P. Robbins, chairman Committee on Accommodations; Col. J. J. Sullivan,\nchairman Committee on Finance; and also to William G. Rose, executive secretary of the\nLocal Executive Committee, and his able corps of assistants.\n3. Resolved: That the thanks of the Association be tendered to First Vice-President\nand ex-President Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, Superintendent William H.\nElson, of Cleveland, and James H. Baker of Colorado, for presiding over the meetings of\nthis Association in the absence of our esteemed President, Edwin G. Cooley, to whom the\ngreetings and good wishes of our members have already been cabled.\n4. Resolved: That the public high schools should not be chiefly fitting schools for\nhigher institutions, but should be adapted to the general needs, both intellectual and\nindustrial, of their students and communities, and we suggest that the higher institutions\nmay wisely adapt their courses to this condition. We also suggest to school boards and\nsuperintendents the importance of securing for their high schools teachers who have not\nonly abundant scholarship but also successful experience in teaching or efficient and\npractical training in pedagogy.\nUpon motion the resolutions were adopted.\nThe following telegram was read:\nSantiago, Chile, S. A.\nPresident Cooley, Cleveland, O.:\nCordial greetings Chilian National Education Association.\n\nDr. Fernandez\n\nThe chairman was on motion directed to make suitable reply.\n\nE. B. Cox, Xenia, Ohio: The published minutes of last year's meeting show that in\nthe report of the Committee on Resolutions there was one resolution which was adopted\nby the Association by standing vote by a large majority— 209 to 23 I believe— the legality\nof the vital part of which was questioned. It was the resolution approving the work of the\nSimplified Spelling Board, and directing that the simplified spellings contained in its first\nrecommendation be used in the publications of this Association. The Secretary did not\nfeel bound by the direction expressed in this resolution. The action was taken at one\nof the general sessions. The question was raised whether it was in accordance with the\nconstitution of the National Education Association for the Association in a general\nsession to pass such amendatory resolution. I do not rise to touch this question at all,\nbut simply to submit in substance the mandatory part of last year's resolution to this regular\nand formal meeting of active members in order that the evident sentiment of a clear majority\nof this organization may be expressed with such legality and supreme authority that the\nSecretary will feel obliged to obey it. Therefore 1 submit this resolution:\nResolved: That the Secretary is hereby directed to use in the publications of this\nrecommended by the Simplified Spelhng Board m us\nthe simplified\nAssociation\ncircular of March\n21, 1906.spellings\n\nIt was moved, seconded, and carried, that the resolution be laid on the table.\non\nChairman Schaeffer: The committee, appointed at the Los Angeles meeting,\nit be\nthe Juvenile Educational Conference has submitted a report with the request that\nIf there is no objection this will be done.\nprinted, but not read.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nJUVENILE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nleave to submit the\nYour committee appointed at the Los Angeles meeting begs\nlaws of the several\n\"\"\"ToTth? better harmonizing of the child-labor and the truancythan\nits labor should\nstates and of the country, so thtt the education of the child rather\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nbe made the chief end of such statutes, an informal conference was held at Middle Bass\nIsland, Lake Erie, August 17, 1907.\nThe resolution under which the conference was held had been adopted by the Ohio\nSchool Improvement Federation, the Ohio Teachers' Association, and the National\nEducation Association, and representatives of these and of other organizations took part\nin the meeting. The members of the conference were C. J. Bell, a former governor of\nVermont, now a member of the Executive Committee of the National Grange, E. B. Norris,\nof New York, chairman of the Executive Committee of the National Grange, George P.\nHampton, of New York City, F. A. Derthick, master of the Ohio State Grange, Mrs. Mary\nE. Lee, Grange correspondent of agricultural papers, Mrs. Sarah E. Hyre, a member of\nthe Board of Education of Cleveland, Ohio, George E. Pomeroy, president of the Ohio\nState Board of Commerce, C. D. Forestone of the Carriage Builders' National Association,\nMrs. Mary C. Snyder, secretary of the National Tax Association, and Walter D. McKinney,\ncommissioner of the Columbus Industrial Alliance of Columbus, Ohio.\nE. G. Cooley, superintendent of the public schools of Chicago, and W. H. Elson, superintendent ofthe public schools of Cleveland, who had been appointed delegates to the conference bythe National Education Association, were unable to attend because of their\nabsence in California. James W. Van Cleave, president of the National Manufacturers'\nAssociation, also was unable to attend the conference but sent a letter saying that there is\nno doubt of the fact that \"industrial education for the American boy is one of the greatest,\nif not the greatest problem, that confronts the republic at this time. \"\nIn explaining the purpose of the conference it was stated that unrelated action had\nbeen taken at dififerent times by the National Grange, the National Education Association,\nand the National Manufacturers' Association favoring measures for the improvement of\nthe common-school system of the country with the direct purpose of enabling all children,\nduring their school age, to acquire the particular kind of education that will best fit them to\nfollow their naturally selected vocations and secure engagements in profitable employments.\nTo this end, as far as possible, efforts should be made to combine the employment of\nchildren, during out-of-school hours, vacation time, and the habit-forming period from\n14 to 18 years of age, with the school system in a way to make employment as well as study\na part of the educational system by placing all children, when employed as well as when\nin school, under the supervision of a school-district officer. After full and careful consideration, the conference adopted the following:\n1. It is the sense of this conference that a permanent co-operative conference committee should be formed composed of three delegates each, representing the National\nGrange, the National Manufacturers' Association, the National Education Association,\nthe National Tax Association, the Carriage Builders' National Association, for the\npurpose of supplying a medium through which said organizations can co-operate to\nsecure practical results in line with their desires to make the education of children of a\ncharacter that will best fit them for the vocations they are most likely to desire to follow,\nand for profitable employment.\n2. That the common-school system should be employed to provide, as far as possible,\nfor the teaching in all elementary schools of the mechanical, agricultural, and domestic arts\nand sciences, with the direct purpose of fitting children as fully as possible for profitable\nemployment in the vocations they are most likely to follow.\n3. That the taxation systems of the states should be revised with the purpose of furnishing ample support and facilities of every necessary kind for making effective the purposes\nin view, and especially with the view of so providing for schools in poor districts that they\nwill be as well equipped and effective as the schools in districts having greater wealth.\n4. That the persons participating in this conference submit these propositions to their\nvarious organizations, at the next annual meeting of the same, with the view of securing\naction that will enable such organizations to be represented officially in a permanent cooperative conference committee designed to secure necessary legislative action to carry its\npropositions into practical effect.\n5. That such other organizations having similar ends in view, as may be approved by\nthe Committee on Preliminary Organization, be invited to be represented in this permanent\nCo-operative Conference Committee.\nThe following resolution relating to a preliminary committee on organization was\nadopted:\nResolved. That a Preliminary Committee on Organization, composed of five members,\nbe created with power to have full charge of the work to be undertaken until the permanent\nCo-operative Conference Committee is organized.\nThe following persons were elected members of the Preliminary Committee on Organization: Allen Ripley Foote, President of the National Tax Association, Chairman; E.\nB. Norris, chairman of the Executive Committee, National Grange; W. H, Elson, super-\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "ANNUAL\n\nBUSINESS\n\nMEETING\n\nintendent of Public Schools, Cleveland, vice-president of the National Education Association; C. D. Firestone, treasurer of the Ohio Board of Commerce and member of the\nCarriage Builders' National Association; James W. Van Cleave, president of the National\nManufacturers' Association, or to be named by'him.\nRespectfuUv submitted,\nW. H. Elson\nRepresenting the National Education Association\nSuggestions were made expressing the desire of the members that, in the choice of\nadditional members of the National Council, the disparity in the proportion between men\nand women members be reduced.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nFirst Vice-President, presiding\n\n41\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE MEETING OF THE\nDIRECTORS FOR 1907-1908\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nCleveland, Ohio, June 29, 190S\n\nThe annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order in the Cleveland Coal\nClub room, Hollenden Hotel, at 11:00 A.M. by Acting President Nathan C. Schaefifer.\nThirty -one directors responded to roll-call.\nThe reading of the minutes of the last meeting, held July 12, 1907, was dispensed\nwith and the nunutes were approved as printed in the volume of Proceedings of the Los\nAngeles meeting.\nThe resignations of three directors were received and upon their nomination the\nfollowing were appointed to fill the unexpired term:\nRomanzo Adams, of Nevada, to succeed J. E. Stubbs, resigned.\nL. L. Friend, of West Virginia, to succeed Thomas C. Miller, resigned.\nHarry M. Schafer, of Washington, to succeed E. T. Mathes, resigned.\nThe following resolution presented by Nicholas Murray Butler was on motion approved\nand recommended for adoption by the Association at its first general session :\nResolved, that in the enforced absence of their President, Superintendent Edwin G.\nCooley, the members of the National Education Association testify to their affectionate\nregard for him, send him cordial greetings across the sea, and confidently look forward to\nhis complete recovery of health and strength.\nThe Annual Report of the Board of Trustees for the year July 1, 1907, to June 30,\n1908, was presented by Nicholas Murray Butler, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and\nprinted copies of the same were distributed to the directors.\nChairman Butler called attention to certain changes adopted by the Board in the\nform of the annual report providing for a distinct classification of all receipts and disbursements under \"Income\" and \"Principal\" accounts, the addition of a \"Premium and Discount\" account, and also a method of entry by which the' par value and the book value of\neach security is shown.\nThe report showed that $10,000 had been added to the permanent fund during the\nyear from the proceeds of the Los Angeles meeting.\nThe report was on motion adopted and ordered printed in the annual volume of\nProceedings.\nThe report of the Treasurer, A. H. Chamberlain, of Pasadena, Cal., for 1907-8 was\npresented and printed copies of the same were distributed. On motion this report was\nreceived and referred to the Board of Trustees for audit and approval.\nThe following communication was presented by J. M. Greenwood, chairman of the\nCommittee of the National Council on Investigations and Appropriations.\nTo the Directors of the National Education Association:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations recommends the adoption of\nthe following resolutions by the Board of Directors:\n1. Resolved, that in view of the present unsettled condition of the finances of the\nNational Education Association, due to the confusion which has arisen from a change of\npolicy by the railroads of the country regarding convention rates, the policy of the National\nEducation Association in granting appropriations for the investigation of special educational problems shall be and hereby is discontinued.\n2. Resolved, that the President of the National Education Association be authorized\nand ernpowered to appoint a special committee to memorialize the Congress of the United\nStates in favor of granting the request of the Commissioner of Education, approved by the\nSecretary of the Interior, for an annual appropriation to meet the cost of educational\ninvestigations under the direction of the Bureau of Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n43\n\n3. Resolved, that upon the favorable report of the Committee on Tnvestiirations and\nAppropriations the Board of Directors will consider and if approved will recommend to\nthe Commissioner of Education projects for educational investigations brought forward bv\nany department or committee of the National Education Association.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJames M. Green^^^ood, Chairman\nNicholas Murray Butler\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nAugustus S. Dovi'ning\nJ. H. Phillips\nL. D. Harvey\nvote.\n\nAfter brief discussion the above resolutions were on motion adopted by a unanimous\n\nDirector Charles H, Keyes presented a brief report from the Committee on Manual\nTraining Courses in Public Schools, for the expenses of which an appropriation of $500\nwas made by the Board of Directors at its meeting in Los Angeles, July 12, 1907. For\nreasons which were stated the committee had not been organized until February, 1908, and\nhad, as yet, only determined upon its plans for investigation of the subjects referred to it.\nDirector Keyes stated that very little of the appropriation for expenses had been ex[>ended\nand requested t^at special action be taken extending the time by one year within which the\nappropriation might be available.\nOn motion it was so ordered.\nSecretary Irwin Shepard then made a brief statement regarding the difficulties which\nhad arisen in securing the usual reduced rates and ticket conditions for the Cleveland convention. In view of the fact that the railroads had declined longer to continue the policy\nof limiting convention rates to bona fide members of the Association holding the convention, itwas urged that the board of Directors and the officers of the Association, co-operating with the active members, should take steps to increase the active membership of the\nAssociation rather than to depend for revenue uppn the fees of associate members attending the annual conventions. This subject was discussed at some length and a general\nagreement expressed favoring the policy proposed, altho no definite action was taken by the\nBoard of Directors.\nThere being no further business the Board of Directors adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE MEETING OF THE NEW\nOF DIRECTORS FOR 1908-1909\n\nBOARD\n\nCleveland, Ohio, July 2, 1908\nThe meeting of the new Board of Directors of the National Education Association\nfor the year 1908-9 was called to order by President-elect L. D. Harvey at 4:30 P.M., in\nthe room of the Cleveland Coal Club, HoUenden Hotel.\nThirty-seven directors responded to the call of the roll.\nDirectors Charles H. Keyes of Connecticut, J. M. Greenwood of Missouri, and I. C.\nMcNeill of Tennessee were appointed a Committee on Nominations to Membership in the\nNational Council.\nThe report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, recommending\nthe discontinuance of the policy of granting appropriations for committees of investigation\nwhich was unanimously adopted by the former Board of Directors on June 29, 1908, was\nread by Director Greenwood, with recommendation for its adoption by the present Board.\nOn motion it was so ordered. For the text of the report see the minutes of the meeting of\nthe Board of Directors for 1907-8, p. 42.\nMr. Greenwood read the following report of the Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations concerning the establishment of National Education Association traveling\nscholarships.\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON INVESTIGATIONS\n\nAND\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nTo the Directors of the National Education Association:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations recommends the adoption of\nthe following resolutions by the Board of Directors:\nA. Resolved, That, beginning July i, 1909^ and until further action by the Board of\nDirectors be had, provided the financial condition of the National Education Association\nwill justify it, there be established three annual traveling scholarships to be awarded in\naccordance with the following rules:\n1. Applications for appointment shall be filed, together with such documents as the\ncandidate may desire to submit in support thereof, with the Secretary of the National\nEducation Association on forms provided for the purpose, not later than April i of the year\npreceding that for which the appointment is asked.\n2. No application shall be received from any person not an active member of the\nNational Education Association in good and regular standing.\n3. The applications and documents accompanying the same shall be transmitted by\nthe Secretary to the Chairman of the Committee of the Council on Investigations and\nAppropriations as soon as practicable after April 15 in each year, and, after consideration\nof the applications and accompanying papers, the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall nominate to the Executive Committee of the National Education Association the names of the persons to be appointed as incumbents of the traveling scholarships\nfor the year beginning July i next ensuing. The term of the scholarships shall be from\nJuly I until June 30 the year following.\n4. So far as possible, one appointment each year shall be given to a principal or\nteacher in a normal school or teachers' training class; one to a state, city, county, or district\nsuperintendent or supervisor of schools, and one to an elementary school principal or\nteacher. Where no satisfactory candidate appears under one or more of the three classes\nabove named, the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations may, at its discretion,\nnominate two or, if necessary, three traveling scholars from one and the same class.\n5. The annual stipend of each traveling scholarship shall be $1,000, payable in four\nequal instalments on the first days of July, October, January, and April.\n6. In making application for appointment as traveling scholar, each candidate shall\nsubmit in connection therewith a plan of travel and study, and shall, if appointed, faithfully\nfollow such plan under such limitations and directions as the Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations may prescribe.\n7. Before the expiration of the year for which a traveling scholar is appointed, each\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nscholar shall file with the Secretary of the National Education Association a report on his\nobservations and educational work during the year.\n8. The names and official station of all persons appointed to be traveling scholars\nshall be published annually in the Yearbook of the National Education Association.\nB. Resolved, That the plan for three annual traveling scholarships as provided in the\nforegoing resolution shall not take effect for the year beginning July i, 1909, unless the\nBoard of Trustees shall on or before December 31, 1908, certify to the Secretary of the\nNational Education Association that sufficient funds from current income are available\nfor the maintenance of said scholarships as provided.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nNicholas Murray Butler\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nAugustus S. Downing\nJohn H. Phillips\nLor£nzo D. Harvey\nDated, July i, 1908.\nIt was moved and carried that this report should be adopted.\nUpon recommendation of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations the\nfollowing resolution was adopted:\nResolved, That the President of the National Education Association be authorized\nto appoint the following members to be official representatives of the National Education\nAssociation at the First International Moral Education Congress to be held at London,\nEngland, September 25 to 29, 1908: Edwin G. Cooley, superintendent of Schools, Chicago,\n111.; Samuel T. Black, president State Normal School, San Diego, Cal.; David B. Johnson,\npresident Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S. C; Clifford W. Barnes,\nChicago, 111.\nThe next order of business was the election of a member of the Board of Trustees to\nsucceed Carroll G. Pearse whose term expired with this meeting. Director Keyes moved\nthat the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the Board for Mr. Pearse to succeed\nhimself.\nThe ballot was so cast and Mr. Pearse declared elected as trustee for four years.\nThe next order of business being the election of a member of the Executive Committee\nfor one year, a letter was read from W. T. Harris, requesting that he be not re-elected.\nE. E. Brown of Washington, D. C, and J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala., were nominated.\nA ballot resulted in the election of J. H. Phillips.\nInvitations for the convention of 1909 were then received.\nDirector Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo., presented\nan invitation for the association to meet in that city. This invitation was indorsed by\nDirector Cree T. Work of Texas.\nAn invitation from Chicago for the meeting of 1909, or a succeeding year, was extended\nby Curt M. Treat of the Chicago Association of Commerce.\nAn invitation from Atlantic City, N. J., was presented by George S. Lenhart, secretarydirector of the Atlantic City Publicity Bureau.\nA telegram was read inviting the Association to meet in Seattle.\nUpon motion the following resolution was adopted:\nResolved: That it is the opinion of this Board of Directors that the next meeting of the\nNational Education Association should be held in the city of Denver, Colorado, provided\narrangements be made satisfactory to the Executive Committee.\nThe Committee on Nomination of Members of the National Council reported as\nfollows:\nTo Board of Directors:\n^\n■\na •\nYour committee on nominations would report the following recommendations:\nOscar J. Craig, Missoula, Mont., to succeed himself for term ending 1914.\nDavid Felmley, Normal, 111., to succeed himself for term ending 1914.\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo., to succeed himself for term ending 1914David B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C, to succeed himself for term ending 1914.\nW. C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich., to succeed J. F. Millspaugh, term ending 1914.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nE. B. Craighead, New Orleans, La., to succeed R. H. Halsey, deceased, term ending\n1910.\n\nDavid R. Boyd, Norman, Oklahoma, to succeed F. Louis Soldan, deceased, term\n\nending 1910.\n\nFor Members under New Amendment\nOne Year, Term Ending igoQ\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kans.\nMorris Elmer Daily, San Jos6, Cal.\nAlma L. Binzel, Menomonie, Wis.\nS. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\nCharles McKenny, Milwaukee, Wis.\nTwo Years, Term Ending igio\nHenry Snyder, Jersey City, N. J.\nEdwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa.\nKatharine E. Dopp, Chicago, 111.\nHenry Suzzallo, New York, N. Y.\nHenry C. Morrison, Concord, N. H.\nThree Years, Term Ending igii\nEsTELLE Reel, Washington, D. C.\nJulius I. Foust, Greensboro, N. C.\nTheo. B. Noss, California, Pa.\nW. T. Carrington, Springfield, Mo.\nJohn J. Doyne, Little Rock, Ark.\nFour Years, Term Ending igi2\nSarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass.\nEdward T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans.\nJames A. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho\nAlfred Bayliss, Macomb, 111.\nErnest C. Moore, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFive Years, Term Ending igij\nIda C. Bender, Buffalo, N. Y.\nWilliam O. Riddell, Des Moines, la.\nHenry B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah\nReed B. Teitrick, Harrisburg, Pa.\nSix Years, Term Ending igi4\nMrs. Ellen H. Richards, Boston, Mass. M. Bates Stephens, Annapolis, Md.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal. J. A. Shaw an, Columbus, Ohio.\nJames W. Crabtree, Peru, Neb.\nRespectfully submitted,\nCharles H. Keyes\nI. C. McNeill\nJ. M. Greenwood\nCommittee\nOn motion of Director Mott of Indiana the report was accepted and adopted.\nA special committee of the National Council, consisting of James H. Baker, chairman,\nWilliam O. Thompson, and Augustus S. Downing, appeared before the Board of Directors\nto present a request from the Council that the several preliminary reports of the special\ncommittee appointed at the Los Angeles meeting should be published and should if possible\nbe included in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nChairman Baker urged that while these reports are preliminary and incomplete,\nthe matter submitted had been carefully prepared and is in permanent form. Additions\nmay be made later which will not necessarily change the form of the report already made,\nbut will be supplementary thereto. The publication of these reports is especially important\nsince they include matter which will be needed to guide future investigations and which\nshould be widely distributed for this purpose. He especially urged that they be included\nin the annual volume of Proceedings if it should be found possible to do so without exceeding\nthe limits of space. But if not published in the volume, they should be printed in sufi&ciently large editions to supply the general demand of those interested in the several lines\nof investigation.\nMr. Baker referred especially to a preliminary report on the subject of \"The Culture\nand Time Element in Education, \" which he had been requested to make as preliminary to\na complete report on this subject. This report included a valuable classified bibliography\non this subject which would be exceedingly helpful and indeed necessary for the formulation of a complete report.\nA. S. Downing of the same committee urged the publication of the several reports\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nreferred to in ftie annual volume of Proceedings, even tho it should be necessary to eliminate,\nor print in abstract only, many of the papers presented at the various department meetings.\nHe urged that reports of the nature referred to were the results of extensive study of the\nsubjects, had been carefully prepared, and were, therefore, of more value than the usual\nconvention papers and discussions.\nIn addition, Mr. Downing urged that apart from the question of publishing these\nreports, the volume could be reduced in size by the elimination of much of the matter now\npublished and by printing only abstracts of the various papers read before the Association.\nA motion was made by Chairman Baker and seconded by Director Cree T. Work of\nTexas that the Secretary of the Association be instructed and authorized to condense the\npapers and discussions of the various departments sufficiently to make it possible to publish\nin the annual volume all of the reports made to the Council of Education for the current\nyear; this with the understanding that the Secretary should call upon the president of each\ndepartment for assistance in this work.\nSecretary Irwin Shepard, in speaking on this motion, said that the plan suggested of\nmaking abstracts of the papers of the various departments for the purpose of reducing the\nsize of the annual volume was far more difficult than might appear at first thought. There are\ntwenty-one different departments of the Association, representing twenty-one separate\ndepartments of educational work and interests. While it is true that few papers appearing\nin the volume are equally interesting to all teachers, it is believed that all papers are of value\nand interest for those especially connected with the work of the department in which they\nwere presented. The members of the Department of Music Education would deem it\nimportant that all of the papers in that department be published in full in the volume of\nProceedings, even tho it might be necessary to condense the papers read before the Department of Technical Education; while the members of the Department of Technical Education would probably take quite a different view.\nWhile it cannot be denied that there is a great difference in the excellence of the\nvarious papers, with rare exception all are valuable and are deemed important for publication in the volume by certain, altho possibly different, classes of members. It would seem\nimpossible to satisfy the members of the Association unless the papers were printed in\nfull, since the members look forward to the annual volume as a complete record of the proceedings ofthe convention, while many active members who cannot attend the meetings\nkeep up their membership because it secures to them a full record of the convention papers\nand discussions.\nThe Association is under great obligations to those who accept appointments on the\nvarious programs, prepare the papers, come to the conventions, oftentimes from long\ndistances, paying their own expenses, for the purpose of contributing to the discussions of\nthe convention. Should we decline to publish the papers carefully prepared for the conventions and kept within the limits required, we might soon find it difficult to secure\nspeakers for the convention programs. Certain limits to papers have been fixed, namely,\n3,000 words for formal papers and 1,000 words for discussions. These limits should be\nstrictly observed and papers and discussions which exceed these limits should be returned\nto the writers that abridgment may be made. It is doubtful whether the Secretary or any\nother person ought to be authorized to make these abridgments.\nDirector William H. Maxwell said that it was evident that the abridgment of the\npapers presented at the annual conventions was a matter of great difficulty and perplexity\nand that it was doubtful whether the Association could fairly adopt any absolute rule of\ninstructions to this end. Mr. Maxwell then moved as a substitute for the pending motion\nthat the matter of abridging the addresses made before the Association and of publishing\nthe reports presented to the Council of Education be referred to the Executive Committee\nand the Secretary of the Association.\nThe motion was seconded.\nDirector James M. Greenwood, in speaking on the substitute motion, urged that\nspeakers on the various programs of the Association be requested to make abstracts of their\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nvarious papers to be submitted with the complete papers themselves so that if the volume\nof Proceedings would not contain all the papers the abstracts might be used instead.\nDirector Cree T. Work urged that the presidents of the respective departments\nshould be requested to assist the Secretary of the Association in editing the proceedings of\neach department with a view of keeping them within the available limits of the annual\nvolume.\nThe substitute motion by Director Maxwell was then put to vote and carried.\nCharles R. Richards of the Committee of Investigations on Manual Training\nCourses in the Public Schools presented to the Board of Directors request for authority to\nincrease the number of their committee from the present number of eight to not less than\nfifteen or more than twenty, in order that all departments of the subject might find representation upon the committee of investigation, with a view of securing a more valuable and\ncomplete report on the subject in hand. On motion the request of Mr. Richards was\ngranted and authority given to the committee already authorized to increase its number\nto not less than fifteen nor more than twenty members.\nMrs. Frances W. Leiter of Ohio presented to the Board of Directors the following\ncommunication:\nquestions\n\npresented\n\nto the board of directors of the\nFRANCES W. leiter\n(ACTIVE MEMBER)\n\nN. E.\n\na. by\n\nMRS.\n\n1. In creating the Educational Department of National Organization of\nWomen, was it intended that these societies petitioning for same should appear at the\nNational Education Association sessions in their organized capacity; or, in the individual\ncapacity of their members who are active members of the National Education Association ?\n2. Was it intended that all, or part, of the national organizations of women who were\ninstrumental in petitioning for creation of the department should have power, in effect,\nto make this National Education Association Women's Educational Department exclusive,\nso far as other national societies of women are concerned, which also have educational\nbearing and have representation in the National Education Association by active membership ?\n3. Was it intended that the societies taking an initial step toward this -department\nshould, because of this initial step, continue to have controlling power in, and jurisdiction\nover, the department, so far as plans, policies, and elections are concerned ?\n4. Does it not come under the constitutional law of the National Education Association that any national organization of women, with active National Education Association\nmembership, by virtue of these active members, may voluntarily become a part of this department— its active members having equal power with active members of all other similar\nsocieties of vote and discussion — whether in the list of initial organizations or not ?\n5. Where a national society has an educational department, are superintendents or\ncommittee members of the same department, in state and local capacity, eligible to active\nmembership in the National Education Association ?\nOn motion it was ordered that a committee of three be appointed to whom Mrs.\nLeiter's communication should be referred, the said committee to report at the next\nmeeting of the Board.\ntion: The President then appointed the following committee on Mrs. Leiter's communicaNathan C. Schaeffer, of Pensylvania, Chairman.\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York.\nEdwin G. Cooley, of Illinois.\nThere being no further business the Board of Directors adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\nSAMUEL\n\nMATHER,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nOF CITIZENS'\n\nCOMMITTEE,\n\nCLEVELAND\n\nO.\n\nLadies and Gentlemen, Members oj the National Education Association:\nIt has become my fortunate lot, as president of our Citizens' Committee,\nto have the honor of presiding at this opening meeting of your great Association*\nand, therefore,\nto have the first oppportunity of giving utterance to those words\nof heartiest welcome which are in the hearts and on the tongues of all the\ncitizens of Cleveland.\nThis is not the first time that Ohio has welcomed your convention. It is\ninteresting to recall the fact that after your first organization meeting in Philadelphia in1857, your first annual meeting was held in Cincinnati in 1858— just\nfifty years ago; and that it was in Cleveland in 1870— thirty-eight years ago—\nthat your original name, the National Teachers Association, was changed\nunder your new constitution to that of National Educational Association. It\nwas here also, and in that year, that you may be said, perhaps, first to have\nexhibited, by your absorption of the National Association of School Superintendents and of the American Normal School Association, that wonderful\npower of growth which has increased your numbers from two or three hundred\nin the early sixties to twenty-seven hundred in 1884 and thirty thousand and\nupward in 1905; increasing also your departments from three in 1870 — those\nof superintendents of elementary education and of higher education — to ten\nin 1879, and, if I am not mistaken, to twenty-one at this present time.\nIt is interesting, also, to note the fact that in Cleveland today you have again,\nas in 1870, met for the first time together under a new constitution and a new\nname. In 1870 your National Teachers Association had merged into the\nNational Educational Association. Here in this year you have slightly abbreviated that name by striking off the ''al,\" becoming therefore the National\nEducation Association; although a glance at your swollen membership list\nmight suggest the idea that you might with equal propriety have aflSxed \"c/ al. '\nBut how could any association fail to grow and increase in numbers and\nin influence that held fast to the spirit of that original call in 1856, inviting\nall practical teachers from North, South, East, and West,\nwho are willing to unite in an earnest effort to promote the general welfare of our country\nby concentrating the wisdom and power of numerous minds, and by distributing among\nall, the accumulated experiences of all who are ready to devote their energies and their\nmeans to advance the dignity, respectability, and usefulness of their calling.\n\nHow could those teachers and friends of education who met in Philadelphia\nin the following year to organize, in answer to that call, have failed to respond\nto the words of Prof. William Russell 49\nof Massachusetts, when he said,\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n50\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nFellow teachers, we are met on a great occasion. This event is a most auspicious one\nas regards the intellectual and moral interests of the whole community of which as citizens\nwe are members. In forming a national association of teachers we may hope for great\nnational benefits. We have at length recognized our peculiar duty to come forward and\ntake our proper place as the immediate agents of whatever measures are best adapted to\npromote the highest interests of society by the widest diffusion of human culture. Of our\nacknowledged defective moral education it is unnecessary to speak. Throughout our\ncountry the parent is appealing to the teacher and the teacher to the parent for efficient\nefforts which may bring about a better state of things. The cry for more helpful, more\ninspired, more effective and more ethical modes of education comes up from all classes of\nsocietv on behalf of the young, who are its treasured hope.\n\nOrganized by such leaders and inspired by such teaching, it is small wonder\nthat you have grown so largely in numbers, and are everywhere recognized as\nhaving already accomplished so much of good in the cause of education.\nLadies and Gentlemen, I wish not only to extend to you our heartiest\nwelcome, but also to express our appreciation of the great benefits that may\nbe derived by our community from the presence of such a body of educators\nin our midst, by having the opportunity of listening to your papers and discussions, and of personally knowing and meeting you.\nWhile possessing, in common with all American cities, the blessing of our\nsplendid public -school system, and while not without the advantage of higher\ninstitutions of learning and that sound tradition of esteem for culture which is\nour New England heritage, yet we are still essentially a busy commercial city,\nthough not so busy since October last as we might wish to be. It is unnecessary to speak to such an audience as this of the more limited horizon, the\nnarrower outlook on life, that threatens any community from too much commercialism. We expect, therefore, to receive from you more than we shall\nbe able to give to you, eager as may be our hospitable intent; but here stands\nour fair city, with outstretched hands, bidding you warm welcome: may I\nnot say, in the language of our Spanish neighbors to the south of us, \"She is\nyours. \"\nHARRIS\n\nR.\n\nCOOLEY,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nCHARITIES\n\nAND\n\nCORRECTION\n\nLadies and Gentlemen oj the National Education Association:\nI regret very much that Mayor Johnson is not able to be present in person,\nbut I trust that during the week he may attend some of the sessions of your\nassociation. In his behalf, and in behalf of our municipality, I am glad to\nextend to you the keys of the city of Cleveland. This is no formal matter; for\nthere is a civic consciousness, a civic feeling. Of all its characteristics, I trust\nthat hospitality is one of the leading ones of Cleveland. So in behalf of the\nfive hundred thousand men, women, and children of our city I bid you welcome\nto Cleveland. I am sure that the children are always glad to see their teachers\n— ^in vacation time.\nMoreover, I welcome you for what of thought and feeling you bring to\nour city. The marvelous development of material things has so focused our\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "i^ssionsl\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nattention that we are in danger of forgetting the things which are behind them.\nWe rejoice in our railroads and steamships, in our magnificent buildings and\nworkshops, and we forget that the brains that conceived them and the hands\nthat made these things are greater than the things themselves; that thoughts\nand purposes and ideals are fundamental to all growth and all progress. All\nthat we have achieved in the material world is simply the result of the application oftruth and thought to the affairs of our human life. We are glad because\nyou bring to us that spirit of truth which is the hope of the future. Upon one\nof the great arches in the Chicago Exposition were the words: \" Ye shall know\nthe truth, and the truth shall make you free.\" The truth has transformed\nthe canoe into the great steamship, the stage coach into the Pullman train.\nThe truth is the inspiration of literature and art. The seeking and giving of\ntruth is the hope of the future. Upon the archway of human progress are still\nthe words: '* Ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free. \"\nWe are glad to welcome you for the power and the promise of the future.\nI see the great multitudes coming to our shores from the lands of the old world,\nuntil some of our timid ones grow faint-hearted. I see their children go to our\nschools and growing up into citizenship and love of country. I see them bringing their different traditions, abilities, and ideals, and working out with us a\nbetter and higher civilization than the world has yet known. I thmk it is wisest\nfor us to keep our gates open and then give special attention to instruction and\nteaching in the spirit of truth and liberality and fellowship, giving to these children the equal opportunities of the schools of our land. They are the promise\nof the coming commonwealth. Josiah Strong has said that this land of ours\ncould support in comfort a thousand million people. In the last hundred\nyears the use of the steam engine and of machinery has increased our powers\nof production fifty fold.\nTwo hundred thousand Indians formerly lived east of the Mississippi\nRiver, and they thought that the country was full. Forty millions of people are\nliving today in the same territory, in luxury and comfort of which the Indians\nnever dreamed. Under juster conditions four hundred millions of people\ncould live in that same territory with opportunities for culture and knowledge\nof which we do not dream. When we think of what our own civilization may\nbe — of its conserving influence on the civilization of the whole world — is it\nany wonder that we should feel that teaching in itself is a profession — a, sacred\nprofession ?\nWe are glad to welcome you for what you are. People who are engaged\nin such great service for their fellow -men must by reflex action develop power\nand strength in themselves. We are glad that you have come into our midst\nas the aristocracy of service and of real culture.\nWe are proud of our city. We have beautiful homes and clean streets,\nmagnificent schools, parks, and playgrounds, but we have no feeling of completion. We are a city growing, finding itself. We are forgetting the things\nwhich are behind and pressing forward toward the things which are before us.\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWe will be glad if Cleveland shall help to solve the great questions of municipal government in the United States.\nEmerson has somewhere said: ''Happy is the house that shelters a friend.\nIt might well be built like a festal bower to entertain him a single day. \" Sometimes when we have entertained our friends, there has come to us, when they\nhave gone, a consciousness that they have left behind associations which it is a\npleasure to remember. Our homes are richer because they have been our\nguests. It is with that feeling we welcome you today, the feeling that because\nyou have been with us, our city will be richer in Hfe, in high purposes, in consciousnes ofpower, in faith in the future of our country and its civilization,\nricher in the elements that go to make up its very life.\nWe trust that your days here may be full of profit and good fellowship\nand gladness, and that you may bear with you when you go away from us\npleasant memories of our fair City by the Lake.\nAgain, in behalf of Mayor Johnson and the municipality, I bid you a hearty\nwelcome to Cleveland.\nCHARLES\n\nS. HOWE,\nPRESIDENT OF CLEVELAND\nPRESIDENT\nOF CASE SCHOOL OF\n\nCHAMBER OF COMMERCE\nAPPLIED\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies, and Gentlemen oj the National Education Association:\nDr. Cooley, on behalf of the mayor of the city, has extended to you the\nofficial welcome into our midst, and it becomes my very pleasant duty, on\nbehalf of the business interests of our city, to cordially endorse that welcome.\nCleveland is a hospitable city. It is always glad to see strangers, whether\nthey come on business or on pleasure. It is especially glad to see them when\nthey come in organizations which have accepted our invitation to meet here.\nIt is still more glad to welcome a great organization of this kind, for we believe\nin the work which you are doing.\nWe trust that this meeting in our city will be as successful, or even more\nsuccessful than meetings which you have held in the past.\nThe Cleveland Chamber of Commerce is made up of about two thousand\nmanufacturers, business, and professional men. It is not only interested in\nthe commercial prosperity of the city, but in every question which is for the\nadvantage of the community, the state, or the nation — ^whether civic, educational, or commercial. So this great organization which I represent can understand something of the work which you are doing, and it is especially glad\nto see you here.\nThe business man pays a large share of the taxes which are levied for\nschool purposes, but he has never considered this tax a burden; rather he has\nconsidered it an investment which is paid back to him and to the community\nmore than a hundred fold in the increased intelligence of the working man, in\nenlightened citizenship, and in a contented and happy people. Moreover,\nthe business man hopes that this tax for educational purposes will be increased\nuntil the teacher is paid a salary which is commensurate with the time which he\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nADDRESSES\n— —\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n^^^\n\n0<J\n\nspends in his training, and with the character of the work which he performs.\nIndeed, he is willing that the tax should be increased until every child in the\ncountry of school age is provided with a seat all day long in a room well lighted\nand heated and ventilated, and until the buildings to which we send our children\nand where you work, are provided with everything necessary for what you are\ndoing, and made absolutely fireproof.\nBut the welcome which we as business men give you today is tinctured somewhat with selfishness, for we recognize that in many ways you are doing a work\nwhich is of special value to the manufacturer. A number of years ago many\nof our schools learned that it was necessary not only to train the brains of a child\nbut to train his eyes and his hands also; and the work of manual training has\nbeen extended from one school to another until now it is found in all large\ncities, and many of the smaller towns. We are glad that you have taken up\nthis work, but we believe you have not gone far enough, that you are called to\nmake still further extensions in this direction. A canvass of the manufacturing\ninterests of the State of Ohio, a year ago, showed that in only fifty-three manufacturing establishments was there any effort to teach boys trades. That is\nto say, the manufacturers were not training the mechanics whom they must\nhave if they are going to sustain the industrial prosperity of this nation. It\nis a grave question to solve, how to train the men we must have. Some\nbelieve that this work must be done by the public school; that in the future\nyou will take up the subject of trade education. I hope that you will succeed\nas well in this as you have in the intellectual work which you have done in the\npast. I see no reasons why the schools should not train boys for trades. A\nlarge proportion of the youth of our country leave school at fourteen years of\nage having no profession, no special qualifications for their life work. There\nare several reasons why* the public-school system of our country should take\nup this work. A boy whose parents can send him to an institution which is\nsustained by state appropriations, cancontinue his education until he has learned\na profession. But the boy of poor parents must start out without help; and\nthe time is coming when these boys will demand an education that will fit them\nfor their life work, as the boys of richer parents are fitted for theirs. This is\nthe side of the boy.\nBut there is another side, that of the nation. The boy who goes out without any preparation is a common workman, receiving a common workman's\nwages. He is of value only as a common workman. Give him a profession\nor a trade, and he is worth more. He becomes a greater economic unit\nand for the sake of the nation we must train these boys, and give them a valuable profession. This question touches the manufacturing interests.\nBut I believe the business man has an interest in the work which you have\ndone and which you are going to do judged from his standpoint. Sixty years\nago private commercial schools were started in this country, and they have\nfilled a great want. They have been followed by commercial courses in our\npublic schools, and now we have some commercial high schools intended to fit\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nboys for business. Formerly it was considered that there were but three\nprofessions, but we have now come to regard business as a profession. When\nthe great universities of the country are establishing business courses, requiring a college education for entrance, it is evident that business has become\na profession, recognized as such; and the common schools of the country in\nmy opinion must estabhsh commercial high schools that will fit boys and girls\nfor the work which so many of them are to do. So I say, that combined with\nour welcome to you here, is a selfish interest, because you are doing a work\nwhich is going to be of assistance to us.\nAgain, on behalf of the Chamber of Commerce, I welcome you to Cleveland. We trust your meeting here will be pleasant and successful in every\nway, and that you will go away satisfied with our city and with the work you\nhave done.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nRESPONSE\n\nTO ADDRESSES\n\nO.\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nTHOMPSON,\n\nOHIO\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCOLUMBUS\n\nMr. President^ and Gentlemen representing the municipality oj Cleveland and\nother organizations:\nI desire here to recognize the high honor of standing in this splendid\npresence, and responding in behalf of the teachers of the United States to this\nmost cordial welcome. I desire also to assume all the responsibility on our\npart for the warmth of this welcome, because you know an elementary law\nof physics is that motion is easily transformed into heat. When this assembled\nmultitude of teachers struck this city, the arrested motion was sufficient to\nraise the usual temperature of Cleveland ten or fifteen degrees. I desire also,\nMr. President, to say that we appreciate very much the willingness of Cleveland\nto have us remain here during these days, and since we shall all respond for\nourselves in the three or four days that are to come, it is not necessary for me\nto consume much time in assuring you that the teachers will promptly avail\nthemselves of your generous hospitality.\nWe appreciate the opportunity to come to this beautiful city. This is historic ground; ground in which the teachers of this country are interested. It\nis something more than a century ago that Moses Cleaveland journeyed up to\nthis city by the lake — or, rather, the city that was to be, and here in a pioneer\nway laid the foundation of this modern city. We are interested to know that\nwhile he came as late as 1796, the first little schoolhouse was built not long\nafter; that as early as 181 7 a building 24X30 was purchased by the corporation to be used as the first light of learning upon this ground.\nIn 1824 Harvey Rice came to this territory, and in thirty minutes saw all\nthere was to see of Cleveland. He remained here many years. In 1851 that\nsame gentleman had the honor in the Senate of Ohio, after our new constitution\nwas adopted, of introducing the bill which became the law for the common\nschool system of Ohio. He said upon that occasion : ** We will now make the\npublic schools what they ought to be, the people's colleges — cheap enough for\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nRESPONSE\n\n——\n\n.\n\n___^\n\n•'^\n\nthe poorest and good enough for the richest.\" That was the foundation of the\nschool law of Ohio, this first state carved out of the great northwest territory;\nand it became the fundamental law copied by many other states for nearly a\ngeneration.\nThe second schoolhouse in this city was the Cleveland Academy, built not\nlong after the earlier schoolhouse. So from the very beginning the Western\nReserve has been a center of all important educational interests to this time.\nWe are in the presence of the Case School of Applied Science, which needs\nonly to be named in order to be recognized throughout this land of ours. Here\ntoo is Western Reserve with her inspiring history and as one of the great and\nefficient schools of the country. I hope before this convention adjourns to\nhear that the city of Cleveland shall have responded heartily to the call for\nthe money needed to complete the half-million endowment, the most important\ncall to this city in a generation.\nIn this city, in 1846, the first high school was organized. After the constitution was adopted and our public -school system provided for the first\nsuperintendent of schools of Ohio took his place in the city of Cleveland in\n1853.\nYour splendid school system has had distinguished men at her head. She\nhas had her Rickoff ; her Hinsdale of precious memory; her Draper and her\nJones; a quartette of educators seldom equaled, never surpassed in the educational experience of any city in our country. We are happy, therefore, to come\nto this city whose educational experience has been such as this. We are\nproud to walk your streets and see the beauty and wealth you have here,\nwhere learning, education, and all that is good and true has been so much\nappreciated. We are sure not only of a warm, but a cordial welcome in this\ncity.\nI desire to remind you of what is coming to you. These people who have\ncome here ought to be recognized as the most important, the most dignified,\nthe most enthusiastic missionary convention that assembles on American soil,\na company of men and women divinely called to stand for the children of this\ncountry, to protect our homes, to perpetuate our prosperity, to develop our\ncivilization, and to stand for all that is good and true and pure in our history\nas symbolized in Old Glory. We are here at our own expense, and at our own\nsuggestion; and there is no body of men or women in all our land who meet\nannually that have in their hearts a truer purpose or nobler ideal than the\nteachers of this country. This splendid service that the teacher brings accounts\nfor the enthusiasm of this hour and of this day. It is a high honor to stand here\nin the presence of these teachers, and for them express the appreciation we\nhave of the city that welcomes to its doors hundreds and thousands of men and\nwomen who come not for money, not for business, not for anything that they\ncan gain, but for what they can give to the children of this land. May I say\nin all sincerity these thousands deserve to be appreciated and we are glad that\nthe city of Cleveland has the ability and willingness to entertain and the keen-\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nness of insight to appreciate the most important body of men and women that\nmeet annually in this country ? We thank you for this most cordial welcome.\n\nPAPERS AND\nEDUCATION\nNATHAN\n\nC.\n\nSCHAEFFER,\n\nSTATE\n\nFOR\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nAVOCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nPENNSYLVANIA\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nWhat can the school do to fit the pupils for the several callings by which they\nwill earn their livelihood ? is a question which is now, more than ever before,\nengaging the serious attention of educators throughout the civilized world.\nThis question is so important and all-absorbing that there is danger of losing\nsight of the other equally important question: ''What can the school do to\nmake life worth Hving during the hours in which the individual is not engaged\nin the struggle for bread ?\" The laboring classes are striving to get an eighthour day. In some cases they have already won this concession. Whether\nthe victory shall prove a blessing or a curse will depend upon the way in which\nthe remaining hours of the day are spent. If the hours which are not devoted\nto work and sleep are spent in dissipation and riotous living, the eight-hour\nday will prove a curse instead of a blessing.\nI live in the richest agricultural county in the United States, the county that\nis a congressional district by itself and that has more money deposited in its\nnational banks than any one of seven southern states that might be named.\nOne of its leading industries is the growth and manufacture of tobacco. As\nsoon as the law allows, and sometimes before the legal age is attained, the boy\nand the girl leave school to begin work upon the tobacco. The owner of one\nof the tobacco factories assures me that during the noon hour the telephone is\nkept in constant use by the young people who are anxious to secure seats upon\nthe roof garden and at the vaudeville show. I have no quarrel with the young\npeople who seek recreation during the hours which are not devoted to breadwinning. I have heard of industrial establishments in which it takes twentytwo persons to make a pin, sixty-four persons to make a shoe. I have never\nbeen able to ascertain through how many hands the tobacco passes before it\nends in ashes and smoke. Think of a human being spending the working\nhours of a whole week in making the twenty-second part of a pin, the sixtyfourth part of a shoe, the infinitesimal part of a cigar, and you can form some\nidea of the drudgery against which human nature rebels and from which it\nseeks relief by visiting the roof garden, the theater, and the saloon. I say I\nhave no quarrel with the toilers who seek recreation. Our insane asylums\nare filled with farmers' wives whose work was never done, who went through\na ceaseless round of drudgery seven days in the week year after year until the\nnervous system broke down and the individual sank into hopeless insanity. It\nis the inexorable demand of human nature that it shall seek and have relief\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nAVOCATION\n\nr.\n\nfrom the drudgery of piece work in the shop and the factory. What keeps me\nawake at night is the thought that if these toilers had been taught at school\nhow to use and enjoy a good book, they would seek recreation and enjoyment\nby visiting the public library instead of going to the roof garden and the\nsaloon.\nIt is not easy to map out a curriculum that shall fit pupils for work in a silk\nmill, a tobacco shop, a caramel factory, and all the other industries which are\nlisted in the United States census; it is even a doubtful question whether the\nAmerican people would tolerate preparation in the public schools for work in\nthe brewery, the distillery, and the like; but we can all agree on the desirability offitting pupils to enjoy the things of the mind and the higher life, on\nthe importance of teaching the right use of books, on the supreme duty of\ntraining the boy and the girl to think the best thoughts of the best men as\nthese are enshrined in art and literature. The pupil who is taught to think\nthe thoughts of God as these are expressed in the starry heavens above us, in the\nmoral law within us, and in all nature about us tastes the joys of a life which\ndoes not turn upon what we eat and drink and the thousand things that money\nwill buy. Education for avocation is quite as important as education for vocation. \"Man shall not live by bread alone, \" is a maxim spoken by the greatest\nteacher of all the ages; Jesus, who himself earned bread and supported his\nmother by working at the carpenters' bench, did not mean that we should\ndespise the arts which make bread, but his example and his teachings clearly\nindicate that a life worth living involves far more than mere education for a\nvocation.\nOne word more by way of conclusion. In the countries of the Old World\nthe son is apt to follow the vocation of tlie father. The station into which he\nis born determines very largely the kind of pursuit which he will follow for a\nlivelihood. The boy who goes through the Volksschule can, as a rule, never\nhope to enter the portals of the university. Our American conditions and\nideals are different. We have organized school systems which, to use the language of Huxley, are like a ''ladder on which the youth who has the strength,\nmay climb from the gutter into the university. \" In our efforts to work out a\nsatisfactory scheme of industrial education let us not forget that the most\nvaluable asset of our people is brains, that our national greatness turns upon\noffering every boy and every girl all the educational facilities which they are\nwilling to take, that work and vocation must not cause us to neglect recreation\nand avocation, that there are certain essentials in the school curriculum\nwhich fit for vocation as well as avocation, that reading, writing, reckoning,\nthe basal concepts of geography, and the knowledge of our free institutions in\ntheir origin and history must be taught the pupils in order to adjust them to\nAmerican civilization, and that preparation for a life which is truly worth\nliving cannot, for the sake of financial gain or industrial prosperity, afford\nto neglect or ignore the things of the mind and the joys of the higher\nlife.\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPROBLEM\n\nCLOUDSLEY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\nS. H. BRERETON, DIVISIONAL INSPECTOR FOR THE\nCOUNCIL,\nLONDON,\nENGLAND\n\n[General\n\nIN LONDON\nLONDON\n\nCOUNTY\n\nIndustrial education is at present in the making in England. The information Ishall give on the subject represents facts and experiences amassed during\na long and very wide inquiry into the present causes of discontent with popular\neducation in England. Living in the midst of a great community like London,\none is able to get outside the somewhat isolated and cloistral atmosphere of the\nschool and collect and codify the numerous and sometimes self-contradictory\ncriticisms of the many-voiced public in respect to the school. The task is no\neasy one, ladies and gentleman, but I for one hold that these criticisms, though\nat times crude and misplaced, are rarely absolutely unreasonable. The diagnosis may frequently be wrong, but the evil is there, and calls for remedy. The\ncomplaints, when classified and arranged, may roughly be summarized as follows: The elementary schoolmaster deplores that so many boys, even when\neducation is free up to 15 and 16 years, refuse to stay a day after 14 years, the\ncompulsory age. The parent retorts that if his boy stays on, he starts no better\nwhen he goes to work than those who left at the earliest moment. The farmer\ncomplains that the school depopulates the country side by exaggerating the\npleasures of town life. The town employer in any skilled trade says the school\nturns out a type of boy for whom he has no use. The old-fashioned person\ndeclares that the school is educating the boy above his station, and the cynic\nadds that it is educating him for no station at all, except it be for standing idle\nin the market place. The philanthropist deplores the existence of the numerous parasitical trades, such as those of errand boys and government boy clerks,\nwhich afford a comparatively good living to a boy from 14 to 19, but being\nwhat Professor Sadler, in his admirable book on continuation schools, calls\nblind-alley occupations, leave the boy absolutely stranded at 20, not only without any skilled employment but more or less unfit to undertake any.\nAn analysis of the present discontent with popular education in England\nshows certain underlying economic causes, such as the decay of apprenticeship, due to the industrial revolution and intensified by a somewhat one-sided\nand incomplete system of education for the masses and lower middle classes.\nYet it must be laid down as an axiom that every complete form of education\nmust include a preparatory stage (the so-called general education) merging\ngradually into a more or less perceptible professional top. It must, in fact,\nembody the idea that it is the task of education to train the worker as well as\nthe citizen, if the State is to get its full benefit from its children. It is, for the\nmoment, of secondary importance if this twofold education should be given\nin the school and the workshop, as in the past, or in the school alone; the essential isthat it must be given somewhere. Education must, in fact, be for livelihood as well as for life, and it is indeed curious that our educational leaders who\nup to the present have been to an overwhelming extent persons trained in the\nold universities, have not recognized that the so-called general education of\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n—\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n■\n\n—\n\nIN\n\nLONDON\n\n.\n\n,\n\n3V\n\nwhich they are such warm partisans, is really nothing more nor less than the\npreparatory stage to the specialization in law, medicine, or theology which\nfollows at the university.\nThe education of the masses and lower middle classes is far too much a\nservile imitation of the old academic curriculum of our secondary schools, in\nspite of several salutary innovations that the secondary schools are slowly\ncopying. The end or aim of the elementary school, apart from its ethical objectives, iso general, that it leads to nothing in particular. Yet if there is one\nthing we English might profitably learn from our German neighbors, it is that\nevery grade of school should set before it a specific aim in order to have\nscientific reasons for the framing of its curriculum.\nWhy has this idea of aim in education been so long in obtaining definite\nrecognition in England, especially in the case of those pupils who do not go to\nthe universities ? One reason no doubt is our desire to let things grow and\nshape themselves, but I, for one, do not believe the policy of muddle is the last\nword of English statesmanship. Muddle is often only a name for the inductive\nperiod in English national thinking. We are very slow to take a decisive step,\nbut then we undo so little, however much we tinker away at things.\nThe lack of conscious aim in the lower grades of English education is due\nalso in part to the fact that before 1902 different grades were under rival\nauthorities, schoolboards, and county councils. The Act of 1902 placed all the\nschools under the County Councils. Many of the higher grade schools in the\nprovinces were at once made into secondary schools in which fees were charged\nwhile many free places were reserved under the form of scholarships for promising children from the elementary schools. But in London, for various reasons,\nthe so-called higher grade schools were not converted into secondary schools.\nWe have, therefore, in London this anomaly. We have some 80 higher grade\nand higher elementary schools in which pupils can remain till 16, but not\nbeyond, working alongside of some sixty aided secondary schools in which the\nbulk of pupils leave at 16 also.\nWere the higher grade and the higher elementary schools converted into\nschools with a commercial or industrial bias, they would constitute the most\ngeneral and undifferentiated extreme in a category of institutions in which the\nleaving age was 16, the opposite extreme of which would be a highly industrialized trade school in a polytechnic or technical institute.\nHere we must ask the definite question what we want to do with the pupil\nwho leaves at 15 or 16 ? That raises the question of aim and that in turn will\nindicate the spirit and bias that should pervade the teaching. When we have\n\ngot so far, we can choose the subjects for our curriculum and decide the proportions inwhich they shall be mixed. Every properly framed curriculum\nmust, as we have seen, be animated and permeated by a certain objective and\nbias. What is called mechanics in a program for the preparation of a senior\nwrangler will have a perfectly different significance in a curriculum for the\nYet to the subject-ridden person, the importance of\ntraining of a plumber.\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe difference will be almost entirely lost. In reality it is as great as that between giving a boy separate quantities of flour and water and an egg, and\ngiving him an omelet.\nMore difficult still to dispose of than the sticklers for subjects are the contentions ofthose who attack the introduction of a technical or commercial bias\ninto the concluding stage of elementary education. Many persons fear that\nthe result will be to make the ordinary clever boy a hewer and drawer of water\nforever. Any attempt to introduce an industrial bias, seems to them a dehberate attempt to diminish the share each child of the people should have of\nhuman culture.\nNow, frankly, exactly what does general education mean ? If the history\nof mediaeval education proves one thing it proves that all education was originally technical and professional. Such general education as then existed\nserved as a mere preliminary to the professional end. Bologna and Salerno\nwere in fact monotechnical institutes — the one trained lawyers and the other,\ndoctors. Paris was a polytechnic, preparing for the law, medicine, and the\nchurch. Latin and, later on, the Greek of Aristotle were the basal studies in\nall these cases, simply because it was in these languages that the lore of the\nthree professions was embodied.\nThe Renaissance, which confidently believed it had discovered a new\nheaven in the recently recovered classics, on which a new earth could speedily\nbe founded, only confirmed the supremacy of Latin and Greek. The professional position was further obscured by the fact that the ancient tongues were\nhenceforth employed for the education of the leisured and aristocratic classes\nwhose professional training was supplied by the grand tour they were supposed\nto make at the end of their school studies. The existence of a professional\ntraining in England has been further cloaked and masked by the fact that our\ntraining of the classes dirigeantes, in the universities, has been rather an informal\nand ethical training, arising out of social intercourse, leading to a knowledge\nof men and mancraft, than an intellectual training in mere book knowledge.\nIf the above reading of history be correct, then every complete form of\neducation should exhibit three stages, general, general-professional, and professional-general, passing from one to the other with as httle discontinuity as\npossible, the ideal being the production of a citizen with broad ideals, plus\ncapacity sharpened to the point of craftsmanship. The two final stages\nshould both be defined as technical.\nA firm grip of these cardinal ideas is essential in order to refute the accusation that we are attempting to turn the school into a workshop, whereas the\ntrue object in view is to prepare for the latter, and to bridge over the existing\ngap between the school and the various skilled caUings or groups of callings,\nnot by forming half-fledged apprenticeships, but by bringing the pupil at least\ntwo-thirds along the road to it ; by giving him a grasp of the basal studies underIpng the future craft as well as a certain amount of manipulative skill which\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nLONDON\n\n5i\n\nwill stand him in good stead when he actually enters the workshop. Our\nmotto is, in fact, not mechanical proficiency, but enlightened dexterity. The\ntype of vocational school advocated here, if properly organized on a four-years\ncourse, avoids the necessity of any sudden break between the general and professional education inevitable in the case of the trade school— which is for the\nmost part frankly utilitarian. It further safeguards three important points:\n(i) The acquisition of skill is subordinated to the acquisition of scientific\nprinciples; (2) The formation of character remains the paramount aim; (3)\nThe craftsmanship serves pre-eminently as an instrument of culture.\nLet me say, by way of personal testimony, that, as a literatus of literati, I\nhave been driven by sheer weight of fact and logic into the opinion that an\nadmixture of industrial training in the school itself, so far from being detrimental to pure culture, is, on the contrary, one of the most potent influences for\nits extension and advance.\nAnd first I will cite the facts that seem to me decisive. We have in\nLondon a good number of truant schools (to which the title industrial\nhas been given) with nearly fifteen hundred children, and a still larger number of schools for defective children. In the first-named category of schools\none-half the day is given to the ordinary literary subjects, the other portion of\nthe day being devoted to industrial training, and, be it remarked, that training\nis only very imperfectly and incidentally co-ordinated with the literary studies.\nMoreover, the boys who are committed to these schools, though in some cases\nthey may be brighter than the ordinary run, have often lost a year or more\nschooling owing to truancy. These schools are inspected by the same inspectors as the ordinary elementary schools, and it is the official verdict of the\nCouncil, published in its report on these schools, that \"The work in an industrial school (i. e., truant school) is probably as good as in the average board\nschool. \"\nNow, ladies and gentlemen, was there ever a more striking instance of the\nparadox that the half is sometimes better than the whole ?\nAgain, those who have had to do with the defective schools, and I would\nmention especially the late chairman to the Education Committee, have borne\npublic evidence to the fact that a remarkable number of originally feebleminded children have, thanks to the practical training they receive, ended by\n\nattaining in literary studies the same standard as the average board-school\nchild, because the advance has been through the tangible and the concrete,\ninstead of through the bookish and the abstract. In fact, to put it in a nutshell,\na concrete foundation is as necessary in educational as in all other forms of\narchitecture.\n\nAgain, so far from there being any danger of the introduction of technical\ntraining elbowing-out general education, as may be seen from the history of\nit.\nmediaeval education, it is one of the most potent factors for lengthening\nof\nion\nintroduct\ndefinite\nthe\nby\nThe selfsame phenomenon has been reproduced\nes\ndiscoven\nearliest\nthe\nof\nOne\nsystem.\ntechnical education into our English\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe teachers in our technical institutes made, was that without a good general\neducation, any attempt at premature specialization in technical training was\na waste of time. It was in fact owing to the insistence of the technical reformers on the absolute need of providing a good general, preliminary education, that our system of scholarships from the elementary to the lower secondary schools was started. It has grown and grown till now it amounts nominally\nto 25 per cent, of the total population in these schools. At present there are\npowerful democratic agencies at work for raising the compulsory age from\n14 to 15 or 16; personally, I do not believe they will be successful till we can\nput before the parent a definite type of vocational schooling which will induce\nhim to keep his son at school another year or two on the chance of the boy\nultimately obtaining skilled employment. It is a remarkable and significant\nfact that the pupils in our present higher elementary and higher grade schools\nare leaving earlier than they did a few years ago, and I attribute the awful\nslump in the school-leaving age in France, in part to the fact tHat, if the school\nhas no practical objective, the mere attraction of education in the abstract is\nan insufficient motive for keeping a boy at school against the ever present\ntemptation to make him into a wage-earner.\nThe claim that craftsmanship serves as an instrument of culture, brings\nus face to face with the most difficult of all the arguments advanced against\nthe policy here suggested.\nNow what is culture ? Is it Latin or Greek, or mathematics or literature ?\nAre not all these rather the vases and receptacles of a certain essence of culture,\nbut is not our common culture something infinitely wider ? Is it not really\nthe ground-down, indistinguishable, fossil debris of all inventions and discoveries, mechanical, mental, and moral, often as indistinguishable as regarding its original elements as the ground we tread on ? In its broadest sense\nthen general culture represents the sum-total of the sociahzed results of human\nendeavors in the mechanical, mental, and moral fields.\nBut while there is a sort of general, basal culture, deep or shallow, narrow\nor broad, according to the education and upbringing of the individual, which\nis common to all and is diffused by the home, the school, or the social environment, there also emerges a special culture from the particular training that each\nreceives, be it that of the future lawyer, doctor, artist, or craftsman, that has\nits own peculiar form and significance. Such a culture is only possible when\nthe training has been an intelligent one — that is, when the recipient has reacted\non his training, and has dominated his subject instead of allowing it to dominate\nhim. In the case of the future craftsman the aim would be to produce for\ninstance trained inteUigence, not mere dexterity, and at the same time the\neducator would be careful to dovetail the special culture in with the more\ngeneral culture that the pupils receive. I contend in all seriousness that this\nspecial culture is the most precious a man can possess. It enables him to take\njoy in his life's work instead of looking on his means of livelihood as a necessary evil, as so many do today, and find their pleasures in life in such \"by-\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nLONDON\n\nproducts \" as hobbies or golf. What should we not add to the sum total of the\nhappiness and efi&ciency of a nation if we could materially increase the number\nof those who take a real interest in their work ?\nIf this ideal is realized in the vocational continuative school it should\nreform the ordinary elementary school curriculum and link up the stage of\nlearning by doing, closely to the stage of learning by heart.\nIn London, as throughout England, there are various types of continuation\ntechnical schools (day and evening). The evening school is mainly a repairing-shop for the deficiencies of the day school. The day continuation school\nseems to me to stand on a thoroughly dififerent footing. We have, of course,\ntrade schools with only a year or eighteen months' curriculum, and which\nprepare directly and prepare well for one definite type of trade. Many- trade\nschools, however, have a two-years and in some cases a three-years course.\nIn such cases it is noteworthy that when non-technical subjects have not\nappeared in the time table, there is a growing tendency to insert them. The\nmost highly developed example is perhaps the Shoreditch Institute with a\nthree-years course, to which boys are admitted between the ages of 13 and 16.\nThe school is situated in the wood-working trades district and caters to its\nvarious branches (cabinet-makers, joiners, etc.); and here, thanks to a carefully co-ordinated curriculum, boys learn the art of self-expression in wood\ninstead of words. A concrete example of an ordinary elementary school,\nwith an industrial aim, is the Gower Street Walk, where printing is taught\nsufficiently to enable boys, on leaving, to enter the trade at fourteen without\ndetriment to their general education. But London is above all a distributing\ncenter; hence, the great majority of vocational schools should have commercial as well as technical sides with a preliminary undifferentiated year — to sort\nout the boys into the category for which they are best fitted.\nA generous system of scholarships, some two thousand a year, enables the\nmost promising pupils in the elementary schools of London to be transferred\nto the secondary schools. At present, it seems to me, that in the examinations\nfor these scholarships, we put an undue premium on literary quahties. Yet,\nthere is no doubt that the artistic and constructional are equally valuable to\nmankind, and as they are the first to appear in the child, they are more easily\ntested for than the literary, which develop comparatively late. A friend of\nmine has recently, through the kindness of the headmasters and headmistresses ofseveral large schools, arranged for the conduct of a series of examinations inwhich the subjects, whether Uterary, artistic, or manual, were so grouped\nas to bring out the existence of any special literary, artistic, or constructional\nability on the part of the pupils. As might have been expected, several remarkable children were discovered by means of the artistic and constructional tests\nwhich our one-sided literary and bookish examinations w6uld have certainly\nfailed to reveal. Yet, when one realizes the immense number of trades and\ncallings for which the artistic and constructional abilities are essential one cannot help feeling we must try and reorganize our present too exclusively Uterary\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmethods of choosing the pupils as well as our too exclusively literary methods\nof training them. At present we are largely ignoring, to our peril, the possibilities ofdeveloping two-thirds of the capacity fund of the nation. There is\nstill a deal too much of natural selection in our schools except in one direction.\nThe problem of all problems for the scientific educator of the future is to organize the selection.\nThere is one very effectual way by which an excessive production of any\nparticular type of workman could be guarded against, and that is the creation\nof central local committees for the various groups of trades. Such committees\nmight contain among other representatives an equal number of delegates from\nthe employers and the trades unions in the particular trades concerned. Their\nmain functions might consist in advising on curricula, or the selection of\nteachers, as well as the granting of leaving certificates which would be recognized by the Trade. They might further assist in the formation of employment bureaus for placing out the pupils. Such a committee has already been\nformed in London under the auspices of the County Council, to deal with the\nbook-binding trade, and at the moment of writing this address, it appears that\nthe printing trades were also equally anxious for the formation of a committee,\nwhile the chairman of the subcommittee dealing with this section of the Council's work is particularly keen on seeing as wide an extension of the movement\nas possible.\nThe need of a large number of trade or vocational schools for London, and\nfor all urban districts generally, is vividly brought out by the Council's report\non apprenticeship and by Booth's Lije and Labor in London. We learn from\nthese documents that the skilled trades in London are largely recruited by\nimmigrants to the serious detriment of the London boy who is largely relegated\nto the position of the unskilled laborer. We are turning out from our schools\nin thousands today, boys with excellent moral qualities, but through the lack of\nany prehminary skilled training they too often inevitably fall into the ranks\nof the unskilled, or still worse into those parasitical forms of employment for\nwhich the worker is actually too old at 20.\nLooking very far ahead I believe that the establishment of the vocational\nschool in which employers and trade unionists would necessarily take an ever\nand increasing active interest, will possibly lead through the school acting as\na sort of selective agency, to the gradual reorganization of modem industry\non a rational scale. The industrial anarchy produced by the industrial revolution has lasted far too long. The present scramble for employment, of all\nagainst all, is really a waste of the national energies in all countries where the\nwork to be done is, though capable of expansion, more or less limited, and\nwhere some channels of employment are blocked, others, only ahead for skilled\nlabor.\nHuxley has defined the perfect school as a capacity-catching machine; he\nshould have added, I think, that it should also be capacity-developing. The\nvocational school should, if rightly organized, possess this twofold quality of\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADAPTATION\n\nTO\n\nINDUSTRY\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\ndiscovering the divers elements in the aptitude-fund of the nation and of cultivating them to their full advantage. One possible result of this organization of\nthe selection may be the re-establishment of something like the system of the\nancient Guilds, shorn of their former objectionable features, but reviving the\nlove of good workmanship with an added sense of the dignity of manual labor,\nthat will best come, if it comes at all, from the sense that training in intelligent\ncraftsmanship is a training in culture, and so is really and truly a Hberal education in itself.\n\nTHE\nANDREW\n\nADAPTATION\nS. DRAPER,\n\nOF THE SCHOOLS\nEFFICIENCY\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTO INDUSTRY\n\nAND\n\nOF THE STATE OF NEW\n\nYORK\n\nMr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen oj the National Education Association^\nand, incidentally hut particularly, you, my long-time jriends of the Cleveland public schools:\nThe honor of a summons to address this association, so completely representative ofAmerican schools, so great in its history, so wide in its influence, is\naccompanied by an obligation which one may well accept with hesitation and\napproach with humility. And when the subject assigned is one which has the\nattention of the nation and looks to the decisive re-forming of the schools, and\nparticularly when it is one which lends itself to the round-table much better\nthan to the general assembly, and, more particularly still, when you evince such\na decided preference for song and violin as you have tonight, one must bespeak\nyour consideration if he does not fall upon his knees and plead for your patience.\nWe are within the territory which the first great moral act of the Republic,\nlooking to the upbuilding of the nation, in words as solemn as any a statute\ncould employ, dedicated to freedom, to virtue, and to learning forever. We\nare met at the very heart of the ** Reserve\" where New England and New York\npioneers, as sincere and forceful men and women as ever came out of the mass\nto seek opportunity and advance civilization, in prayer and act even more\nmeaningful than an ordinance of congress, dedicated themselves and their\nposterity to the propositions that men and women are created with equality\nof moral and intellectual, as well as of legal right; that government is a common need and a common good when moved by moral sense; and that government for any other end than the moral good of the governed deserves the\nenmity, rather than the adhesion, of men. We are met in a great, busy,\nprosperous city, which has never given over its moral sense, which has always\nbeen alert about its freedom, and which has therefore never been indififerent\nabout its schools.\nAnd, while I well know that not a very large number will understand it,\nI am glad to feel assured that there are still some good people in this great\nthrobbing city, and not a few fine teachers in its excellent schools, who will\nbelieve that grateful memories and fruitful recollections crowd to the fore as I\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlook over this radiant assembly and offer another word about\nwhich this association and this city hold to be of first concern.\nA\n\nMESSAGE\n\nFROM\n\n[General\n\nthe things\n\nENGLAND\n\nWe have just had an illuminating message from an accomplished officer\nof the English schools. His distinguished service to education, our undimmed\nrecollections of the inspiring address he gave us seven years ago, and his resultful work since then in relating schools to industries, have led us to insist that he\ncross the sea again and speak to us once more upon the subject which is claiming the first attention of our people and our schools. His message is timely\nbecause it comes out of the full information and the sagacious outlook of a\nman who has put his own country and our country under obligations to him:\nit is more helpful than it otherwise would be because it comes out of the life of\na mighty people, whose established habits of industry, whose sane and steady\nthinking, and whose unbending passion for freedom and for right, have given\npoint and force to their influence upon every sea and in every land.\nHis message is none the less instructive because our national temperaments\nand political philosophies are at some points divergent, and because our dissimilarity of industrial conditions makes it impossible to adopt it in every detail.\nIt will be even more instructive if we are able to associate the universality of\nfundamental principles with inevitable national differences in political and\nmaterial situations. It would be as fatal for us to assume that a scheme of\nschool organization or a plan of procedure which is adapted to one country\nmust be adapted to another, as it would be to refuse to believe that the universal\nlaws of sense, and the universal gospel of work are as binding upon one people\nas upon another.\nHalf a dozen years ago it was my pleasure to show another distinguished\nofficer of the English schools about one of our American free universities. We\nwandered through offices, and classrooms, and laboratories, and libraries, and\nshops, and gymnasiums, and then we drove through long avenues of shade\ntrees, until he asked me to stop that he might look about and get a comprehensive view of the whole at once. As it all gathered in his mind he said,\n\"And do you say that all this is free to all the people, and supported by selfimposed taxes upon all the people?\" '* Yes,\" I said, \"and it is the tax which\nis voted without dissent, and of which one never hears.\" He raised his\nface and hand, in expression more significant than his words, when he said,\n\"There is nothing like it in human history. \"\nEven true, it was not all of the truth. One must have an eye quickened\nby the American spirit and clarified by American history to see at once all the\nparts of the educational temple of which that university is but one gem in a\nresplendent crown. No other eye can take in at a glance the universal systems\nof primary, and secondary, and collegiate, and professional schools, associated\nin an educational plan of unprecedented symmetry, closeness, and completeness, which affords to all the equal chance declared in our laws and enshrined\nin the hearts of all true Americans.\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nADAPTATION\n\nTO\n\nINDUSTRY\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOther peoples do many things better than we do. In some directions their\nschools are more definite and efficient than ours. It is surely so with the simple\nschools for the peasant people. But there are no peasants in America. No\nother nation grasps the doctrine of all education for all the people as we\ndo. We will never let go of that. It is the hope and the heritage of the\nnation. It is the boon which our democracy holds out to the honest, the\nambitious, and the oppressed, in all the world.\nIt creates difficulties, and we must admit them. All education for all the\npeople has been self-expansive and has come to be expressed in new ways with\nthe advancement of the nation. We all know how situations and needs change\nin America. Plans laid yesterday have to be modified today. And remedy\ncan not follow upon need as quickly in a country where conclusions must be\nreached through popular discussion, and opinion must crystallize in free legislation, asin a country where a few do the most of the thinking and a minister\nor a cabinet exercises the political power for all of the rest.\nMy friend who has preceded me will not imagine that I am so unmindful\nof English history as to assume that Britain is a nation where a few men do the\nthinking and exercise the power for all of the rest. She settled that at Runnymede and again at Naseby, and Dunbar, and Marston Moor, and more than\nonce on Tower Hill. She not only settled it for herself but for us. And since\nEngland's best writer of history, in the best history of the American Revolution\nthat has been written, says that American heroism saved English freedom, my\nEnglish friend will not mind if I say that we settled the question, for England\nas well as for ourselves, at Saratoga and at Trenton and at Yorktown, and then\nat Plattsburgh and again at New Orleans, and many times by the gallantry of\na little navy upon the high seas. The proudest jewel in England's crown\ndoubtless is that we learned so well the great lessons which her statesmen and\nheroes taught us and then supplemented them with some experiences and some\nindependence of our own. All the stars upon our flag are the brighter because\nwe have defended our democracy and our security so well. The foundations\nand the buttresses of law are as firmly laid in America as in Britain, and they\nare no better grounded in any land. We are as sensitive about the learning and\nthe independence of the courts as are the peoj^le who look up with keenest\npride to the red cross of Saint George — and more than that can not be claimed\nin any land.\nEngland has always set us a fine example of industry. She has not juggled\nwith opportuneness so much as we have, perhaps because she has had less\ndisposition to juggle, and less opportuneness to juggle with. Democracy,\nopportunities, and optimism have to be reckoned with in America: they often\ncause us to be misunderstood in England.\nWhether or not we have a fateful craze for wealth, we hold in special honor\nriches justly gained and sanely used. Our adventurers and our weaklings\ngamble much upon the unlimited chances which the conditions present; a few\n\nwin; the greater number go to ''the deeps that are dumb. \"\n\nBut the country\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nis not all adventurer or weakling. The overwhelming sentiment is sane, and\nsound, and strong. We believe in capacity more than in chance, and in work\nmore than in opportunity. We put manhood above either riches or poverty.\nWe know that labor, and skill, and prudence, and steadiness, rather than great\nwealth, make the reliable character and the substantial citizen, and that these\nspring in the largest numbers and in the most virile type out of all education\nfor thfe laborer just as much as for the millionaire, and for the commoner just\nas much as for the prince.\nBritain has something of that to learn, and so with her constitutionalism\nand with the unfettered intellectual freedom of the Saxon race she has educational difficulties as well as we. If the mother country has fewer new situations\nto deal with, she seems to have greater difficulty about the principles which will\nhave to be applied to all situations. The fact that her situations do not change\nso often is offset by the other fact that her more settled political and social\norganization yields less easily to the inevitable advance of the common people :\nand perhaps it is more than offset by the further fact that her statesmen are\nnot quite as responsive to the democratic advance as ours, and that she does\nnot change statesmen as, often nor as easily a^ we. But we will both console\nourselves with the reflection that educational troubles are the proof of educational energy and the assurance of educational progress ; and we will be happy\nin the oneness of purpose which enables us to balance one another and quicken\neducation in all the vast domains where the people understand the English\ntongue.\nLACK\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIALISM\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAmericans are as free in their right of censure as in any other of their freedoms. The elementary schools are every^'here, and often they find themselves\nwithin the intellectual limitations of senseless criticism. The loosening obHgations of domestic duty and the very weaknesses of the schools have produced\nan undue supply of people of superficial culture and of \"professionals\" without\nemployment; and the universal interest in education makes it quite possible\nfor these to occupy themselves and perhaps gain a little standing by endless\npropositions about the schools^. There is evidence enough that they are not\nslow to take advantage of it. The factors which these people have added and\nwould add to the schools are the essential cause of a widespread difficulty to\nwhich it is high time that we address ourselves with determination and with\nforce.\nWhen but one-third of the children remain to the end of the elementary\ncourse in a country where education is such a universal passion, there is something the matter with the schools. When half of the men who are responsible\nfor the business activities and who are guiding the political life of the country\ntell us that children from the elementary schools are not able to do definite\nthings required in the world's real affairs, there is something the matter with\nthe schools. When work seeks workers, and young men and women are indif-\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADAPTATION\n\nTO\n\nINDUSTRY\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n60\n\nferent to it or do not know how to do it, there is something the matter with the\nschools.\nThe length of the school period and the productive value of the citizen are\nclosely related. Industrialism is the great basis of a nation's true strength and\nreal culture. Knowing this we have seen that there is not sufficient articulation\nbetween the educational and the industrial systems of the country. We have\nseen the indefinite expansion of instruction and the unlimited multiplication of\nappliances leading to literary, and professional, and managing occupations,\nwithout any real solicitude about the vital industrial foundations of the nation's\nhappiness and power. A situation manifestly unjust to the greater number,\neven unjust to those for whom it has done the most, has resulted. Notwithstanding our boasted universality of educational opportunity, there has grown\nup an absurd hiatus in the educational system, which denies the just rights of\nthe wage-earning masses and grievously menaces the industrial efficiency and\nthe material prosperity of the country.\nThe overwhelming trend of the programs of the schools and of the influences of the teachers, acting upon our national temperament and aspirations,\nhas led an undue proportion of youth to literary and scientific study which too\noften ends either in idleness and insipidity, or in professional or managing\noccupations for which they are not well prepared and which are ahready overcrowded.\nNor is the inevitable disappointment the worst of it. There is a glare, a\ngamble, and a subtlety about it which is demoralizing to all youth. In the\nmarvelous advance and by some legerdemain, men get to be generals who have\nnever been captains, and overseers who have never been workmen. That\naffronts the sense of the country. We believe in the natural order of progress.\nWhile we hold that any one may aspire to any place, we hold also that he must\nwin it, not by pretense, nor by subtlety, nor by favor, but through the work\nwhich leads to it, and by the gradual accretion of the substantial qualities\nwhich are the only true basis of his right to it. We care very little what the\nwork is. We say that one who may work and will not work is not to be\ntaken seriously. We have more love for a forceful corporal than for an insipid colonel. We say that the only way to proficiency and the only claim\nupon respect, come through the reflex influence of much work upon the\nworker. We believe that one whose labor, either mental or manual, adds\nto the power and the assets of the world, has a wealth and a joy of his own to\nwhich the idler, no matter how rich, has no claim whatsoever.\nI am aware that I am on sensitive ground and may be misunderstood, but\nI am confident that if I can make myself clear I shall be sustained by the substantial sentiment of the country. I am not urging manual as against intellectual labor, any more than intellectual as against manual labor. I am not\nsaying that one should remain in the \"class\" in which he was bom, for I know\nnothing of \"classes\" in America and I do not admit that any one in this country\nis ever bom in a \"class. \" Work makes the worker. The willing workman,\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwhatever his poverty or his work, is likely to be a better citizen and a better\nman than the willing idler, whatever his riches or his superficial accomplishments. Itis not a matter of ''class\" at all, but of the adaptation of men and\nwomen in general to the work which they can do best. I am not treating of\nexceptional cases, but surely I am not discouraging those of exceptional gifts,\nfor all experience proves that the exceptional and the great have at first been\ninured to the severe labor which was at hand and that that very fact opened\nthe door of opportunity, pointed the way to the thing which they could do best,\nand seasoned them for the doing of it. It is a matter of efficiency, and therefore\nof happiness and growth, in occupation. What I am urging is that the schools\nmust keep abreast, now and in time to come, as they have been doing in time\npast, with the natural outworking of our democracy; that they shall not be\nexclusive in any sense, but must be no less cortcemed about industrial than\nabout intellectual education. It is because I believe as ardently as I do in the\nopen chance for every American child, that I say that the implications and the\ninfluences of the schools must not lead boys who might become excellent\ncabinet-makers into being no-account lawyers, and girls who might be firstclass breadmakers or dressmakers into being fourth-class music teachers.\nThe best chance of every one is through the thing that he can do best, and while\nthe schools are to inspire and encourage him, they may well be on their guard\nlest in misguided enthusiasm of their own they turn him from the course which\nis likely to be the best for him.\nAll education must be provided in American schools, but conclusions about\nlife occupations are not to be forced — not even by implications. Determinations are to be left to natural inclinations and to the fates which are kindly to\nthose who have real inclination to actual work of any kind.\nAll this leads us to see that the school system has grown deformed: it is\none-sided and not broad enough at the base. The trouble is not that the higher\ninstitutions have grown abnormally. They are doing what colleges and universities ought to do. They are not doing what they ought not to do. Free\nuniversities have become the finest expression of the souls of great states, and\nthey are beginning to be the best expression of the souls of great cities, in all\nparts of the country. Nor is the difficulty in the secondary schools, although\nthey are affected by it. The ailment is in the elementary schools.\nV^ASTE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOur elementary schools train for no industrial employments. They lead\nto nothing but the secondary school, which in turn leads to the college, the\nuniversity, and the professional school, and so very exclusively to professional\nand managing occupations. One who goes out of the school system before the\nend or at the end of the elementary course is not only unprepared for any vocation which will be open to him, but too commonly he is without that intellectual\ntraining which should make him eager for opportunity and incite him to the\nutmost effort to do just afe well as he can whatever may open to him.\nHe goes\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nADAPTATION\n\nTO\n\nINDUSTRY\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nwithout respect for the manual industries, where he might find work if he could\ndo it. He is without the simple preparation necessary to definite work in an\noffice or a store. He is neither clear about his English, nor certain about his\nfigures. Parents often take their children from the elementary school before\nthe end of the course, not only because they can not comprehend much that\nis being done, but because they feel that their children will not have more\nearning capacity for the work which they must expect to do if they stay than if\nthey go.\nThe programs in the elementary schools are overloaded, and the teachers\nare overtaxed. The terms have become too short and the vacations too long\nin the interest of teachers who are often overworked by schools that are too\nlarge and by programs that are too crowded and complex. But that is not the\nworst. There is too much pedagogy and too little teaching. There is too\nmuch artificial, and superficial, and therefore false, culture, and too little of\nthe only thing that makes true culture. There are too many classes, too many\nbooks, too many visionary appliances. The teachers are forced into fanciful\nspeculation and airy methods in order to be thought at the fore of pedagogical\nprogress. They are pedagogical and psychological wretches who seem to\nthink that they can experiment upon children as physiologists and bacteriologists practice upon guinea pigs, and that without any equivalent basis of\nscientific knowledge. The result upon the child is confused conceit rather\nthan mental clarity, and a little information about everything rather than\nexact efficiency in any definite thing. The Germans surpass us in exactness\nand in the habit of taking care. There is lack of concentration and drill upon\nany one thing until it is mastered, and therefore there is little exultation over\naccomplishment, small inspiration to new undertakings, and a dearth of either\ninformation or power that is permanently retained. It wearies the teacher\nand mystifies the child; it confounds the father and mother and deprives the\nschool of the intelligent co-operation of the home.\nEven that is not all. We are more prodigal of the lives of children than is\nany other constitutional nation upon the globe. We let them commence\nschool late and come irregularly and loiter along through a confused course\nat their pleasure or discomfiture, as you please. Between subordinating our\nelementary schools to the requirements for admission to a literary high school,\nand the indifference of legislators and petty magistrates about making and\nenforcing attendance laws, we are doing a great wrong to millions of children,\nwe show a larger percentage of illiteracy than other favored nations and we\nwithhold the support which the schools are bound to give to the strength and\ncharacter of the Repuljlic.\nEverybody sees the results but not many appreciate the reason; the root\nof the trouble is not where the uninitiated are looking for it. It is not, for\nexample, with what the editorial writers call the \"fads and frills.\" Drawing,\nbasketry, modeling, sloyd, joinery, cooking, and sewing, for an hour or two\nThey afford relaxation, open the way for\neach week, impose no burden.\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhealthful comradeship and rivalry, supply motive, and lay a little of the groundwork for happy lives, by looking towards both the manual and mental efi5ciency\nso sorely needed. But we do not lay the first courses in the building with\nsufficient exactness and strength to enable our young men and women to erect\neither successful professional or successful industrial lives upon them. Good\nhousewifery and good craftsmanship are not forging ahead. The bakeshop\nis a menace to stomachs and to homes. The woman who can not bake a light\nloaf of bread, or broil a steak and keep the juices in it, or happily employ her\nodd moments with a needle, may be a very charming institution; she may keep\nus posted about the new novels and the opera; she may amply make up for\nshortcomings by teaching school; but she is an inefficient home maker, and\nit is not given to many to make up for that. The lack of housekeepers is as\nserious as the dearth of mechanics, and whatever the schools have done to\ncorrect the trouble, in either case, has been but little and it has not been a\nwaste of time. The only legitimate criticism upon it is that there has not been\nenough of it, nor enough definiteness about it, to make sure of results. If more\nof the time of the schools were given to these things, with a stem eye to efficiency; and if there were less waste of time in connection with books, we would\nsoon see a new and a more golden epoch in American education and in\nAmerican life.\nThe things that are weighing down the schools are the multiplicity of\nstudies which are only informatory, the prolongation of branches so as to require\nmany textbooks, and the prolixity of treatment and illustration which will\naccommodate psychological theory and sustain pedagogical methods which\nhave some basis of reason but which have been most ingeniously overdone.\nI have no right to say this without more definiteness, even though it tax\nyour patience. There is a waste of time and productivity in all of the grades\nof the elementary schools. If a school is to be graded, then a grade should\nmean something. A child is worse off in a graded school than in an ungraded\none, if the work of a grade is not capable of some specific valuation, and if\neach added grade does not provide some added power. The first two grades\nrun much to entertainment and amusement. The third and fourth grades\nrepeat the work supposed to have been done in the first two. Too many\nunimportant and unrelated facts are taught. It is like the wearying orator\nwho reels off stories only to amuse, seems incapable of choosing an incident to\nenforce a point, and makes no progress toward a logical conclusion. The early\ngrades constitute the period of imitation, and the work should be mainly drill\nbased on memory and imitation. It is not the period of much thinking; it\nrequires such drill as will result in exact knowledge of the rudiments when the\ntime for using them really comes. Thought should not be much expected in\nthese grades. The reading should be for the quick recognition of the word\nand the proper expression of it, rather than to germinate thought. When\nthinking is possible and normal, the time to encourage it has arrived. Then\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADAPTATION\n\nTO\n\nINDUSTRY\n■\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n/o\n\nit is done too slowly. The work of the first four grades is too much\nextended\nand that of the last four is not commenced early enough.\n'\nLet us illustrate: The backbone of our elementary work\nshould be the\nEnglish language; not language lessons learned and recited\n, but a\nsive knowledge of grammatical analysis, much reading for the pleasurprogrese there\nis in it, and a use of the language in accurate and forceful statement.\nIf this\nis really the point, it will be seen how much of what we are now doing\nmay\nbe\nomitted. There is much in our elementary mathematics that is\nof little value\nas mental discipline and of little use in life. In the lower grades\nthe pupils\nshould be made ''letter perfect\" in the tables and the fundamental\nes\nThis perfect knowledge will, a little later, master fractions, decimals, process\nand percentage, which are the same things in different forms. The rest in the books\nis of little value except in particular employments which few of the pupils will\never enter. There is too much geography in present courses, and much is\ngone over again and again. Only the relations of the great natural and political divisions of land and water, the location of the great centers of population,\nwith more of the details of one's own state, need find an early place in the\nschools. The rest is unremunerative to small children and they will get it in\na few minutes by and by if it ever becomes necessary for them to know it. In\nphysiology we are trying much which only a physician can understand, and\nwhich there is no present call for the child to know, and we are doing it badly\nand using the time wastefuUy. We reach after too much mere information\nin the lower grades, and in the later ones we are not up with the normal powers\nof the healthy child. And the full and proper exercise of the intellectual as of\nthe physical powers is the essential condition of mental health.\nThe larger part of this waste, as it seems to me, is due to two very plausible\nand very baneful doctrines which have pretty nearly taken possession of the\nschools in the last quarter-century. Their disciples have been sincere enough\nand I have nothing in the world against them except a radical difference of\nopinion. Sometimes their theories have been presented attractively enough\nto carry associations of teachers into pedagogical ecstatics and hysteria. Those\ntheories have had enough learning and truth to make them dangerous, and not\nenough to make them potential. I refer to the unsubstantial and delusive\ntheories about speculative psychology, and the cure for aU educational ailments\nwhich is falsely called \"culture.\"\nI am far from saying that psychology, or deduction, or imagination, or\nsentiment, has no place in a system of education. Each has a large place\nwhere sense is free to ridicule its excesses and science may impose limitations\nupon its license. I am far from being indifferent to the forms and accomplishments of polite society; but mere manners may be only boorishness and brutality refined, or insipidity but little disguised. Culture worth seeking, in or\nout of the schools, must come from labor upon things worth doing, and from\nthe influence of the power to do and the pleasure of real accomplishment upon\nthe soul of the one who does. The external forms of culture do not make\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n74\nreal men and women, but enough work, and true teachers, and a healthful\nand attractive environment are more than likely to start boys and girls on the\nroad to culture worth the having.\nThere are people who worship theory as though it were greater than life,\nand culture as though it were something to be put on like a jacket instead of\nthe refining of the soul through the labor and the experiences of life. Emotion, and ecstacy, and affectation, are made to do duty for sincerity and power,\nand for religion and patriotism, too. These people ignore the culturing value\nof labor, and of deprivation, and of sorrow. They are flippant about the Bible\nwithout feeling its inspirations or studying its translations. They are not\nmuch stirred by the flag, for they know little of the heroism that has reddened\nso many stripes, and they feel little of the aspiration that is emblazoned in every\nstar. Mind you, it is not said that these people are the rich. Quite as often\nthey are people who make ''culture\" do duty for riches. Frequently they are\npeople who have gained wealth faster than they can assimilate it. Whoever\nthey are, they should no longer be permitted to tear out the substantial underpinnings ofthe schools.\nThese things are said only in explanation of the difficulties and in hope of\nfinding a remedy for the troubles of the elerhentary schools. Whatever the\nexplanation, the difficulty is manifest and the need of remedy is imperative. We must know what children of school age there are in a state,\nand where they are when the schools are open. We must stand for simpHfying the course and shortening the time of the elementary schools, and for making their teaching of more definite worth. We must try very hard to have the\nchild able to do some definite thing, no matter at what age we lose him.\nWe must'organize an entirely new system of general industrial and trades\nschools which will make it worth while for all children to remain in school; and\nwhich will provide for the children of the masses, and for the great manufacturing and constructive industries, something of an equivalent for what we are\ndoing for the children of the more well-to-do and for the professional interests\nand the managing activities of the country.\nFACTORY\n\nAND\n\nTRADES\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIt is time to organize a wholly new order of schools as a part of the public\nschool system. We may separate the new order into two general classes. One\nclass may train all-round mechanics for work in factories, where workmen act\nin co-operation, where each is part of an organization, and where much machinery is used, and these may be called factory schools. The other class may\ntrain mechanics who work independently, mainly with their own tools, and\nwithout much machinery, and these may be called trades schools.\nWe say ''a new order of schools\" because the new schools ought to be\nsharply distinguished from any schools that are now known in America. They\nought to be wholly apart from the manual training schools. They will have\na distinct individuality and a definite object of their own.\nThey are neither,\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nADAPTATION\n\nTO\n\nINDUSTRY\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nprimarily, to quicken mentality nor to develop culture: those things\nwill come\nin the regular order. The ''culturists\" are not to appropriate\nthese new\nschools. They are not to train mechanical or electrical engineers;\nthe literary\nand technical schools are doing that very amply. They are not even\nto develop\nforemen: leaders will develop themselves for they wiU forge ahead\nof their\nfellows by reason of their own ability, assiduity, and force. The new schools\nare to contain nothing which naturally leads away from the shop. They\nare\nto train workmen to do better work that they may earn more bread and butter.\nA tentative plan would make these new schools more shoppish than schoolish; put them in plain but large buildings, sometimes using idle factories of\nwhich many cities have a supply; use books somewhat, but make reading subordinate tomanual work; refuse to permit our charming friends, who write\nand print and sell books, to inflate these schools, as they have the elementary\nschools to the bursting point ; put them in charge of craftsmen who can teach,\nrather than of teachers who are primitive mechanics; keep them open day and\nevening; make the instruction largely individual; adjust them to the needs\nof those who must work a part of the time at least in order to earn a living;\nand make them for boys and girls and men and women, and of every kind\nand description which may be necessary to meet the demands of the local factories and trades.\nThese schools will have to be an integral part of the public school system,\nfor the double reason that they can not be successful without articulating with\nthat system and that they will not be accepted either by capital or organized\nlabor without standing upon a legal footing which is independent of both and\nfair between them. It may as well be said at once that any school teaching\na definite trade will fail without the sympathy of both the capital and the organized workmen engaged in that trade. They can not be expected to support\nit, if it can be used in favor of another interest and so arrayed against their own.\nCapital will take care of itself under economic laws that are well understood.\nIf it can not venture with reasonable expectation of profit, it will retreat; but\nit will exist. Capital has a strong enough motive for activity in the hope of\nprofits, but labor has a stronger one in the need of bread. In this country it is\nnot in the nature of either to brook injustice, and the needs of each make it\nunnecessary that the other do so. In the last analysis each will have to square\nwith the plan that stands fair, that encourages capital to provide labor for\nworkmen by protecting all of the just rights of capital, and that encourages\nthe man to make the most of himself by assuring all of his just rights in his\nindividual industry and skill.\nThat is an American plan and it ought to prevail. It is the only one which\nholds out the equal chance to every one. Such a plan can not in the nature\nof things be left to private enterprise. It can not be dominated by any forces\nwhich are in the least exclusive. American workmen are not willing to depend\nupon philanthropy. They will not widely accept the training schools set up\nThey are entitled to the same or equivaby the manufacturing corporations.\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlent rights as those which are already granted to the professional and employing\nclasses. They know that, and will exact what belongs to them. Whatever\nis done they want done so completely as to command the respect of the best\nskill. They will tolerate no false pretence about mechanical skill, but they\nwill be glad to shorten the time in which their boys may become real journeymen. In any event, they know very well, at least their leaders do, that when\nthese things are so they will have to accept them. All this can come in no other\nway than upon the basis of, and in association with, the public schools.\nThe new schools can not displace, nor half displace, the common elementary\nschool. They will have to follow and supplement it. The reason is both in\neducational necessity and in the likes and the needs of the people. But it is\nquite possible that the compulsory attendance age, in cities at least, may be\nso extended as to cover the time of these industrial schools. Easily so if the\nelementary course can be shortened or children can be brought to the end\nof it earlier than they are. The law should see that a child is either in school\nor at work up to his seventeenth or eighteenth year.\nHow far we can succeed in establishing these purely industrial schools is,\nof course, problematic. Cities and towns will have to be encouraged by liberal\nstate support. No trades schools have ever been successful without government aid. The experiences of other lands — and there have been rich experiences in other lands — ^will have to become well known among our people. In\nany event, it is certain that the extent to which the movement takes hold upon\nour life seems to be filled with a significance to which no intelligent American\ncan remain indifferent.\nRE-FORMING\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nIt remains for me to suggest, as briefly as I may, the location and relation*? '\nof these new schools in and to the public school system, and the extent of the\nre-forming which will be incident to their admission.\nIt is proposed to reduce the compulsory attendance age to seven years in\ncities and towns, and to take definite measures for a far more complete and\nregular attendance; to lengthen the term and lighten the work; to simplify the\ncourses and to give them a more industrial and efiScient trend through the\nsimple forms of hand work, such as paper cutting and folding, moulding in\nsand and clay, plain knife and needle work, and the like, which can be done in\nthe regular schoolrooms from the very beginning of the primary grades ; and\nto push children along so that they will at all times have work which appeals to\ntheir years, and will complete the present work up to the end of the sixth grade\nat an earlier age than now. If the present eight grades can be shortened by\none or two grades and a year or two of time, so much the better.\nAt the end of the present sixth grade it is proposed to have the system begin\nto separate into three very distinct branches. The larger part of the work of\nthe present seventh and eighth grades would be uniform, but some differentiation, looking to very complete separation, would begin with the present\nseventh grade.\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADAPTATION\n\nTO\n\nINDUSTRY\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nThe three distinct classes of schools to follow the elementary schools would\nbe first, the present high-school system, which would be somewhat relieved\nbecause of the new arrangement; second, business schools looking to work in\noffices, stores, etc. ; and third, factory and trades schools looking to the training\nof workmen.\nWith the work of the present seventh grade there might be commenced\nsome study of modern foreign languages by pupils destined for the literary and\nclassical high schools; some special commercial subjects by pupils destined\nfor the advanced business schools; and some special training at benches with\ntools, and in the household and domestic arts, for those who are to stop with\nthe elementary schools or are to go to the factory schools or trades schools.\nAt least half of the teachers in the seventh and eighth grades should be men;\nand these grades may well be housed in central and specially prepared rooms.\nWe might hope to economize the time and increase the efficiency and productivity through the grammar grades to such an extent that a part of the\ncompulsory school life of the child would remain at the end of the eighth grade;\nand we might also hope that there would be schools beyond the eighth grade\nwhich would be able to so increase the earning power of the child, no matter\nwhat his life work should be, that it would be clearly to his interest to remain\nin school. Then as he approaches what is now the seventh grade, he and his\nteachers and parents would begin to think of the work he is ultimately to do,\nand by the time he is through the elementary course he would find abundant\nopportunity and have some enthusiasm for a school which may exactly qualify\nhim for that work, no matter whether it is professional, or in business activities,\nor in purely industrial lines.\nCONCLUSION\n\nWe can discuss the subject no longer tonight. The sure basis of a nation^s\nstrength is in industry as much as in intellect, and in skill as much as in\nresources. The assurance of a nation's greatness is in the equipoise of mental\nand manual activities. We do well to open treasure-houses of higher and\nliberal learning, but they will avail little if we permit inefficient primary schools\nand if we turn away from the labor of the hand. We do well to conserve\nmaterial resources, but it will not count for much unless we conserve the time\nof boys and girls and enlarge the efficiency and versatility of the craftsmanship\nwhich must convert resources into merchantable goods. It is idle to pursue a\ncourse which is destructive of the equilibrium of the common life and ignores\nthe decisive influence of work upon the worker. Heads and hands and hearts,\nacting together, are larger factors than Wood and iron and water in the economic\nproblems of the world, and they are infinitely larger factors in the moral, and\nconstitutional, and international, and eternal problems of men and women.\nWe can not escape the fact that the elementary schools are wasting time,\nand that the lack of balance in the educational system is menacing the balance\nof the country. Children, schools, and country are being ground out bet^^'een\nfanciful and conflicting educational theories. The demand that there shall be\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nless mystery and exploitation, less prolixity and parade, that the programs\nof the schools shall be more rational and the work of the teachers shall fit children for definite duties with more exactness, is heard on every side.\nIt does not mean that we must give over the work which goes to literary\naccomplishment, or art sense, or refined manners, or professional equipment,\nor scientific learning of whatsoever kind. It does mean that the equilibrium\nbetween intellectuals and industrials is being lost and must be restored. It\ndoes mean that children are being misdirected into misfits and that it must\ncease. It means more concern for life, increased productivity in the elementary\nschools, and, incidentally, more rational courses in the secondary schools.\nIt is not for a great national association of teachers to dodge nor to deny a\npalpable difficulty in the schools. The fault is no more inside than outside\nof the schools. It is the product of our political freedom, of our quick temperament and universal ambitions, of our aptness in making and acting upon\npropositions, of our tendency to do everything at once, of our bad habit of not\ntaking care, and of the toleration and good nature which allow people to try\nout at the common cost any philosophy that the brightest and wildest imaginations inthe world may bring forth. In a way it is creditable to us. We would\nrather be all that we are than be without the open chance and without the\ncommon alertness. But it is for the National Education Association to recognize difiiculties and meet them. We may not all see just how to do it tonight\nbut we will find the way tomorrow. And no matter what we do, the glorious\noptimism of the nation will rise to greet the morning sun with an eye as clear\nand a soul as confident as ever.\nPROPOSED\nCHARLES\n\nR.\n\nWORK\nVAN\n\nHISE,\n\nOF COMMISSION FOR CONSERVATION\nNATIONAL RESOURCES\nPRESIDENT\nMEMBER\n\nSTATE\nUNIVERSITY\nOF COMMISSION\n\nOF\n\nWISCONSIN,\n\nOF\nAND\n\nLadws and Gentlemen:\nOn May 13 of this year the President of the United States gave an epochmaking address in the East Room of the White House. At his right were the\nmembers of the Cabinet, at his left were the justices of the Supreme Court.\nBefore him were the members of both branches of Congress, the governors\nof all but two states of the union, their scientific advisers, and a representative\neach of all the great national associations. Probably never before was there\ngathered together a more representativ^e audience. Upon this historic occasion\nthe speech of President Roosevelt was upon the subject, \"The Conservation\nof our National Resources.\"\nFor a generation nearly the voice of the scientist has been heard at their\nassociation meetings upon this subject, but his voice has been a voice in the\nwilderness. Now through the instrumentality of President Roosevelt, the\nvoice of conservation has become the voice of the nation.\nThere may be differences of opinion with reference to the services of the\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCOMMISSION\n\nFOR\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nOF RESOURCES\n\nPresident upon various political matters. There is, as we know, indeed great\ndifference of opinion. But there can be no difference of opinion among thinking men as to his service to the nation in this matter of the conservation of our\nresources. When he took the office of President, our timber, our minerals, our\ncoal, for all in the eastern part of the United States, for all the central part\nhad passed into private hands. A beginning had been made of the reservation\nof the forests of the West before President Roosevelt's time, but during his\nadministration practically all of the great forests of the West which still\nremained have been withdrawn from public entry and remain the property\nof the nation. Not only so, but the mineral fuel also is no longer subject to\nentry but remains subject to the nation. And now following these tA\\'o great\nacts he has taken up the question with Congress, with the governors, with the\npeople, as to the conservation of all our resources, both those in public and\nthose in private hands. I believe that the work which the President has done\nin this matter will among future generations mark him as not only one of the\ngreatest statesmen of this nation, but one of the greatest statesmen of any\nnation of any time.\nAt this Conference upon the National Resources, May 13 to 15, a series\nof notable addresses were given. Andrew Carnegie spoke upon the \"Conservation ofthe Mineral Resources.\" Mr. James J. Hill and Professor\nChamberlin spoke on the \"Conservation of the Soil.\" I. C. White, state\ngeologist of West Virginia, spoke on the \"Conservation of the Coal and Oil\nResources.\" Mr. Long spoke on \"Forest Conservation;\" Governor Pardee,\nof California, on \"Irrigation,\" and Emory R. Johnson spoke on the \"Waterways.\" These addresses were discussed by the governors and their scientific\nadvisers.\nIt is impossible in a twenty-minute talk to attempt to summarize the\npoints which were made in these addresses, which extended through a period\nof three days. Only a few of the most notable facts can be mentioned. It was\nclearly developed as a result of those three days' discussions, that we in the\nlast half of the nineteenth century have drawn more heavily upon our resources\nof coal and iron than all previous generations. It was shown that the forests\nwhich were said to be inexhaustible are far toward exhaustion throughout the\neastern and central part of the United States; and the only great forest supplies\nwhich remain to us untouched are those of the Pacific States, California\nOregon, and Washington. Fortunately, through the intervention of the President, these are permanently conserved to the nation. It was shown that our\nsoils in the eastern and central part of the United States had become depleted\nin their fertility. A century ago North Carolina was one of the greatest agricultural states of the Union; now a large part of its acreage has been converted into bad lands or has been covered again by the forests. The New\nEngland states. New York and the other central states, instead of increasing\nin their land values are decreasing; and in the state of Ohio the fall of land\nvalues in the last twenty years was more than fifty millions of dollars. Of all our\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nresources the soil is the most fundamental. Upon the soil we depend for our\nfood and clothing, and although we have occupied the larger portion of this\ncountry less than a century, a large part of the area is depleted in its richness.\nAnd what is one century compared with our hopes for the future life of this\nnation ? This great depletion in richness has been due to single cropping, to unscientific farming, combined with erosion of the streams, so that the lands of\nthe East instead of becoming more fertile have steadily become less fertile, and\nare yielding a smaller crop than they did a half century ago. Our children may\ncomplain of our political mistakes; they may complain of the problems which\nare put upon them as the result of our inexperience in social matters; but that\nwill be as nothing as compared with the blame that they will lay upon this\ngeneration for their wanton extravagance in using our natural resources. We\nhave been using the heritage of our children and our children's children as if\nour supplies of natural resources were inexhaustible, whereas every one of them\nis exhaustible. Iron is limited in amount, and should be drawn upon as\ncarefully as a bank account.\nIt took millions of years of labor of earth and sun to manufacture our\nnatural resources. They are the inalienable heritage of our people and not\nof a chosen few. Under our laws we have largely intrusted them to the\ncare of great corporations. These corporations must so administer their\ntrusts that the people shall possess their heritage. By this I do not mean to\nsuggest that the corporations now controlling these properties should be\nwronged, but they should understand that they are in the position of trustees\nwith reference to these great sources of wealth; and if they do not willingly\nadminister them to the advantage of the people, the nation and the states not\nonly ought to, but will prescribe regulations necessary to accomplish this; even\nif such regulations go to the point of fixing the price of labor and of output.\nMr. William J. Bryan in summarizing the results of The White House\nconference in a notable address said, ** There is no twilight zone between the\nnation and the states where exploiting interests may take refuge from both. \"\nThe conference produced a deep impression upon all those who attended\nit. The Committee upon Resolutions drew up a strong series which were\nunanimously adopted, covering many points of transcendent importance in\nthe conservation of the natural resources of the nation. In this report it was\npointed out that there is a close correlation between the conservation of\none resource and that of another. If the forests are conserved, the streams\nwill have equal flow; they will be available for navigation; they will give\nthe highest efficiency for water powder; the lowlands will not be inundated; and thus the preservation of the forests will assist in many ways\nthe usefulness of the streams. And if the streams are utilized for water\npower, the coal will not be so heavily drawn upon. The conservation of soil\nand the streams are all connected with the beauty of the country.\nAnd so this great subject of conservation is an interlocking one. It makes\nno difference where we begin. It is not easy to pick out any one subject\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCOMMISSION\n\nFOR\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nOF RESOURCES\n\ngl\n\nperhaps which should be emphasized in preference to another. But if it were\npossible to select any one measure which is more important than any other\nat the present time, because the dangers are more imminent, it is that of the\nconservation of the forests of the southern Appalachians. You who are in\nthe South and from the South know very well that there are very steep slopes\nin that region. You know the soil is deeply disintegrated, it is only held in\nplace by heavy vegetation. If those forests are removed, the abundant rain\nfall will carry down vast quantities of clay and sand, and destroy the lowlands.\nYou who are from California know that a comparatively small amount of\nmaterial, as the result of hydraulic operation, has done much damage to the\nlower part of the stream. It has choked navigation. It has destroyed extensive areas of arable land. The amount of material which has gone down the\nstreams of California as the result of hydraulic operation is not a onehundredth part of the amount that would be thrown upon the great valley\nof the South if the great Smoky Mountains were denuded of their forests.\nYet one man, or one group of men in Congress, stood in the way of this\nmeasure which was for the conservation of the nation !\nI speak plainly upon this matter, because it is one upon which I feel strongly.\nSo deeply were the governors of the states moved by the importance of the\nsubject of conservation that several of them announced before they returned to\ntheir homes, that the first act that they should perform would be to appoint a\ncommission for the conservation of our natural resources. In their resolutions\nthey requested the President to appoint a United States commission to co-operate\nwith them in this great subject. This President Roosevelt has done, and\nalready there are a number of state commissions appointed. Doubtless before\ntwo years have gone by, the majority of the states of our nation will have\ncommissions on the conservation of the natural resources of their respective\nstates. And these commissions will co-operate with one another and with the\nUnited States Commission in this great work. Up to the present time the\nExecutive Committee of the United States Commission has had one meeting,\nand a great campaign of work has been outlined. In the first place it has been\nseen that we must at the outset take an inventory of our resources, find out\nwhat we now have, find out how much of this material has already been utilized\nby this nation, find out the rate of present exploitation jjer year of our minerals\nand fertilizers in order to be able to calculate the probable time that these\nresources will last.\nThis commission has realized that a great set of studies must be taken up\nwith reference to decreasing the waste and increasing the economical use\nof our resources. At the present time we gain from our coal not more than\none-third to one-fifth of its full value; the methods of mining waste a large\nquantity. How may we reduce the waste in mining, and more economically\nuse the product that is mined ? Here will be a great investigation, which will\ncontinue through a number of years.\nThen these commissions— the state and government commissions— have\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbefore them the great problem of educating the people to realize the importance\nof this subject; the problem of instilling in the youth a sense of responsibility to\nsucceeding generations with reference to our natural resources. And here is\nthe point where we appeal for assistance from this National Education Association. Each one of you — ^a teacher, a principal, a superintendent, an\ninstructor in a college or a university or a grammar school — each one of you\nmay be a center of influence in carrying forward this campaign, which, the\nPresident says, is the one of the most supreme importance before this nation.\nWe in the midst of the marvelous resources of this country can scarcely\nrealize its importance; but any of you who have ever read about China, and\nknow how the mountains of that country have been denuded of every stick of\ntimber, how the soil has been carried down, down to the sea, how the productivenes ofthe country has been enormously decreased because of the\nunwise exploitation of the natural resources, will realize how important conservation ito\ns our nation. We have little more than a hundred years behind\nus as a nation. We hope not only for a thousand, but thousands of years to\nbe before us. We hope for a future history longer than nations have continued\nin the past. And if this be so, we can readily realize that the utmost care\nshould be exercised in the use of our natural resources, a large portion of which\nrequired for their making the building of the world. Therefore, as a representative ofthe National Committee, I ask the active co-operation of this body\nin conserving the national resources of the nation.\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nM. G. BRUMBAUGH,\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN A DEMOCRACY\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nWe have in our midst an educational institution that numbers its variform\nactivities by the thousands, its physical plant by the tens of thousands, its\nteachers by the hundreds of thousands, its puj)ils by the millions, and its annual\nexpenditures by the hundreds of millions. This institution, represented alike\nin the great urban centers and in the remotest rural community, and precious\nin the heart of every patriot, is the free American public school. In a general\nway it is regarded as the bulwark of our liberties, the stronghold of our democracy. Itis praised by all in their organized capacity and criticized by all in\ntheir individual capacity. Heedless alike of praise and censure, it steadily\nperforms its function to democracy and thrives by a mystery of growth that\nbaffles analysis.\nWhat is its function, and how may it best be promoted ? Democracy is\nessentially, as Lincoln characterized it, \"government of the people, by the people\nand for the people.\" Its hope and its destiny are with the masses. What\nthe masses are determines what democracy can be. If, then, our democracy\nis to be essentially and really the pride and glory of men it must rest upon some\nmore fundamental and vital institution whose function it is to train individuals\nfor participation in the form of government we avow. This prop beneath the\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nRepublic, this universal factory whose output is to make an advance democracy, is,for obvious reasons, the free public school.\nTwo individuals can participate in a common cause only to the extent that\nthey possess common sentiment and common knowledge. To increase their\neffective participation requires a broadening of their common knowledge. To\nmake participation impossible requires only the absence of common knowledge.\nThis holds true throughout. Hence, our democracy depends upon the possession by all its individual participants of a fund of common knowledge, which\nfund is the currency of democracy; and the function of the public school is to\nimpart such a fund of common knowledge to all that participate in our democracy as to make facile the interchange of ideas and the reciprocal regard of\neach for the other. The initiation into democracy should always be contingent upon the possession of this common knowledge. For that reason\nthe stranger from without should serve an apprenticeship in the American\npublic school before he is invested with the toga of American citizenship.\nLikewise any one in our midst, native or foreign born, that has neglected to\nfit himself for participation in our democracy should be denied what his own\nneglect prevents him from comprehending. I am well aware that a few do,\nindependent of the school, find agencies of guidance that will fit for participation in democracy, but for the masses the hope of a worthy citizenship, and the\nhope of our civil institutions alike, rests with universal public education.\nMoreover, the growth of democracy, as well as its security, depends upon\nthe widening of this fund of common knowledge. Hence the specific means\nof promoting the best traditions in our national life will be found to lie in the\nincreased efficiency of the schools. What the school is as the creator of common thought and common sentiment determines what our democracy is.\nUpon this basis the state supports the school, and the system of education is\nmaintained by taxation prescribed by the laws of the state. The measure of\nthis financial support is the measure of our belief in democracy. When any\ncitizen opposes an equitable, indeed, a liberal support to the schools he opposes\nthe government itself.\nTo promote the ends of democracy many states by compulsory laws prevent\nchild-labor and also require attendance at school between the ages of eight and\nfourteen. These laws should be universal in the Republic. We must, as\neducators, take our stand with those that oppose the coining of the blood of\nchildhood into the currency of the market place. We must also take our stand\nlike Luther and those since him that refuse to allow our government to be\nimpaired by the presence in our midst of a schoolless child.\nIn maintaining an efficient system of education the state is governed not\nby sentiment but by necessity. It is not the life of the individual but the life\nof the state itself that is involved. In no other form of government is this so\nmanifestly true, since in ours alone is the measure of education the measure of\ndemocracy. Hence we have little to learn from European states concerning\nthe function of our system of education. To imagine that we can learn by a\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncomparative study of educational systems is to imagine a vain thing. To visit\nother systems and, returning, proclaim our own to be weak and inadequate\nbecause it is not like others is to betray one's lack of understanding and to\nconfess one wanting in the essential insight necessary to educational leadership\nin a democracy. Our system may be different. It should be, since its function isspecific and particular. We can learn from others relative to methods\nof procedure, schemes of classification, common nomenclature, and forms of\norganization and administration; but all these are superficial details. The\nfundamental purpose lies deeper and is discerned only by a study of the school\nin its relation to democracy.\nIn the best sense of the word democracy's concern in education is purely\nselfish. It aims to realize through the school its own ends. What ever the\nstate visions as good in its own advance, it rightly expects the school to impart.\nTo this end the people are taxed and the state assumes control of the child,\nfor in a true democracy, \"the child belongs more to the state than to the home. \"\nWe must not lose sight of the fact that the primary business of a public school\nsystem is to make illiteracy impossible, and by so doing make democracy\npossible. One illiterate citizen is a menace and his participation in our scheme\nof government is fraught with grave consequences. The voter, lacking in this\ncommon knowledge, is the easy prey of the gangster, and the occasion of the\nhalf-confessed fear that our civic institutions are destined to failure. The\nso-called campaign of education indulged in by the political parties once in\nfour years is a beggarly and futile attempt to do what the school should have\nbeen permitted to do years before. The thinking man — the product of the\nschool — may be a menace to gang rule but he is the one genuinely competent\nguardian of our national life.\nThe public school finds its chiefest defense, not in promoting the welfare of\nthe individual put the welfare of the state itself. Its first concern must be to\nequip each to co-operate with his fellows and then, and not until then, shall it\nturn to the more individualistic task of fitting each one for the highest economic\nefficiency. The first business is to train for participation, then for competition.\nWe can never with safety add to the curriculum of the schools until we have\nfirst and always made ample provision in every school to teach the simple rudiments of the universally essential tools of democracy — ^a mastery of the language of the Republic and the ability to make record of one's thought in the\nsymbols of language, and the symbols of number. The little red schoolhouse,\nwith its zealous teacher and its drill in the three R's,is not a tradition from which\nto depart; but an ever-present reality around which to weave in loving appreciation all the tendrils of future growth. I do not object to education for efl5ciency\nprovided only that we achieve efl5ciency for the ends of democracy before we\nachieve eflSciency for individual gain. First, then, the school exists for the\nstate and after that for the purely personal preferment of the individual in our\nindustrial competition. The measure of efficiency is not the earning power for\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\n— ^\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nv\n\n^S\n\nthe individual but the serving power for the state. In fact, earning\npower, the bread problem, is conditioned upon a stable and progressive\ndemocracy.\nBut democracy is but one of the forms of government by means of which\nindividuals seek to advance the race. All peoples, living under aU types of\ncivic order, are in one way or another promoting the ends of civilization. The\nschool for democracy must also be an agency of civilization. It must train\nits members to the willing need of giving to the race as a whole, in a purely\nunselfish w^ay, special gifts of inventive and creative genius. But it does this\nin an altruistic spirit, and independent of the function it owes to democracy.\nWe thus have two types of educational institutions to maintain, the free public\nschools for the ends of democracy; and the higher and technical schools for\nthe ends of civilization. The test of the former is the quality of citizen it\nproduces; the test of the latter is the degree of civilization it promotes. The\ngifts of these public schools are service to the state and to the individual. The\ngifts of the college and university are service to the advancement of the race\nas a whole. One does not ask of the public school the large gifts of creative\ngenius but it does ask these gifts of the \"capped and gowned\" graduate of the\nuniversity. The state supports the public school as a necessity. It supports\nthe university as an obligation to civilization. One may not be a more worthy\nmember of a democracy by reason of the special knowledge gained in the university, but one ought surely to be, as a result of that special knowledge,\ndirectly a promoter of the universal good, and indirectly, by giving his special\nknowledge to his state, a promoter of democracy. If then the state provides by\ntaxation for both t)rpes of education it meets its obligations first to itself and\nthen to civilization. It follows that the relative worth of the several dominant\nforms of government is found in the measure of their world service. In this\ncomparative study democracy may easily claim pre-eminence because of her\nunparalleled service to the race as a whole.\nFrom a study of these views flow certain facts and considerations that relate\nrather definitely to the present status of our educational system.\na) The public school is limited in the realization of its function to democracy bythe quality of teaching life it attracts, by the time it devotes to universalizing its fund of necessary common knowledge, by the amount of money\nexpended in its maintenance, and by the effectiveness of its legislative provisions insecuring regular attendance on the part of all embryo citizens between\nthe ages of eight and sixteen years.\nThe first patriotic duty is to make the life of the teacher more tolerable, by\nsurrounding him with a complete physical equipment, by enriching his social\nlife, by promoting his professional w^elfare, and by increasing his compensation\nto make possible for him a higher standard of living. Undet this declaration\nlies the need for a more sympathetic supervision, a more stable tenure of\nservice, a generous retirement fund, the transportation of pupils, the consolidation of isolated schools, the lengthening of the minimum school year, and the\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncloser articulation of all the social, intellectual, and moral influences of the community with the school.\nWe can never serve democracy by lessening the years of an elementary\neducation, nor by the devices that, to save time, really sacrifice efficiency.\nHe only is true to his nation's welfare w^ho steadfastly pleads for ample time to\nfix and make facile in the pupil's mind the fundamentals of an ordinary education, and who has the courage to declare that thoroughness in the things done\nis of more consequence to the state than the haste to rush to the college and\nuniversity a product, which in spite of the higher institution, is but imperfectly\nand superficially fitted to participate in a progressive democracy. The patriot\nhere is courageous enough to say, \"It takes time, gentlemen, to educate citizens\nfor this Republic. \"\nThe financial support of the school must be more ample, and its amount\nthrough stable legislation placed above the caprice of local petty partisan control. We know in advance how many pupils the school must receive, and wx\nshould know years in advance how much money we may plan to expend in the\nnecessary development of the system as a whole. It is better and saner to\nerect ample school buildings surrounded by ample playgrounds and officered\nby thoroughly trained teachers than it is to maintain criminal courts, jails,\nhospitals, and asylums.\nThe state must so legislate as to make impossible the employment of childlabor; and it must, as it compels attendance, provide such varied forms of\nelementary education as to give to each child the largest gifts of guidance and\nhelpfulness. The patriots here are the legislator and the school official who\nare wise enough to guarantee to the humblest and the most unfavored child the\nbest training for democracy that experience can suggest.\nh) There must be as ample provision made for play as for study. The ends\nof democracy are served not alone by the trained mind but also by the healthy\nbody. Besides, supervised play is as effectively a training for democracy as\nis the supervised school. The ideal citizen appreciates and aids in maintaining\nfor all a good home, a good school, a good church, and a good playground.\nc) We need, more and more, a corps of teachers more anxious to serve the\nneeds of childhood than to unfold in logical sequence the academic studies.\nTo fit each individual to live with his kind is vastly more significant than to\ntrain him to the last degree of detailed accuracy in the formulae of the sciences.\nIn short, the schools need, for the sake of a healthier democracy, more enthusiastic teachers, not more technical scholars.\nd) To promote the ends of our national life let us widen the range of\ncommon knowledge for all and attract to the school the active sympathy and\nloyal support of those who love their country most and serve it best, not\nthose who would exploit the school as an agency of selfish gain. .\ne) To promote the ends of civilization let us welcome all higher institutions\nof learning and secure to them generous national support. Let democracy\nassert its claim to \" the best \" by training its specialists to give freely and\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEGRO\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATION\n\ng,\n\nbountifully their choicest products, and their own service to promoting\nthe welfare of the race as a whole. Let the ideal held steadily before each of\nour youth be unselfish service for his country and for his kind.\nNEGRO\nBOOKER\n\nT.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nAND\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNATION\n\nTUSKEGEE\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nALABAMA\n\nI believe that industrial education has a distinct function in preparing\npeople for life in a democracy, and strengthening the life of these people in\nthe country in which they live. In this respect, in the little village of Tuskegee,\nAlabama, for a number of years we have been trying in a humble and simple\nway to do our part in preparing some of the millions of our race for the part\nthey are to play in the life of this republic, and we have been trying to do so\nin a fundamental and sensible manner.\nWe have emphasized, in connection with other forms of education, what is\ntermed industrial education, ever since that institution was founded. We\nhave done it with several points in view.\nFirst, we have emphasized industrial education for its economic value to the\nschool itself and to the student himself while upon our grounds. We have\nninety-six buildings, large and small, upon our grounds, and all of them\nexcept four, have been almost wholly built by the labor of the students, and\nbuilt at almost half the cost for which they would have been built by outside\nlabor. A very large proportion of these students could never have remained\nthere long enough to finish a course of study except for the chance which we\nhave been affording them to help themselves through these industrial opportunities given upon our grounds.\nSecond, we have emphasized industrial education for its trade value.\nEvery man or woman going out from that institution is the master of some\nspecial trade or industry by which he or she can earn his or her Hving any day\nin the year. We have emphasized it again for its mental or mind-building\nvalue. More and more I beheve that the educational world is coming to\nagree that we cannot only learn, not only strengthen the mind by studying\nabout things through the medium of books, but equally as much we can\nstrengthen the mind by studying the things themselves, and even without the\nbook. A great writer once said, \"Whenever I hold my pen in my hand it\nhelps me to think. \" I believe that more and more we are going to believe in\nthe educational world, that holding a hammer or a saw or a trowel or a plow\nin the hand helps one to think.\nWe have found after years of experience at Tuskegee that we can make\none form of training assist the other form. For example, go into our academic\nclasses and you will find a large proportion of these problems in mathematics\nwhich the teachers use have been obtained from a brick yard or from a brick\nwall, or from some practical operation on the farm. In the old days you\nafter\nremember how the student was required to commit to memory table\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntable relating to furlongs and acres and rods. Whefi he got through he didn't\nknow whether an acre was the size of this room or ten times its size. At\nTuskegee our students go into the field and measure off an actual, a visible\nacre of land. Then they take the problem into the arithmetic class, and the\nstudent calculates the cost of the seed, and the cost of preparing the land and\nthe cost of working and harvesting, for instance, an acre of turnips. Then\noften on commencement day that student gets up before his parents and reads\nan essay of how he himself has actually planted and worked and harvested an\nacre of turnips; and that kind of an essay on commencement day at Tuskegee\nis mighty interesting, because that student knows what he is talking about.\nIn this same connection we have emphasized industrial education also\nbecause of its moral value; its value in teaching the members of my race the\nlesson which any race of people needs when they first throw off the bonds\nof slavery, the lesson that all forms of labor are dignified, and all forms\nof idleness disgraceful. It is teaching my race to keep its feet upon the earth,\nand it is a great thing to teach a new, inexperienced race to keep its feet on the\nearth. At Tuskegee I never let a day pass without getting my hoe or shovel and\ngoing into my garden and digging down in the soil. I like to be sure that once\na day at least I am touching the real thing; and it is equally important for a\nrace to learn the same lesson.\nYou can easily imagine that it was not an easy task to teach my race, when\nit first became free, the dignity of labor; that there was an opportunity for it\nto become useful and strong and powerful through the medium of not only\nstudying books, but by studying things as well, and learning the dignity of\nlabor. I can remember how for months at Tuskegee in the earlier years of\nour efforts to found that institution, parents objected to industrial training\nfor their children. They said over and over again, ''We want our children to\nlearn books. \" They didn't care what kind of books nor what the names of the\nbooks were, but books — books. They said, \"Our people have been worked\nfor two hundred and fifty years in slavery, and now you establish a school to\nwork them some more. \" I said, \"We haven't established a school to work the\nrace. We have established a school to teach the race how to work.\" We\ntold them there was a vast difference between being worked and working. We\nsaid to them that being worked meant degradation, and working meant civilization. But some people object to everything in the form of progress that\nhasn't been done in the same way for a thousand years.\nBut I am glad to say, my friends, that that objection has passed away completely, that there is much of enthusiasm now among the rank and file of my\npeople in the South for the opportunity to learn how to work on the farm intelligently, scientifically, skilfully; that there is as much enthusiasm to learn\nmechanics or housekeeping as there is to learn algebra, history, or science, or\nany other department of academic training.\nIf you were to ask me to state in a sentence what has been the most powerful work of our institution, I should say that it consists in something that is\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEGRO\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATION\n\n.s\n\nnot quite tangible or visible. But the most powerful work has been teaching\nmy race to get rid of the old idea regarding the influence of labor; teaching\nthem that all forms of labor are dignified; teaching them the same lesson that\nmade your race strong and powerful and useful, the lesson that each race,\ndespite its moral progress, its religious progress, its mental strength, must have\na certain economic foundation. In that respect the negro can be no dififerent\nfrom other people in this country.\nBut does this effort and this form of education pay the nation ? And to\nwhat extent? Counting those who have finished the full course, together\nwith those who have finished a partial course and are doing reasonably\nefficient work, the Tuskegee Institute alone— and it is not the only institution\ndoing this work; there are scores of others, but perhaps on a smaller scalethat institution alone has sent out into the world, mainly into the South, six\nthousand men and women who are working every year in the uplift and\nstrengthening of their fellows. Let me give you one example of this class, and\nthe quality of this work. I have in mind one of our girls who began sixteen\nyears ago to teach in a district in the South where there never had been a school\nlonger than three months. That girl began teaching for eleven dollars per\nmonth, for three months in the year. Go into that community to-day. Through\nthe sacrifice — as the world terms it— ^you will find a school lasting nine months\nevery year, in a neat, comfortable cottage; the people owning their farms and\nliving in beautiful, well-kept houses. You will find a complete revolution in\nthat community. When I was there last, I saw that girl close her school at\ntwo o'clock in the afternoon. I saw her take a hoe and lead her boys and girls\ninto a field about the schoolhouse. I saw her work in four acres of land and at\nthe end of the year she produced two bales of cotton and sold it so she might\nhave the school term last nine months a year. Some people refer to that kind\nof thing as a sacrifice. I never do. Sometimes people are kind enough to\nrefer to me as making sacrifices for the benefit of my race. I have n^ver made\na sacrifice in my life. No one who has the privilege of rendering a service in\nthe interest of his fellows after the fashion of that girl ever makes a sacrifice.\nThe man to be pitied is the one who lives for himself alone. The one to be\nenvied is the one who has learned to live for others. The longer I live and the\nmore experience I have, the more I am convinced that after all the one thing\nworth living for— and dying for if necessary— is the opportunity of making\nsome human being more happy and more useful. When we take that supreme\nobject out of the life of a teacher, the profession of a teacher is not worth having.\nThere is something deep down in human nature that compels one man to\nrespect success in another man, regardless of the color of his skin. With the\neducation and with the development of the millions of negroes in this country\nThe President of' the University of\nthis entire nation should concern itself.\nWisconsin referred to the waste of the natural resources of this country. Do\nyou realize, my friends, that one-fourth of the physical territory of America\nis occupied almost wholly by the negro race as laborers, to the exclusion of\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nalmost every other class of laboring people? Do you realize that statistics\nshow that these people get only about one-fourth out of the soil, about onefourth as much as is gotten out of the soil by your farmers in your northern\nand western groups of states ? It is impossible to reach these millions of my\npeople and to show them how to conserve the natural resources of this country\nexcept you reach them through the schools as has already been pointed out.\nYou will find that these people are going to remain here. Within the lifetime of persons now living, the negro race will perhaps have increased from\nten millions to fifteen millions. You owe a duty to us, a supreme duty, one\nwhich you owe to no other class of foreigners. You forced us here without\nour willingness to come here. You invited us here. You paid our passage\nhere, and we have some right to remain here. Aside from the matter of color,\nthe negro in America is more like you than any other class of foreigners with\nwhom you come in contact. Far different in that respect from the American\nIndian, far different from the Japanese, from the Chinaman. He professes\nthe same religion you profess, and has the same number of denominations\nthat you have. He speaks the same language you speak, or makes a brave\nattempt to do so. And you will agree with me, my friends, he spells out of the\nsame book that you spell out of. In that respect he not only follows you but\nsometimes gets a little ahead of you. He dresses as you dress. We may be\na little behind in the fashion one Sunday sometimes, but if the merry widow\nhat appears on a main street this Sunday, our women may be behind, but look\nout for them the next Sunday. If you attempt to change the hair which nature\nhas given you, we do the same thing. The only difference is that while you\nare trying to make yours curly, we are trying to make ours straight.\nBut, my friends, seriously, in all the more fundamental matters the American negro is more like you than any other foreigner in this country; and above\nand beyond all, we have the same love and the same veneration for the institutions and the history of this country that you cherish. For all of these reasons\nand more, I am sure you will see to it that the negro is given a fair chance in\nthe matter of education.\nNow, to educate the negro is not impossible nor impracticable. Some\npeople say that education to uplift the negro is a failure. It has never been\ntried far enough or long enough for you to pronounce judgment. Let me give\nyou a few ideas of what has been accomphshed as the result of the education\nwe have received. Through the taxes of the southern states, through the\nnegroes' own efforts and through the generosity of people in the North and\nWest in the matter of material advancement, do you realize that through the\nunselfish work done by educated men and women from Hampton and Tuskegee\nand other educational centers, the negro race in Georgia has advanced to the\npoint where last year it paid taxes upon eighteen million dollars worth of\nproperty. That figure left out of consideration what the negro held in Georgia\nin town and city lots. In Georgia alone we added seventy thousand acres\nto our holdings.\nWe own and have acquired since we became a free people,\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEGRO\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATION\n\nqi\n\nlargely through the work of the educated negro, thirty-eight million acres of\nland, a territory equal to the combined territory of Holland and Belgium.\nBut we are not only making material progress. We are making educational\nprogress as well. We are surrounded by the most advanced civilization that\nthe world has ever seen, and you may judge of our progress by your progress,\nand you require a pretty severe test. When we can catch up with the American\nwhite man there won't be many other fellows ahead of us. The ability of the\nAmerican negro is being tested day by day. If we were living in the midst\nof an Asiatic or Latin civilization, the test wouldn't be so great. But this\ngreat, surging, pushing Anglo-Saxon civilization surrounds us. Within a little\nover forty years we have made progress in getting rid of ignorance. A few\ncenturies ago when the negro landed in this country he was in complete\nignorance.\nA gentleman asked me a few days ago if I wouldn't advocate compulsory\neducation for my race. I said, \"That is not necessary; the negro hasn't\nadvanced that far in American civilization. Open a schoolroom any day and\nhe will fill it. Open another and he will fill that. He honors teachers and\nschoolhouses and long terms and a chance to educate himself in the American\nfashion.\" Some people suggest that the negro can learn from books, and learn\na trade, and he can get property, but the weak point of that system is that none\nof these elements influence or strengthen him in his moral or religious status.\nTo make the general statement implies nothing in the way of work or research.\nYou will find that industrial education has not only helped the negro along\neconomically and mentally, but has strengthened him in his moral and\nreligious fife.\nIt has been suggested that in proportion as the negro gets education he\neither stands still or goes backward in his moral and religious life. My friends,\nyou don't know the best negroes in this country. You seldom come into\ncontact with them in a way to be able to pass judgment upon their real progress.\nYou judge of the progress of the negro by the reports about those who appear\nin the police courts. Suppose I would pass judgment upon you by what I\nsee of the loafers in this or any community. I don't do that. I pass judgment\nupon you by your best representatives and not by your worst; and the negro\nhas a right to be judged in the same manner. Answering that question further,\nof all the men and women who have gone out from Tuskegee during all these\nyears with our diploma, with one single exception, not one has ever entered a\njail or penitentiary anywhere in America. What I say of that institution is\ntrue also of Hampton. Fifteen of the older colleges and universities and\nindustrial schools have been examined by me within a few years, and less than\na half-dozen of their graduates have ever been sentenced to a penitentiary.\nThe man guilty of crime in nine cases out of ten is the man who has not learned\nthe dignity of labor, has not learned to love work for its own sake, has never\nbecome a taxpayer. He is the fellow who is way down. Your duty and my\nduty as educators and Christians will not have been performed until either\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthrough the public school or other agencies we reach down and take these\ncreatures by the hand and help them to stand and be full-fledged, helpful, useful, and happy American citizens.\nTo indicate further the moral progress of the millions of negroes in this\ncountry, do you realize that the negro has sixteen thousand ministers, and\ntwenty-four thousand Christian churches? He has church property to the\nvalue of twenty-seven million dollars. Could a worthless, improvident,\nimmoral race have attained to any such progress as these figures indicate ?\nBut, my friends, we have scarcely touched this problem in our methods\nof education. I have simply given you these facts to show you what is possible.\nDo you realize that two years ago in our southern states there were fourteen\nhundred thousand negro children that entered no public school, and five\nhundred thousand more negro children in school only four or five months out\nof the twelve? Do you realize further that in your northern and western\ngroups of states you had five dollars spent for the education of each child,\nwhile in the southern states less than fifty cents was spent for the education\nof each negro ? There are two races in this country to be educated in sympathy, helpful kindness, and charity toward each other. In our ambition to\npush for the immediate progress of our own race, we sometimes forget the\nhigher duty to the weak race near us. My friends, we cannot separate the\ninterests of one race from another. Disease, filth, crime, draw no color line.\nWe cannot hold one man down in the ditch without remaining down in the\nditch with him.\nThere are two classes of southern white people, the one class with whose\nviews you are perhaps already familiar through the public press, a class that is\nabusive in language and manner, that has no faith in any of the efforts to uplift\nthe negro. But there is another class of southern white people, a smaller, but\nan educated, cultured, brave class, that is just as much interested in the elevation of the negro and in his education as any other class in the North or West, or\nanywhere in America. The people of this country owe a debt of gratitude\nto that brave, earnest class of southern white people that they can perhaps\nnever repay. It has been through their efforts working in connection with the\neducated negro that we have made the progress in the southern states to which\nI have referred.\nIn conclusion let me add, that as we go out from this great meeting let us\ngo out and teach the children under our care — black and white — that of all\nforms of slavery the most belittling, the most narrowing, the most hurtful, is\nthat which makes one human being hate another because of his race or color.\nI have been a slave once in my life — a slave in body. But human hatred is a\nworse form of slavery than bondage of the body. Once for all I have resolved\nthat no man shall make me a slave by making me hate him. No man can\nperform the highest and best service for his fellows while he is limited and\ncircumscribed in his sympathies or activities in working for his fellows. I\npropose to be free to work in sympathy with all people, whether North or\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCROSS-PURPOSES IN\n——\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n___^ WOMEN\n\nV«5\n\nSouth, black or white. And in proportion as this lesson is taught to the\nchildren under your care, in that proportion will our problems be solved.\nWe have a great and serious problem before us, serious for your race and\nserious for mine, serious for the southern section of our country and\nserious for the northern section. But it will be solved in justice to your race\nand in justice to mine. In proportion as we meet and solve these great problems, inthat degree are we strengthened and made more useful, and Hfted up\ninto the Christ atmosphere. I am sometimes asked if I don't grow discouraged\nbecause of the conditions that surround us. I like to think of the sph-it and\nthe example of the colored soldier who was shot down on the battlefield in the\nSouth during the Civil War. As he lay upon the ground bleeding and when\nthe doctor came to him and felt his pulse and listened to his heart beat he\nreported to the chaplain that Sergeant Jones was passing away. The chaplain\nwent to the colored sergeant and said, \"You are passing away, isn't there\nsome little token or some word of comfort which I can convey to your loved\nones at home ? \" He opened his eyes and said, \"Put your arms about my neck\nand lift me up just a little.\" The chaplain did it. The Sergeant said, \"Put\nyour hand in my coat pocket and take out that little black book.\" And\nthen he said, \"Feel in the upper corner of that book and you will find something, hold it up before my eyes so I can see it. \" As he did it the Sergeant\nlifted himself up on his elbow and glanced at the five dollar bill. Then he\nlooked the chaplain straight in the eye and said, \"Chaplain, I will bet you five\ndollars that I am going to get well. \"\nNow, my friends, I know that this great educational gathering is not the\nproper place for betting. But I am almost tempted to say I am willing to bet\nthe people of this nation five dollars that the negro race is going to get well,\nwell in body, well in mind, well in heart. And as you go out from this great\nmeeting may all the influence that you possess in public school, in high school,\nin college, in university, in counting-rooms, and elsewhere, be used in helping\nmy race to get well, and to become independent, strong, useful American\ncitizens.\n\nTHE\n\nRECONCILEMENT OF CROSS-PURPOSES\nEDUCATION OF WOMEN\n\nSARAH\n\nLOUISE\n\nARNOLD,\n\nDEAN\n\nOF SIMMONS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nIN THE\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nOur system of education, from the kindergarten through the university,\nreflects the ideals of the people and grows with their growth. A change in the\nsocial order may be quickly discerned in its effect upon the schools, which are\nmodified to meet the new demands. Whatever the present. generation lacked\nin its training, it desires to secure for the generation to come. So to the original\npurpose of imparting knowledge and opening books to the student, we have\nadded insistence upon training for character and the preparation for citizenship.\nIn our school ideal, the culture of the individual has become tributary to so-ial\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nservice. The youth receives, not merely that he may keep, but that he may\nshare.\nWe often speak of education as a \"preparation for life.\" But, do we not\ncommonly confuse education with schooling ? Our education begins with the\ncradle and continues to the grave. Our teachers are numberless; our lessons\nunending. Our schooling is but a beginning of our life's training. We take\nhold of the threads which give us the clue to knowledge which time shall reveal.\nThrough the school we secure certain elementary knowledge, develop certain\ntendencies, acquire some measure of aptitude, win some degree of power and\nof skill, to be afterward supplemented and increased through the training which\nlife itself affords. The gift of the school is beyond price, but at its best, it is\nbut a part of education.\nOf the other determining factors in our education, the home is of transcendent importance. It lays the foundation of healthful condition, wholesome\nexperience, and dominating ideal. It provides repeated opportunities for\nactivity, for responsibility, for service. We imitate its examples; we are\ngoverned by its principles; we interpret life by means of its teachings. The\nhome provides the stuff upon which the structure of the school is reared.\nThe boy gets out of his book that which he brings to the book; and this is\nlargely determined by the influence, the tradition, the teaching of the home.\nThe value of schooling itself, then, is largely dependent upon the direct\ncontribution of the home. This alone would make it of paramount importance\nto the community that in every home wholesome conditions should prevail, the\nfinest ideals be cherished.\nWe need not dwell upon the influence which secures this teaching for our\nyouth. The years as they pass reveal more and more clearly the results of the\nmother's patient teaching — the noble example, the fidelity to the allotted task,\nthe self-mastery, and the self-surrender, the clear recognition of eternal\nverities, the unfailing self-sacrifice.\nAs the mother, so is the home. For the maintenance of the true home it is\nessential that the mcther — the home-keeper — should be wxll prepared for her\ntask; and this means not merely the mastery of material conditions for the\nsake of those whom she serves, but a finer training as well. Whatever may be\ntrue of the forum and the market place, in the home must ever be spoken the\ndecisive word in times of moral doubt and spiritual indecision. Here the\nneedle should point clearly to the pole; for the home is not merely a place fcr\nphysical shelter and material comfort; it is that quiet haven in which the\nstorm-tossed soul may rest for the night, to go forth on the morrow with clear\nvision and new courage to the voyage on the uncharted sea. In the home\nshould ever be heard the quiet, serene voice which speaks in the ear of doubt\nand hesitation, ''This is the way; walk ye in it. \" Here should abide the spirit\nwhich falters not, even if discouraged, and which knows through all time that\n\"Right is right, since God is God, and Right the day must win.\"\nStrange that any of us who have given our best years to the study of\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nCROSS-PURPOSES\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN\n\neducation and who have striven to increase opportunities for the training\nof\nteachers, should forget that it is indispensable that these first teachers, these\nmothers, should be aided in their preparation for their supreme service.\nStrange that those of us who have such cause for gratitude in the years which\nwe have spent at our mother's feet should forget to measure the meagemess,\nthe littleness, the poverty, of the lives from which such teaching has been\nwithheld.\nIt may not be the privilege of every woman to devote her life to children of\nher own; nevertheless, in every woman who is truly prepared for her work in\nthe world, the spirit of the mother is regnant; and the task which will most\nappeal to her will have in it generous care-taking for the lives of other children, whose weakness or ignorance or pain she may visit with her strength and\nwisdom and healing. In all our conceptions of the education of women, this\nfunction, this privilege, this right, must take precedence. We cannot provide\na scheme of education which completely omits the recognition of motherhood;\nand it is clearly evident that the institution through which the influence of\nwoman will always be most widely felt, is the home— created, enlightened,\nand transformed by her presence and her completest service.\nIf the maintenance of a finer order of home is a matter of the deepest concern to the community, it logically follows that the appropriate training of the\nmother, the home-maker, is essential to the general welfare. We shall be wise,\nthen, to test every plan for the education of women, not merely with questions\nof immediate expediency or of personal advantage, but always with the thought\nof the larger contribution to the common good, and the higher function which\nwoman can never surrender. If our schemes of education are compatible\nwith the fullest development in these directions, let us, by all means, urge them\non. But, if they diminish her allegiance to these finer ideals or permit her to\naccept a cheaper substitute for this noble service, let them go — however they\nmay seem to meet the demands of the hour.\nThe education of women should insure, first, the general schooling which\nis essential alike to the development of both boy and girl; second — ^for the\nsake of the individual, as well as of the community — preparation for selfmaintenance, whether this duty is immediately imperative or distantly possible; and third, adequate preparation for the responsibilities involved in the\ndirection of the home.\nMost of us will concede the necessity for this threefold education. We\nshould differ, if at all, in adjusting the balance. We shall prevent confusion\nof thought here, if we keep clearly in mind the needs of three rather distinct\ngroups of women. While the ultimate goal is the same in the education of all,\nthere is a wide variation in the immediate necessities of each group, and in the\nparticular contribution which the school must therefore make.\nA large class of girls whose elementary education is incomplete, are in\nimperative need of such industrial education as will enable them to earn a\nFurthermore, through their self-maintenance, the standard\nliving wage.\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof the family life will be immensely advanced. Yet even here, the greater\nneed is evident. Without help from the public school or from private philanthropy, many of these girls will, in a few years, enter homes of their own,\nuntaught and irresponsible, to assume the most sacred duties without intelligent\npreparation, and to perpetuate a type of home that is a menace to the health\nand standard of the community.\nWe owe such girls somehow, somewhere, a glimpse of the better type of\nhome; some definite instruction as to the responsibilities which they will surely\nassume; such tuition as will insure for their children more wholesome surroundings, cleaner, purer, and stronger lives. At this point, then, the school\nshould supplement the meager education of the home and should insist that\nthe training of the woman should not yield place to the schooling of the wageearner.\nThe second group of girls come from normal, healthful homes, through\nwhose influence they secure the essential instruction and training. Fortunately, the necessity of the home, with its limited income, forces them to\npractice the homely household arts and to care for the various members of the\nfamily. Through this simple, rational apprenticeship, they are fairly well\nprepared for intelligent service in their own homes.\nIt is, however, increasingly evident that the demands of modem life, and\neven the school itself, are thrusting into the background the instruction of the\nhome. The disappearance of the constructive activities from the home, the\nincrease of apartment houses, the multiplication of ready-made conveniences,\nhave vastly modified the education of these girls, and the coming generation\nof mothers and home-makers will lack much that their mothers had known.\nAny one who thoughtfully studies the life of the school girl in our average\ncommunity will mark with anxiety this increasing tendency. At this point,\nthe public standard should insist upon testing, not only the academic proficiency ofour girls, but their knowledge of household administration, hygiene\nand sanitation. And if suitable instruction has not been received in the home,\nthe school should make itself responsible therefor. Whether training in\nhousehold economics shall become an essential part of our school curriculum\nor not, we should doubtless agree that the knowledge which it would secure\nand test should be a part of every woman's education, and that the public\nstandard would not be far wrong if it should insist upon testing this knowledge\nin the case of every woman just as the voter is tested as to his knowledge of\nthe simple elements of reading and writing.\nThere still remains a third group of women, of larger opportunity and wider\nknowledge, to whom school and college offer the fullest gifts. Should their\npresent education be modified in view of their woman's task ? Will not general\nculture, high ideals, and the advantages of association make them ready for\nthe responsibilities and opportunities which the home brings ?\nWe cannot too gratefully acknowledge the beneficent service of the college\nfor women, yet it has not completely fulfilled its function ; for it is of the deepest\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "97\nSessions]\n\nCRO::>S'FURFOSES\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN\n\nimportance that the college woman, with her far-reaching influence, should,\nfrom the beginning, conceive the true proportions of a woman's education;\nthat her standard of liberal education for woman should include adequate\npreparation for her sacred and imperative task. But is it not true today that\nthe girl may complete her prescribed course in the academy or college, receiving with credit the diploma and degree, and yet may not have heard within the\nschool or college walls any reference to the tasks and responsibilities which her\nhome will bring to her ? Here are ''cross-purposes \" indeed; for does not this\nvery fact, this exclusion of such reference — and with it the ignoring by common\nconsent any study of subject which would fit her for her essential functionestablish a trend away from the proper consideration of such duties and responsibilities ?In our efforts to secure a generous education for women have we\nnot come to overemphasize and overestimate scholastic ability? to see it\nout of proportion to its advantage? to magnify schooling, and to minimize\nthe value of the qualities and of the knowledge which are essential to fullest\ndevelopment — and particularly that knowledge and those qualities upon which\nher success in her home administration will depend ? This deficiency in the\ntraining of our most intelligent women leads us all along the line to false estimates. We cannot expect the average parent to take much pains to insure in\nhis daughter's education the thing which the college despises. When public\nsentiment demands of the college woman the same consideration of and\npreparation for her greatest life work that the business man gives to his task,\nand the craftsman to his apprenticeship, it will not be diflScult to secure the\nestablishment of rational ideals in the elementary training. But so long as\npreparation for this highest function is incidentally secured, as we say in school,\nso long must we expect appropriate instruction to be postponed, and the\nschool task to assume greater importance than the life work.\nThe conflict of ideals is also evident in our discussion of industrial training.\nWe are in complete sympathy with its immediate purpose. Both men and\nwomen must be fitted for achievement. They must be \"not simply good, but\ngood for something. \" Independence and freedom of action, as well as the\nsatisfaction of material needs may depend upon the power of self-maintenance. Furthermore, the care of the family may fall upon the woman as well\n\nI\n\nas the man.\nHand and brain must be prepared for the world's work.\nAgain, the woman, from her home associations, must share in business\ninterests; her intelligent contribution to the family welfare often demands a\nclear comprehension of the principles involved in business and trade. She,\nas well as her brother, must learn the meaning of labor— must secure a just\nmeasure of vakcs— and judge fairly of adequate compensation for service\nrendered. On the other hand, success in business in these days often seems\n\nto depend upon qualities which are not in keeping with woman's highest\nservice. If competition in trade means disregard of the rights and privileges\nof others, she has something to lose in becoming accustomed to its atmosphere.\nThe scramble for material success, the full working-days, without margin\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor thought or repose, the necessary contact with the crowd, are more costly\nthan we realize. Often the free earning and free spending, with the accompanying independence, lead to a false measure of the necessities of life and\nunwillingness to enter upon the conditions of the simple home supported by a\nsmall income. Further, the quiet and the essential limitations of the home\noften seem insupportable to the woman who has been dependent upon the\nexcitement of the more public life, the coming and going, the frequent meeting\nof strangers, the so-called ''society.\" Does this not call for clear vision, wise\nchoosing, and ready renunciation of the lesser good ?\nAt best, women cannot prepare for their life work as men prepare for theirs.\nFor the fact cannot be ignored that this work may be abandoned after a brief\nservice for the administration of the home. If the term of service is short and\nthe workers must be frequently replaced, must we not assume logically that\nthe compensation will be limited by the instability of tenure ? And further,\nin her relation to business interests, where the need of the individual is forgotten in the demands of the common work, the woman's nature meets a serious\nproblem. Accustomed to share in the family life, to devote herself to its\ninterests, she carries a double burden. Illness or hardship in the home\narouses her sympathy and seems to demand her personal service. The contract obligation holds. She goes from home with an aching heart and fulfils\nher daily task under the deepest tension. The more womanly her instincts,\nthe more bitter this strife between the two obligations. The essential service\nof mother, sister, or wife may be thus frequently at war with the business\nobligation. Which is the more binding upon the woman? How can this\nproblem be solved ? Can it be deliberately ignored ?\nIt may be that the wage-earning woman will make clear to us that the\nhome-maker is likewise self-maintaining and not dependent. We shall learn,\nperhaps, to measure her service in the home at its true economic value. We\nmay learn also, in dispensing charity, to enable the mother to care for her\nchildren in her home, instead of providing the day nursery to care for them\nwhile she scrubs at the wash board or toils in the factory. When the wageearning and the home-making clash, to which side shall we send reinforcements ?\nWe shall agree, I am sure, that the characteristics which are essential to\nsuccessful home-making must not be forfeited for success in wage-earning.\nAdvantage in business must not cause the woman to forget the rights and\nprivileges of others. The lure of public life must not blind her to the higher\nprivileges of the family circle. The strife for material gain must not crowd\nout the '^spirit which giveth life.\" Personal ambition must with her yield\nplace to the joy of self-sacrifice.\nMay this not mean that she must consent to a second place in business, in\norder to maintain the first place in the home ? that she must abandon certain\nprivileges in the administration of the world's afiairs, in order to hold fast the\nstill greater privilege, won by the complete devotion of wife and mother ?\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nIMMIGRANT\n\nCHILD\n\nWhen we sufficiently honor the service which every good home renders to\nthe community; when we measure rightly the large opportunity for civic service\nwhich the home confers upon the educated woman, shall we not gladly sacrifice\nimmediate personal advantage and ambition for the privilege of the greater\nservice ?\nAccepting this standard, the school must necessarily provide suitable\nopportunities for appropriate training: for the poor girl in the tenement-house\ndistrict, house-keeping centers, where she may learn how a similar home may\nbe economically and wholesomely administered. For the grammar school,\na strand of elementary science and technical training which will make her\nfamiliar with the household arts, and so far as may be, the principles underlying them. Technical schools of household arts, for more complete training\nand related courses of science and art for high school and college which will\nprovide not only for preparation for home-keeping, but will also secure adequate provision for teachers of household science and art. And with these such\nstudy of the relation of the home and its administration to the problems of\neconomics and sociology as will set a finer standard and bring back into the\nhome the enlightened service of our most intelligent women.\nWith this clearer conception of woman's supreme service, and with this\nsignificant contribution from school and college, will disappear the present\ncross-purposes in the education of women.\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nJANE ADDAMS,\n\nFOUNDER\n\nAND\nOF\n\nTHE\nHULL\n\nIMMIGRANT\nHOUSE,\n\nCHILD\n\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\n{Stenographic report]\n\nI am always diffident when I come before a professional body of teachers,\nrealizing as I do that it is very easy for those of us who look on to bring indictments against results; and realizing also that one of the most difficult situations\nyou have to meet is the care and instruction of the immigrant child, especially\nas he is found where I see him, in the midst of crowded city conditions.\nAnd yet in spite of the fact that the public school is the great savior of the\nimmigrant district, and the one agency which inducts the children into the\nchanged conditions of American life, there is a certain indictment which may\njustly be brought, in that the public school too often separates the child from\nhis parents and widens that old gulf between fathers and sons which is never\nso cruel and so wide as it is between the immigrants who come to this country\nand their children who have gone to the public school and feel that they have\nthere learned it all. The parents are thereafter subjected to certain judgment, the judgment of the young which is always harsh and in this instance\nfounded upon the most superficial standard of Americanism. And yet there\nis a notion of culture which we would define as a knowledge of those things\nwhich have been long cherished by men, the things which men have loved\nbecause thru generations they have softened and interpreted life, and have\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nendowed it with value and meaning. Could this standard have been given\nrather than the things which they see about them as the test of so-called success, then we might feel that the public school has given at least the beginnings\nof culture which the child ought to have. At present the Italian child goes\nback to its Italian home more or less disturbed and distracted by the contrast\nbetween the school and the home. If he throws off the control of the home\nbecause it does not represent the things which he has been taught to value\nhe takes the first step toward the Juvenile Court and all the other operations\nof the law, because he has prematurely asserted himself long before he is ready\nto take care of his own affairs.\nWe find in the carefully prepared figures which Mr. Commons and other\nsociologists have published that while the number of arrests of immigrants\nis smaller than the arrests of native born Americans, the number of arrests\namong children of immigrants is twice as large as the number of arrests among\nthe children of native born Americans. It would seem that in spite of the\nenormous advantages which the public school gives to these children it in\nsome way loosens them from the authority and control of their parents,\nand tends to send them, without a sufficient rudder and power of self-direction,\ninto the perilous business of living. Can we not say, perhaps, that the schools\nought to do more to connect these children with the best things of the past, to\nmake them realize something of the beauty and charm of the language, the\nhistory, and the traditions which their parents represent. It is easy to cut them\nloose from their parents, it requires cultivation to tie them up in sympathy\nand understanding. The ignorant teacher cuts them off because he himself\ncannot understand the situation, the cultivated teacher fastens them because\nhis own mind is open to the charm and beauty of that old-country life. In\nshort, it is the business of the school to give to each child the beginnings of a\nculture so wide and deep and universal that he can interpret his own parents\nand countrymen by a standard which is world-wide and not provincial.\nThe second indictment which may be brought is the failure to place the\nchildren into proper relation toward the industry which they will later enter.\nMiss Arnold has told us that children go into industry for a very short time.\nI believe that the figures of the United States census show the term to be\nsomething like six years for the women in industry as over against twentyfour years for men, in regard to continuity of service. Yet. you cannot disregard\nthe six years of the girls nor the twenty-four years of the boys, because they\nare the immediate occupation into which they enter after they leave the school —\neven the girls are bound to go thru that period — that is, the average immigrant\ngirls are — ^before they enter the second serious business of life and maintain\nhomes of their own. Therefore, if they enter industry unintelligently, without\nsome notion of what it means, they find themselves totally unprepared for their\nfirst experience with American life, they are thrown out without the proper\nguide or clue which the public school might and ought to have given to them.\nOur industry has become so international, that it ought to be easy to use the\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "loi\n\nSessions]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nIMMIGRANT\n\nCHILD\n\nmaterials it offers for immigrant children. The very processes and general\nprinciples which industry represents give a chance to prepare these immigrant\nchildren in a way which the most elaborated curriculum could not present.\nOrdinary material does not give the same international suggestion as industrial\nmaterial does.\nThird, I do not believe that the children who have been cut off from their\nown parents are going to be those who, when they become parents themselves, will know how to hold the family together and to connect it with the\nstate. I should begin to teach the girls to be good mothers by teaching them\nto be good daughters. Take a girl whose mother has come from South Italy.\nThe mother cannot adjust herself to the changed condition of housekeeping,\ndoes not know how to wash and bake here, and do the other things which she\nhas always done well in Italy, because she has suddenly been transported from\na village to a tenement house. If that girl studies these household conditions\nin relation to the past and to the present needs of the family, she is undertaking the very best possible preparation for her future obligations to a household of her own. And to my mind she can undertake it in no better way.\nHer own children are mythical and far away, but the little brothers and sisters\npull upon her affections and her loyalty, and she longs to have their needs\nrecognized in the school so that the school may give her some help. Her\nmother complains that the baby is sick in America because she cannot milk\nher own goat; she insists if she had her own goat's milk the baby would be\nquite well and flourishing, as the children were in Italy. If that girl can be\ntaught that the milk makes the baby ill because it is not clean and be provided\nwith a simple test that she may know when milk is clean, it may take her into\nthe study not only of the milk within the four walls of the tenement house,\nbut into the inspection of the milk of her district. The milk, however, remains\ngood educational material, it makes even more concrete the connection which\nyou would be glad to use between the household and the affairs of the American\ncity. Let her not follow the mother's example of complaining about changed\nconditions; let her rather make the adjustment for her mother's entire household. We cannot tell what adjustments the girl herself will be called upon to\nmake ten years from now; but we can give her the clue and the aptitude to\nadjust the family with which she is identified to the constantly changing conditions of city life. Many of us feel that, splendid as the public schools are\nin their relation to the immigrant child, they do not understand all of the\ndifficulties which surround that child— all of the moral and emotional perplexities which constantly harass him. The children long that the school teacher\nshould know something about the lives their parents lead and should be\n. able to reprove the hooting children who make fun of the Italian mother\nbecause she wears a kerchief on her head, not only because they are rude but\nalso because they are stupid. We send young people to Europe to see Italy,\nbut we do not utilize Italy when it lies about the schoolhouse. If the body\nof teachers in our great cities could take hold of the immigrant colonies,\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncould bring out of them their handicrafts and occupations, their traditions,\ntheir folk songs and folk lore, the beautiful stories which every immigrant\ncolony is ready to tell and translate; could get the children to bring these\nthings into school as the material from which culture is made and the material\nupon which culture is based, they would discover that by comparison that\nwhich they give them now is a poor meretricious and vulgar thing. Give\nthese children a chance to utilize the historic and industrial material which\nthey see about them and they will begin to have a sense of ease in America, a\nfirst consciousness of being at home. I believe if these people are welcomed\nupon the basis of the resources which they represent and the contributions\nwhich they bring, it may come to pass that these schools which deal with\nimmigrants will find that they have a wealth of cultural and industrial material\nwhich will make the schools in other neighborhoods positively envious. A\ngirl living in a tenement household, helping along this tremendous adjustment,\nhealing over this great moral upheaval which the parents have suffered and\nwhich leaves them bleeding and sensitive — such a girl has a richer experience\nand a finer material than any girl from a more fortunate household can have\nat the present moment.\nI wish I had the power to place before you what it seems to me is the\nopportunity that the immigrant colonies present to the public school: the\nmost endearing occupation of leading the little child, who will in turn lead his\nfamily, and bring them with him into the brotherhood for which they are\nlonging. The immigrant child cannot make this demand upon the school\nbecause he does not know how to formulate it; it is for the teacher both to\nperceive it and to fulfil it.\nTHE\nELLA\n\nSCHOOL\nFLAGG\n\nAND\n\nYOUNG,\n\nTHE\n\nPRACTICE\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nCHICAGO\n\nOF ETHICS\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe nineteenth century was a century of progress. Its progress did not\nlie, however, in finished achievements. Every type of invention and every\nform of human endeavor bequeathed by the nineteenth century to the twentieth\nare but suggestions of possibilities not yet attained. The roll of inventions is\nlong; and because of its length some assume that all the needs of mankind\nwill soon be fulfilled. If the electric car, the phonograph, the X-rays, and all\nother inventions depended for their future upon mankind's needs only, it might\nbe possible that their history could now be written. The inventor and the\nbuilder, however, were not the first in the fields of electricity, acoustics, and\nradio-activity. They were preceded by the scientists, the theorists who had\ndeveloped fundamental conceptions of the forces of nature and their modes of\naction. From these conceptions scientists have thru experimentation been\nable to standardize nature's forces and state working hypotheses for the\nways in which those forces will act. It is the conceptions of the forces of\nnature, their limitations and possibilities, called the laws of nature, that are\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPRACTICE\n\nOF\n\nETHICS\n\nback of the marvelous inventions and works in the world of human industry,\nand of more marvelous ones than have yet been wrought out. The great\nconceptions are elemental and their suggestions are numberless.\nIn like manner, conceptions of the powers of the human being and the\nmodes of growth of these powers are influencing teachers to new methods\nand new subjects. These conceptions are far-reaching and they originate in\nphilosophic minds. They contain, imbedded in their general, abstract statement, suggestions for the gifted teacher; suggestions of the laws underlying\nthe forces in childhood and youth. It is by the comprehension of these\nforces and the laws controlling them that we teachers may devise (or as it\nwould be expressed in the industrial world, may invent) that organization of\nthe schoQl which will help to the best solution of the problems of contemporary\nlife. We have not yet so fully grasped the conception of development in childhood and youth as stated by the nineteenth -century philosopher as the inventors\nand the captains of industry have grasped the conception of the forces of nature\nas stated by the scientist. There is one conception in philosophy that will yet\ninfluence the social world more than the speculations about electricity, light,\nand heat have affected the industrial world. I mean the conception that\ncharacter develops in childhood thru the exercise, the activity, of the ethical\njudgment.\nThe American home and the American school more than those of any\nother country stand for independent action in childhood. But conduct may\nbe independent of authority and yet not be ethical. That such is the condition in America is shown in the resolutions adopted by this Association last\nyear at Los Angeles and by the general tenor of editorials in newspapers and\narticles in magazines. It is my purpose to consider wherein the theory of\nindependent judgment fails, even tho America has taken an advance posi,tion in the matter of moral training; to consider the effort within the school\nto fit children and young people to meet the demands which life will make\nupon their ethical nature, and in doing this I shall have in mind the\nconception of character developing in childhood thru the exercise of the\nethical judgment.\nEthics is the study of conduct from the standpoint of right, of duty, of\nresponsibility, of goodness. Ethical training is the cultivation of the judgment\nof values in conduct. This judgment of values in conduct is always an expression of the character of the judger. All through this country, questions bearing on work, value in conduct, are discussed in the schools. That which is,\nthe actual conduct, is tried, measured, by the children's and by the students'\nopinions of what ought to be, their ideals of honesty, kindness, generosity.\nAnd yet, on every hand, there is adverse criticism and reflection on the training of the young American. There are two standpoints from which the work\nof the school is judged: one, that from which is weighed the power of the\nelementary- or the high-school graduate to give valuable service in the field of\nlabor; and the other, that from which is tested the morality, the character,\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand conduct of the young people in assuming responsibility and in interpreting\ntheir duties to others.\nInspection of courses of study in the various parts of the country shows a\ngradual disappearance of direct instruction in ethics. Many persons who are\nnot familiar with the public elementary and high schools, except as these\nschools were a quarter of a century ago or as they are outlined on paper, infer\nthat there is neither religious nor ethical training in them. This is a great\nmistake. In every public school, there is memorizing of literary selections,\nof poems, and of addresses that are replete with ethical or religious sentiment.\nIn the upper grades of the elementary school and in the classes in literature\nin the high schools much attention is given to the discussion of novels, poems,\nand dramas with the stress laid upon the ethical element involved. So common is the tendency to condense the comprehensiveness of the entire book or\npoem studied into the ethical lesson taught, that professors of literature in the\ncolleges and universities sometimes complain that literature is analyzed as a\nvehicle for ethics instead of being *'a work of literary art interpreting life.\"\nThe order of progression in the use of literature should be, first, the experience, and then the poem or selection that will afford a larger, a richer, and a\nmore suggestive setting for it.\nIn teaching ethics there should be a like method of procedure. There\nwould be the expression of the impulses to selfishness, to greediness, to\ngenerosity, and these impulses would be modified by other impulses and\nmotives; but always out of the original emotions should the children be led\nto the appreciation of the ethical situation; be led to the ideal of the virtue\nwhich we would have them embody in' their lives. The wise mother does\nnot teach her four-year old child courage, or generosity, or truthfulness by a\nword-picture about courage or generosity or truthfulness. She takes the hand\nof the little one in hers and helps him to a feeling of pleasure in overcoming fear\nand courageously advancing toward what has been a fearful thing. She alluringly sympathizes in the generosity as the little one shares his food or his\nplaythings with another. In this simple way she begins to train the ethical\njudgment of her child. It is in moral activity, as in intellectual, that our ideas\nand ideals are developed.\n^\njs\nThe history of education in the nineteenth century is one of experimentation\nin devising means in the elementary school for founding knowledge in experience. In the high school, the science laboratory and the manual-training\nshop have been introduced as means to the end sought. But, if the problem\nof founding intellectual knowledge of science and art and literature in experience isas yet too deep for the school, what shall one say of the possibility in\nthe school of founding in experience ideals of conduct ? The very conditions\nunderlying the school organization make almost fruitless the conception of\ncharacter-developing in childhood thru the exercise of the ethical judgment.\nIt is true that changes have been made in the organization which has been\npassed down to the twentieth century. In America, the relations between\nteacher and pupils have been materially modified. These changed relations have\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nb\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPRACTICE\n\nOF\n\nETHICS\n\niqc\n\nbeen construed by a few writers on education as indicative of what they\ncall\nmollycoddling. The fact is that the ideal of the good teacher has been influenced bythe democratic theory that governments derive their just powers from\nthe consent of the governed. So, in a singularly intricate situation, the teacher\nfinds himself constituting the government, with absolutely no reference to the\nwishes ot those to be governed, and yet under the necessity of maintaining\nthe position that the pupils consent to the government. The democratic\ntheory of government may halt occasionally, confused when a sharp\nand unexpected regulation arouses a spirit of discontent or opposition; but\nthat the wheels of government are set going thru discussion and explanation\nof the command or regulation in no way suggests, to one who is familiar\nwith American children or young people, that the government is maintained by\nmollycoddling.\nIn the idea of the derivation of power from the consent of the governed\nthere is a movement in the direction of founding the social judgment in the\nemotions and in co-operative action. But immediately upon entering into a\nconsideration of the virtues which are cultivated in the school, we find the\ntheory to be individualistic. Punctuality in attendance, promptness in the\nperformance of duties, honest endeavor to prepare lessons independently of\nsurreptitious aids, application to tasks, are all qualities desirable in large\nmeasure in every member of society. Without these qualifications developed\nin its members society would be in a state of uncertainty as regards what to\nexpect in the way of habitual response to engagements to do or to be. The selfcontrol of the boys and girls who in their school career live up to the standard\nof conduct fixed by the school should not be underestimated. This standard,\nhowever, lacks that subtle element which is indispensable to life — the element of\ngrowth.\nThere is prevalent the notion that at the age of forty years or more one*s\nideals of honesty, truth, generosity are less true, are more tinctured with selfseeking than in the earlier years, especially the years between fifteen and\ntwenty-five. It may be a mistake to conclude that the earlier ideals were not\ngenuine; but to say that they lacked the vitality which insures growth would\nnot be amiss. How to develop the ethical judgment so that the ideals shall\ndeepen and give true value to the experiences of life is, for the school, a question of the deepest import.\nWriters on ethical training usually divide the school in its influence on\ncharacter-building into two parts; first, the classroom, with its regular, orderly\nlife, in which stress is laid on punctuality, industry, obedience, quiet; second,\nthe playground, with its democratic life, in which are acquired knowledge of\nhuman nature, self-reliance, friendship, and a sense of obligation to play fair.\nIn other words, the schoolroom affords opportunity for the individual to acquire\npower to stand alone, while the school yard or playground presents conditions\nthat facilitate growth in action with other persons.\nOne does not understand those writers to imply that the work in the school-\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nroom consciously limits the training to things intellectual and to each individual inisolation, and that the playground purposely trains in a knowledge\nof the social virtues. They are usually endeavoring to show that the individual and the social training are secured by means of the two divisions of the\nschool. It is interesting to note that the equilibrium of the children as individuals and as members of society is secured in two distinct situations. In\none, \"the teacher manipulates the class as a whole. He knows how to bring\nevery part of it to the support of every other part. \" In the other situation\nthe children initiate and control the movements of all parts.\nThe assumption that these two divisions provide individual and social\ntraining is one of the reasons why the school does not make effective in its\nclassrooms the conception of character developing in childhood thru the\nexercise of the ethical judgment. Much stress is laid upon the value of class\nrecitation in that the teacher probes the statements of the pupil reciting, and\nthen holds the other members of the class responsible for correction of all\nmistakes made and for omissions; and also in that the children learn by\ndetecting and correcting the blunders of the dull and the indolent. Outside of\nschool we think a child ill-natured if he calls attention to the flaws in the work\nof another child, but we admire his character if he studies to assist another who\nfails to understand a question In school the boys and girls have no responsibility for the improvement of one who has not reached the level of the class in\nbehavior or learning. To be good is to ignore his existence. Out of school,\nhe may be a subject for attention and help.\nThe attitude of the school toward the ethical judgment when subjects in\nknowledge are under consideration is amazing. Knowledge is unlike material\nthings. Two people cannot have the same dollar and each spend it; but they\ncan have Lincoln's address at Gettysburg and each one give it to hundreds of\nother people. The richness, the depth, the value of the history of the discovery\nof America may vary in as many degrees as there are children in a class. These\nvariations originate in the different experiences of the different children, in the\ndifferent predominating types of imagery, and in their powers in thought. An\nideal school is not one in which the teacher probes, and children watch the\ndissection, pouncing upon the mistakes. It is one in which the members\ngain strength and individuality thru co-operative effort to help make the\nbit of knowledge the common possession, as full and complete as possible.\nThis united effort is not a shouting of many answers from which the teacher\nselects the best. That travesty of co-operation gives neither mental nor moral\nresponse.\nIn recent years, experiments looking toward the unification of the children\nand teachers have been made in different places. The experimenting schools\nhave been known sometimes as the school city, sometimes as the self-governing school, sometimes as a school under student control. These experiments\nhave originated in a recognition, by the teachers, of the individualistic training\nof the school life and of the need for awakening in the children a sense of\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPRACTICE\n\nOF\n\nETHICS\n\n107\n\nresponsibility in making the school what it should be. The teachers have\nas I understand the principles underlying the self-governing schools, maintained the same method of questioning, probing, and dissecting that is common\nin intellectual work with classes of the old type. The self-governing idea has\nbeen in large measure isolated from the classroom instruction. Instead of the\nchildren's learning helpfulness, generosity, politeness, \"truthfubess, and fair\ndealing thru interactivity in class, they practice it as responsible members\nin another part of the school— in the government; the teachers, on the other\nhand, efface themselves in the management of the yards, halls, or corridors,\nand in certain prescribed meetings. Official position, voting, punishing by\nmeans of committees of children — in short, the machinery of governmentwould seem to be too prominent.\nOf course the children get some benefit thereby. The men and women\nconducting the experiment are in advance of those of us who sit dumbly\naccepting whatever has been established, whether it be good or bad. But, do\nnot the experiments come under the methods of socialism, ignoring the\nfunction of the teacher as a leader in training the conduct of the boys and\ngirls outside the classroom ? That a committee of children shall pick up the\nscraps of paper is not so valuable in the life of the village, town, or city, as that\nthe teachers and children keep the premises tidy by not creating untidiness.\nThe mild rudeness of high-school boys and girls in the corridors and in the\nstreets when starting in large numbers from the school house are indications,\nnot of the need for pupil monitors, or aldermen, in the school halls and yard,\nbut of the crying need for the association of the teachers with the pupils in a\nrelation that makes the culture and urbanity of the teacher energies that cooperate with the crudity and vivacity of the boys and gurls.\nFor teachers and parents to withdraw from the social gatherings, the\ndebates, the games of the children and young people is to confess to an unsympathetic attitude toward the social nature of childhood and youth. More\nthan that, it is to leave the training of the ethical judgment to chance. Not\nonly in work but in amusements also may the ethical judgment and the character be formed. All of our acts involve a recognition of our relation to other\npeople; but those acts are not necessarily ethical. When children and young\npeople find their amusements entirely in the company of those of about their\nown age and away from adults, many forms of conduct and attitudes toward\nothers are acquired thru imitation of the assertive ways of the leading\nspirits. They do not consciously carry themselves rudely, insensible to the\nwelfare of others; they conform to the behavior of their set and so behave in\nthe manner congenial to the self-willed leaders. Without direction, without\nconscious deliberation, the cue is taken from the usual conduct of the crowd,\nand we have what is known as the American type.\nIt is not segregation of girls as in Turkey that we need. It is not duennas\nand chaperons whom the young people ofttimes study to outwit, that will\nrefine and elevate the American type. We must make effective the conception\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof character developing thru the exercise of the ethical judgment. Parents\nand teachers must interest themselves in the activities of the young; not alone\nby furnishing the means for enjoyment and for work, but by keeping alive,\nthru participation and association, a relation between the young and the\nmature. If teachers act as repressive forces at games, clubs, and other forms\nof social activities of the young people, then the question arises: What is the\nrelation between those teachers and their pupils or students ?\nIn affairs of a truly intellectual nature, we appreciate the final test of the\nstrength of the individual to be the power of judging the conditions that control\nthe subject-matter. If we could get away from the notion that our ideas\nabout things right and wrong are intuitive, and that, altho our conceptions\nof veracity, justice, compassion, benevolence, are valid in experience, they are\nyet beyond the realm of experience and knowledge, we should have a responsibility in training the ethical judgment similar to that we now appreciate in\ntraining the intellectual judgment. There is another reason for our hesitation\nin recognizing our responsibility for making conditions give play to the ethical\njudgment. We share the popular belief that the moral judgment is cold and\nunsympathetic. Feeling that in affairs of life it is necessary that sympathy\nbe aroused if one is to receive his just dues, we try to stir the imagination\nthru situations outside the experience, hoping to arouse the emotion of\nsympathy thereby. The fact is, that in genuine situations the emotions\nwould be stirred, and then the imagination and the judgment, and, as we all\nknow, the character, the sum total of the motives and aspirations of the judger,\nwould become a part of the material on which he or she would pass judgment.\nIt is right here that sympathy, the movement of the disposition, the character,\nalong the line of action begins. Such judgment, the result of the character, all\nthat the boy or girl is, deciding upon action that satisfies his or her understanding ofthe great principles of honesty, justice, fairness, kindness, purity,\nwill react into the character and make it stronger, more sympathetic, truer.\nSuch training of the ethical judgment can develop only out of work and\namusement in which there arise critical situations that command the conscious and sincere effort of the boy or girl to influence the situation by the\nactivity in judging. Here and there great teachers have lived with the children\nand young people in the learning and the playing, developing both the scientific\nand the ethical judgments. How to do it in the fluctuating membership of\ncrowded schoolrooms is the greatest question ever set for us. When our own\nethical judgment shall have become surer, thru activity in the life of the\nschool, then shall we find the solution of what now seems to be an unsolvable\nproblem.\nTHE\nANDREW\n\nF. WEST,\n\nPERSONAL\nDEAN\n\nTOUCH\n\nOF GRADUATE\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPRINCETON\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThere are three questions which are the inevitable and fundamental questions inthe education of every human being. They are his relation to the world\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "b\n\nSessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nTOUCH\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\njog\n\nhe lives in, his relation to his fellow-men, and to his own self. And there arc\nthree great classes of study which predominantly, or more than other studies,\naim to provide answers to these questions. Man's place in the world of nature\nis the problem to which science attempts the answer, and man's place among\nhis fellow -men is the problem to which what we may call history, in the large\nsense, attempts the answer. And man's own nature, his own expression, his\nrange of thought and feeling and action, is the problem to which what we may\ncall literature, in the large sense, attempts the answer. Yet in all three problems there is just one common element— the man himself; and self-knowledge,\nwhether it be in reference to man's place in nature or among his fellows or\ndirectly of himself, remains the one central, deepest knowledge the best education can give. And when the three problems of education are focused and\nviewed with reference to this one common element, our human nature, there\nemerges for every human being, slowly gathering strength with the years, taking tone and deep color with experience, what we may call his philosophy of\nlife, his ascertained general principles of thought and action. When that is\ndone, the work of education is done for him, so far as it can be done. And\nany other questions unsettled, unsolved — imperious as they are — must be\nanswered from the deeper region of religion. But religion and education,\nwhile inseparably connected, are different questions — and the one practical\ncenter of everyone's education is the purely human problem, namely, his own\nself. He must begin with himself and find himself truly, if ever he is to succeed in finding truly his place among his fellow-men and his relation to the\nworld of nature. Education is thus first, last, and always a personal question.\nAnd the great teacher is the man of great personality, in whom nobility means\nmore than attainments, and therefore the man whose personal touch upon the\nstudent is sure to be quickening and ennobling. Any other teacher than this\nmust be judged a failure, no matter what his scholarly attainments. Not that\nhe should be an ignoramus, for he must know surely and clearly the subjects\nhe is teaching, but he must know even more profoundly and sympathetically\nthe objects he is teaching, namely, the other human beings, his pupils, for\nwhom he is guide and leader.\nIf this be true, as I devoutly believe it is, then the old saying of Pope that\n\"The proper study of mankind is man,\" the proper knowledge for each of us\nis self-knowledge, the highest conquest is self-conquest, receives new emphasis. And should it not be so ? Yet are we not today too much in danger of\nbeing diverted from knowing ourselves, our own personalities, our own capacities, to the things that are outer, to things that are indeed related to us, but\nyet are not ourselves. And particularly, to narrow the question sharply down\nto the domain of school and college and university education,' are we not more\nand more, with the growth of numbers, with the growth of appliances, with the\ngrowth of machinery, with the growth of devices, losing sight of the individual\nstudent or teacher, losing sight of the individual human soul, and dealing with\nit in herds and masses and aggregates ? I think that is true. U there ever\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwas a country in the world that has shown capacity for organization, in education as well as outside of it, that country is our own. If there ever was a place\nwhere machinery of all sorts, intellectual, social, commercial and physical,\nwas invented and developed and differentiated beyond all expectation of past\ngenerations, it is right here. And what I think is happening in our schools\nand colleges, and has been happening for the last twenty-five years, is that we\nhave become worshipers of organization, worshipers of machinery, worshipers\nof plans and devices and rules and formulas, instead of discoverers of the\nindividual student, finders of human souls, fishers of men.\nLet us keep to this theme. If it be true that personality is the be-all and\nend-all of school education, if it be true that a man's character is more than\nhis attainments, if it be true that it is more important for every boy to become\n''his own man\" than it is to become anything else, then it seems to me there\nare a few things we can say in regard to the loss of that personal touch in\nteaching — or rather, let me say more hopefully, in regard to the reviving, the\nrestoration, and reimposing of that personal touch in teaching — on which the\nbest results must forever depend.\nSomeone will say at once, ''You cannot take every boy and every girl,\none by one.\" Of course, we cannot; it is not desirable that we should. I\nfully believe that the institution which, for want of a better name, we will call\na school — a combination, a body of pupils assembled under teachers with\ndefinite rules — ^would be necessary if we had limitless means and teachers of\nthe most perfect power. Why ? Because one of the three problems, as I have\nsaid, is not only for the boy to find himself in education, but to find his place\namong his fellows; and there the school comes in superbly and necessarily\nas the intermediate training-place between him and the larger society of the\nworld. And so we shall always need schools and classes and a certain minimum of machinery; for the class is just as necessary for one part of education\nas individual instruction is for the other part of education. Let us see how\nit works. First of all, there are classes of students, according to age and\nproficiency. There is your student of tenderest years, your boy or girl a little\nolder, your boy or girl in a high school, your student in college — and so\non. Then, too, all students of the same age are not naturally \"in the\nsame class,\" either in point of brightness or energy or proficiency. So\na second classification is needed among students of like age. We all admit\nthat. Then comes another classification, due to the fact that ev^ery student\ncan take and should take more than one study at a time. I am one of\nthose who believe that very few students can take more than four or five\nthings and do any justice to them; but let us admit, at any rate, that a few\nthings should be studied simultaneously by everyone. So there you come\nagain to the question of classification of students, not only by age and attainments, but classification by allotment to the several subjects of study they\npursue. But what subjects of study? Only a few of the best things; and\nthese things, in the main, must be chosen for the student — chosen by those\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nTOUCH\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\nwho do know, not by those who do not know, whkt are and what are\nnot the\nthings of central and fundamental worth. There are things of less worth\nthings of more worth, things of still greater worth,\nthings of supreme worth'\nAU studies are not equally valuable, any more than and\nall men are equally sensible!\nAnd let us say in passing that this remains true, no matter how insistently\ncertain studies are given equality of space in school programs. CaUing them\nequal does not make them so.\nClassification, then, is needed, because schools are needed: classes of\nstudents and classes of studies. Have we not done all that ? Have we not\n\"graded\" our schools lengthwise and crosswise all the way ''from the gutter\nto the university,\" as Huxley put it ? Have we not done all that again and\nagain in finest elaboration ? Has not our country spent lots of money on\nbuildings and playgrounds and salaries and textbooks and every variety and\nassortment of equipment, useful and useless ? Have we not today a great\ndeal to show for it, a great deal of good ? Indeed, we have— a vast deal of\nenergy, of almost crusading enthusiasm, but with it all an almost pathetic\nbelief in systems of routine, in the outside scaffolding rather than in the inside\nbuilding. We are working too far on the outside and from the outside, and\ndoing it by machinery. Is the \"young idea\" to be wakened to literature?\nThen \"carefully graded\" selections of \"memory gems\" are set on his mind to\nadorn it. Is he to learn numbers ? Behold the colored joss-sticks that are\nused to teach him to count. His education is laid on him in set patterns, like\nfresco color in stencil on plaster. The trouble today with our American\neducation, from the kindergarten to the university, is that the tendency of our\nsystem is to make the teacher no longer a teacher having individual personal\npower, but part of a monotonous machine. Thus organization and devices\nand appliances, and the fads and novelties, which are in fact little more\nthan unreasoned aberrations of discontent with the monotony, become in\nthe eyes of many the be-all and end-all of education. Even the system of\nclasses of scholars and the system of classes of studies, needful as it is, dev^elops\nits own evil. This evil has been somewhat grimly called the \"lock-step\" in\neducation; classes turned out all of a pattern, classes turned out with their\ndistinguishing stamp, not the variety of excellence, but flat mediocrity — all alike\nnot merely in the things wherein they ought to be alike, but in the things wherein they ought to be unlike.\nNow, the things that should be freest, it seems to me, ought never to be\nmade subject to constraint, and among the things that should be freest are the\nnatural actions of the human mind in study. If it is not the pupil's own act,\nif it is not the pupil's own impulse, then it is outside him, and all the machinery\nand regulations and rules we make will fail to make it his possession for life;\nan effective, powerful force in everything he thinks and does. And so I want\nto plead a moment, if I may, for the introduction of more of the personal\ntouch into the regular class teaching. An easy thing to say, but how hard to\ndo. How can it be done ? Well, to begin with, the very perfection of the\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ngrading system of our schools, considered as a piece of machinery, suggests\nat once the way. We are now able in American schools, except the smallest,\nto have our different sections or divisions of classes homogeneous. Wherever\nthat is secured, and classes of ten, fifteen, or twenty sit before you, each composed of pupils of either the highest or mediocre or lower type, you then have\nan opportunity which you could not have with a mere miscellany before you,\nbecause those who sit before you are near enough alike to flock together, to be\nwithin hail and call, and to be within measurable reach of whatever instruction\nis adapted to any particular one in that class. This means a great deal.\nUnder such favorable circumstances, already secured, the thing to do is to\nchange radically the mode of recitation. Of course, we all try to make a\nrecitation something else than simply hearing the pupils say over and over\nagain imperfectly what they do not know. Yet how many recitations have\nbeen almost necessarily of that character — ^not because the teacher wanted\nit so, but because the machinery almost compelled it. Recitation is the oldest\nart in education. It goes back to the very birth of teaching, and the true father\nof teaching was the philosopher Socrates. I wonder if his dialectic method is\nnot too much in disregard. Yet it is really the one sure way of teaching. And\nwhat is there in it ? Just two things : first, to make clear to a whole class or\nsingle pupil what are the things he does not know about a particular subject.\nSecondly, to make clear to that pupil what is the particular scrap of knowledge\nhe does possess, and then on that little, tiny piece of knowledge rescued out of\noblivion, to build other knowledge, and thus out of the pupil's own striving\nand making to develop still more knowledge. Now it seems to me this cannot\nbe done effectually where the effort is to get up as many pupils as possible in\neach period and hear them. It cannot be done by sending a whole lot of boys\nor girls to the blackboard and letting each of them work an example, or a\nwhole string of examples. But it should be done, to a large extent, in this way :\nBy making the whole class which is before you learn by means of the performance of one pupil who is reciting. I don't know how to put this clearly, perhaps, and yet it is something as follows: It means that in a school period very,\nvery few are called up to recite. It means that a pupil is selected for the\npurpose, is asked to read or explain something, and that his performance is\nmade the center of instruction for all the others. It means that he is to be\nencouraged to say what it is he does not know, irrespective of marks. It means\nthat, as his self-confessed ignorance comes out, the little implications of knowledge he has also come out in his recitation. There are ten, twenty, or thirty\nother boys or girls seated about, perhaps with notebooks and pencils, taking\ndown points for themselves, or at least on the alert with any question they may\nhave, watching the mistakes the ''other fellow\" has made in his attempts to\nget out his lesson, and suggesting corrections or alterations, catching your\nremarks '*on the fly,\" and all on the jump to respond to anything the teacher\nmay say.\nNow, it seems to me, that method of instruction, which I am told is a very\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nTOUCH\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nancient one, practiced among the Hindoos ages ago, is sure to be most stimulating. That I, the teacher, act by means of a second person, a pupil, on twenty\nothers, means there is really a little friendly trial for mastery going on.\nThe\nquick give-and-take, the little responses, the sudden thrills, the wakening start\nthat occasions a questioning in this dull mind here and that sluggish mind\nthere, are all brought out by using the single reciting pupil as the instrument\nin the hands of the teacher for teaching all the others. Just as a sympathetic\nartist can take a violin and play on it to the delight of an audience, so can the\ngreat teacher in this way, by applying the personal touch in teaching, make\nout of that individual pupil the instrument on which he shall play and by which\nhe shall move the entire class.\nBut then, there is a second thing in regard to the personal touch in teaching.\nAfter all has been done that can be done in the way of class instruction, I am\nsure we have not done our whole duty, because the varieties of mind are so\nmany and diversities of circumstance, of origin, of opportunity are so endless,\nthat hardly any group of twenty or thirty boys that will sit before us will be, or\nought to be, fully homogeneous. This is most true in every school in regard\nto the newly received pupils. The first few months are needed to get them\ninto shape. They are so different, they are so diverse; they don't quite go\ntogether; they don't quite understand each other or the teacher; a common\nsympathy has not been established; a common consciousness has not been\ndeveloped. And even after it is developed, there still remain the laggards,\nthose who stray to the side, the eccentric, the fitful, the boy of weak will, the boy\nof perverse will. The attention we have to give to these irregular students is\nvastly out of proportion to the number of the other students and the attention\nthey receive. Then, too, there is the boy of rare gifts and high desires. He\nmust not be unnoticed — ^for he may turn out to be worth a hundred others.\nAnd so I think the personal touch must be supremely exerted in a second way,\nand that is by individual instruction after the tutorial method. What is there\nmysterious about it? Something, I am sure. Suppose you and I talk to\neach other alone. There are but two of us. Is there anything so intimate in\nthe exchange of thought as that conversation of one person with another, that\none-to-one meeting, the face-to-face vision, that closest intimacy of all thinking, where, as Tennyson says.\nThought leaps out to wed with thought\nEre thought can wed itself with speech.\n\nAnd so the more we can get to talking or dealing with the individual boy and\ngirl singly, the closer we come to their particular needs; the more intimate,\nthe more sympathetic, the more friendly, the more lasting is the effect. Has\nit not been so always ? The greatest students in this world have been formed\none by one by great masters. It is an old figure, but is it not almost literally\ntrue, that the runner carrying the torch of knowledge hands it on to one other,\nand he to the next, and so on to the next ? And anything that brings the student close to the teacher, so that he feels that he has an immediate access, not\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nas one of a crowd, not as one of a company, but as an intimate trusted younger\nfriend, seems to me is going to double and treble and quadruple the progress\nof that student. You say, ''Very good, but how is it to be done? It is an\nenormously expensive thing, and we are doing all we can now.\" So we are\nwith what we have, in the way we are doing it. But I venture to suggest that\nan improvement can be made with little or no expense for introducing this\ntutorial system in the schools. The germ of it is already at work in some of our\nschools, and most satisfactorily, by the employment of the so-called pupilteacher. How shall I put it ? Suppose you take any school with its number\nof weekly exercises. Then let us subtract from those weekly exercises onefourth. Take the risk. It seems a great risk, but it is not so great as it seems.\nHand over those class-periods for this other purpose. You say, **Yes, but\nwhere are the teachers ? \" Where but in the upper grades ? Where but among\nthose who have already nearly finished their school work with high success ?\nThere will be in a large school of a thousand, let us say, perhaps fifty such\nboys and girls, in the last year or two of the course, who could be relieved from\nsome of the routine and assigned to some of these defective, irregular students,\nat any rate. In some schools more could be done. It does seem to me that\nthe chance of doing good is so great that it is well worth while to try that\nmethod. We need not hesitate. I have seen the experiment of trying the\npreceptorial teaching in my own college in the last four years. We cut off\nabout one-fourth of the class exercises and assigned that fourth to this intimate,\npersonal conference; and I do not hesitate to say that the result has been that\nthe lowest part of the class has disappeared, and not by destruction but by its\nelevation. I can hardly tell you what a transformation it has made in the rank\nand file of our students to find that they have personal friends to whom they\nmay go, who do not mark them, but who are their guides and their counselors,\nwho reenforce \"on the side\" the instruction of the classroom. It is that personal nearness which enables the preceptor to fit his counsel and help to the\nspecial need of the student.\nIf the fault of purely individual education has been that it overlooks the\nneed of class instruction, the training of men in their great common resemblances, which must always be a fundamental thing; if at the same time the\nfault of exclusive class instruction is that it neglects the peculiarities and difficulties ofindividuals — then it seems to me the solution of the question is to\nhave and keep both class instruction and individual instruction, making\nthe class instruction the fundamental thing, animated, toned, and adapted,\nhowever, in the class teaching by the close personal mode of recitation, and\nthen make the tutorial teaching the supplementary and reenforcing thing.\nThus you will solve the problem of teaching the student in relation to his\nfellows and in his own self. Then we may remove from the class teaching\nall the little irritations and difficulties due to the peculiarities of one and\nanother pupil, and transfer them to the proper place for treatment; for hospital\ntreatment, if necessary.\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nTOUCH\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\n„-\n\nHere it seems to me is the place where the American school education, and\ncollege education too, may receive new vitalization. That vitalization is to be\ngained by fostering strong individuality both in teacher and in scholar— but\nin the teacher first. I feel more than I can tell, that if we are suffering as a\ncountry, notwithstanding all our achievements and exertions, we are suffering\nfrom the lack of independent individual strength in men. Men are getting\ntoo subservient to public opinion; they are too willing to be run by machines,\nor to be a part of machinery. They are too willing to be led rather than to\nlead; they are too willing to take their opinions at second hand rather than at\nfirst hand. In things political and things religious, as in things educational,\nit does seem to be a fact (and let us be our own severe critics in this) that the\nAmerican people is too much in the way of taking the \"lockstep\" in everything.\nFor the sake of our country is it not a great deal better that every boy in\nour schools should have the utmost provision made for him, even if it entail\nvast expense, so that the most sacred thing in all education, his own self, shall\nbe invigorated, lifted, rescued, perfected, and ennobled by that personal touch\nin teaching ? And so it all comes back to the personality of the teacher. Give\nme a good teacher, a good man or a good woman of noble nature, and I am\ncomparatively indifferent to his or her scholarly attainments. The attainments will follow, like the \"other things\" added when the Kingdom of Heaven\nis sought first. Of what use, for educating our boys and girls, would it be to\nhave the most gifted historian or linguist or physicist or teacher of any art, if\nthat teacher is himself a small-natured, mean-natured, close-natured, littlenatured soul ? For educational purposes of what use is it in science, in philosophy, in anything, that men should make their discoveries, if the men who\nteach these things to students really amount to very little in themselves ? The\nmain effect on the student is the effect of the man.\nI do not care much for the scientific conclusions or the philosophical conclusions or the literary performances of men of poor judgment or bad taste\nor selfish nature. I distrust them because they are the observations they have\nmade with faulty eyes; and when the eyes are discolored by prejudice or\npassion or meanness, what difference does it make how great the attainments are if the man himself has not attained to being worthy of what he\nstudies ?\nAnd so we come back to the old theme. It is the personality of the teacher\nthat counts, not the machinery of the school. Every weak teacher leans on\nthe machinery. Every strong teacher can get along if there is no machinery\nat all. What a test it is of the nobility of education when a great teacher\narises, be it man or woman in the lowest or the highest grade of our education,\nand needs nothing but his own native power to grasp, enchain, lift and lead\nany student who may be brought before him. That is what makes the school ;\nand if that is what makes the school, that is what must make our country.\nAnd as in aU teaching, so in all human affairs, the personal power of the man\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIGeneral\n\nfinally determines the worth of his achievement, and the old- Greek proverb\nremains true, that **the workman is greater than his work. \"\nThese last few days our nation has mourned in reverential sorrow one who\nsupremely illustrates this plain, old-fashioned, indestructible truth. Grover\nCleveland's whole career was filled with work, hard work, unrewarded work,\nintimate personal work. He did not seek great things for himself, but he did\ngreat things for us, and he was himself greater than what he did. So I ask\nevery American boy in school to think of him as the great man who has spelled\nout for each of us personally the meaning of these words: wise, patient, rugged,\nhonest, modest, loving, fearless.\nGreatheart has crost the River; and as we wait here in the thick of the\nstruggle for the things that are true and honorable, for manhood against\nmachinery, for personal independence against servility, let us hearten ourselves\nby his example.\nThe words he said, if haply words there were,\nWhen full of years and works he passed away,\nMost naturally might, methinks, refer\nTo some poor, humble business of to-day.\n\" That humble, simple duty of the day\nPerform, \" he bids; \"ask not if small or great.\nServe in thy post; be faithful and obey.\nWho serves her truly, sometimes saves the State. \"\n\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nPERSONAL\n\nPOWER OF THE TEACHER\nSCHOOL WORK\n\nH.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nMAXWELL,\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nIN PUBLICCITY\n\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nOne day not long ago in the very heart of the tenement-house region in\nwhat is known as the Lower East Side of New York, a young woman who had\njust left the large school of which she is principal, was slowly picking her way\nthrough the crowded street. Her progress was slow for the sidewalks were\ncrowded with people, and the street, except a small driveway in the center, was\nfilled with the pushcarts of peddlers. To an observer it would have been at\nonce apparent that the young woman was a person of great consequence in\nthat Yiddish-speaking crowd, for the children's faces were glad when they\nsaw her, and the large boys touched their caps, and not a few of the longbearded men standing beside the pushcarts, greeted her with, \"Good afternoon. Miss K. \" Presently a woman of rather better appearance than the rest,\nstopped alongside of Miss K. and began to walk with her. With the unmistakable Yiddish accent she exclaimed, laying a respectful hand on Miss K.'s\narm:\nI cannot help seeing how these children, they love you. You know my Bennie and\nRosie ?\n\nThey're in your school.\n\nYou are such a help to me at home.\n\nSome time Bennie,\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nPOWER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nhe say he wont. Then he quick stop and he say: \"All right, mamma.\nMiss K says\nit is right'that I should obey. \" Do you know, lady, when you stand\nthe school and you say someting it is just like when God speaks.\non that platform in\n\nWhether it is because of the repression that existed in the foreign lands\nfrom which they are gathered or because of the racial sadness that seems to\nhave been their heritage since they wept by the waters of Babylon, there is no\nclass of people who do so much honor to the teacher, particularly if she is one\nnot of their own race, as do the Jews.\nSome twenty-five years ago a man became principal of a school in what\nwas then one of the lowest slums of New York. It was in the days before\ntenement-house reform, and the abodes from which his pupils came were as a\nrule devoid of those necessities of life— fresh air, light, sufficient space, and\nsanitary arrangements. The district was crowded with saloons of the lowest\nclass and along the river front were scores of dives frequented by sailors and\nthose who profited by their weaknesses. It was also in the days before the\nlaw required that all teachers should be trained and that appointment should\nbe made for merit alone. And so the school like its neighborhood was in\nsorry condition with a weak corps of teachers, for had not every one of them\nbeen a political appointment ? The new principal, however, was not only a\nman of great force of character, but he had had a broad college and university\ntraining. Before the year was out he had routed the politicians and ever\nafterward not an appointment was made in his school except on his recommendation. How did he do it? Not by letters to the newspapers, not by\ndenunciation of the politicians, not by lifting up his voice in lamentation over\nthe degeneracy of the times, but by the simplest course imaginable — he so won\nthe respect of the community that the politicians did not dare to interfere with\nhis school, and soon they were all helping him. Instead of asking for the\nappointment of their sisters and their cousins and their aunts as teachers, they\nbegan to \"acquire merit\" by offering medals to the pupils for proficiency and\nby raising money to help along students who, the principal said, had the brains\nto study in higher institutions. He was a constant visitor in the wretched\nhomes of his pupils. He was a familiar figure in every street and alley. Careless, negligent parents he threatened or cajoled. He found the means to\nclothe the child who was naked and feed the child who was hungry. He found\nemployment after school hours for those who could continue in school in no\nother way. He discovered that so-called athletic clubs were hiring the larger\nboys in his school to pummel each other into insensibility in the presence of\nhundreds of brutalized men; but it took only one visit from him to each club\nto break it up. When with figure drawn up to its full height, tense muscles,\nand the stern voice of command, he invoked the terrors of the.law if any pupil\nof his was ever entered again in a boxing bout, there was not a ruffian in the\ngang who was not cowed. He saw that there were children to whom books\ndid not appeal, and for them he devised hand work. He was, I believe, the\nfirst man in the United States to introduce genuine manual training into an\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nelementary school. His school became, as every public school ought to be,\nnot merely a place of learning but a social center from which uplifting influences\nconstantly radiated. Today in the humble lives of the laborer and the artisan,\nin the walks of business and politics, in the ranks of the lawyers, the doctors,\nthe teachers, and the clergymen, there are thousands who attribute their success in life to the schoolmaster, Henry O'Neil.\nI have cited these two cases in order to bring before your minds the peculiar\nconditions under which teaching in New York City must be conducted.\nThe first of these conditions is our vast foreign population. There are\nmore Jews in New York than in Palestine, more Italians than in Rome, and\nenough foreigners of other nationalities to make a city as big as St. Louis. Of\nthe 75,000 new pupils who enter the New York schools every year, probably\ntwo-thirds cannot speak a word of English. In one school I counted children\nof twenty-nine different nationalities who spoke twenty-nine different languages\nor dialects. To the other difficulties of school work, must, therefore, be added\nthis, that to the majority of pupils the English language must be taught as a\nforeign language.\nThe second condition peculiar to New York is the extreme congestion of\npopulation in parts of Manhattan Island and Brooklyn. In certain large\nsections the population is the densest in the world rising as high as 1,000\npersons to the acre. They live, on account of extremely high rents, in enormous tenement houses; as many as forty families — and the families are always\nlarge — ^under one roof. A low plane of living, proneness to disease, particularly tuberculosis, and the absence of domestic privacy, are the necessary\nconsequences. From these tenements the children, often insufficiently or\nimproperly fed, weary through lack of sleep, with their nerves on edge, come\nto the public schools.\nThe third condition, peculiar to New York is the constant shifting of population. In the tenement districts, because of the continuous migration of\nfamilies a child seldom spends all of its school years in one school, generally\nnot more than one or two years.\nOf course, out of 15,000 classes there are thousands in which the ordinary\nconditions of school life are to be found; but in other centers, the vast foreign\npopulation, the congestion of population, and the shifting of population, create\nconditions of difficulty for the teacher such as are not to be found in the same\ndegree in any other quarter of the globe.\nIn other words the New York City teachers are confronted with the difficulty not only of teaching an enormous mass of children — there are 600,000\npupils in the city schools — but of converting, under the most difficult conditions\npossible, a great horde of foreigners chiefly from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, alien in language, alien in thought, alien in habits, into loyal\nAmerican citizens. To supplement the work of the day schools the Board of\nEducation has established several other agencies — evening schools, evening\nrecreation centers, vacation schools, and playgrounds, lectures to workingmen\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nPOWER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nng\n\nand women, and organized athletic sports— all of which are doing their part\nvigorously and well; but it is on the regular day schools— elementary and\nhigh— our two city colleges and our training schools for teachers that the chief\nreliance must be placed.\nThe first difficulty with which we are confronted is that of teaching each\nyear tens of thousands of foreign-born children the English language. For\nsuch children we have organized hundreds of special classes, in which English\nis taught by the Gouin method of teaching a foreign language. I often marvel\nat the quickness with which, in these special classes, our teachers manage to\nteach our little immigrants to speak and read and write English. In six months\nafter landing on our docks it is no uncommon thing to find little Russians .or\nItalians able to do all the work of the school, declaiming with tremendous\nfervor Patrick Henry's apostrophe to liberty or telling in their compositions\nabout the day when their forefathers landed on Plymouth Rock. Some\nteachers, however, have a more wonderful gift than others in teaching foreign\nchildren English. One such teacher I have in mind. In her class children\ncoming from homes of the most squalid surroundings, without a vestige of\nloveliness, surprise us with the beauty of their thought and expression. One\nday the principal, the Miss K. of whom I have already spoken, entered this\nteacher's class — a fifth-year class — and asked the children to write down any\nthoughts suggested by anything they had learned that day. Here is what one\nof them, a Russian girl, wrote: \"The sky is like the ocean because on a bright\nsummer's day the clouds in it are like white ships. It is like the land also\nfor the clouds sometimes seem like splendid castles. \" Such a teacher is not\nmerely skilful in the ordinary sense of the term. Those children who come\nunder the spell of her enthusiasm bring back some touch of poetic radiance on\ntheir souls.\nAn even greater difficulty is presented by life in the tenements. Sometimes\nthis life is one of extreme poverty; but extreme poverty, except during a period\nof trade suspension when men are thrown out of employment in large numbers\nis the exception rather than the rule. Where extreme poverty does exist, I\nneed scarcely tell you that the teachers, out of their own slender earnings, are\nthe first to come to the rescue.\nEven when the income of the family is considerable, it is too often ignorantly and unwisely used or inordinately hoarded. The mother generally\nworks as well as the father, and too often the children before and after\nschool hours are left to shift for themselves. They come to school wrongly\nrather than insufficiently fed, though insufficient feeding is no uncommon thing at all times and especially in such a year as this when employment\nhas been hard to find and the children of the poor have been crying bitterly.\nThe principals and teachers have been untiring in providing relief for cases of\nextreme and sometimes, I am afraid, of pretended distress. But the evil is too\ngreat for individual effort to cope with. Malnutrition among the children of\nour large cities— the prolific cause of disease— the chief reason for lack of\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nprogress in school — the fruitful source of intemperance and crime in after\nyears — cries aloud in the name of humanity for relief. The plain fact is that\nthe child who is improperly fed or insufficiently fed cannot do its school work\nand cannot control its instinctive impulses. To relieve this great suffering,\nto cure this great evil, it is not necessary that boards of education should\nprovide food without price; it is necessary only that they should provide\nwholesome, well-cooked food at cost price.\nWhile we are waiting for this — ^perhaps the most pressing of all school\nreforms — the teachers are doing what they can to remedy the disease wrought\nby the tenement-house life — a life of crowded quarters, of bad air, bad light,\nand insufficient sleep. Our medical inspection, being provided by the Department of Health and in no degree under the control of the Board of Education,\nis quite inadequate. The principals and teachers are untiring in their efforts\nto induce parents to have remediable defects discovereci by the examining\nphysicians corrected; such as myopia and that most prevalent cause of disorder and so-called incorrigibility — ^adenoid growths in the throat. Only\nin about 25 per cent, of the cases, however, do the parents pay any attention\nto the request of the teachers. Some two years ago we had a remarkable\nexperience which will illustrate the difficulties of this work among a crowded,\nignorant, prejudiced, and highly excitable people. In a school in the Lower\nEast Side there were collected a large number of over-age and mentally\ndefective children. A medical examination showed that one hundred and\nfifty of them were suffering from adenoid growths in the throat. In the case\nof seventy, the parents had the necessar> operation performed. In the case\nof eighty, the parents either refused or neglected. The principal obtained the\nconsent of these parents to have the operations performed in school. She\nsecured the services of one of the most famous throat specialists in the country.\nThe operations were successfully performed. Almost instantly a rumor flew\nlike lightning through the neighborhood that the children's throats were being\ncut. Frenzied mothers and fathers by the thousand besieged the school.\nFor several days if a Health Board physician appeared in the neighborhood\nof a public school in the ghetto it was the signal for a mob to storm the gates\nof the school house. Thorough discipline withstood these attacks, just as it\nhas preserved the children's lives in many a serious alarm of fire. The steadiness, good temper, and tact of principals and teachers bore down and calmed\nthe frenzy of the mob. Another manifestation of the personality required of\nthe teacher in the New York City schools.\nOur courses in sewing and domestic science are doing much not only for\nindividual pupils, but to introduce order, economy, and an American plane\nof living into the home. The good offices of the teachers in this respect are\nnot confined, however, to the teachers of sewing and cooking, as the following\nstory will show.\nMr. Y. had among his pupils a boy about thirteen years of age who was\nquite irregular in attendance, though a fairly good student. As the boy gave\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nPOWER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n121\n\nno satisfactory explanation of his irregularity, the teacher called on the boy's\nparents and found that they were living in two or three rooms of a miserable\ntenement. The father, a tailor by trade, was out of work, the mother was sick\nin bed, and there were four children of whom two were cripples. The rent\nhad not been paid, and the family were on the point of being evicted from the\nwretched lodgings. The father, who was too proud to appeal to charity, had\ntrudged about the city for many days in search of work, but always in vain.\nHe kept the boy, who was the oldest of the family, home to look after the other\nchildren, and the invalid mother; besides, the boy had no proper clothing to\nwear, especially in inclement weather. To make a long story short, the\nteacher was shocked at what he saw and heard, paid the rent that was due,\nobtained a position for the father, and provided the boy with suitable clothing.\nThe boy attended school regularly thereafter, was graduated and obtained\na position through the teacher. The family moved out of the neighborhood\nand the teacher lost all track of them.\nAbout eleven years later, Mr. Y., who had since taken a higher position,\nwas sitting in his office one day when a well-dressed and prosperous looking\ngentleman walked in and said, \"Mr. Y., you do not know me ? I am\n,\nthe tailor, whom you helped in a critical period of his life. I have been trying\nfor a long time to locate you in order to express my gratitude and to repay you,\nso far as I can, what I owe you.\" He produced a large roll of bills — some\n$400 or $500 — ^which he had drawn from the bank, to present ocular proof\nthat he was prosperous. He repaid every cent of the money advanced to him,\nand stated that he had a little home in another borough and that his family\nwere in good health and circumstances. By dint of steady work and some\ncareful investments he had accumulated what to him was quite a fortune.\nHis boy was in business for himself and had recently married.\nMr. Y., who had long ago forgotten the episode, then realized that he had\nbuilded better than he knew, and that the teacher's influence may extend far\nbeyond the walls of a classroom and work for good in the larger sphere of life\nbeyond.\nAnother story even better illustrates the influence the tactful teacher may\nhave in the tenement home. One day a girl, ragged, dirty, disheveled, was\nbrought into a class taught by a bright young teacher who had already become\nnoted for her success with foreign children. Leah, for that was the girl's name,\ncould speak no English. She at once manifested, however, a strong liking\nfor her teacher and, drawn by this affection, mastered the intricacies of\nEnglish speech in an incredibly short time. As soon as she could make herself\nunderstood, she would lie in wait for her teacher and walk with her part of the\nway home. Slowly, at first, more rapidly afterward. Teacher began to drop\nhints as to how Leah's personal appearance might be improved. Every hint\nwas acted on, and soon Leah began to wash her face and comb her hair, to tie\nand polish her shoes, and to have her clothes clean and neatly mended and\nheld in place by hooks and eyes instead of pins. One day when they came\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nto the door of the tenement where Leah lived, Teacher expressed a desire to\nmake a call on Leah's mother. The sight that met her eyes was not a pleasant\none. The family contained many children of whom Leah was the eldest, and\nthere were two boarders besides, all domiciled in two rooms. Out of a confused mass of bedding, children, rickety furniture, and broken cooking utensils\nrose the inevitable sewing-machines out of which the family earned a living\nand was doubtless saving money. In subsequent afternoon walks, Teacher\nbegan to throw out suggestions as to how Leah might reform the home.\nLeah immediately set to work. The mother regarded Leah's doings askance,\nbut nothing could withstand her enthusiasm, and she soon won her father's\nstrong support. The boarders were turned out. Another room was hired.\nThe rooms were cleansed and put in order. Even the small brothers and\nsisters were subjected, at first greatly to their disgust, to the scrubbing brush,\nand were obliged to learn how to comb their hair. About this time Teacher\nloaned Leah an illustrated magazine. It contained a picture of a dinner\ntable set with silver and cut glass and garnished with flowers. By this time\nLeah had learned to cook in the cooking class. With the picture as her guide,\na new and bolder scheme than any yet entertained, entered her little brain.\nThere must be a dinner table with a white cloth and garnished as nearly as\npossible like the picture. When this triumph was complete, Leah wrote a\nnote which her father signed inviting Teacher to dinner. Teacher accepted\nthe invitation. What a change met her eyes. Instead of the squalor of her\nformer visit she beheld the neatness of a poor but well-ordered home. The\nfather and mother were a bit stiff in their reception, because they had but a\nfew words of English, but they treated Teacher with all the reverence due to a\nqueen. And she was a queen, for was she not to those poor Russian Jews the\nincarnation of American civilization ?\nThousands of teachers, God bless them ! are doing work of this kind in\nNew York City. Perhaps those are doing it best who fill the school with the\nbest spirit of our age — the spirit of social co-operation. One of my District\nSuperintendents furnishes me with an account of a class in which this spirit is\nabundantly illustrated:\nOpening the door of the classroom I heard the busy hum of industry. Near the desk\nsat Miss X., surrounded by a group to whom she was explaining some faults of composition\nthey had made in common. These I learned later were the backward pupils who most\nneeded the teacher's individual help. The rest of the class were working in groups of two\neach — a bright and a moderate pupil. It was a most animated exercise. Every two\npupils were reading and correcting a composition written by one of them. Each in turn\nhad the double benefit of his own criticism and that of his associate. When the teacher\nbecame disengaged, a pair of eagerly throbbing hands called for judgment on some disputed\npoint and this would at times involve a second discussion between teacher and pupils.\nThe aim and its success in operation were equally obvious. The pupils were in the modern\nspirit of social co-operation, striving to find the truth. There was no copying, no suggestion\nof impertinent monitorial supervision.\nIn aiding, each was learning.\n\nWhen there is such a manifestation of personality in the teacher, the school\nis not merely a preparation for life. It is life.\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nPOWER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n123\n\nAnd what a power a principal may be who sets teachers an example in\nfilling the school with the spirit of social co-operation. A gifted principal\nwrites me:\nI began my teaching career in a school entirely devoid of ideals for anything beyond\nthe hard facts of the textbook. The contrast between this and a school where the child\nwas looked upon as God's choicest gift, revealed to me not alone the dignity of the teacher's\ncalling, but itstremendous responsibility.\n\nThe tenement home, it is scarcely necessary to say, breeds many bad boys.\nNowhere is the teacher's personality more clearly revealed than in dealing with\nsuch boys. I asked the principal of a large school attended almost exclusively\nby Italians — ^a race prolific in unruly boys, at least in America — to write me the\ncharacteristics of the teachers who were most successful in dealing with such\ncases and he writes this:\nThere are at least two characteristics of these teachers. These, if I read them rightly,\nare a rare degree of sympathy with children and an equally rare sense of justice. Not the\nsympathy which makes the man reason like the child, but the sympathy by which he is\nable to see with the child's eyes, and at the same time with his own clearer vision. Not the\njustice which treats all alike, but the higher justice which makes a difference.\n\nHow quickly sympathy will act was recently told me by one of my associates: An incorrigible boy on his return from the truant school to his class\nstruck a classmate in the eye, and fled from the building. At the close of school\nthe principal went to the home of the boy. On approaching the house the boy\nfled to a proper distance, but on the assurance of the principal that he did not\npropose to arrest him or punish him, or allow anyone else to do so, the boy led\nthe way to his mother. The mother was exceedingly angry at the boy and\nurged the principal to give him a sound thrashing, saying that she herself\nwould punish him as soon as the principal left. The principal told her that\nhe should do nothing of the kind; that he would not allow him to be sent to the\ntruant school again, and that if she undertook to punish him he would make\ntrouble for her. He assured the mother that he wished the boy to return to\nschool and promised to do everything that he could to help the boy to be a\nman. The principal assured the boy that if he would come to school the next\nday he would receive a very cordial welcome; that he would help him in every\nway to keep up with his class work. After a further conference in this line\nthe boy agreed to return to school the next day. The attitude of the principal,\nhis assurance that he would help him to be a map, proved the making of\nthe boy.\nRepression and fear are rapidly being eliminated as.factors of control in the\nNew York schools. The favorite and perhaps the most successful plan of\nmanaging a bad boy is when a teacher with sympathetic insight discovers\nsome natural aptitude or liking, finds occupation of that nature, and builds\nupon the foundation thus laid. I have collected many examples of boys made\nover through some fitting employment or the acceptance of some responsiMyra Kelley's monitor of the goldfish is the type.\nbility which they enjoyed.\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nA few days ago an unmistakable son of Italy entered my ofl5ce. He held a\nparcel done up in paper in one hand; with the other he handed me a note.\nThe note, which was from his principal, told me that the boy had been the\nworst she had ever met in a long experience — disobedient, violent, and apparently incapable of learning. This term, however, he came under the care of a\nteacher who discovered that Giovanni had a passion for making things. She\nset him to making baskets. He was no longer troublesome and was learning\nrapidly. The paper parcel contained a beautiful piece of basketry in vase\nform which showed the touch of the natural artist.\nWe are only beginning, I believe, to realize the influence athletics may have\nin reclaiming unruly boys. The great prominence given to athletics during\nthe past few years in the New York schools has given us an opportunity to\ntest this means of school discipline. I have no hesitation in saying that\nathletics rightly used not only improves the carriage, increases physical power,\nand develops moral energy, but is a vital force in reducing otherwise unmanageable boys to terms. This example will suffice:\nJ. H., a boy of fourteen, was known in school parlance as a ** terror. \" He\nhad passed from one teacher to another, not by way of promotion, but mainly\nwith the hope of finding the teacher who could pick out and develop his latent\nability. In the course of events he came under the guidance of Miss Blank —\nhis last chance. He entered just before recess of the day I visited Miss Blank.\nAt recess the boys were busy with athletics. J. H. stood by with the sneering\nface he usually presented for things meaning effort. Regardless of this, he\nwas placed in the group of smaller boys for the broad jump. Possibly to show\nhis superiority, he jumped in turn and clearly outclassed every boy in his\ngroup. The teacher encouraged this and carefully watched him and every\ntime his work outclassed his group he was placed in the next. He was promoted thus until one day he led the group of largest boys. J. H. was very\nquiet for the rest of the day. In the afternoon he actually tried some of the\nregular class work. It had been a new experience for him to lead in anything\nrequiring effort. He had neglected his opportunities so long that the possibility of surpassing anyone else had never entered his mind. Through this\ninterest the teacher aroused interest in his studies and helped him after school\nevery day. In the spring, a basket-ball team was started at his school and\nJ. H. was elected captain by the team as an expression of their admiration of\nhis athletics.\nOnly once did J. H. backslide. Then his teacher firmly took from him his\nhonors as captain and leader in athletics for one month. He went through\nthe usual *'I don't care,\" of other days, but he did care, and before the term\nof punishment was up he was begging his teacher to shorten his banishment\nby extra good behavior. J. H. was promoted that term. He is now a useful\nmember of society and in business — another living example of a teacher's\nunselfish work.\nBut boys are not the only offenders in school.\n\nIt is, alas ! not uncommon\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nPOWER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n_^\n\n^^\n\nto meet with depravity in girls. A principal tells me this story of one of her\nteachers : Over two years ago there was in this teacher's class a young girl whose\nlife was one of degradation. Her family and home were low in every respect.\nA visit to the family convinced this young teacher nothing could be gained\nthere. A series of dreadful incidents occurred, foreshadowing murder and\nsuicide. The young teacher at great risk to herself, but through this wonderful power she possesses, averted both, though the girl was expelled from the\nschool. Not yet discouraged. Miss\nwent to those in authority and had\nthe girl readmitted. Then the teacher induced the girl to leave her home\nand found employment for her with friends. She has won their respect, for\nthey report her a very quiet, refined young woman. Though she has left her\nfamily she still contributes to their support, and is now engaged to be married\nto a very estimable young man.\nThis young teacher still keeps in touch with the girl. Her personal power\nis far-reaching and forcible. Her personality is very attractive, but a strong\nwill that dominates her every act is the striking characteristic of this personal\npower.\nHere is a story, in her own words, which a girl, regenerated through the\ninfluence of a noble teacher, has written to one of my principals:\nAt the time I came under the influence of this teacher, I was an unhappy, self-willed\ngirl, who blundered continually. I knew my faults, but I had neither the ability nor desire\nto correct them. Sometimes I tried to force myself to do right, but it seemed like trying to\nclimb a soft, steep gravelly bank. I kept sinking and slipping back at every effort to go\nforward.\nI recognized in this teacher a woman who was at once strong and gentle, firm and\nkind, noble and human, strict and sympathetic, wise and simple, powerful and controlled.\nAbove all she was a person of high moral standards.\nAs I became used to her type of excellence, I felt its beauty more and more, and she\nbegan to have a wonderful influence over me, which never lost its effect. She did not\nrealize her power, she was simply living in her usual way. But I knew I had found a friend\nwho would help me out of the misery and danger of despair.\nMy blunders brought me before her, as an almost unimpressionable case. She had\ngiven me help; I knew what to do, but I seemed powerless. I could not make myself do\nright. She bore with me patiently, but one day she called me to her room and talked with\nme. I do not remember three sentences of it now. All that I was conscious of was that\nI was receiving an electric treatment of personality — a noble, magnificent character was\nrevealing itself to me.\nI was speechless with wonder and awakening.\nShe had trusted me and I had done wrong and deserved severe treatment. But she\nchided me without temper, rashness, or personal remarks. She was beyond the reach of\nmy wrong doing, but still she was honestly grieved by my foolish ways and disappointed at\nmy weakness.\nIncorrigible as I had been, I was reached, for there was something in her gentle, firm\ntone and steady searching look that offered hope and courage; something in that magnetic,\nsympathetic personality that urged me to brace up, go forward, and conquer the past\nmistakes, and live according to higher standards.\nThat woman ennobled my life.\n\n\"I still,\" adds the principal, \"have this young woman under observation,\nand I know that the effect of this teacher on her life is permanent. \"\nMarshall, in his monumental work on Political Economy, tells us that\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nprobably one-half of the talent and genius born into this world finds its manifestations inthe lower ranks of society. If so, what a responsibility rests on\nthe public -school teacher to discover and encourage talent ! I remember how\nan old lady who was principal of a school in a poor neighborhood in Brooklyn\noften told me how she discovered budding dramatic talent in a little madcap of\na girl who afterward became the bright particular star of the American stage\nas Ada Rehan. But why dwell on the shining examples? Let me rather\nrelate, in the words of one of my district superintendents, the work of a man\nwho was singularly successful in inducing boys to go on to the high school after\ncompleting the work of the elementary school.\nThis teacher, Mr. X., had a graduating class in a public school in one of the\ncrowded sections of the city. Without exception his pupils were poor, and as\na class, responsive and appreciative.\nHis assumption, as graduating-class teacher, was that no elementary\nschool instruction was suflScient to fit a boy for modern life, however able or\nsuccessful had been the men who lacked even so much. His problem was so\nto appeal to the understanding and emotion of his pupils that they would feel\nas he did and make that feeling a motive to activity in their lives. Some he\ninfluenced immediately; the restless ones who wished to \"go to work\" he\nwon over before the term had closed. His power lay less in the definite reasoning and appeal he made than in the confidence he had inspired. There lay\nhis strength and power.\nBut however he might influence their desires for better education, there was\na more formidable obstacle. These children were poor, and poverty shrinks\nneither before argument nor appeal. With many of them that last year at\nschool had been a painful story of sacrifice at home. Some of the boys knew\nfrom a more fearsome dictionary than books, the meaning of cold and hunger\nand neglected illness. He had kept them well together with that goal of childish triumph before them — the graduation day and the school certificate — but\nfor the subsequent schooling he had no such incentive.\nIf poverty cannot be talked down it may be challenged and fought. He\nproposed schemes of industry to tide them over: the evening paper stand, the\nafternoon delivery for the comer store, the early morning route, these and\nother devices were tried and employed.\nThen the parents too were sent for and questioned. Even among those\nwho seemed the poorest, it is often thrift, even at times avarice, that takes the\nchild away from opportunity. To the skeptical Mr. X. explained the value\nin material dividends that a year or two more of instruction might give. To\nthe imaginative and emotional he painted the loving tribute of gratitude that\nwould bless their old age, for one more sacrifice of effort and denial. He was\nnot less fertile in appeal, if appeal might win, than in practical suggestion.\nThe result was that the great majority of his pupils bound themselves to\nbegin a course of secondary instruction. He tells me that at graduation one\nboy was working from four o'clock in the morning till school time; one labored\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions,\n\nPERSONAL\n\nPOWER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n127\n\nat night in a cracker bakery; another delivered parcels both before and after\nschool, and several had their round of customers for newspapers. In such\nhumble ground he planted seed that might some day yield the laurel.\nCircumstances subsequently necessitated his transfer to another part of the\ncity and he lost sight of his charges. Recently, however, he met two of them\nand shortly after others called upon him. Without exception they had done\nwell. One is an instructor in a school of technology, three are teachers, three\nothers are completing a course in law school, and two have already begun\npractice. They have kept the old class spirit together and, as the teacher informs me, recently met to arrange a reunion with a single honored guest—\nhimself.\nThis man would not tolerate the arguments of those who claim that the\nmajority of boys will be just as ''successful\" without as with a high-school\neducation. To all such he made answer: \"My work here is to do what I can\nto put these boys in the way of getting all that the skill and wisdom of the\nschools can yield in preparing them for the best of life. I wish to see them\nwhole men. \"\nThere is no more useful manifestation of personal power than that of the\nman or woman who stimulates to the higher culture and who guides the student\nin the direction indicated by his natural aptitude.\nPerhaps you think I have given too little attention to the purely scholastic\nside of our work. If so, let me sketch for you two teachers whose personal\npower was manifested in opposite ways. One is Miss C, a high-school\nteacher of history. Who that has seen her can forget her? Her dress, her\nvoice, her speech, her gestures, her black eyes — ^all attractive. She held\nher pupils spellbound. Their attention never wandered for a second. What\nshe willed them to do they did. She questioned them as Socrates might have\ndone, leading them to see how ignorant they were in their first state and then\nhow well informed they might be if they would but reason logically. She\ndismissed them with three topics to look up for the next day and with suggestions regarding the particular bookshelves on which helpful books might be\nfound. The pupils would be sure to do plenty of reading and thinking in\npreparation for the next lesson, for they would know that Miss C.'s questioning would turn them inside out. She did not merely question. When she\nreceived a good answer she would add to it, painting in a few brief sentences\na picture that would remain in the pupils' minds.\nThe second teacher is a teacher of psychology in a normal school. His\npupils sit in a circle with him. He does not say more than a dozen sentences.\nThe pupils seldom give him a glance. They conduct the conference them\nselves as any party of friends might talk together at the fireside. The subject is the will. A young w^oman begins to talk as soon as the bell sounds,\nsaying that she would go on with what she and her friend had found out\nabout the subject. At her first pause two or three are ready with questions,\nNearly everyone has something to say, but, as this\nobjections, or comments.\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nyoung woman had evidently obtained permission from the class to present this\nparticular topic she is regarded as the leader for the time being, and is consequently appealed to or challenged by the others. The teacher speaks only\nwhen it becomes necessary to say that such and such a point had been a matter\nof dispute for ages. When he speaks it is always with deference to the leader\nand the pupils give him only as much attention as they give to one another.\nThe teacher, when asked, cannot tell me what the topic for the next lesson\nwill be — his pupils have not informed him. They study the whole subject\non psychology in this way, using no one textbook but having access to many,\nselecting their own topics, conducting their own oral examinations, rating\nthemselves, calling on him only w^hen they are \"stumped.\" He shows his\nremarkable power in keeping himself from interfering, though he is really\nguiding all the time that the pupils seem to be acting independently.\nI have tried to sketch many different types of teachers who have evidently\ngreat personal power. Who shall analyze it ? Who shall determine the common elements? I shall not attempt the task. The possessor of personal\npower does not know what it is. He only knows that the virtue is in him. We\nonly know that all great leaders of men have had it is a marked degree. We\nsee its manifestations in the reactions of pupils. Thrice blessed is he who is\npermitted to see that these reactions are good and not evil, and that they make\nfor \"manners, virtue, freedom, power.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nWASHINGTON\n\nMEETING,\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n1908\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Frank B. Cooper, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash.\nFirst Vice-President — Stratton D. Brooks, superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass.\nSecond Vice-President — Ella C. Sullivan, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nSecretary — Geo roe B. Cook, superintendent of schools, Hot Springs, Ark.\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING SESSION.— Tuesday, February 25, 1908\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in\nthe Metropolitan Memorial M. E. Church, Washington, D. C, at 9:30 A. m., and was\ncalled to order by President Frank B. Cooper.\nPrayer was offered by Bishop Cranston, of the M. E. Church.\nPresident Cooper then introduced Hon. Joseph G. Cannon, speaker of the House of\nRepresentatives, who delivered an address of welcome on behalf of the United States\ngovernment. Addresses of welcome were also given by Hon. Henry B. F. MacFarland,\npresident of commissioners of the District of Columbia; Hon. Willet M. Hays, assistant\nsecretar}' of agriculture, Washington, D. C; and Hon, Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United\nStates commissioner of education.\nResponse to these greetings was given by Dr. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of\ninstruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nPresident Cooper then introduced S. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul,\nMinn., who read a paper on the topic, \"In View of the Increased Demands upon the\nSchools, What Opportunities Are Offered for Economy in Treating the Course of Study ?\"\nThe paper was discussed by F. B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, of Cincinnati, Ohio,\nand Frederick E. Bolton, professor of education. University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.\nA paper was also read by C. N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis,\nInd., on \"What Modifications in Organization Are Necessary to Secure Suitable Recognition for Pupils of Varying Ability, Particularly for the Ablest?\" A general discussion\nfollowed, led by John A. Long, superintendent of schools, Joliet, 111., and W. H. Elson,\nsuperintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nPresident Cooper appointed the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nL. D. Harvey, superintendent of Stout Training Schools, Menomonie, Wis., chairman.\nH. H. Seerley, president of State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nW. H. Bartholomew, principal of Girls' High School, Louisville, Ky.\nMiss S. Belle Chamberlain, state superintendent of public instruction, Boise, Idaho.\nHenry Snyder, superintendent of public schools, Jersey City, N. J.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nman. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. -Louis, Mo., chairN. C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nLawton B. Evans, superintendent of public\n129 schools, Augusta, Ga.\nR. E. Denfeld, superintendent of city schools, Duluth, Minn.\nLewis H. Jones, president of State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nThe department then adjourned to 2 : 00 P. M.\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "I30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAFTERNOON\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Washington\n\nSESSION\n\nThe afternoon session was called to order at 2 : oo o'clock by President Cooper.\nThe program for the afternoon consisted of a symposium entitled \"The Place of\nIndustries in Public Education.\" This symposium had been organized and the speakers\nsecured by Jesse D. Burks, principal of Teachers Training School, Albany, N. Y.\nThe following propositions were introduced for discussion:\n1. The ideals of a democracy require a system of public education that shall provide\nequal educational opportunity for all. Discussion by James E. Russell, dean of Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University, New York City.\n2. Equality of opportunity can be secured only by proper recognition of {a) individual\ndifferences in native capacities and in social environment, (6) the requirements of vocational\nefficiency as well as of (c) general intelligence and executive power. Discussion by Edward\nC. Elliott, professor of education. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n3. The most urgent need of our educational system is an adequate provision for the\nvocational needs of children destined for industrial and domestic pursuit. Discussion by\nJames F. McElroy, president, Consolidated Car Heating Company, Albany, N. Y.;\nBenjamin R. Andrews, secretary of departments of domestic economy. Teachers College,\nColumbia University, New York, N. Y.; W. E. Roberts, supervisor of manual training,\npublic schools, Cleveland, Ohio, and Howard D. Brundage, Stout Manual Training Schools,\nMenomonie, Wis.\n4. A comprehensive program of industrial education requires:\na) Constructive activities as an essential and important factor in tlie elementary school\ncourse. Discussion by Miss Euphrosyne Langley, School of Education, The University of\nChicago; Frank M. Leavitt, assistant director of drawing and manual training, Public\nLatin School, Boston, Mass.\nh) Intermediate industrial schools, admitting children at the sixth school year and\nequipping them for specific industrial pursuits. Discussion by Charles H. Morse, secretary\nof Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, Boston, Mass.\nc) Technical high schools for the training of industrial leaders. Discussion by Geo.\nH. Martin, secretary of Massachusetts State Board of Education, Boston, Mass.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe evening session of the department was called to order by President Cooper at\n8:15 o'clock.\nThe following announcement was made by Roland P. Falkner, secretary\nof the National Civic Federation, New York City:\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nYour Committee has kindly given me two or three minutes in which to outline briefly\nthe plan and purpose of the National Civic Federation to send next winter certain teachers\nof the United States to England and continental countries for the purpose of inspecting\nschools of elementary and secondary grades, industrial schools, manual-training schools,\nand schools for the training of teachers. The scope of the undertaking is indicated by the\nschools to be visited and the teachers to be selected would naturally be those who in this\ncountry are engaged in the same work. The scope of the undertaking is, as you see,\npractically identical with the universally recognized field of public-school education. The\nteachers who are selected for this tour of inspection will enjoy the benefit of greatly\nreduced rates in the steamships of the National Mercantile Marine Company. Recognizing\nthe benefits which would accrue to the teachers of the country and desiring to promote as\nfar as possible the friendly feeling between the two countries, this company has generously\noffered to these teachers passage to and from Europe at a rate which is about one-fourth of\nthe regular rate. The teachers to be selected will go, not as a body, but a certain contingent\nin each ship. On arriving in England they vdll find that Mr. Alfred Moseley, well known\nto all American educators for his philanthropy and for his public spirit in organizing the\nMoseley Educational Commission, and later in organizing the trip of the English teachers\nto the United States, will have entire charge of the arrangements for the reception of the\nteachers. They will be met on arrival by committees; schedules will be made up of the\nschools which can be visited with most profit by the different types of teachers interested\nin corresponding types of education, and all arrangements will be made by these\ncommittees to insure to the visiting teachers a cordial reception. The advantages\nof such a trip to England — and some few can also go to the Continent — are so\nobvious that they have met with the cordial approval of all to whom this project has been\nbroached; and a considerable number of prominent educators have expressed their approval\nof this plan and have consented to serve upon an advisory committee.\nI hesitate to tell\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n131\n\nMINUTES\n\nyou who they are, because some of them have told me that they did not want to have any\nct)rrespondence in regard to the matter; that they want all the correspondence to be conducted bythe New York office.\n\nThe'is interest\nof by\nthe their\nNational\nand its\nwelfare\nevidenced\nto promotemoreover\ntakingCivic\nthe public\nhold Federation\nof this matter.\nThisdesire\norganization,\nas\nan organization, is profoundly interested in all the problems of industrial education and\nbelieves that these problems of industrial education cannot be solved except in connection\nwith the general problems of the public school; and it is desirous that all information that\ncan be obtained thru a visit to foreign countries to see what they are doing along similar\nlines should be obtained and spread among our people.\nIn the selection of the teachers who are going to make this trip, of course, our desire\nis to make as wise a selection as possible. It is not a pleasure trip. It ought not to be so\nregarded. We feel that it should be looked upon as an opportunity for professional\nadvancement; and it is desired to make the wisest possible selection of the teachers who will\nprofit by such a trip; and to this end the National Civic Federation asks the co-operation\nof the educators here present. We hope that the teachers to be selected will be predominantly those who are chosen by the superintendents of schools, and by the principals of\nindustrial and normal schools, and who are duly nominated for that purpose by the board\nof education, or other corresponding educational authority. It is perfectly clear that the\nnomination should come to us; it is our desire that it should come to us by those bodies\nwho are by law in a position to grant to the teachers leave of absence for this period, and\npreferably leave of absence with pay. As this is, and should be, an opportunity for professional advancement, we solicit your co-operation that the matter be considered by the\neducational authorities as a matter of professional advancement, so that the teachers who\nparticipate in the trip can do so without sacrificing, or without forfeiting, their regular\ncompensation. We believe that a trip of this kind can be made of great value, not only to\nthe teachers who participate in it, not only to the teachers of the United States as a whole,\nbut that it should be beneficial locally.\nWe believe that in every community there are certain specific problems to be worked\nout, and that those in the direction of educational affairs would be helped by sending to\nforeign countries representative teachers selected by them, with the distinct purpose of\ninvestigating those particular things which constitute their own home problems.\nThis, briefly, is the plan and scheme of the National Civic Federation in this matter.\nOn your return to your homes you will find awaiting you invitations to take part in it.\nYou will find, with these invitations, circulars descriptive of all conditions in regard to the\nvisit. These circulars have been printed, and so far as opportunity is given me after\nthis session and during the meeting, I will be very glad indeed to give them to those who\nmay be interested and to answer any questions that I can in regard to this matter.\nWe hope that this project, undertaken for the benefit of the teachers of the United\nStates, will receive the sympathy and support of the educators here present, and that\nthru that co-operation the National Civic Federation and those who are associated with it\nmay be permitted to make their contribution to the advancement of education in the United\nStates.\nThe address of the evening was delivered by Hon. Willet M. Hays, assistant secretary\nof agriculture, Washington, D. C, and his address was illustrated by a variety of stereopticon views. A general discussion followed, by E. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of\npublic instruction, Topeka, Kan.; Lorenzo D. Harvey, superintendent of Stout Training\nSchools, Menomonie, Wis.; and A. C. Nelson, state superintendent of public instruction,\nSalt Lake City. Utah.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, February\n\n27, 1908\n\nThe morning session of the department was called to order at 9:30 o'clock by President F. B. Cooper.\nThe following program was presented:\nTopic: The Nurture and Protection 0} the Physical Weil-Being of Public-School Pupils\n1. How Can the School Make Contribution of Permanent Value to Physical Development ?— Luther Halsey Gulick, director of physical training, pubUc schools, New York\nCity.\n^\nr t. 1\n2. The Mission of the Play-Ground.— W. M. Davidson, superintendent of schools,\nOmaha, Neb.; General Discussion led by A. H. Yoder, superintendent of schools, Tacoma,\nWash.\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\n3. Medical Inspection in Public Schools as Contributing to Health and Efl&ciency. —\nThomas F. Harrington, director of physical training and athletics, public schools, Boston,\nMass. General Discussion was led by E. C. Moore, superintendent of schools, Los\nAngeles, Cal.; Miss Sadie American, executive secretary of Council of Jewish Women,\nNew York City.\nBUSINESS\n\nSESSION\n\nPresident Cooper, at the opening of the business session, called for the report of the\nCommittee on Nominations, which was made by the chairman, L, D. Harvey, superintendent ofStout Training Schools, Menomonie, Wis., nominating the following as officers\nfor the ensuing year:\nPresident — W. H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nFirst Vice-President — David B. Johnson, president of Winthrop Normal and Industrial\nCollege, Rock Hill, S. C.\nSecond Vice-President — Ida C. Bender, supervisor of primary grades, city schools,\nBuffalo, N. Y.\nSecretary — A. C. Nelson, state superintendent of public instruction, Salt Lake City,\nUtah.\nOn motion, the report of the committee was accepted and unanimously adopted, and\nthe nominees declared elected.\nThe question of the place of meeting for the year 1909 was then taken up. Invitations were received from Oklahoma City, Okla.; Rochester, N. Y.; Albuquerque, N. Mex.;\nand Chicago, 111. After the presentation of brief arguments in favor of each city as a\nplace of meeting a formal ballot was taken, which resulted as follows:\nOklahoma City\n105 votes\nRochester\n87\n\"\nChicago\n44\n\"\nAlbuquerque\n10 \"\nTotal\n246\n\"\nOklahoma City was therefore declared the choice of the department as the place of\nmeeting in 1909.\nSeiior Ezequiel Chavez, under-secretary of the Department of Public Instruction of the\nRepubUc of Mexico, was then introduced by President Cooper, and extended greetings to\nthe Department from the Republic of Mexico.\nGREETINGS\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nREPUBLIC\n\nOF MEXICO\n\nYesterday evening I had the honor of presenting the greetings of the Department\nof Public Instruction and Fine Arts of the Republic of Mexico to the Department of\nSuperintendence of the N. E. A., at which time I expressed the earnest wish felt by\nthe department that in the plans which prepare for the future formation of the coming\ngenerations of Mexico and the United States, there should figure not only the ideas, but\nalso feelings of good- will and cordiahty which would realize to a great degree the co-ordination of efforts of both countries in the working-out of the progress of the whole American\nContinent.\nI now beg to say that for the purpose of drawing the already existing ties of affection\nand mutual consideration closer and closer, the Department of Public Instruction of my\ncountry has commissioned me to come to state to the Department of Superintendence\nthat the Department of Public Instruction would be highly pleased if the Department of\nSuperintendence of the National Education Association of the United States should\nhold its annual meeting of the year 19 10 in the City of Mexico, and there attend the meetings of the chief educational authorities of Mexico, or, failing this, that a commission\nof representative superintendents be selected to go to Mexico in the said year.\nThe occasion will be dignified and memorable : at that time the completion of the first\ncentury of the independence of Mexico will be celebrated. Mexico has proved in the course\nof the century of her life that she has made good use of her emancipation. At the cost of\nheroic wars, she won for herself the complete separation of church and state, as far back as\nnearly fifty years ago. Isolated from all nations, except Spain, in the long period of Spanish rule, she now has relations with all the nations of the world. She is proud of her long and\nbitter struggles which have served to bring, with the price of her blood, her independence\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Su perintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nand her political rights. The satisfaction afforded to us by a visit of such a delegation\nwill be very great, and more so as it is the intention to form at the same date a national\nuniversity, the plans for which she has already adopted. She will gladly share that satisfaction with a select group of men such as form this Department of Superintendents, whose\nwork she considers of supreme importance in the organization of the people of this\ncontinent.\nNext year when the department meets an official communication from the Department of Public Instruction and Fine Arts of the Republic of Mexico vrill remind you of\nthe invitation which I now share the honor of tendering, so that it can then be acted upon,\nwhether the whole Department of Superintendence hold its session of 1910 in the City of\nMexico, or whether only a delegation be appointed.\nIn one way or another, my presence here, the announcement that I here make that\nnext year the said communication will come, and the acceptance thereof, whether in the\nfull form as we hope, or in the limited one, will permit, I earnestly hope, the very near\nrealization of a great Pan-American Conference of Education, and will bind anew the ties\nof friendship and good-will of all citizens of this great American continent.\nSecretary George B. Cook then reported the following resignations from the Committee\non a Universal System of Key Notation, viz.: F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, and Aaron\nGove, of Colorado. To fill these vacancies, President F. B. Cooper appointed President H. H. Seerley, of Cedar Falls, Iowa, and Superintendent W. H. Maxwell, of\nNew York City.\nThere being no further business, the department, on motion, adjourned.\nAFTERNOON SESSION\nOne of the most interesting events in the history of the Association occurred at 3:30\np. M. In accordance vrith a previous invitation. President Roosevelt received the members\nof the department and a few invited guests, numbering in all about 1,500, in the East\nRoom of the White House, and delivered an address, a report of which will be found\namong the papers of the department.\nThe remainder of the afternoon was devoted to various meetings of societies holding\nsessions in connection with the department convention.\nA session of special interest to the Association was the meeting held in the parlor of\nthe New Willard Hotel at 4:30 p. M. for the organization of the new Educational Department of National Organizations of Women, authorized by the Board of Directors of the\nN. E. A. at their meeting in Los Angeles, Cal., July 12, 1907.\n\nMINUTES OF THE MEETING FOR ORGANIZATION OF THE\nEDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL\nORGANIZATIONS OF WOMEN\nThe meeting was held in the sitting-room of the New Willard Hotel, February 28,\n1908, at 4:00 p. M. Dr. E. Oram Lyte, of Millersville, Pa., called the meeting to order\nin accordance vrith the custom that the one who presented to the Board of Directors the\npetition for the organization of a new department should preside at the meeting for itsorganization.\nOn the motion of Miss Laura D. Gill, Miss Lillian W. Johnson, acting president of\nthe Southern Association of College Women, was elected secretary pro tem.\nThe chairman read from the Proceedings of the National Education Association for\n1907-8 Article VI of the By-Laws entitled \"Departments\" (see pp. 7-8 of the Los Angeles\nvolume). He then asked the Secretary to read from the Proceedings of the New Board of\nDirectors for 1907-8 (see pp. 51-52 of Yearbook, 1907-8) the petition for the organization\nthe new department and the minutes of the action of the Board of Directors approving\nof\nthe same.\nThe chairman announced that the first order of business was the nomination of officers\nThe following ticket was presented by the secretary:\nof the new department.\nFor President— Uiss Laura Drake GiU, of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae.\nFor Vice-President— Mrs. Frederic Schoff, of the National Congress of Mothere.\nFor Secretary— Mrs. PhiUp N. Moore, of the National Federation of Women s Clubs.\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nThe secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the members present for the nominees. The ballot was so cast and the oflScers declared duly elected for the term to expire\nwith the Cleveland meeting in July, 1908.\nDr. Lyte then introduced Miss Laura D. Gill as president of the Department and\nresigned the chair to her. As Mrs. Moore was not present Miss Johnson continued to act\nas secretary.\nPresident Gill stated that the first business to come before the new department was\nthe selection of a name for the department, and that it would be necessary to appoint a\ncommittee to present the name to the Board of Directors of the N. E. A. On motion of\nDr. Lyte it was voted to refer the selection of a name to the ofiicers of the department.\nBefore the motion to adjourn, President Gill explained that membership in the\ndepartment just organized could be held only by those who were members of the\nN. E. A., and that membership in one department entitled a member to vote in any and\nall departments of the N. E. A. After the motion to adjourn was passed, many of those\npresent remained, and there was an informal discussion of the future plans of the department. President Gill outlined the program of the department for the Cleveland meeting.\nAmong those present at the meeting were:\nMiss Laura D. Gill, president of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae.\nMrs. Frederic Schoff, president of the National Congress of Mothers.\nMiss Lillian W. Johnson, acting president of the Southern Association of College\nWomen.\nMrs. Hugo Rosenberg, president of the National Council of Jewish Women.\nMiss Sadie American, secretary of the National Council of Jewish Women.\nMrs. J. N. Phillips, editor of ofl&cial organ of Alabama Federation of Women's\nClu-bs.\nMiss Louise Connolly, superintendent of schools. Summit, N. J.\nMiss Elizabeth V. Brown, director of primary instruction, public schools, Washington, D. C.\nMiss Anna E. Logan, primary supervisor, Ohio State Normal College, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.\nMiss Mina B. Colburn, superintendent of Cincinnati Kindergarten Training School.\nMiss Gertrude Edmund, principal of training school, Lowell, Mass.\nMiss Elizabeth A. Hayden, teacher in public schools, Washington, D. C.\nMrs. Mary R. Gale Davis, Bridgeport, Conn.\n(Signed) Lillian Wyckoff Johnson, Secretary pro tern.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe evening session of the department was called to order at 8:15 o'clock.\nAn address was delivered by Hon. Andrew S. Draper, state commissioner of education for New\nYork, on the subject, \"Desirable Uniformity and Diversity in American Education.\"\n\nTHIRD\n\nDAY\n\nMORNING SESSION.— Thursday, February 27, 1908\nThe morning was devoted to various round table conferences, as follows:\n(a) round table, state and county superintendents\nLeader, J. B. Aswell, state superintendent of public education, Baton Rouge, La.; secretary, J.J. Doyne, state superintendent of Public Instruction for Arkansas.\nTopic: County Supervision\n1. \"What\nShould\na Good County\nSuperintendent\nKnow?by— W.\nJ. W.S. Olsen,\nsuperintendent of public\ninstruction\nfor Minnesota.\nDiscussion\nSutton,state\nprofessor\nof\neducation, University of Texas.\n2. How Can Trained County Superintendents Be Provided, and How Should They Be\nSelected ?— F. A. Cotton, state superintendent of public instruction for Indiana. Discussion by J. M. Guinn, Department of Education, Tulane University, New Orleans, La., and\nothers.\n3. When Inspecting a School What Should a County Superintendent See and Do ?—\nG. G. Joynes, county superintendent of schools, Onancock, Va.\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nI^^\n\n4. What Can the County Superintendent Lead the People to Do ?— Lawton B. Evans\n'\n' '\nsuperintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga.\n5. By Whom Should Teachers Be Selected ?— F. G. Blair, state superintendent of\npublic instruction for Illinois.\n6. The Relation of the County Superintendent to the County Board.— A. C. Nelson\n'\n'\ninstruction for Utah.\nsuperintendent\nstate 7.\nThe Relation ofofpublic\nthe County Superintendent to the State Superintendent.—\nW. W.\nStetson, Auburn, Maine.\n8. The Relation of the State Superintendent to the County Superintendent. J. Y.\nJoyner, state superintendent of public instruction for North Carolina.\nDiscussion by\nState Superintendent C. P. Cary of Wisconsin; and others.\n(b) round table of superintendents of larger crriES\n\nLeader, Ben Blewett, assistant superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis,\nMo.; secretary, Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.\nTwo brief papers were presented by J. M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools,\nKansas City, Mo., and George S. Davis, associate superintendent of schools, New York\nCity. The remainder of the time was given to general discussion.\nTopic — Teachers: Supply, Normal Training, Placing, Subsequent Training\nThe following superintendents joined in the discussion : C. N. Kendall, Indianapolis,\nInd.; Walter\nSmall,\nProvidence',\nI.; I. C. McNeill,\nMemphis,\nTenn.;\nAddison\nB.\nPoland,\nNewark,H. N.\nJ.; J.\nA. Shawan,R. Columbus,\nO.; W. C.\nMartindale,\nDetroit,\nMich.;\nW. H. Elson, Cleveland, O.; C. F. Carroll, Rochester, N. Y.; J. A. Whiteford, St. Joseph,\nMo.; Stratton D. Brooks, Boston, Mass.; Henry P. Emerson, Buffalo, N. Y.; Asst. Supt.\nHenry S. West, Baltimore, Md.; Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; William H.\nMaxwell, New York City, and President John W. Cook, State Normal School, DeKalb, 111.\n(C)\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF MEDIUM\n\nAND\n\nSMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\nLeader, J. H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala.; secretary, G. G. Bond.\nTopics\nT. To What Extent Should State Uniformity Laws Apply to Cities in Respect to\nCourses of Study, Textbooks and Methods in: (a) Elementary Schools; (6) High Schools ?\nJohn W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio; Carleton B. Gibson, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ga.; followed by Superintendents R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster, Pa.; J. N. Study, Ft. Wayne, Ind.; John N. Davis, Stevens Point, Wis.; E. G.\nLantman, Port Chester, N. Y.; Principal Edward Conradi, St. Petersburg, Fla.; C. A.\nProsser, New Albany, Ind.; W. E. Striplin, Gadsden, x\\la.; Vernon Davcy, East\nOrange, N. J.\n2. Principles and Methods in Pupil Government, Wilson L. Gill, Germantown, Pa.;\nOHver P. Cornman, district superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Discussion\nwas continued by Superintendent Winfred H. Babbitt, Hawaii; E. C. Willard, Stanford,\nConn.; and J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\n(d)\n\nround\n\ntable\n\non AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSession in the Metropolitan Memorial M. E. Church\nLeader, Ernest E. Balcomb, Department of Agriculture, State Normal School,Weatherford,\nOkla. ; E. C. Bishop, State Department of Education, Lincoln, Neb.\nTopic: Preparation of Teachers for Agricultural Education.\n1. The Necessity of Preparing Teachers— A. C. True, director of experiment stations,\nDepartment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.\nthe Training of Teachers— Elmer Ellsworth Brown, U. S. comNotes on Washington,\n2. Some\nD. C.\nmis ioner ofeducation,\n3. Plans of the Youngest State— E. D. Cameron, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Guthrie, Okla.\n4. The Training of Teachers.\nState Normal Schools— John R. Kirk, president of State Normal School,\na) By Mo.\nKirksville,\n\nh) Co-operation of State Agricultural Colleges and State Normal Schools— Kenyon\nAlfred Bayhss, presiL. Butterfield, president of Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.;\ndent State Normal School, Macomb, 111. Discussion by Wm. M. Stewart, president,\nState Normal School, Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\n5. Co-operation between the United States Department of Agriculture and State\nSchool Authorities to Promote Agricultural Education — Dick J. Crosby, specialist in\nagricultural education, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Discussion by\nE. C. Bishop, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln Neb.; George\nB. Cook, superintendent of schools, Hot Springs, Ark.\nAt the close of the program. Superintendent Carrington, of Missouri, moved that the\nmeeting proceed with the organization of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education. Motion seconded and carried.\nDick J. Crosby moved that we proceed to the election of a president, vice president,\nand secretary.\nMotion seconded and carried. ♦\nThe following officers were nominated and unanimously elected :\nFor President — E. C. Bishop, deputy state superintendent of public instruction,\nLincoln, Nebraska.\nFor Vice-President — D. B. Johnson, President Winthrop Normal and Industrial\nCollege, Rock Hill, S. C.\nFor Secretary — E. E. Balcomb, Department of Agriculture, Southwestern State\nNormal School, Weatherford, Oklahoma.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe department met for its final session at 2:00 p. m., and was called to order by\nPresident Cooper.\nThe following was the program of the session:\nTopic:\n\nThe School as an Instrument of Character Building\n\n1. The Fimction of the School in Training for Right Conduct — Miss Margaret E.\nSchallenberger, State Normal School, San Jos^, Cal.\n2. The School and the Development of the Social Conscience — Mrs. John M. Glenn,\nBaltimore, Md.\n3. An Experiment in Moral Training — Miss Jane Brownlee, Educational Lecturer,\nNew York City. General discussion was led by Reed B. Teitrick, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.; and Henry G. Williams, dean of State\nNormal College, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.\nAt the close of the session the Committee on Resolutions made the following report,\nwhich was unanimously adopted.\nReport of Committee on Resolutions\nResolved, That the Department of Superintendence recognizes the growing importance\nand increasing necessity for industrial education. It advocates the close adjustment of\nschool studies to the demands of life. The fitting of the child for a life of industry in shop,\nfarm, or home ranks next in importance to the building of character, the cultivation of\nintelligence, and, subordinate and contributive to these, the training of the hand, which\nare the chief aims of education.\n• The Department of Superintendence believes in the great value of the study of agricultural subjects in the schools of the rural districts.\nThe Department of Superintendence favors the granting of federal aid to the state\nnormal schools for the training of teachers in the subjects of agriculture, manual training,\nand home economics.\nThe department believes that in the large cities provision should be made, by the opening of special ungraded rooms, for the instruction of children of emigrants unable to speak\nEnglish. Grown children of this class should not be placed in the primary grades with\nlittle pupils, but, where feasible, receive special instruction in English, so they may be\nplaced after a short time with children of their own age.\nSpecial provision should be made in every large city where the proper conditions exist\nfor the maintenance of evening schools to instruct adult emigrants in the English language\nand the duties of citizenship.\nThe Department of Superintendence is of the opinion that in every large city schools\nshould be maintained for the special care of children who are neglected by nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nThe Department of Superintendence is gratified to receive the information that the\nNational Civic Federation in conjunction with Alfred Mosely have completed plans\nfor\nvisits of American teachers to the schools of Great Britain and the European continent\nduring the coming autumn. The department believes the cause of education will be\nhelped and advanced by the comparative study of the school systems of various countries\nby competent observers.\nThe Department of Superintendence respectfully submits for consideration of Congress the fact that the provisions made for the National Department of Education are not\ncommensurate with its importance and the vital national interests which it represents.\nMore liberal financial means are required to csurry on properly its work for the study of\neducational progress and the dissemination of educational information.\nState legislatures and school administrators are dependent in every step they take for\nthe improvement of the schools on the information gathered and published by the department and on the advice of its educational experts.\nThe salary fixed for the office of commissioner of education should be more in keeping with the dignity and importance of the oflfice, and should not require constant selfsacrifice on the part of eminent men that have held that position. The salary paid by the\nnation to its commissioner of education should not be less than that paid by the large\ncities to the chief educational officer.\nF. Louis Soldan, Chairman\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nCommittee ( Lawton B. Evans\nRobert E. Denfeld\nLewis H. Jones\nThe following resolution was offered by A. S. Downing of New York, and, after discussion, was passed.\nResolved : That the executive committee of the Department of Superintendence,\nconsisting of the President of the Department and Secretary of the N. E. A., be authorized\nto ascertain whether the hotel accommodations at Oklahoma City are adequate for the\nentertainment of the Department of Superintendence; and if they shall find that such\nhotel accommodations are not adequate, that they designate some other city that has\nample hotel acconmiodations as the place for holding the next meeting of said Department.\nTHURSDAY\n\nEVENING\n\nThru the courtesy of the trustees of the Corcoran Gallery of Art, the Board of Education of Washington, D. C, tendered to the members of the Department and invited\nfriends a reception at the Corcoran Gallery of Art from 8:30 to 10:30 p. M. Thru the\ncourtesy of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the United States Marine Band supplied\nthe music for the occasion.\nRespectfully submitted,\nGeorge B. Cook, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN VIEW OF THE INCREASED DEMANDS UPON THE SCHOOLS\nWHAT OPPORTUNITIES ARE OFFERED FOR ECONOMY\nIN TREA TING THE COURSE OF STUD Y ?\nS. L. HEETER,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nST. PAUL, MINNESOTA\n\nThe saving of time and energy — the opportunity for economy in the work\nof public education — must be sought, first of all, in an economy of aim looking\ntoward education for efficiency in our industrial society. Economy in treating\nthe course of study, economy in the selection, adaptation, and presentation of\nsubject-matter presupposes an economy of aim.\nWe are proud and justly so of what we are prone to believe to be the finest\npublic-school system in the world, a system which has developed marvelously\nalong pretty definite literary, scientific, and professional lines; but there is a\ngrowing feeling that the historic curriculum is unbalanced and one-sided, that\nwe have built up a system of schools whose academic courses best meet the\nneeds of the minority. In the stress of rapidly changing social and industrial\nconditions, we have offered the means of knowledge to the millions, but our\nschools have not yet risen to their responsibility as instruments of the state in\nthe development of popular efficiency. They have developed on the democratic theory that all children are equal and that we must offer equal opportunity to all, but we are now forced to see that all children are not equal, and\nwhat may be a valuable opportunity to one may be no opportunity whatever\nto another. Reports from all parts of the country indicate that the majority of\nboys and girls come to a point in our elementary schools where they fail to find\ngenuine opportunity; they fall short in intellectual processes, arrive at a state\nof arrested development even inside the schools, drop out at fourteen or as\nsoon as they can evade the law, and enter, once for all, low-grade industrial\npursuits, and lives of social, moral, and financial uncertainty.\nHere is the condition, directly facing us in all our work, which must be\nreckoned with in our efforts to save time and energy — to economize in education. Itis not my purpose to lay the blame on the short-sightedness of childhood, nor on the blindness of parents, nor on the selfishness of employers of\nlow-grade child-labor, nor on the indifference of the public, but to inquire into\nour school aims and into our school curriculum for elements which seem to\npermit, possibly encourage, the condition pointed out.\nAt first thought it would seem that school authorities have the only part\nto play in the solution of this problem, and the remedy should be sought in a\nstrict enforcement of compulsory education laws. This has been the first\nmove everywhere, but I desire to emphasize the fact that the rational development of an educational system that counts for popular efficiency will not culminate in a condition under which attendance must be forced by external\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nECONOMY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\n1^0\n\nauthority, but in a condition which in itself possesses compelling power sufficient tohold boys and girls longer in training. Such compelling power must\ncome from within, more than from without, and it can be secured not so much\nthru compulsory measures, as thru a reasonable adaptation of the training offered by the schools to the concrete needs of society.\nIt is gratifying to follow the successful movements that have brought real\nopportunity to the negro and the Indian; to our own mentally, morally, and\nphysically defective, and especially to our juvenile delinquents and youthful\ncriminals; and yet our extended system of popular education will reach its\nfullest development not in schools of discipline, ungraded rooms, parental\nschools, and detention homes, not in any special schools, but in the continued\nevolution of a democratic aim in education to the extent that nothing shall be\nnegligible in the investigation of the individual needs of all children in our\nindustrial society, and nothing negligible in adapting our educational aim,\nmaterials, and methods to their needs in view of special aptitudes, varying\ncapacities, and prospective careers.\nHere is the problem, whose solution is as new as our twentieth-century city\n•and our present form of industrial life. The school has taken over most of the\nresponsibility for education which it formerly shared with the home, the farm,\nand the forest. The school has taken over most of the responsibiUty of preparing the rank and file for the society in which they are to live, but as yet we\nhave not discovered how to supply the important elements in education that in\nother days were provided thru activities outside of the school. There is a chasm\nbetween our educational system and our modern industrial life. On the one\nhand, discouraged boys and girls, abnormals, dullards, truants, and delinquents\nfind themselves unable — mentally, socially, and physically unable — to continue\nwith credit in our culture programs. On the other hand, science, invention,\nand specialization continue to withdraw them from the old-time chores, the\nlight jobs and occupations, from the fireside, farm, and workshop, and transplant them behind the closed doors of our factories. The schools so isolate\nthemselves from the industrial world, and receive so little inspiration from the\nindustrial age in which we live, that thousands of boys and girls leave the\nelementary schools year after year with only the rudiments of book-learning, to\nfind themselves helpless in the whirl of our industrial society, and drift about\nfrom one low-grade pursuit to another, or swell the crowd of improvident juvenile tramps.\nAnd so we are forced, absolutely forced, to a reorganization of our educational aims, having in mind the interests of the majority. We dare not boast\nof a system of universal education as long as our free schools are maintained\nto support the professions to the neglect of the vocations; a§ long as our high\nschools are dominated by the idea of books and preparation for college, and as\nlong as our elementary schools are controlled by the idea of the making of a\nworthy life without giving the capacity to make a worthy living. The point is,\nthere is still a lingering mediaevalism in our school aims taking as its ideal a\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "I40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Washington\n\nworn-out conception of culture. The making of a cultured life was a sufficient\naim in the days of academic seclusion, in the days of Greece with its dominant\nslave-owning oligarchy; but we are called upon today to train American boys\nand girls in an industrial democracy, and if we are in earnest about universal\neducation, we must abandon all one-sided aims and ideals and recognize that\nour educational system succeeds just to the extent that we make it focus upon\nthe individual needs of each member of society.\nMy conclusion thus far is that the very spirit of the day is demanding of\neducators truth and directness in all their aims. The very first economy in\neducation must be an economy of aim. A system of public education that\naims to provide equal opportunity for all, should be so organized, equipped,\nand directed as to offer some genuine opportunity to the majority — opportunity\nto secure such knowledge and training during school life as will enable each\nindividual to make the most of himself and render the largest service to society.\nAll education today must aim at eflSciency. The very first element in a successful life, and the very first service of an individual to society, are the disposition,\nthe determination, and the ability to make a living. I sincerely believe that we\nare at the beginning of a great development of primary industrial education in\nthis country thru the channels of popular education.\nAnd now, as to the course of study itself, the materials with which we work.\nEconomy of subject-matter must follow an economy of aim. There must be\nno inconsistency in any argument for economy of time and energy which would\nat the same time increase the demands upon the schools. The elementary\nprogram has been referred to as a heterogeneous mixture, a kind of stew, a\nhodge-podge of many ingredients. We hear a constant cry against the multiplicity ofsubjects that have found their way into the schools. Yet here is not\nwhere we break down. Let us be careful. The problem of the course of\nstudy, the solution of which leads to economy of time and energy, is not a\nproblem of closing our eyes and eliminating certain subjects bodily from the\ncurriculum. The activities and studies that make up our program from\nthe kindergarten thru the high schools, the games and plays, the arts and\ncrafts, the industries and occupations, the elementary sciences, drawing and\nmusic, the laboratories, gymnasiums, school gardens, and shops, these are not\nmere accidents. They are abiding realities arising with the conscious needs\nof our complex social and industrial organizations. The problem before the\nschool is not that of a wholesale elimination, not a problem of getting rid of\nthis subject or that, but one of interpreting and proving relative values of\nmaterials, activities, and studies in the light of the new aim in education.\nIt is no longer a problem of enrichment of the course of study, once considered the panacea for all the ills of the schools, but one of arriving at essentials and fixing upon fundamentals and potentials in every subject taught.\nThe old school was burdened by its own limitations and so narrow was the conception ofits teachers that every lesson began and ended in drill on isolated\nfacts. The reaction came none too soon, bringing about an enrichment that\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintcndencel\n\nECONOMY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\n141\n\nreduced brute memorizing, broke away from lifeless matter, opened up to the\nteacher broad fields of material; and yet after two decades of such enrichment,\nour curriculum has become so extensive, so comprehensive, so far-reaching in\nits scope and significance, that its outlines fairly bewilder, if not overwhelm\nour very best trained teachers. The time has come when school authorities\nshould call a halt on enrichment and realize that content of study has been\nsufi&ciently outlined.\nI cannot help feeling that too many children are dropping out of our elementary and secondary schools dazed and bewildered from a superficial treatment of elaborate academic courses. On the one hand our teachers have\nabsolutely no time to stop for the sake of thoroness; on the other, they simply\nrefuse to leave details alone. If a boy finds himself forced to be a wageearner and wishes to increase his earning capacity, he should receive in four\nyears at high school such a grounding in practical arithmetic, plain English,\nand typewriting as to be able to go out into our offices and put out of business the lads who spend eight weeks in our business college. I wonder if we\nare crowding back upon high-school boys and girls pure mathematics, institutional history, and abstractions in science beyond the experience and comprehension ofchildish minds ? I am sure there are still too many science\ncourses between the lids of the books, not enough applied physics and chemistry. Too many laboratories, instead of being an interesting workshop for\nboys, are given up to abstract discussions of scientific laws. A child has no\nbusiness working in historic geology and running about nights plajring at\nastronomical observations before he has an everyday practical acquaintance\nwith physical, commercial, and industrial geography. Our free elective system should not lose sight of prerequisites. So far as the high school is concerned acertain amount of arithmetic should come along with higher algebra;\nspelling before or at least along with dramas and novels; a legible handwriting before design in color; typewriting before stenography; home geography\nbefore astronomy; physiology, hygiene, and domestic economy before\nzoology, and so on.\nAnd now what are my recommendations ? It is easy enough to generalize,\nbut what are the concrete possibilities ?\nFirst: Let us get together on such simplification of academic subjectmatter in the first six grades of our elementary schools as will afford a practical basic training to every child — a broad basis of general culture and efficiency for every boy however humble the home, and however circumscribed\nthe course of his destiny. It may mean in arithmetic the elimination of complex fractions, metric systems, Troy and apothecary's weights, compound\nproportion, mensuration of trapezoids, trapeziums, cones, spheres, and pyramids, until all pupils have mastered the multiplication tables and become\naccurate in fundamental operations. It may mean in grammar the abolition\nof all guesswork in parsing and of fine discriminations in sentence analysis,\nuntil all children, even in our poorer districts, are given a sure grounding in\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\npractical language training. In writing, it may mean less wrangling over the\nuniform slant of letters and more consideration for the development of an\nindividual, intelligible hand on the part of each child. In drawing, it may mean\nnothing more than the cultivation of such artistic sense as will help boys and\ngirls to wash their hands, comb their hair, clean their nails, and put their desks\nin order. Some things in all subjects are surely fundamental. It remains\nfor us to agree upon these.\nSecond: We must introduce into the daily program of the first six grades,\nincluding the kindergarten, a comprehensive system of primary industrial\ntraining whose varied and graduated activities may be pressed, daily instead\nof once a week, to the very highest point of interest and usefulness, but never\nto drudgery, routine, or arrested development, thus stimulating and encouraging rather than neglecting and distorting the very impulses, the instincts of\nconstruction and production that lie at the basis of success for the individual\nas well as for our industrial society.\nThird: As to our seventh and eighth grades — we are called upon to reorganize our educational aim as well as our courses of study in these two upper\ngrades upon the basis of vocation as well as mental achievement. We must\nsocialize and industrialize our so-called grammar schools, must give a richer\ncivic content to all studies and activities by the emphasis of such arithmetic,\nhandwriting, and spelling as will meet the requirements of business; by drawing less artistic, less decorative, and more mechanical; by more practical language training and less formal grammar; by more attention to the commercial\nand industrial aspects of geography, to the civic and institutional side of history, and by more frequent observation and by closer study of the leading\nindustrial materials and processes of the community.\nFourth : We must decrease the school hours, so far as formal studies in the\ngrammar schools are concerned, for certain boys and girls forced by circumstances to go early to work, but increase the time correspondingly for such\npupils to be given to industrial training and commercial subjects to the extent\nof utilizing a larger variety of suitable materials and processes from the various leading industries of the community, ending possibly in a closely articulated elementary system of apprenticeship between the grammar schools and\nleading industrial enterprises.\nFifth: In addition to night schools for the laboring classes maintained\nstrictly for all over sixteen years of age, there should be set aside in every city\na certain number of rooms for half-day continuation schools, some in the\nmorning from eight o'clock until twelve, and some in the afternoon from one\no'clock until five, for boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen\nforced by necessity to go to work, such schools to be under men teachers, the\nboard of education in every case to maintain a labor bureau to whom every\nemployer of child labor must apply and by whom every certificate must be\nissued.\nSixth : The saving of time and energy in public education will be encouraged\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nECONOMY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\n.\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n_^\n\n»o\n\nby the abolition of the old-time, classical high school as such, and by the introduction of general manual-training and commercial courses into all high\nschools; by the establishment of city high schools on the district plan, pushing\nthem out to the people and increasing the number as attendance will warrant,\nthus making the high school less a school for the privileged classes and more\nand more a part of our common-school system.\nSeventh and last: The scheme for popular education for all-round eflaciency\nwill be complete in the establishment of at least one secondary industrial school\nin every city, which shall afford, in addition to its general courses, the opportunity to specialize in mechanic arts, home economics, and commercial subjects, offering two-, three-, and four-year courses; such schools to be supported locally with additional encouragement as soon as possible in the way\nof organization and maintenance from the state and federal government,\nleaving the establishment of special trade schools for adults aiming solely at\nnarrow, specialized skill, to private endowment or even to the state, but entirely\nbeyond the system of free, public education. All educators, superintendents\nof schools, and boards of education interested in general efficiency in our industrial society may safely encourage the establishment of independent trade\nschools turning out productive economic units and preparing for jobs, but we\nshould take the stand that all independent apprenticeship systems and special\ntrade schools should keep hands off of our boys and girls under sixteen years of\nage, and the entire responsibility for education of children looking toward\ngeneral efficiency should be thrown upon our system of public education.\nDISCUSSION\nF. B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, O. — In the foregoing thoughtful\npaper there is one point to which I shall offer a mild dissent. I refer to early industrial\nefficiency on the part of our pupils. Carlyle said his father was not simply a shoemaker,\nhe was a man who made shoes. Efficiency is a blanket term, for efficiency in a democracy\nis a complex matter. While it includes vocational fitness, it includes much more. To be\nconfidential, it seems to me that this term \"efficiency,\" the slogan of recent educationists,\nhas been sadly overworked of late. It has lost its special virtue, its divinum quiddam, its\nSocratic daemon, so to speak, and should be decently shelved in the museum of pedagogical\ncant. At least, can we not take it for granted as we do the gentlemanly virtues ? I know\nit would leave many of us for a time without much to say, but this would give us an opportunity to think, and would reduce the volume of our educational proceedings to readable\nproportions. This is meant not as a protest against anything that has preceded, but as a\nprotection in what is to follow.\nI have observed the occupations of people that live near the route from my residence\nto my office. There are three candidates for the presidency of the United States, two\ncongressmen — politics is something of a profession in Ohio — physicians, brokers, manufacturers, plumbers, tailors, all of them representatives of at least 128 honest trades, professions, or businesses, as distinct as those I have enumerated. Yet these people have so\nmuch in common, in spite of the bewildering variety of ways they have of making a living,\nthat the neighborhood seems to be fairly homogeneous.\nBecause of the diversified industries and vocations in American cities, the problem\nof vocational training is peculiarly difficult. It is a very different problem in cities of Europe\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIWashmgton\n\nwhere industries are specialized along one or two lines, and where children usually follow\nthe calHng of their parents.\nThe superstructure of vocation, however varied, seems to need much the same sort\nof solid foundation of character, intelhgence, and knowledge of civic duty and natural law.\nIt seems to me possible to find mental food that is good and wholesome for all normal\nchildren at least to the age of 14.\nBut the discussion this afternoon will bring out whether it is wise to begin the dififerentiation\nof children at so early an age as 12, and to fix their bent at the dawn of adolescence; the\ntopic of this morning evidently was planned to consider whether by good management we\ncan make room for many things we are not doing, without the loss of anything of importance\nwhich we are doing.\nI believe we can. I shall not discuss the possible reorganization of our materials so\nthat all manual work shall be the expressional side of other school activities. If this is\nbrought about at all, it must be by painful evolution after many experiments and failures.\nI hope that many wiU try it, so that we may profit by their experience.\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nSAVING\n\nTIME\n\nWe can save at least one-fifth of our time (i) by the elimination of obsolete or worthless matter, (2) by due regard for the laws of physical and psychical development in the\nassignment of time for subjects and the arrangement of material, and (3) by more expert\npresentation and consideration of the material in the classroom.\nWhen the three R's constituted the curriculum, it was necessary to expand them\nmightily to occupy the child for eight years. There is no reason now why they should\nremain dropsical. We can tap arithmetic, geography, and grammar, and reduce their\nbulk one-half without irreparable loss to this world or the next.\nAs to assignment of time for different subjects, it has been pretty conclusively demonstrated that an excess of time given to such subjects as spelUng, penmanship, and formal\nlanguage exercises, so far from benefiting children in those subjects, leads to dissipation of\nattention, decrease of effort, and poor results. In drill exercises of all sorts, the shortening\nof the time increases the intensity of application, and therefore the rapidity and accuracy.\nA daily five-minute drill on mathematical processes, and a half-hour for study of problems\nadapted to the experience of the child will probably accomplish more in the end than an\nhour a day even of the same character of work.\nThe selection of topics may be made with an eye single to the requirements of our\ncivilization, but the ordering of this material must be with an eye single to the laws of growth.\nWe must begin with the things the need of which the child can feel and see, and must\narrange the matter so that as the child's interest and experience expand, that topic which is\nnearest will be considered next.\nBut I wish to address myself particularly to the third method: Economy in the schoolroom, in the presentation of the material. We superintendents are so busy inventing tables,\npigeon-holing statistics, ordaining courses of study, and handing down misfit syllabuses\n(mostly second hand) that we have no time to spend in the classroom, assisting to eliminate\nthe waste there. This is a pity — not that some of us could render much assistance there,\nbut because it would enable us to attack the problem of economy in teaching with a better\nunderstanding of the conditions.\nThe Schoolmasters' Club of my city has been giving this year to a study of the extent and\nthe causes of the waste of time and energy in the schools. I shall not tell you the extent,\nfor if I did, someone might go home and brag how much better he does things. But I\nshall enumerate some of the causes, for after a visit to several cities I believe these are not\naltogether local. I shall confine myself\nCAUSES\n\nOF\n\nWASTE\n\nIN THE\n\nSCHOOLROOM\n\nI. Insufficient attention to the formation of habits — especially habits of study and\nself-help, but also habits of order and cleanliness, of promptness, of consideration for others.\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\n— — —\n\nECONOMY\n\n■\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\n■- ■.\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\n___^\n\nSTUDY\n\n^\n\nof honor, and trustworthiness.\nThe teacher should see that the mental attitude is in the\ndirection of right ideals, and then should stimulate the child to fix these tendencies into\nhabits, by continual exercise in the school activities. This should be the controUine motive\nin the disciplme, and to this end the inteUigent co-operation of the home should be soueht\n'\nHerein, according to our critics, our American schools fall short.\n2. Lack of preparation in advance of the matter to be presented and illustrative materials tobe used, resultmg m random firing, all along the line. Departmental teachine is\n^\na partial remedy in grammar grades.\n3. Lack of perspective in the use of details to bring out the essential ideas, with the\nresult that essentials and nonessentials are hammered on with equal fervor. This arises\nfrom a mistaken notion of thoroness and from an indiscriminating use of the memory\nin excessive drills and upon ill-digested facts on the one hand, and in failure to emphasize\nforms and concepts that are necessary to progress on the other.\n4. Not a clear enough distinction between that part of schoolroom management which\nshould become routine, and the occasional part which requires deliberation and decision\nUnnecessary time is devoted to distributing and collecting materials, preparing forms\ngiving orders and countermanding them, getting ready for recesses, and getting down to\nbusiness afterward.\n5. Unstimulating teaching that does not arouse the children to joyous activity. I do\nnot refer to weak personalities, for whom there is little hope, but to trained teachers with\na full stock of devices and best ways of doing things. Artificiality and insincerity will accompany skill, unless the teacher keep her sympathies and interest very much alive.\n6. Unsupervised and excessive written work. Writing is likely to be the chief means\nof expression and occupation in mass teaching. Tests are convenient devices to keep a\nclass qmet when the teacher wants a rest period.\n7. Infrequent reclassification and inflexible systems of promotion, classes so large as\nto prevent attention to the individual at the moment of his need, the presence of defective\nchildren with normal children.\nThese overtax the teacher without commensurate results.\n8. Inattention to the physical condition of the schoolroom, and to the physical condition of the pupils. Expert medical assistance in the schoolroom is indispensable, not\nonly to determine physical conditions, but to advise concerning the needs of abnormal\nchildren.\nThat the loss of time and energy is very considerable in many schools is evidenced by\nthe following estimates, which I believe are not exaggerated: In our large cities 50 per\ncent, of the pupils are one year or more behind the normal age of their grade, and 20 per\ncent, are two years or more behind their grade. More than one-half our pupils do not get\nfarther than the sixth grade, perpetuating an illiterate proletariat in our cities, tho by\nlaw all are kept in schools until they are fourteen, and by expert estimate only about 5 per\ncent, are too defective mentally and physically to do the work.\nI do not charge that this is due wholly to waste in the schoolroom, but I believe that\nconditions can be brought about that will economize the time in the schoolroom to better\nadvantage.\nAmong the means of securing better conditions, I can discuss only one.\nThe principal or head-master as the important factor. — Instead of frittering away time\nabout the office, more than half of his energy should be given to supervising in the literal\nsense of looking over, not overlooking, children at their work.\n1. It is for him to discriminate between children of dififerent capacity, and advance\neach with appropriate rapidity (acknowledgments to Dr. Eliot), to see that the lazy are\nstimulated, the dull are awakened, the bright are employed, the indiflferent are interested,\nthe unruly are regulated, the failures are investigated, the absentees are brought to book.\n2. It is for him to arouse the home to a full appreciation of its responsibility in the\ntraining of the children, to secure the intelligent co-operation of parents and teachers, and\nto ally with himself the social agencies of his community for civic betterment.\n3. It is for him to see that the school plant is kept in good physical condition, with\nregard to temperature, ventilation, cleanliness, and repair, to see that the teaching apparatus\nis on hand and in good condition when wanted, and to see that it is wanted.\n4. It is for him, with the assistance of such helpers as we can give him, in the classroom and thru teachers' meetings, to improve the method of instruction and of discipUne,\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nto see that the emphasis is placed upon the essentials (and this includes the essential habits\nand ideals of the children, as well as the fundamentals of the various branches of study),\nto keep the sympathies and interest of the teachers keyed to the proper tension, and to bring\nthe whole school up to the standard of the best teachers in it.\nIn short, some may propose one method, and some another, to eliminate the waste in\nthe schoolroom due to mass teaching, but in any system an intelligent principal is the key\nto the solution. It is for us to see that he rises to his responsibilities and that he has the\nassistance which he needs to perform his duties.\nFrederick E. Bolton, professor of education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City,\nla. — I have not had the privilege of seeing Superintendent Heeter's paper and, consequently,\nshall be obliged to make an extemporaneous discussion. I am warned by the preceding\nspeaker that the word eflficiency is to be tabooed. However, the first point which I wish\nto make is that while we are considering the arrangement of a course of study so as to secure\nefficiency for pupils, we must not forget the most important factor — efficient teachers.\nUndoubtedly the pupil's time is wasted far more because of inefficient teachers than because\nof any ill arrangement of subjects and topics. The textbooks suggest fairly good logical\narrangement of subject-matter. We need teachers with breadth of scholarship sufficient\nto discern the varying worth of the dififerent topics and who know how to vitalize the whole\nrange of subject-matter. To substantiate my view that our children sufifer from inefficient\nteachers, I may say that in one great state there is one teacher in every fourth high school\nwho has had no training, academic or professional, beyond that received in that high school.\nLittle wonder that we complain of waste and dissipation of energy somewhere. It could\nnot be otherwise. We need great and efficient teachers more than modification of the course\nof study. When we have a teaching profession with every elementary teacher a graduate\nof some normal school, and every high-school teacher with the equivalent of a college course\nand requisite professional training we shall cease to bewail the arrangement of the course\nof study.\nWe must look to Germany for an object-lesson.\nI fully agree with Superintendent Heeter that many details and topics must be omitted\nfrom the course. He has elaborated that so well that I need not enter upon it. Dr. Mc\nMurry gave a splendid discussion of this topic also in 1904.\nWe must also reorganize and redistribute the various subjects and topics in the course.\nWe must rearrange the material of the course in such a way as to adjust the various subjects and topics to the needs and capacities of the pupils at varying stages in their development. Under our present system this is impossible. In a general way the spiral plan\nwould far better meet the needs of the pupils. Germany has long recognized this and acted\naccordingly. There each subject is introduced early and continued for a long period of\nyears. Many subjects are given a small number of hours per week. By this method the\npupils consider the subject at different times, from different angles, and with different interests. Inthis country, although the spiral plan has been adopted in name in some places,\nto my knowledge it has never been arranged on a scientific basis. Not a single book that\nI know of really observes the spiral plan as known in Germany. The Germans secure better\nresults than we do and in a shorter time. I have investigated with considerable care the\namount of time devoted to the teaching of German in Germany. It is a noticeable fact\nthat they do not have several subjects like spelling, reading, composition, rhetoric, grammar,\netc. They have one single subject — Deutsch. In this country we have a great variety\nof subjects relating to English. We devote to all of them about twice as much time as the\nGermans give to Deutsche and, I beUeve, with poorer results. Why could we not correlate\nall of these subjects around one center ? Why do we need special classes for composition,\nspelling, rhetoric, etc. ? Why could not practically all of the composition themes be secured\nfrom the work in history, literatvu-e, science, and geography ? This would result in a great\nsaving of time and greater efficiency.\nIn harmony with my first position I desire to state that the course of study must be\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RECOGNITION\n\nOF PUPILS'\n\nVARYING\n\nABILITY\n\nia>j\n\nconsidered in such a way as to recognize better individual needs and individual conditions\nof development. We have too long considered the course of study from the purely logical\npoint of view. We have arranged our subjects and topics in harmony with cold logic and\nhave failed to recognize the psychological and sociological aspects of the case. We must\nregard the question from a new point of view. The aim of education is being conceived\nentirely anew. We no longer regard it as a mere question of formal discipline. We wish\nto adjust and adapt the individual to social needs. We must come to regard the child as\nthe center and circumference of all pedagogical considerations. We have too long substituted for this the subject of instruction.\n\nWHA T MODIFICA TIONS IN ORGANIZA TION ARE NECESSARY\nTO SECURE SUITABLE RECOGNITION FOR PUPILS OF\nVARYING ABILITY, PARTICULARLY FOR THE ABLEST?\nCALVIN\n\nN. KENDALL,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nINDLA.NAPOLIS, IND.\n\nIn the twenty minutes allotted me, I shall confine myself to a discussion of\nthe modifications required in organization to promote the interests of the\nablest children. So-called defective pupils are therefore left out of account.\nBackward children are more easily disposed of. Schools for defectives are\nincreasing in number, and there is something like a settled mode of procedure in\ndealing with such children. They make a more effective appeal for consideration than the ablest children do. Incidentally, the removal of defective children\nfrom regular classes enables a teacher to devote her energies to children of\nnormal power. Such separation, therefore, promotes the interest of all\nchildren.\nIt is probably true that pupils in a given room are as unlike in their mental\ncapabilities as in their looks. Forty children, forty characters. Says President Eliot: ''To discriminate between pupils of different capacity, to select\nthe competent for suitable instruction, and to advance each pupil with appropriate rapidity, will ultimately become the most important function of the\npublic-school administrator.\"\nOf course I cannot attempt to show satisfactorily to you, and certainly not\nto myself, how this discrimination, this selection, and this advancement can be\nmade, for so long as the work of teaching and administering schools is done by\nmere men and women, so long will we fall short of the ideal pointed out by\nPresident Eliot. I am convinced, however, that substantial progress is being\nmade in many cities and towns to conserve the interests of pupils of varying\ndegrees of ability.\nA mere mention of special features of differing classification plans, which of\nlate have come to my notice, would exceed the limits of this paper. If superintendents and principals have not wholly succeeded in breaking up the so-called\n\"lock-step,\" it is not because of indifference or lack of effort. ' In my opinion\nthe \"lock-step\" theory has been somewhat overworked, but the use of the\nfigure has served to call attention to the individual as distinct from the system\nof which he is a part. The lessening of the rigors of grading was inevitable,\nas practical, modern psychology caused children to be better understood.\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "14S\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washingt.m\n\nIn the preparation of this paper, I made an effort to learn what unusual\nor out-of-the-way plans of promotion and classification are in operation in\nimportant centers of the country. The usual response I received was like\nthis one:\nWe have a rather elastic system of promotion. The regular rule is semi-annual promotion, but bright children are in some cases allowed to skip a half-year's work. A grade\nis usually divided into divisions so that a part of it goes faster than the other. An unusually\nbright pupil in such a division would not really lose a half-year by skipping.\n\nIt would be no exaggeration to say that this seems to be the normal or\ngeneral plan of classification. At any rate, the variations are slight.\nFrom a few places, however, some special or unusual plan was reported.\nIn Cambridge, the course of study in the grammar schools is six years, but the\npupils are so classified and the course of study so arranged as to afford the able\npupils an opportunity to complete it in four years. In fifteen years, of the\nnine thousand pupils who have gone thru the grammar schools of that city,\n7 per cent, have made the course in four years, and 25 per cent, in five years.\nThose who are not familiar with the plan can, if they so desire, learn the details\nfrom the Cambridge school report.\nIt has been in operation fifteen years. I have been unable to find elsewhere such carefully prepared tables, showing the actual numerical results of\na particular scheme of promotion for pupils of varying degrees of ability. The\nschools of Cambridge are known as good schools. There is in my possession\ntestimony, independent of the superintendent's office, of the merits of this\nscheme.\nFor these reasons I have spoken of it. It may be no better than numerous\nother special plans; it may be no better than the common practice of semiannual promotions with frequent individual promotions.\nIt is interesting to note that the average age of pupils who enter the high\nschools in Cambridge is substantially fourteen-and-a-half years. In two\nother typical Massachusetts cities, Springfield and Worcester, where there are\nalso nine grades, the average age of pupils entering the high schools is reported\nas practically the same as that in Cambridge; that is, the Cambridge plan, good\nas it is, does not bring about such rapidity of promotion as to effect in any\nconsiderable degree, in comparison with other cities, the age at which pupils\nenter the high schools. To repeat, it is chiefly significant because its results\nfor a considerable period of years have been reduced to figures.\nAnother consideration remains to be mentioned. In each large Cambridge\ngrammar school is a special teacher, whose business it is to aid, by personal\ninstruction, both the able and the backward. It is almost unnecessary to add\nthat such additional teachers, giving individual instruction, are desirable in\nevery large grammar school. It is, however, no practical solution of the problem of either the ablest or the backward, for as we approach anything like real\nindividual instruction, we have greatly increased expenses for schools.\nI believe, therefore, that existing plans of promotion and classification, if\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RECOGNITION\n\nOF\n\nPUPILS'\n\nVARYING\n\nABILITY\n\niaq\n\nproperly administered by discriminating and capable principals, take care of\nthe ablest children to a larger extent than is generally thought.\nSemi-annual promotions; two sections in each grammar school, three or\nmore in primary schools; abolishing examinations as a test for promotion;\nindividual promotion of pupils, and increased interest in the individual pupil\napart from the mass, all contribute to this result.\nThus far all relates to the child in relation to the conventional course of\nstudy; but arranging promotions so that the child may pass thru the\nschools in the shortest period of time is not, of course, a solution of what shall\nbe done for the ablest pupils; for them, the course of study needs at some points\neliminations, at other points additions, and sometimes generous additions.\nA capable pupil may also be an immature pupil; to rush him on to the high\nschool of the prevailing type is to be deplored.\nI wish now to speak of a plan for caring for the ablest children in the last\ntwo years of the grammar-school course. It is by no means novel or original,\nbut is in operation in several cities.\nIt is this: to group the most capable children of the last two years in certain buildings as centers, as defectives are grouped in centers. In growing\ncities there is of course difficulty in finding rooms for these centers in already\novercrowded buildings. This difficulty, however, would be likely to disappear\nwhen we are convinced that as much should be done for gifted children as for\nslow ones, and when we are further convinced that in the schools of a democracy, every child, the able as well as the dull, has this claim upon us — to give\nhim the best of which he is capable. In a large departmental school a class of\nthe able children can sometimes be placed in separate divisions in -the standard\nsubjects.\nThese children should be placed with a strong teacher, for some of the ablest\npupils will not make use of their power unless the teaching is effective. It is\nmy conviction that any marked departure from the usual course of study or\norder of things is likely to fail unless the teacher or administrator is forceful\nand intelligent. I refer to the teacher of backward children, to the teacher of\nthe ablest children, to the teacher of Latin in the grades, and to numerous other\nspecial teachers. The personal equation is the main thing. The paper\nadministrative scheme is subordinate. Therefore, to place the keenest and\nmost capable children in charge of the college or normal-school graduate of\nslender personal or teaching resources is to invite failure. The work for such\nchildren would not be the conventional course of study, for they are the alert\nand the capable.\nIf from well-to-do homes, it is probable that many of these pupils will go to\ncollege. Latin or German may be begun, literature may be increased in content, history and geography may be combined, the scope of mathematics may\nbe increased, the use of English may be broadened and strengthened. These\npupils will go to the high schools prepared to enter the second half-year, or\nthey will reach the high school a half-year or a year ahead of pupils of normal\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "150\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\npower. There need be little fear of their ability to maintain themselves in\nthe high schools. There is numerous testimony bearing upon this point. In\nCambridge the four-year grammar-school pupils lead their classes in the high\nschools, and have done so for years.\nAnother center might be established for pupils who probably will not go\nbeyond the high school, or perhaps to the high school at all. In this center\nLatin would be omitted, literature and geography would be enriched, the\nvarious art activities, including manual training, increased, science taught and\narithmetic emphasized. However, it is not my purpose to formulate a\ncourse of study for these pupils; local conditions would determine. What\nthese ablest pupils work at is important, but is of secondary consideration ; the\nmain thing is to have them work at the safe and sane maximum of their power.\nThis term we have established in Indianapolis two centers for unusually\nstrong pupils beginning the second-half of the seventh year. In these centers\npupils are gathered from eight schools. There are twenty-five pupils in each\nclass; they work in departmental schools.\nIn Baltimore there are four preparatory class centers, as they are called\nthere, for seventh- and eighth-year pupils who have made creditable records in\nthe sixth year. These pupils carry on the regular work of the seventh and\neighth years, and, in addition advanced English work, Latin, and either French\nor German. Three extra study credits may be earned, which count toward a\nhigh-school diploma. Superintendent Van Sickle states that a pupil who is\nworking successfully in these preparatory classes completes the high-school\ncourse in three years. In Worcester there is a similar plan for concentrating\nin a few centers pupils of ability who are preparing for the high schools.\nIn Indianapolis, apart from the two special classes mentioned, at the beginning of the eighth year certain strong pupils begin Latin, whose parents request\nit. These pupils earn a half-year's credit to be applied in the high schools.\nAH our pupils in the eighth year have an opportunity to earn high-school\ncredits in English and mathematics. About one-third of the pupils earn these\ncredits and subsequently do good work in the high schools. Other pupils, and\nfrequently the same pupils as those I have mentioned, earn credits in German.\nThe aggregate result is, that about one-third of the ablest eighth-grade pupils\nenter the second half-year of the high school.\nThe most, perhaps, that can be claimed for these and similar plans is that\nthey are an attempt to differentiate pupils of ability in the higher grammar\nschools, independent of ordinary schemes of grading.\nCertain considerations should be mentioned: First, the number of the\nablest pupils, as the term is used in this paper, is small; at least it so appears in\nthe light of our present knowledge of children. Such is the judgment, too, of\ndiscriminating principals and teachers. Second, we must rely upon teachers\nand principals to point out such pupils. The tendency would be to choose\ntoo limited a number rather than too many. It is a responsibility the burden\nof which becomes less with experience. Then, there is the natural reluctance\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RECOGNITION\n\nOF PUPILS'\n\nVARYING\n\nABILITY\n\nto part with strong pupils and lose the help of their leadership. This reluctance ismade deeper by the feeling that the gifted pupils are needed to help\nthe less gifted. Third, as I have said before, the immaturity of pupils cannot\nbe left out of account, apart from their special power to do the technical work\nof the course of study. For immature pupils broader experience, breadth and\ndepth of study, are as important as rapidity of progress thru the paper\ncourse of study. There are some things which pupils must grow to, as Dr.\nHinsdale used to say.\nThis leads to a fourth consideration, the consent of parents for pupils to have\nrapid promotion and to work in special classes. Strange as it may seem to\nus, parents sometimes know better than schoolmasters what is best for their\nchildren.\nSome of the most intelligent parents are entirely willing that their children, even tho precocious, should pass thru the grammar schools with slight\ndemands upon their real working power, if the general school atmosphere is\ngood. Here is a girl nine years old in the sixth grade. She is the daughter of\na judge, the mother is a woman of education and refinement. The girl will\nmake from 90 to 100 per cent, in any reasonable test in the various standard\nschool subjects. The parents know these facts. She has no peculiarities\nexcept brains. They are unwilling to have her go ahead as she really has the\npower to do, considering only the conventional paper course of study. They\nbelieve that she will gain much from the general school life, for it is a good\nschool. The attitude of these parents is typical.\nTo satisfy intelligent parents is something, but not everything. If this\nchild and others like her were in a special school where they could be taught\nindependently of the ordinary course of things, their school life would be really\nworth while. As it is, there must be more or less regrettable dawdling. Both\nintelligent parents and school superintendents, in considering this phase of the\nquestion, might well take to heart Gladstone's words to a graduating class:\nBelieve me when I tell you that the thrift of time will repay you in after life with an\nusury of profit beyond your most sanguine dreams, and that the waste of it will make you\ndwindle aUke in intellectual and moral stattire, beneath your darkest reckonings.\n\nThe consent of parents is essential, if additional demands are to be made\nwhich tax the strength of a child, and if he is to go an unusual distance to\nschool. There should be frequent conferences between the principal and\nteachers on the one hand, and parents on the other, with reference to the health\nof these children.\nFifth, additional expense in teaching classes with expert teachers. This\nexpense may be justified, however, in the same way that we justify the per\ncapita expense for high schools and for state university instruction— the\nnecessity of training leaders in a democracy. In Oakland, California, where,\nby the way, there is an excellent promotion scheme, pupils who cannot be well\nclassified in one building may be transported at public expense to another.\nSixth, in Indianapolis, if I may refer again to a situation with which I am\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nfamiliar, the high-school credit system for the eFghth grade has resulted in a\ncloser articulation between the high school and the grammar school. The\nheads of departments in the high schools have become interested in the work\nof the grammar schools; they visit the grammar schools, they give class instruction in academic subjects to grammar-school teachers; they attend and take\npart in teachers' meetings: they have a better understanding of grammarschool conditions, and have, consequently, a more sympathetic attitude toward\ngrammar-school work. The change from the grammar to the high school is\nperhaps made easier. I believe I can see signs of better teaching in the high\nschools resulting from all this. When high-school teachers turn their faces\ntoward the grammar school, as well as toward the college, high-school instruction will be more effective. There will be more teaching and less lecturing;\nmore of a disposition to take the pupil where he is; less of a disposition to\nfind fault with grammar-school instruction; and a greater realization that\nthe pupil in the first year or two of the high school is still a child.\nIt seems to me that signs are not wanting that the time is near when there\nwill be modifications of the work of the seventh and eighth years of the grammar-school course:\nIn organization — centers in which strong pupils can work at the maximum\nof their power, unhindered by less capable pupils. In curriculum — training\nand instruction which shall take a larger account of the differing needs of\npupils, some vitally related to vocational life, for there is good authority for\nsaying that \"Incompetency in the arts is quite as dangerous to society as\nilliteracy.\" Neither the grammar school nor the high school can completely\ndispose of this menace, but they can do something. To do so effectively,\nhowever, requires teachers in the arts, of special skill and power, and consequently more expensive teachers.\nThere is one paragraph from a lecture of Huxley's which seems to make a\nfitting close to this address:\nNow the most important object ot all educational schemes is to catch these exceptional\npeople, and turn them to account for the good of society. No man can say where they will\ncrop up; like their opposites, the fools and knaves, they appear sometimes in the palace\nand sometimes in the hovel; but the great thing to be aimed at, I was almost about to say\nthe most important end of all social arrangements, is to keep these glorious sports of Nature\nfrom being either corrupted by luxury or starved by poverty, and to put them into the position in which they can do the work for which they are specially fitted.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn A. Long, superintendent of schools, Joliet, 111. — Most of our attempts to adjust\nthe school organization to children of varying ability, so far as I am aware, have taken the\nform of breaking the school period up into smaller units which have no special psychological\nsignificance, and has only drawn us farther away from our actual pedagogical problem.\nMy experience is that half-year promotions may be, and often are, quite as rigid as annual\npromotions. The imfortunate tendency has been to increase the emphasis upon subjectmatter as the source of our pedagogical standards, instead of throwing it over upon the\nattitudes and capacities of the child as he confronts a new situation.\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RECOGNITION\n\nOF PUPILS'\n\nVARYING\n\nABILITY\n\niq»\n\nI wish to call attention to two things from Mr. Kendall's paper. First, the incident\nof the judge who was unwilling to have his precocious daughter go far beyond her grade\nbecause he felt that there was something to be gained by \"waiting,\" that there was something tobe got out of time. Now, let us put alongside of that the saying of Dr. Hinsdale,\nthat there are some things children need to grow up to. Both these things seem to me to\npoint to the fact that there are, in the lives of children, certain nodal points of experience\nor attitude, ways of looking at things, which are outside of, and separate from, the mere\nability to add to knowledge, to gather experience, or to follow the \"paper course of study.\"\nIn other words, there are times when children change their method of handling the subjectmatter which they can get from the course. These are the things which they must grow up\nto, must get by time, and they cannot be given any other way. If we are to look to these\nnodal points, we must make our flexibility, our elasticity within these periods. We must\nnever ask a child to assume an attitude toward the world which he does not have. In my\njudgment, we shall, in the end, be compelled to find our greater freedom by enlarging our\nsphere of opportunity and activity.\nThis general line of thought leads us to an inquiry into the changing attitudes and\ncapacity of the child as he advances in years along the school period. Does he change\nhis attitude toward the world every year, or does he change it at all ? Is every year a new\none, or are some of them only continuations of others ? According to Dr. Dewey, there\nare two points of decided change within the years generally covered by the public schools —\none takes place when the child is seven and one-half or eight years of age, or in the latter\npart of the second grade; the other is what is known as pubescence, and takes place,\nwith girls, usually about the beginning of the seventh grade. Why not make these psychological changes the large breaks in your organization ? This divides the whole time into\nthree great periods, each with its definite characteristics.\nThe first period comprises the first two years in school, and is marked by what Dr.\nDewey calls direct sense experiencing. The child is interested in those things which takef\nup his direct sense activity and add to his stock of imagery on that basis. He is accumulating imagery and is constantly asking the question, What ? What is it ? What can it\ndo ? He wants to learn to read, and write, and use numbers simply as an activity, with\nlittle idea of using these things for some remote purpose. These two years constitute one\nperiod, and should be presided over by one teacher, not two. This gives us a criterion\nfor the selection of that teacher. She should be one who has naturally much the same\nattitude toward the world as the children have. She must be able to see the world as they\nsee it if she is to assist them.\nThe second period extends, usually, from about the beginning of the third grade to\nthe beginning of the seventh and is characterized by an interest in the organization of\nimagery on the basis of the adaptation of means (mostly physical) to projected ends The\nchild has learned to hold his purposes, to project them into the future, and to organize or\nadapt his activities so as to reach them. It is the period of technique when the child is\ninterested in how a thing is done. Here, again, the attitude of the child gives you the\ncriterion not only for the selection of the teacher, but for the selection of subject-matter\nas well. The teacher should stay with the pupil more than one year, and should be able\nto see the world as he sees it. The technique phases of the different subjects should here\nbe taken up: industrial history, industrial geography, the technical side of reading, writing,\nspelling, the organization of the arithmetical processes, the development of the various\nelements of the English sentence, the use of Uterature as an aid in the projection of ideas\nand ideals in life. All this gives both the superintendent and the teacher something to\nfall back upon, some standard and guiding principle for their work, so that they do not\nneed to confine themselves to a narrow path dosed out each month from an office somewhere. They both become free because they know the law of the thing they are dealing\nwith.\n\nThe third period is ushered in by the coming of adolescence, or pubescence, and is\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\ncharacterized by a desire to organize the activities and images on a social basis. The child\nnow becomes dimly conscious of his relations to the race and to society about him. His\ndesires have outrun his muscular co-ordinations and he struggles to adapt himself to this\nnew relation. Things are now seen in their larger and more scientific systems. Here\nagain, we have the criterion for our selection of subject-matter. The social side of geography\nis commercial, of history is institutional, of literature is that which deals with the relations\nof members of society one to another, of science are those larger general truths which form\nthe background for the organization of all the sciences.\nSome such larger and more psychological organization as is indicated above will make\nit possible to meet the various intellectual, needs of the pupils and still keep them free\nfrom the possibility of arrest by asking them to assume an attitude toward the world which\nthey have not yet reached.\nW. H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio. — ^We have gone a great way\nin the solution of this problem when we have the problem stated, as we have had so well\ndone in the paper this morning. We have also had a good statement of the attempts that\nare making thruout the country in the most progressive schools for a modification of\nschool organization in such a way as to adapt instruction to the needs of these varying groups\nof children, and in the moment that I am occupying your time I shall review only one or\ntwo of these points.\nWe have first the mention of the method approached by the selection or separation of\ndefective children. That is a splendid step, negatively, in providing for the brightest\nchildren. Something is doing in the grouping or segregation, or separation, of the backward children, which I thoroly believe in as one of the ways of solving this problem.\nDoubtless with both these groups provided for we have yet the problem of adapting the\ninstruction, modifying the work that is presented to these children, best to meet their needs\nand requirements. Mr. Kendall has suggested a plan for the separation of children that\nare going to the high school.\nWe have before us another possibility and another problem that will come up this\nafternoon for discussion, which resolves itself into two or three possible things about which\nnone of us knows very much, perhaps, and about which we want to proceed somewhat\nslowly and yet to move forward; that is, Whether or not our schools shall attempt further\ngroupings ? With, we will say, the segregation of the defectives and the segregation of the\nbackward children, we shall have perhaps 90 per cent, of the children left — reasonably\ncapable children, able to work fairly well together. Some of these children are going to\nthe high school and some of them are going to college; most of them are going to work.\nPerhaps we all agree that in the grade instruction of these children there is needed a larger\nelement of industrial work. Probably we would all agree with that, and perhaps also to\nsome clipping and limiting of the course and to a better adaptation of academic subjects\nto the real needs of the children. We know the waste is great beginning with the fifth\nor sixth grade; whether or not these children are all to have more industrial work, with\nperhaps a modified and better adapted academic work; or whether we are to segregate\nsome of these children and give them vocational instruction; or again whether we are to\nsegregate children that are going to the high school and, perhaps, to college — these are\nquestions that loCal conditions must determine. Those of us who have the problem of the\nforeign child and the foreign district know that in our own schools the widest possible range\nof adaptation is needed. Here is the one school which is distinctly foreign; difficulties of\nlanguage are there, narrow and limited experience. The home life is to be taken into\naccount. Those children need a modification of the course of study — very much modified\nfrom the group of children that are predominantly American; children that come from\nhomes where there are books, opportunities for travel, and the widest possible experience.\nWe know that in this one type of school the waste is very great.\nI said to the principal of a school the other day: \"How many first-grade schools have\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\ni^r\n\nyou ? \" He said : \" I have ten.\" \" How many fourth-grade schools have you ? \" He said :\n''I have five.\" \"How many fifth-grade schools have you?\" He said: \"I have three.\"\n\"How many eighth-grade schools have\nHe repUed: \"I have one.\" Merely one\nshowing in a school of forty teachers, or you?\"\nforty schools, a tremendous waste. That\nschool\noffers a problem in itself.\nIn another school that I visited a few days ago, I found two and one-half second grades\nin the school. I found two eighth grades— an American school in a fairly comfortable\ncommunity. I went to the office and looked up the records and found that this school\nhad in it fifty children, only, out of one thousand, that are at all behind their grade; that is,\nbehind their normal year's standing.\nNow, these two schools present distinct types and the problem is entirely different as\nto how we are going to meet this modification. I do not know that any one knows; but\nit is sufficient to say that something is needed in the way of grouping and modification.\nPerhaps the suggestion that Mr. Kendall made for the segregation of children that are\ngoing to high school is well adapted to some conditions, perhaps to some cities, and certainly\nto some schools in certain cities.\nThen we have this other problem as to where industrial work is needed. In some\ncases, to learn how to earn a living is a matter of much greater significance to the children\nthan some other things. Here a peculiar type of instruction is certainly needed. I would\nsuggest with reference to the industrial phase of it, particularly to the vocational phase of\nit, that we need to go slowly, particularly in that part of it which relates to the direct work\nof the elementary school.\n\nSYMPOSIUM:\n\nI.\n\nDEMOCRACY\nJAMES\n\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nE. RUSSELL,\n\nPLACE OF INDUSTRIES\nEDUCATION\nEDUCATION;\n\nDEAN\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nEQUAL\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCOLUMBLA\n\nFOR\n\nALL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIt is a commonplace of political history that our government is the resultant\nof contending forces in our national life. What the common man perceives\nas party policy or sectional issue, the scholar understands as a manifestation\nof conflicting ideals of social control. Autocracy at one extreme is met by\ndemocracy at the other extreme. The practical outcome' at all times has been\nan oligarchy more or less concerned with the welfare of all.\nThe conditions of life in a new country do not favor democracy. Men\nwho can lead will lead and must lead. In times of peril the necessity of conserving each unit of force and directing it unerringly from some point of vantage\nis too obvious to admit of question. Such government is oligarchic. Such was\nthe government of the American colonies and of every new state that has won\nits way into the Union. The ideal oligarchy is an aristocracy, the rule of the\nbest. When an oligarchy becomes inefficient, when the few in control are not\nthe best, then the progressive state must train up better leaders and reform its\ngovernment. The record of our national efforts in these directions is the history of American education and American politics.\nOur earliest schools and colleges were avowedly institutions for the training\nof leaders— leaders in church and state. It was vocational training maintained\nIn Harvard College, for example,\nby the few in the interests of an aristocracy.\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\ndown to 1772 the students were enrolled according to the social standing of\ntheir parents and the severest penalty that could be inflicted for infractions\nof college discipline was loss of social rating on the college register. The\naristocratic lineage of the colonial school is perpetuated today in the professional course beginning in the secondary school and ending in the university.\nIt embraces not only theology and law, but medicine, engineering, architecture,\nagriculture, dentistry, teaching, commerce — every vocation in which trained\nleaders are required. It is the choicest part of our educational system. On\nit we have lavished our wealth and to it our ablest educators have dedicated\ntheir lives. If it be aristocratic, we console ourselves that it recruits an aristocracy of which we need not be ashamed — an aristocracy not of birth and breeding, but an aristocracy of those best equipped for service to their fellow-men.\nBut there is another tendency in our national life, a force making for\ndemocracy. It found its initial impulse in the Puritanic conscience, and it\nhas been augmented by each successive immigration of the oppressed and\nheavy laden of other lands. The political philosophy of eighteenth-century\nEurope found ready acceptance in the American colonies. Our Declaration\nof Independence and the Constitution of the United States, documents written\nunder the storm and stress of social revolution at home and abroad, declared\nunequivocally the rights of man as man. On this foundation our fathers\nestablished a government dedicated to the proposition that all men are created\nequal. We, their children of the third and fourth generation, are still striving\nto realize that grand dream of liberty, equality, fraternity. That Utopia has\nnot been attained and may never be attained. Men are not equal today; they\nwere not equal when our Constitution was written ; nor yet when Puritan and\nCavalier began their conquest of this new land. But what was true when our\nfathers first invaded the wilderness and began to build their homes and carve\nout new states was equality oj opportunity. It is the basic principle of our\nnational life. However much we glory in our achievements as a people, and\nin the honor that has come to strong men made great by doing great deeds, the\nfinest flower of the past century is the deepening of our faith in the brotherhood\nof man and the increasing of our devotion to the ideals of democracy.\nMeanwhile, as always, progress comes thru education. We have\nrealized the justice of making our schools accessible to all and we acknowledge\nthe necessity of compelling the attendance of those who might otherwise become\na menace to society. But we are slow to appreciate that a course of training\ndesigned for a favored few puts the many at a serious disadvantage.\nOur education system is unfair in that it does not do what the founders of\nthis republic meant that it should do. It does not give equality of opportunity\nto all. This may seem surprising, particularly as we have been boasting for a\ncentury of bur American liberty, fraternity, and equality. It is the boast, too,\nof most Americans that our great public-school system provides alike for every\nboy and girl taking advajitage of it. This is half true — and dangerous, as\nall half-truths are. The fact is, the American system of education grants\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PLACE\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nic'i\n\nequality of opportunity to those who can go on to the college and the university.\nIt takes little account of the boy— and less still of the girl— who cannot have\nor does not wish for a higher education. The ten millions of those now in our\nelementary schools who will be compelled to \"drop out\" to earn a livelihood\nwill have missed their opportunity. But why ? Do we in America have need\nonly of professional men and \"men of affairs\" ? Are those who pay the taxes\nand do the rougher work of life to be denied opportunity for self-improvement ?\nAre only those who can afford to stay in school to reap the advantages of\neducation ? In a word, what are we doing to help the average man better to\ndo his life-work and better to realize the wealth of his inheritance as an American citizen? These questions raise the problem of vocational training for\nthose who must begin early to earn their living. It is, in my judgment, the\ngreatest problem of the future, and one which we may not longer disregard\nand yet maintain our standing as a nation.\nOur schools must grant equal opportunity to all. In most other countries,\nthe school system is deliberately intended to keep some down while helping\nothers up. So long as our mode of government endures we cannot shut the\ndoor of opportunity in the face of any citizen. It is the greatest experiment\nthe world has ever seen, and while there are many who would gladly see it fail,\nit is our bounden duty to make it succeed. It would be presumptions to say,\nafter only one century of trial, that success is already assured. This is only the\nbeginning. We are just coming to realize some of our blessings, as we see\nmore clearly for the first time some of our dangers.\nHow can a nation endure that deliberately seeks to rouse ambitions and\naspirations in the oncoming generations which in the nature of events cannot\npossibly be fulfilled ? If the chief object of government be to promote civil\norder and social stability, how can we justify our practice in schooling the\nmasses in precisely the same manner as we do those who are to be our leaders ?\nIs human nature so constituted that those who fail will readily acquiesce in the\nsuccess of their rivals, especially if that success be the result of \"cuteness,\"\nrather than honest effort? Is it any wonder that we are beset with labor\ntroubles? We are, indeed, optimists if we see no cause for alarm in our\npresent social conditions; and we are worse than fools if we content ourselves\nwith a superficial treatment of the ills that afiflict us. Legislation may do much\nto help us out of trouble, but it is only education of the right sort that can permanently keep us from ruin. There never has been a time when we were more\nin need of sound education, and in the struggle for existence that is yet to come\nwe shall need a better education than we conceive of today.\nThere is one educational principle that is peculiarly American. It is\nthat every man, because he is a man and an American citizen, should be liberally educated so far as circumstances will permit. A man, according to our\nMagna Charta, is entitled to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The\nfirst business of the schools is to make life worth living, liberty worth striving\nfor, and the pursuit of happiness something for which no man need be ashamed.\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nWe need, in my opinion, one more article in our educational creed. It is this.\nIn making a man, make him good for something. It is a practice easily recognizable inthe history of our universities and professional schools.\nThe next step is to see that the common man is equally well provided for.\nA beginning has been made in the enrichment of the course of study in our\nelementary and high schools, thus giving a choice of studies and better preparation for life if the pupil knows how to choose wisely; in the introduction of the\nnatural sciences, manual training, and the domestic arts, thus giving some\nacquaintance with the industrial processes underlying our civilization if the\nsubjects be well taught; and finally, in the differentiation of the school courses\nand school work whenever future vocations of the pupils are definitely known,\nas in the negro schools of the South, the county agricultural schools of Wisconsin, and the trade schools of some of our eastern cities.\nBut all this is only a beginning. At best but little can be done before the\nage of fourteen, but that little can be of the right kind. If nothing else is\ngained from the elementary school than a wholesome respect for man's industry,\na good basis is afforded for participation in man's occupations. The serious\npreparation for practical life begins for the great majority of us at the age of\nthirteen or fourteen, on leaving the elementary school. The most dangerous\nperiod in the life of a boy or girl lies just ahead — say up to the age of nineteen\nor twenty. This is the time when the average boy must learn to be selfsupporting, and when the girl must fit herself for domestic duties. It is the\ntime, too, when technical training counts for most. I contend that every\nAmerican boy and girl is entitled to practical help in this time of greatest need\n— and at public expense, too, if the state maintains high schools, universities,\nand professional schools for those who aspire to leadership in professional life.\nMy reasons for this contention are these:\n1. Anything that will contribute to the greater efficiency of the workman\nis a contribution not only to his own well-being but to the wealth of the nation.\n2. Anything that will lead the workman to take more pride in his work\ntends to make him a better citizen and a more conservative member of society.\nIf it be possible to make each man, no matter what his social standing may\nbe, an honest leader in his own field, a workman who is not ashamed of his\nhandiwork, then we need fear no criticism of our colleagues across the sea, nor\nneed we as an industrial people fear the competition in the world's markets.\nMore than that, we need never lose faith in the righteousness of American\nideals nor dread the consequences of our social democracy. If there be those\nwho say the task is impossible, I answer in the words of General Armstrong,\nwhen some one doubted the possibility of negro education, ''What are Christians for but to do the impossible ?\"\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\ni^\n\n11. EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY CAN BE SECURED ONLY BY PROPER\nRECOGNITION OF (a) INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN NATIVE\nCAPACITIES AND IN SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT, (b) THE REQUIRE\nMENTS OF VOCATIONAL EFFICIENCY AS WELL AS OF (c) GENERAL\nINTELLIGENCE AND EXECUTIVE POWER\nEDWARD\n\nC. ELLIOTT,\n\nPROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nMADISON,\nWIS.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF WISCONSIN\n\nThe preparation of my brief contribution to this afternoon's discussion of\nthis important topic of the place of industries in education has been carried\nforward with no inconsiderable apprehension. Upon first inspection the main\nproposition, with its several corollaries, seemed to be so axiomatic, and the\ncharacter of an existing opinion regarding industrial education indicated in general such unanimity, as to render any effort at demonstration as simple and useless as shooting at the classic \" bam door.\" A more careful examination of this\napparent axiom, and a more critical analysis of the implications of contemporary educational opinion, revealed a series of problems of more or less difl6culty and intricacy. Thereupon the whole question quickly changed its cloak\nof simplicity for one of complexity.\nAt the first step of our examination and analysis, we are confronted with a\nsharp distinction between the theory and the practice of our system of public\neducation. The land resounds with exclamations of loyalty toward a genuinely\npublic education — an education jor and hy and oj the people; yet how few and\nfar between are the parents, the teachers, the communities ready and willing\nto make the change of educational creed and to offer the financial sacrifice\ndemanded by their seeming loyalty. There is, I believe, a fairly reasonable\nexplanation of this chasm between words and deeds.\nThe American public school rests upon the basis of the performance of a\npolitical and not an economic function. The cabalistic symbol of democracy —\nequality of opportunity — ^has possessed meaning for education only when\nattached to the political life. The history of the whole social movement\nfor democracy, which has found its best expression in and thru the public\nschool, is the history of a more or less conscious attempt to make a politically\nefficient people. The mediocrity of our success in the maintenance, thru\neducation, of the condition of equity in political opportunity seems to have\nhastened the employment of the symbol of democracy for the maintenance of\nequity in economic opportunity. And with this has come the dim recognition\nof the probable insufficiency of the whole formula of equality. The problem\nof equality of religious opportunity in education has been solved by complete\nelimination; that of equality of political opportunity by a method of superficial inspection; that of economic opportunity by the fantasy of anticipation.\nIn fact, ''equality of educational opportunity\" bears every stamp of\nacademic and philosophic abstraction. It never was, nor never will be, an ideal\nWhat we have, and shall attempt to bring about\ncapable of realization.\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "l6o\n\nNATIONAL.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLWashington\n\nthru our public school, is an equilibrium, a balancing, of educational opportunity. Equality is significant of similarity, identity, of reward. An equilibrium of opportunity implies that grade of reward commensurate with capacities,\nwhether those capacities are of the endowments of nature, of the acquisitions\nof training, or of the fullness of family coffers. The maintenance of such an\nequilibrium of educational opportunity will result in giving to industry its\nrightful share of competence, and give to education for vocation its rightful\nshare of social respectability; neither of which may be said to obtain today.\nViewed largely, four forces may be said to contribute to the drafting of\nindividuals into industry and to the selection by individuals of a vocation.\nThe social, concerned mostly with artificial distinctions of social grade and\nrank; the economic, dominated alone by material reward; the personal,\nguided by indistinct individual interests and desires; and the educational,\ndirected by ancient traditions of intellectual discipline. Each operates consciously or unconsciously; with few exceptions unconsciously, and this unconscious mode has ever been favored by formal education.\nThe chief argument in support of the main proposition that some definite\npreparation for vocational activity, especially industrial, within our scheme\nof public education, may be derived from the necessary improvement of the\nacknowledged selective function of the school. At the present moment, the\ndistinct tendency is toward horizontal stratification of individuals into social\nclasses, instead of a vertical selection according to specific eflSciency. Vocational industrial education for all is no more likely to yield larger social results\nthan the traditional, pseudo-cultural, static education of the present, unless it\nbecomes consciously selective, unless it consciously fits the square industrial\nworker into the square industrial hole, the round worker into the round hole,\nthe triangular worker into the triangular hole.\nAll educational reform passes thru four stages — the stage of stress, the\nstage of investigation, the stage of propaganda, the stage of reorganization.\nOf these, the stage of investigation is by far the most difficult of passage. What\nis needed today, before we can proceed with saneness thru the stage of\npropaganda on to the stage of rational reorganization, is investigation; facts,\n**Gradgrindian\" facts pertaining to industry and to children. We need to\ndetermine, first of all, the extent of the demand for trained workers in specific\nfields of industry; we need to determine the character and the quality of the\nspecific interests and capacities needed by specific industries. Above all, we\nneed to determine the extent, actual and potential, of the individual possession\nof these specific interests and capacities. Here opens an entirely new field of\nactivity for the study of social needs, and for the study of the pupils of the\npublic school.\nThis study of social needs, this evaluation of industrial conditions, can be\ncarried on successfully according to projected plans by a comparatively few\ntrained scientists and skilled investigators. But the study of the individual\nvocational intelligence and interests, ideals and capacities, motives and neces-\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "II\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nl6i\n\nsities of the American boy and girl must be carried on, in the largest measure,\nby the school. Yet the school dare not assume the responsibility for such\nstudy, until there is raised up a new generation of public-school teachers—\nespecially in the elementary schools — who know how to detect, to classify and\nto direct the potential industrial powers of the child. Even given such teachers,\nthis goal is not possible until we begin to rid ourselves of the factory, piece-work\nsystem of education of our graded school. This of itself is an almost sure\npreventive against knowing very much about any individual pupil. The sum\ntotal of the superficial observations of eight or a dozen teachers, each of whom\nhas an opportunity of studying and knowing the child merely thru onehalf of a year, or at the most, thru a whole year, will not equal one-tenth\npart of the insight that a skilled, observant teacher might obtain, did the\nmachinery of the public school permit close contact between pupil and teacher,\nthru several years.\nUntil we possess reliable data upon which to base a rational scheme of reorganization, the public schools cannot hope to become instruments for \"industrial determination; \" neither will they cease to prevent the present positive misselection of individuals for their proper station of efficiency and happiness.\nFor a rightful selection must precede and underlie the maintenance of the\neducational equilibrium of democracy.\n\nIII. THE MOST\n\nURGENT\n\nNEED\n\nOF OUR EDUCATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nIS AN\n\nADEQUATE PROVISION FOR THE VOCATIONAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN DESTINED FOR INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC PURSUITS\nJAMES\n\nF. MCELROY,\n\nCONSULTING ENGINEER, CONSOLIDATED\nCOMPANY, ALBANY, N. Y.\n\nCAR-HEATING\n\nA study of the attendance in the schools in the cities of the state of New\nYork shows a very rapid falling off in the enrollment in the grammar-school'\ngrades, of which the records of the city of Albany may be taken as an example.\nThe enrollment in ist year of grammar school is 155 1\n«\n\n«\n\n« 2d\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\" 1242\n\nit\n\ntt\n\nu -^\n\nu\n\nu\n\n«\n\n'<\n\n\" 1317\n\na ^^Ij\n\na\n\n«\n\n\"\n\n<'\n\n« 1448\n\na\nli\n\nu\na\n\nu ^^1j\nu ^j.Jj\n\nu\n«\n\nu\n('\n\nu\n\"\n\nu\n\"\n\na J252\n\" 1088\n\n\" 7th\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n720\n\nThus it will be seen that the list of pupils that complete the grammar-school\nwork amounts to only 35 per cent, of the total number enrolled in the first year\nfalling off in the enrollment is a serious\nof the grammar-school grades. This on.\nmatter and calls for careful considerati\nhigh school.' The term Vgrammar-school\" evidently includes all of the usual eight grades below the\nL Editor.]\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "l62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nThe manufacturing industries of Albany may be assumed to represent the\nusual trades found in cities of this class in this state. To determine the educational attainments of some of our operatives, I have had inquiry made of over\none hundred workmen composed largely of machinists and hence representing\na grade of intelligence higher than the average. This inquiry has developed\ntwo facts in which we are concerned at this time : First, out of 102 men there\nwas not to be found a single graduate of a high school, nor a person who ever\nattended as a pupil in a high-school course. Second, out of 102 men I found\nonly seven who had completed the course in the grammar schools. From this\nit appears that the education of all of these mechanics was limited to such\neducation as is furnished by the grammar schools and that 93 per cent, of them\nbelong to that class of pupils that drop out of school before completing the\ngrammar-school course. On inquiry of other people interested in manufacturing, Iam informed that approximately the same condition of affairs exists\namong people engaged in trades in their employ.\nThe ordinary mechanic in our manufacturing institutions is indebted to\nour school system for teaching him to read and write and for some instruction\nin mathematics, but outside of these elements of an education the schools\nfurnish him practically nothing that is of value or helpful in the struggle which\nhe must maintain for the rest of his life. The course of study in our schools is\nbased upon the theory that the student will continue thruout the entire\ncourse and graduate from the high school, and this course is designed to prepare\nthe student for admission to college. This course of study, it seems to me, is\nunjust, unfair, and unreasonable so far as it relates to over 65 per cent, of the\ntotal school population.\nAt the age of boys in the grammar schools they are fascinated with the study\nof mechanics and with all kinds of machines for generating or applying power.\nAt this age a boy is much more impressed by doing things himself than by\nbeing told by other people how things are done. If our schools furnished him\nthe opportunity that he longs for, there would be little tendency to shirk his\nduties and the services of the truant officer would not be required. There\nwould also be no temptation on the part of parents to take boys out of schools in\norder that they may learn something practical elsewhere. The way to keep\nboys in school until they are sixteen years of age is to give them a course of\ninstruction that will interest them and fire their ambition. As it is, you cannot\nkeep boys in school until they are sixteen years of age, not even when your\nschool authorities are backed up by the truant office and the police force. The\nboy knows better, and my feeling is that the boy is nearer right than some of\nyou would be willing to admit.\nYoung men, destined for industrial pursuits, not only do not receive in the\nschools a proper education for their life-work, but after leaving school they\nfind no place where they can receive instruction in the trades which they may\nselect. Our manufacturers cannot afford to maintain industrial or trade\nschools, and it is not their business to do so even if they could afford it. This\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PLACE\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nis work that properly belongs to the public schools. Of what interest is it to\nthe manufacturer to establish trade schools when the mechanic will leave his\nemploy and go off elsewhere to work the moment his trade is learned ? It is\nto my mind clearly impracticable for the manufacturer, with a more or less\nchanging Hst of employees, to carry on a system of instruction of apprentices.\nAs you know, the apprentice system is a thing of the past. A young man\ncannot be bound to a manufacturer for a certain number of years of service as\nin the old apprentice system, but he leaves the employ of the manufacturer\nat will and if he has gained a good knowledge of mechanics and has\nbecome a good machinist, he readily gets employment elsewhere at good\nwages.\nUnder existing conditions, a young man learns his trade in a. haphazard\nway and under great difficulties. The knowledge he gains comes to him a\nlittle at a time and from varying sources. Some of the knowledge is erroneous\nand not always consistent with things he already knows. He is not always\nable to distinguish error from that which is true, the wrong way from the right\nway. Things which he ought to know he does not learn at all. In the shop\nthe good mechanic does not give to the poor mechanic the knowledge and\nresults of the training which distinguish the two. The trained mechanic does\nnot readily impart information to the beginner which would make the beginner\na competing mechanic. It is under such a handicap as this that the average\nyoung man gains the simple knowledge with which his life-work is to deal.\nNot helped in the schools, held back and kept in ignorance by those already\nskilled, the result is that his knowledge at best is meager, unclassified, unsystematized, and unsatisfactory.\nThere is a demand for a radical change in our system of education for girls\nas well as boys, for the gurl who is to become the mother of the household as\nwell as the boy who is to earn the living for the family. How few graduates\nof our high schools or of our girls' colleges are proficient with the needle and\nunderstand the principles of cooking and the preparation of foods for the sick\nas well as for those who are well ? What foundation is laid in our common\nschools for the knowledge which the mother must have in the care of her family\nand in the direction of her household affairs? This knowledge should be\nfurnished by the schools at the proper time and in the proper way.\nThe employer of labor in this country suffers from the inefficiency of those\nupon whom the success of his undertakings most depends. The successful\nemployer must have efficiency in the shop as well as in the office, in the service\nof manufacturing as well as in the service of management, and he is willing\nand ready to pay his employees in proportion to the efficiency of their service.\nIt is for the interest of both employer and employee that men should be intelligent, as intelligence is the basis of efficiency. The characteristic feature of\nindustry today is the demand for ability to do things, to get at results accurately\nand directly without unnecessary cost or loss of time. It is this ability which\nresults in high wages to a certain class of employees and in profits to the manu\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nfacturer. It is the lack of it which causes a large class of employees to produce\nwork that is unsatisfactory and without profit.\nThe question arises as to how can the difficulties of this situation be best\nmet ? I do not believe that the best results will be obtained by what are known\nas trade schools, that is, schools with a course of instruction necessary to\ndevelop skilled workers in a particular trade. I believe that instruction should\nbe much broader and that young men should have a working-knowledge of\nseveral trades. We should recognize the fact that changes in our industries\nhave taken place in recent years in the systematizing and classifying of labor, in\nspecializing, and in the use of automatic labor-saving machinery, all of which\nprevent a mechanic from getting wide experience and general knowledge of all\nkinds of work. What a young man should have as a result of the common\nschools is a broad idea of the arts and processes, and of kinds of machinery\nby which processes are carried out. He should know much of the nature of\nmaterials, and this should be on a broader ground giving both wider knowledge\nand experience than that which would be gained in a school of a particular\ntrade. This should be so broad that a young man would have a good preparation for any one of a number of trades and not be confined to instruction in a\nparticular trade. A young man may study metals and metal-working and be\nprepared to do eflficient and valuable work in forging as a blacksmith, but\nthat would not fit him for running a lathe or a shaper as a machinist. If he\nlearns blacksmithing he may know how to harden and temper metals, but not\nknow how to cut metals, which would be the work of an ordinary machinist.\nSchools, in my judgment, should give a broad intellectual foundation, not only\nin the working of metals as done by the blacksmith, not only in the shaping\nand tempering of tools for cutting particular metals which is the trade of the\ntoolmaker, but in the actual cutting of metals and the evolving of forms out of\nmetals as is done by the machinist, and in the fitting and designing of parts of\nmechanism which he will be called upon to do.\nHe should have instruction in school in a variety of activities, because in\nthe practical work in factories the division of labor there found necessary has\na tendency to confine him narrowly to the particular trade in which he is\nemployed. The routine work of the shop does not give him breadth of view\nnor broaden him intellectually, so that a man without a trained mind or one\nequipped with a general knowledge of facts finds, within the narrow place to\nwhich division of labor assigns him, that he is not in a position to understand\nfully all of the operations of a manufacturing business.\nSome people seem to think that our technical schools are educating men as\nmechanics in the industrial work of the country. In my opinion such is not\nthe case. The manufacturing of this country is not done by technical graduates\nand never will be. The technical graduate will never be satisfied to spend his\nlife as a machinist drawing $3 . 00 to $3 . 50 per day, and whilst some of our\nrailroads have required that technical graduates entering their employ shall\nwork in the shops for a certain length of time, the technical graduate enters\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PLACE\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\ni6c\n\nthe shop as an impractical theorist who has the shopwork all to learn and\nwhose work, on account of the lack of experience in the shop and lack of knowledge of shop practice, is inferior to that of the uneducated mechanic. Our\ntechnical graduate gets out of the shop as quickly as possible and secures a\nposition of more pay and less arduous work. Whilst I do not altogether share\nin the severe criticism which is at times made upon the technical graduate and\nof his usefulness in the world's work, I do, however, believe that his work is\nelsewhere than at the lathe and planer. I am clearly of the impression that it\nis useless and impracticable to consider that our manufacturing industries are\nto be suppHed with mechanics who are graduates of technical schools, or who\nare graduates even of high schools.\nThe manual-training high schools do not meet the necessities of this case,\nbecause: first, boys must enter upon their life work in the industries before\nsuch a course in the high school can be completed; second, financial conditions ofthose who must spend their lives in the industries of the country make\nit impracticable for the great majority of them to complete the manual-training\nhigh-school course; third, the work of the manual-training high school fits\nyoung men better for foremen than for positions as mechanics. This instruction isimportant, but it is of a higher grade than what is required for the great\nmajority of our laboring class.\nI have therefore come to the conclusion that the great need of our system\nof education is the provision of industrial schools that receive children at the\nages at which they now drop out of our grammar schools, and that the work\nof these industrial schools should be completed when the pupils reach the age\nof about sixteen years. These industrial schools should be supported as a\npart of our public-school system and should provide instruction for practically\nthe whole of our school population. Admission should be from the industrial\nschools to the high schools for those that desire to take that course. These\nindustrial schools should give a working-knowledge of several trades and,\nparticularly, those trades peculiar to the community should be represented in the\ncourse of instruction. The instruction should be given by practical men,\nnot theorists. These schools should be opened as night schools where instruction could be given those not able to take the course in the daytime.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam E. Roberts, supervisor of manual training, public schools, Cleveland, O.\n—One of the most significant facts established by school statistics is the large number of\npupils behind their grade. Of the boys who entered the sixth grade in Cleveland last year\n15 J per cent, were of, or older than, the age at which they should have graduated from the\neighth grade. What figures do not show so clearly is the reason for this loss of time. A\ncareful analysis, however, leaves little question that a large percentage of loss is due to\nabsence of those mental qualities which respond readily to the demands of the elementaryschool curriculum, particularly to the complex work in arithmetic and technical grammar,\nand a consequent distaste for school work. The elementary-school courses fix arbitrarily\na standard of culture and a means of development toward that standard to which all must\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWashington\n\nconform, rather than offering opportunities for development along lines for which pupils\nare temperamentally fitted. Personal experience and experiment convince me that there\nmust be a differentiation of work in the grammar grades to meet more fully the varying needs\nand capabilities of pupils whose powers are manifestly in the direction of manual expression. There must be provided courses, beginning with the sixth grade, preferably in\nseparate schools, which boys may take, directed by the judgment of the school authorities\nand with the consent of parents. In these schools at least one-third of the time should\nbe given to hand work upon which the greater part of the other school work should have a\ndirect bearing.\nThe whole course should be so unified that the usual division into subjects would be\nalmost impossible. I would have the mathematics confined to the simple rules, with direct\npractical bearing upon industrial work and experience in daily life, avoiding problems\ndesigned for mental gymnastics; reading selected to include history and geography, related\nlargely to the industrial side of the work, and to civics; language and spelUng with the\nthought of intelligent expression in speech and writing; penmanship sufficient to acquire\nlegibility; drawing, both freehand and mechanical, particularly emphasized.\nThe manual side of the course should for at least two years be based upon general\nprinciples underlying industrial work, which in the final analysis is reduced almost wholly\nto work in wood and metals. The manual work of the third year could be devoted to\nspecialization determined by the development of capabilities exercised in the first two\nyears.\nSuch a school would have many outlets. It would save many pupils to the technical\nhigh school; it would lead directly to the trade school; it would prepare for apprenticeship; itwould better prepare this type of pupil for life in general. It looks to the time\nwhen the elementary schools shall recognize a standard of culture not dependent upon\nexaminations in intricate arithmetical problems and technical grammar.\nThat such schools are needed is indicated by the fact that so many pupils are kept in\nschool, in spite of the loss of time, until they are practically forced out by stress of years.\nI have used boys as illustrative. There is no reason why a similar course cannot be\nprovided for girls.\nHoward D. Brundage, Stout Training Schools, Menomonie, Wis. — The industrial\nschool, in order to provide most efficiently for the vocational needs of children destined\nfor industrial pursuits, must be so organized that each pupil feels himself an integral element\nin the work. He must exhibit a due amoimt of self-consciousness. He must not only\nfeel, but actually have responsibility. He must realize that the value of the things produced\nin the school depends on him, and that the value of his services to his future employer\ndepends on his personal character and on his judgment and skill as a workman.\nIn such a school there should be few instances where the worker can say, \"This is not\nfor actual use, and I need not be so particular.\" Such conditions are detrimental to his\nadvancement and he is not breathing \"shop air,\" This kind of school life must ring with\nreality.\nThe school should set high standards in the kinds of work done and constantly encourage their attainment. Thoroness and quality should be the immediate aim, speed and\nquantity the final aim.\nHowever, the pupil should have clearly in mind that there are various grades of goods\non the market and business contracts are made for first- and second-class jobs of work;\nbut that the best workmen and the highest-skilled mechanics are engaged in the production of the highest grades of goods and in the performance of the first-class jobs of\nwork.\nAlso it is necessary for him to understand that an employer's business agreements\nand contracts vary in their requirements regarding the quality of materials, the form of\nconstruction, and the perfection of finish, and that the workman as a producer must con-\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "id-j\n\nSuperintendence] PLACE\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nsider these, and accordingly endeavor to use material and means that will please, and fulfill the business requirements of the contract and at the same time conserve his employer's\nbusiness interests.\nThis is surely a practical standpoint, and to be practical a workman must learn the\nessentials and nonessentials in his vocation— where to be, and where not to be, particular;\nhow to perform work quickly, yet thoroly; how to cut corners legitimately; understand\nthe tricks or \"kinks\" of the trade; how to produce the grade of goods or perform\nthe class of work required, and this to his employer's profit and thereby do his part as a\nworkman in giving an \" all round square deal.\" In other words, the aim should be to show\nhimself approved, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly divining the truth.\nTherefore, I claim that the pupil in the industrial school must be an intelligent and\nreal worker who produces the goods. He must be a vital factor in the work, a transformer,\na positive not a negative force, and have an active not passive interest in his surroundings,\nwhere he is being prepared for life's work. This formative period of child-life spent in the\nright atmosphere and under proper training is what produces the \"self-made\" quaUty of\nstuff in the man, so essential to the individual and to society.\nTo create these conditions lies with the organization and management of the institution\nand the time has come in the life of this nation when immediate steps must be taken by its\nbody of educators to meet the urgent demands of its citizens in making adequate provision\nfor this great social and industrial need.\nBenjamin R. Andrews, Department of Domestic Economy, Teachers College,\nColumbia University. — My remarks regarding vocational educational needs will be confined to the case of girls and women. Present education does not prepare for earning a\nliving. Miss Addams' report in last week's Charities on seventy-eight New York girls who\nleft school for work, repeats the story: nearly all in unskilled, unprogressive work; only\ntwo factors in day-school training found useful — skill in sewing and skill in business penmanship. Half the girls had sought supplementary training in city evening schools, but\nno real vocational help was found there.\nIn considering the case of vocational education for women and girls, two points of\nview must be regarded as fundamental: Woman's relation to self-support, and woman's\nrelation to the home.\n1. In regard to self-support. — The time is not far away when every girl will learn a\nspecific piece of remunerative skilled work, just as we expect boys to do; this does not\nmean that married women will follow a vocation outside of the home save in exceptional\ncases. The American family and home will never encourage that. It does mean that\ngirls will generally earn a livelihood in some skilled work for the three, six, or eight years\nprior to marriage, and will do so to their own good and the good of society; that this earning\npower will raise the standards of living in their parents' families, and give the impulse to a\nhigher level when the girls marry and start their own homes; and it means, further, that\nthis possession of skill in remunerative labor will, after marriage, afford protection and\nsupport, when families lose their male head. In the United States one married woman in\nfive is a widow and is responsible, as was her deceased husband, for her own support and\nusually for that of children.\nWoman's present relation to remunerative employment in the United States is shown\nby two facts: (i) Of women over ten years old, 18.8 per cent, were in 1900 engaged in\nremunerative employment. (2) Of the 377 lines of employment for men and women\nlisted in the census, women had in 1900 entered all but seven, in greater or less numbers.\nWomenbe are\nalso.wage-earners then already, and if men's training is to be considered, women's\nmust\n\n2. Vocational training, as affected by woman's relation to tlie home. — Of American\nwomen over twenty, 65 per cent, are married and inferentially responsible for a home and\nMaterial conditions have changed and the business of directing\nthe rearing of children.\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "i68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\na home has become one of the most complex, as it always has been one of the most significant, of human tasks. A single instance — the care and feeding of infants involving milk\nmodification, observation of conditions, and the application of varying formulae, is a matter\nmade plain only by instruction, which ought to be provided for every young mother. Somehow, then, opportunities for training in home management, and all that that implies, must\nbe provided.\nAnother phase is the training of girls and young women for remunerative domestic\nwork. One thinks at once of the servant question, and who knows but that some day we\nmay have trained servants. Already, on a higher level, college women are being trained\nfor domestic administrative positions in hospitals, dormitories, and other institutions. On\nall levels, professional domestic training can be given and it is one of the economies of the\nsituation that if a trained woman leaves employment and marries, she takes her skill into\nthe management of her own home. One instance again: in every large city, thousands\nof girls, fourteen or fifteen years old, take as their first emplo)anent \"minding the baby\"\nof a neighbor at two dollars or thereabouts a week. It would be possible at once to provide\na nurse-maid's course for these little girls, either in day or evening schools, which would\nprofessionalize their tiny tasks, give them skill in bathing, feeding, and caring for little\nchildren, raise the level of their present service, and unconsciously prepare them for their\nown home life later.\nWoman's educational needs from this partial, vocational point of view are, then:\nFirst, vocational training for self-support; second, a preparation, incidentally in early\nyears, and directly when the need arises, for the duties that fall to the direction of a home.\n\nIV. CONSTRUCTIVE ACTIVITIES AS AN ESSENTIAL AND IMPORTANT\nFACTOR IN THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL COURSE\nMISS EUPHROSYNE\n\nLANGLEY,\n\nSCHOOL OF EDUCATION,\nOF CHICAGO\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n\"Constructive Activities in the Elementary School\" — that is my topic, and\nany discussion of it must be prophecy rather than history, for as yet the elementary school has had no constructive activities. Ten years ago a wave of\ncriticism to the effect that the schools were impracticable and could not hold\nthe children led to a widespread determination to put in manual training.\nThat was to be the specific for the ills diagnosed by the critics; but our specific,\nit is now said, has failed to work a cure. And why? For the very good\nreason that though the manual-training prescription was duly written out, the\nmedicine was never actually administered to the patient. I cannot find a\nschool in this country where shop-practice for boys and girls is found thruout\nthe elementary school.\nThe name \"manual training\" appears often in courses of study, but when\nanalyzed into its actual constituents it is, outside of shop-work for boys in the\nseventh and eighth grades, hardly more than a chaotic assemblage of various\nforms of \"busy work,\" relieved now and then by a bit of knife-work for boys,\nsewing for girls, or, for the younger children, a dip into the realm of the aesthetic inwhat Mr. Veblein calls \"clay-muddling.\" Few subjects have been so\nhandicapped as manual training; at the outset there was little in the way of\nequipment, no kilns, no looms, no benches. There was no time, the subject\nbeing superinduced on an already overcrowded curriculum.\nThere was no\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\ni6\n\npedagogical experience. There was no real understanding of the place of\nhandwork in the educational state, and, at the best, manual training has never\nbeen more than an unnaturalized foreigner in the body politic, not oj it.\nCan handwork be made an effective part of the elementary school ? Yes,\nbut there must be a new point of view. We must be ready to put into practice\nwhat the best psychological theory has given us. There must be an entire\nreorganization of subject-matter. The handwork must not be a new subject\nelbowing out space for itself and squeezing up the other subjects. No subject\nmust be allowed to stand isolated. We must break down the pigeon-holes\ninto which kinds of knowledge have been separately bunched. The three R's\ntho hoary with respectability, are not the pivots on which the educational system\nturns. No child has an intellectual appreciation of the value of reading,\nwriting, and arithmetic as such. They become of importance to him only\nwhen they are the means thru which he attains some desired end. Take a\nchild in the first grade. Give him the simplest forms of constructive activity;\nlet him build a playhouse, make jelly or dry apples, dye wool and weave tiny\nrugs. The wooden house, instead of being '*so big\" by hand, is a definite\nnumber of inches on the ruler. The materials that enter into the making of\njelly are weighed and combined in definite proportion. The weaving of rugs\ndemands careful laying-out of spaces before the design can be put in. Thus\nthru the actual making of things, number work, in terms of measurements\nand weights, is levied upon by each activity. The record of the work in the\nchild's own notebook turns into reading and writing. In a perfectly natural,\nsimple fashion, the child reaches out thru his social occupations to the more\nformal studies, which, under such circumstances, cease to be formal or even\nformidable.\nAs the three R's become the tools which express and reinforce the activities,\non the one hand, so, on the other, history, geography, and nature-study, a\ngroup in which each is the complement of the others, should form the industrial\nand social background from which the activities themselves spring. It is\nillogical and arbitrary to tear apart subjects which rightly belong together in\norder to build a series of separate coops in which to house a curriculum.\nConstructive activities demand a constructive method, and a constructive\nmethod insists that the order of introducing handicrafts should be from the\nkindergarten up, rather than from the eighth grade down. A right constructive method also implies that the handicrafts should not follow along a line of\nprescribed models arranged from the point of view of the tool and of the adult\norganizing mind, but should be based absolutely on the subject-matter taught\nand should be vitally related to each other.\nOne of the effects of such reorganization is a saving of time. With such\nfusion of studies as I have briefly indicated, all the formal subjects usually\ntaught in the grade, plus actual shop-work in all the handicrafts, can be adequately taught without the expenditure of an extra half-hour of time. The\ncost of such reorganization would be chiefly the initial expense in the way of\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nadditional space and equipment, and the permanent expense of perhaps two\nadditional teachers in a school of average size. And finally, to make such\nreorganization effective, there must be mental organization on the part of both\ngrade teacher and special teacher, and the special teacher should add to a\nbroad pedagogical outlook a sound technical training.\nWhat would be the effect of such school work on children? The most\nstartling assertion concerning the elementary school is that of those who\nenter the first grade 80 per cent, do not reach the eighth,^ an educational leak\nwhich, if paralleled in business, would mean bankruptcy. It is my belief that\nno possible agency could so effectively hold a child in school as a right readjustment ofthe elementary course on the basis of handicrafts, and I say put\nthe handwork in from the kindergarten up, because the children fall out\nchiefly in grades 3, 2, and 4, and in that order. Consider for a moment the\nagencies which the modern feeling of responsibility for the child brings into\nco-operative guardianship around the third-grade boy who wishes to play\ntruant. A recent report lists them for us: The truant officer, the factory\ninspector, the probation officer, the charity worker, the sociologist, the socialsettlement worker, the woman's club, the teacher, the principal, and the\nhumanitarian — all these to make one boy stay in the third grade. And yet\nhe slips through the meshes of the educational system and escapes to his true\nschool, the street. This small boy has more ingenuity and more energy than\nthe school in its present organization can use, an ingenuity and energy certain to\nbe destructive unless we can make them constructive.\nIf the money spent, and now necessarily spent, on restraint, constraint,\nreformation, were turned over into the school funds and expended on prevention, children and communities would be immeasurably the better therefor.\nThat constructive activities would hold the child is clearly apparent from our\ntruant schools, where the most difficult children are so held, and the report of\ntheir desirable activities comes with pathetic emphasis to the good little boy\nwho has no such opportunities. We can quite understand the inoffensive little\nchap who in Chicago was found deliberately throwing stones at windows that\nhe might be sent to Bowmanville (the parental school) \"where they make\nthings.\"\nNow if we do succeed in holding the children thru the eight grades our\neducational problem is practically solved. It is because we have not been\nable to do this that the manufacturers have come forward with their remedy\nwhich is to push the trade ideal down into the grades. Appalled at the lost\n80 per cent., at the mass of raw material not converted by the school into\nmarketable stuff, dismayed by their own inability to get skilled workmen, they\nsay, \"Give us the child at the earliest possible moment, at the place where you\nno longer hold him; let him select a trade and we will at least make a tolerable\nartisan of him.\" There can hardly be a movement more significant and more\nimportant than to have the proverbial apathy of communities toward educa' Statement made at the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, Chicago, 1908.\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\n171\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\ntional questions broken in upon by the alert interest of business men. They\nare progressive, practical, accustomed to see a weakness and remedy it without\nany beating around the bush. They command money and influence. What\nthey ordain is almost certain to come to pass. I heartily agree with their plan\nof establishing trade schools. They are an imperative need But I am\nstrongly of the opinion that the trade school should not begin its special work\ntill the close of the elementary school. In other words, I do not believe in two\nsorts of elementary schools, one bent to fasten on to a trade school, the other\nbent to fasten on to a ''culture\" school. Handwork in the elementary\nschool should be the same whether the child is destined for the carpenter's\nbench, the professor's chair, or any of the vast range of\nns lying\nbetween these. Differentiation can seldom come wisely occupatio\ninto play in the\nelementary school. Vocational selection, if imposed upon the child while still\nin the grades, is likely to be a disastrous mistake. No teacher, no parent, even,\nholds the divining-rod whereby may be discovered the secret springs of a\nchild's best future activity. Even if voluntary, early vocational selection is\nnot to be trusted. It is liable to be whimsical, uncertain, determined by temporary influences. If the kind of occupation fervently chosen by every boy of\nten were to reach mature realization, the army and the navy, the police force,\nand the livery business, would be steadily overcrowded. It is hardly reasonable to expect a child of ten or twelve to select out of the great industrial forces\nof the world that particular line in which his contribution to those forces\nshould run, nor should it be the purpose of the elementary school to urge such\nselection.\nCourses in the elementary school should be planned with the idea of giving\nto each child the utmost in the way of general development possible to him.\nIt is on this basis alone that constructive activities should be put into the first\neight grades. I think of the child as at the hub of a wheel. All his studies and\nactivities are the spokes that connect him with the rim, or the world in general.\nAnd he must be led to look along each spoke to each section of the rim. Each\nhandicraft, each subject, should be considered as a means in throwing what\nBrowning calls \"films of connection\" between the child and his environment.\nIf you set him too early in an appointed groove, you unduly narrow his experience— you compel him to look along one spoke, to one section of the rim,\ninstead of to all; you strengthen one film of connection at the expense of the\nothers. Every child, whether he is to be later in trade or in scholastic life, has a\nright to the widest opening-out of his personal resources, the most varied activities, the most freely experimental stretching-out of tentacles that the bestplanned, best-equipped elementary school can offer. By all means give every\nchild a chance at a trade, but first give him the opportunity of being a developed individual.\nReorganization such as I believe in, a reorganization called for by two\nexpert opinions, that of the business man and that of the small boy who plays\n\ntruant at the third grade, would, I am confident, serve even the manufacturer's\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfWashingtom\n\nneed better than his own method, which, indeed, he does not purpose as ideal\nbut as a practical meeting of a present situation. Business statistics are as\nrelentless as those of the schools and show that boys who go directly into some\ntrade at fourteen to sixteen usually come to the limit of their advancement by\neighteen, while those who can g(^t more training are the ones who go on to\nhigher positions.\nTo sum up: I believe in handwork in the elementary school, from the\nkindergarten up. I believe not in one or two activities, but in all the activities,\ntaught in real shops, in a workman-like manner, from the standpoint of industrial history, to both girls and boys. I believe that the result of such training\nwill be a product of greatly increased value to trade, to the college world, and\nto life in general, and I believe that this ideal can be wisely accomplished only\nwhen the business man and the pedagogue make it their common problem.\nDISCUSSION\nFrank M. Leavitt, assistant director of drawing and manual training, public schools,\nBoston, Mass. — The only procedure consistent with American ideals of free public instruction for all is the following-out, in some fashion, of the program which Miss Langley\nhas indicated.\nThe public school is on trial and to hold its place in the esteem of the American\npeople it must grapple with and solve this all-important problem of vocational training,\nand not hand it over to some other agency. Failing in this, the public school stands discredited and condemned.\nThere are three factors in the problem of industrial education: the manufacturer's\nor business interests, the educational interests, and the labor interests, and I place, in naming them, the educational interest between the other two, because that is just where in\nfact educators should stand. Between the demands of business on the one hand and the\nobstructions of labor unions on the other, the agency of public education should stand,\nholding the balance of power and turning all forces to the betterment of the condition of\nchildren. That the business interests cannot be trusted to deal with this question in a\ndisinterested way can be all too clearly shown if we but recall for one moment the condition\nof child-labor as it exists in America today. That is another story, but let us not forget,\nhowever, the 2,250,000 children under fifteen who are wearing their lives away today in\nfactory, mill, and mine, sadly degrading the next generation.\nSome maintain that all industrial training must be given in special schools and that\nsuch schools should not admit children under sixteen years. If we accept Miss Langley's\ndeduction that public instruction should provide equal opportunity for all, tho not necessarily the same opportunity, I do not see how we can refuse a considerable amount of\nconstructive work — manual training, industrial training — call it what you will, to large\nnumbers of our children who will surely take their places in the ranks of the industrial\narmy. Such children need more manual training and a different kind of manual training\nfrom that which is given for its \"cultural\" value, so called, to those children who expect\nto enter business or the professions.\nTo be somewhat dogmatic — for the time is short — I believe that the program for\na large city system must be somewhat as follows, in some sections of the city, at least.\nBeginning with Grade VI, the children should have a chance to elect (or their parents\nto elect for them) admission to the \"industrial class.\" (Let me say that this is not entirely\nvisionary.\nWe are actually doing it now in Boston, experimentally.)\nIn this \"industrial class,\" five hours, at least, should be given to manual training —\nthe time to be taken from drawing, physical training, and arithmetic.\nThe work done\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PLACE\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n170\n\nin these classes, and the conditions under which it is done, should conform as closely as\npossible to actual industrial work in real life. The product should be not only useful,\nbut should be put to use, preferably by the city. The articles made should be those which\nmay be produced in quantities. The methods should be practical, and both product\nand method should be subjected to the same commercial tests, as far as possible, as apply\nin actual industry. What is it hoped to accompUsh ? To turn the attention of the children\nto things industrial; to give them an appreciation of values— \\d\\\\xt of materials, of time,\nand of modern industrial methods; to prolong the school life of the pupils while enhancing\ntheir chances for industrial success.\nIt is impossible to give an adequate idea of the Boston experiment without going\ninto details, especially as regards methods, teacher, observed interest, increased efficiency,\nand disposition of work. Call it what you will, I believe it to be real industrial education, inthe public schools. I believe that it is needed, that it will be welcomed by\nthe parents, and that it should be in the public schools and nowhere else during the compulsory school period.\n\nV.\n\nAN INTERMEDIATE\n\nCHARLES\n\nINDUSTRIAL SCHOOL\nSIXTH SCHOOL\nYEAR\n\nBEGINNING\n\nAT THE\n\nH. MORSE,\nSECRETARY AND EXECUTIVE OFFICER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS COMMISSION ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nThere should be no real industrial education, as I understand the term,\nundertaken before the child is fourteen years of age or at about the end of the\nninth school year.\nThe term \"industrial education\" has been used by the Massachusetts\nCommission on Industrial Education for nearly two years to mean trade education. But this does not mean a trade education as understood by some to\nsignify the instruction given in a school which teaches a degree of manipulative\nskill in the shortest possible time without regard to a thoro preparation for a\ntrade. Neither should manual training be regarded as industrial training.\nIn the majority of cases in this country, manual-training courses are given\nby men or women who have never learned a trade of any kind, and they deny\nwith much feeling that their courses should be treated as other than cultural.\nManual training should be given in all the school grades from the kindergarten up. But do not let us deceive ourselves. Such courses are no more\nindustrial courses than the penmanship courses or the drawing courses now\ngiven in our elementary schools are industrial courses.\nIf I must plan a course which will ultimately lead to a trade, beginning with\nboys at twelve who are residents of a city, the course for the first two years\nwould not materially differ from the work which would be given in a wellconducted grammar school for children of the same age.\nI would have the child at that age study, in connection with other subjects,\nthe manufacturing establishments of the community. He should know their\nbusiness organization and general methods of management, their history, the\nsources of the raw materials used, the geography of the regions from which the\nraw materials come, the transportation facilities, and, in a general way, the\nThe markets for the finished product\nvarious processes of manufacture.\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "T71\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nshould be studied; also the special qualifications required of the employees,\nthe wages for beginners, the average increase of wages, and the possibilities for\nadvancement for an earnest, intelligent w^orker, as well as the hours of work\nand the steadiness of employment for each industry.\nAll this would be given as work in English, geography, and history. These\ninvestigations of industries must needs be conducted under the guidance of a\nteacher who could understand the bearing of such study upon the boy's mind.\nAll of this work should be comprehended in every grammar-school course.\nIf such studies could be carried on under a broad-minded and well-equipped\nteacher, the boy's point of view would be quite different from that of the fourteen year old boy as educated today, and he would be prepared to choose an\noccupation more wisely. I look upon such study not as industrial education,\n'however, but as a line of general education of value to every boy.\nLast summer I visited a school in Cork, Ireland, which should be seen by\nevery American teacher. Each classroom was completely surrounded by cases\nwith glass doors, containing Irish manufactures in every stage from the raw\nmaterials to the finished article. And yet the school was not a trade school.\nAt fourteen years of age the industrial training begins. The boy should be\ngiven, courses in woodworking and iron-working for one-half of each school\nday. This should be supplemented with other subjects, including drawing,\narithmetic, simple bookkeeping, industrial geography, and industrial history,\nas well as a continued study of local industries. At the sixteenth year, such a\nboy would be prepared to study his chosen trade, having a foundation for that\ntrade which could not be obtained in any shop in our American industries.\nThese last two years should be taken either in a school, under shop conditions,\none-half of the time in the classroom and one-half in the school shop, or by a\ncombination of part-time in the school and part-time in a commercial shop.\nIn the former case, the boy should remain in the school eleven months of the\nyear, eight hours per day, except Saturday, when the school should close at\nnoon. There should be no protracted vacations other than the month of\nAugust. One-half of the time should be given to shop-work, and the balance\nto the study of such subjects as have a direct bearing on the chosen trade, such\nas its history, drawing, mathematics, chemistry, and physics; and, in addition\nto these, citizenship should be studied.\nUnder the part-time system the boy would take these latter courses along\nwith work in a commercial shop, by working in the industry for a week and\nthen attending a continuation school for a week. Thus the theory and practice\nof the trade would go on hand in hand, and the boy would also be helping\n\"to support himself and his family. By such systems of trade education our\nboys would ultimately contribute more largely toward the prosperity of our\ncountry than is possible under our present method of trade education. Such\ncourses of instruction are proving eminently satisfactory in numerous European\nschools, and the graduates of such schools are in demand after a shortened\napprenticeship and are receiving the highest prevailing wages.\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PLACE\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nThe problem for the boys who will conduct our farms is somewhat different\nfrom that just stated for the boy who intends entering the manufacturing industries. That he should be given preparation for his life's work in an agricultural\nschool, and not in a high school with some agricultural courses attached, 1\nhave no doubt. During the past week the farmers of Massachusetts, thru\nthe State Grange, appeared at the state house in opposition to a bill providing\nfor agricultural and industrial courses in the existing high schools. Many of\nthe superintendents of schools of the state argued in favor of the bill. The\nfarmers said most emphatically, \"This is not what we want.\" They said,\n\"Give us independent agricultural schools.\"\nWe would all agree that some instruction in mechanical trades should be\nmade a part of the work of an agricultural school. Much farm machinery\nmust be cared for by these boys, and farm carpentry should not be neglected.\nIn these independent agricultural schools the girls should take many of the\nagricultural courses, together with domestic science and home dressmaking\nand millinery.\nThe school must be planned as a finishing school for the future farmers,\nbut provision should be made for those who can continue their education.\nSuch schools should fit the boys for the state agricultural college and both the\nboy and the girl for the state normal school.\nFor the city girl who must, at an early date, begin to earn her living, the\nproblem is most difficult. We are informed by those who have made a study\nof this question that the average time a girl remains in productive industry is\nabout five years. The question of educating a girl, therefore, for the industry\nin which she is likely to remain for so short a time must be considered as a\ndistinct problem. These girls are destined, in the large majority of cases, to\nbecome the wives of our mechanics and the mothers of the coming generation.\nI can but feel that the school training these girls to earn their own living for\nfive years should be accompanied by a large share of instruction which will\nfit them for the work of home-making which they are to pursue for the forty\nadditional years of life.\nAn interesting problem is now being tried in the city of Boston in a\nsection where the residents are very largely from Italy. At the request of\ntheir parents, fifty girls about thirteen years of age have been selected, who\nattend the upper grades in the grammar school during the forenoon. The\nentire afternoon session is devoted to hand and machine work in a separate and\nindependent school provided thru private subscription. Here about two hours\nper day are devoted to sewing and dressmaking. The work cannot, however,\nbe fairly classed as industrial work. I am informed that several of the girls\nwho have become fourteen years of age since entering the school have continued\nin the grammar school that they might attend the afternoon classes. This\nwork is in charge of enthusiastic women who are seriously studying this problem. We shall look forward with much interest to the result of this experiment.\nCertainly, the choice of all would be to retain these girls in school for a much\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfWashington\n\nlonger time and give them a thoro preparation for home-making and also for a\ntrade corresponding in thoroness to that suggested for the boys; and I sincerely\nhope the problem may be worked out with such a course as the ultimate aim of\nthe girls' school.\nI regret that ten minutes does not give me sufficient time to present this\nsubject as it should be presented to this audience. I have confined my remarks\nto what I consider the essentials.\n\nVI.\nGEORGE\n\nH.\n\nMARTIN,\n\nA TECHNICAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSECRETARY OF MASSACHUSETTS\nEDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nSTATE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nIn a complete system of industrial education the place and function of a\ntechnical high school may be summarized as follows:\nI. Such a school will have an avowedly vocational purpose. This will\nexclude the so-called general courses and also manual-training courses for\nculture which aim only to offer new intellectual feeding-grounds to boys who\ndo not care to browse in the old academic pastures.\n2 J The vocations for which such a school would prepare are not the professions. Hence, courses especially designed to prepare for the colleges and\nfor the normal schools would be excluded, tho these are really vocational\ncourses.\n3. Technical high schools may be commercial, agricultural, or mechanical.\nMechanical high schools may be as varied as the manufacturing industries for\nwhich they are to prepare. A school may prepare for a single industry, or it\nmay be polytechnic in its character, offering a variety of courses adapted to\nlocal needs.\n4. In the age of its pupils, in the length of its courses, and in its preparatory\nrequirements, a technical high school should correspond with high schools of\nother sorts. This would call for four-year courses following the completion\nof an eight- or nine-year elementary course, and would include pupils, roughly\nspeaking, from fourteen to eighteen years of age.\n5. Being a technical school, its distinctive function will be to develop\neconomic efficiency, but in common with all public schools it must aim also\nto develop intellectual and moral character. Each of these aims is both\nindividual and social.\n6. The work of the school will be threefold: {a) To furnish technical\nknowledge and technical skill; {h) to promote intelHgence, breadth, and refinement of a cultural sort; (c) to develop a sense of civic obligation.\n7. For the first purpose there should be drawing, mathematics, and science,\nin kind and amount according to the needs of the industry for whose technique\nthe student is preparing. Thus for agriculture there would be needed a larger\nproportion of chemistry and biology than of drawing and mathematics. For\nthe mechanic arts, the course should be strong in drawing, mathematics, and\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "perintendence] AGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\n177\n\nphysics. The course in chemistry would be different in agriculture from tliat\nin tanning or dyeing or household sanitation.\n8. Technical skill in mechanic arts can be acquired only in a shop, so\nthat shop practice must constitute a large part of the work of the technical\nschool. It may be gained either in a school shop or in a commercial shop.\nWhich is better the experience of the world has not yet determined. Both\nare in operation and each has its advantages. Undoubtedly a good school\nshop is better than a poor commercial shop, but a school shop to be good\nmust contain the essential features of the best commercial shop. Its instructors must be shop-trained men, its hours and discipline must be those of the\nshop, and its product must be a salable commercial product. Whether the\nproduct should be sold or not is another question. What is true of the shopwork is equally true of the farm-work.\n9. In order that the student may become a useful citizen as well as a skilled\nworkman, the school course should include history, economics, and civics.\nTime also should be provided for thoro physical training, including personal\nhygiene and organized athletics. English should be cultivated thruout the\ncourse by composition and forensics. Opportunity should be offered to\nthose students who might find relaxation and aesthetic pleasure in the study\nand practice of vocal and instrumental music.\nNo attempt has been made in this brief outline to indicate the sequence\nof these studies nor the distribution of time among them, nor have I undertaken to discuss the mode of administration or financing or the governmental\nrelations of the school.\nIt will be seen that I do not believe in throwing away the existing high\nschool nor in turning it into a shop nor in substituting a shop for it. This\nwhole work would be destructive of the most cherished American ideals if,\nwhile teaching young men how to get a better living, the schools failed to\nteach them how to live a better life.\n\nAGRICULTURE,\nWILLET\n\nINDUSTRIES, AND HOME\nOUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nM. HAYS, ASSISTANT\n\nSECRETARY\n\nOF\n\nECONOMICS\n\nIN\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nAGRICULTURE,\n\nOur country has come to recognize that changed economic conditions,\nan increase in technical knowledge, and newly devised forms of school work\nhave made it necessary and practicable to broaden out our educational machinery so as to give a large place to the industrial vocations. Existing schools\nmust enrich their courses of study along these new lines so vitally connected\nwith the thought and work of the people, and the newer types of schools especially fitted to the industrial life of the people must be developed so as to meet\nthe new conditions in the largest and best way. The volume of the new work\nis very large. No one class of schools can do all of it. The question might\nbe raised whether it is better to adapt existing schools to do this teaching or\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nto develop new schools for this purpose. Manifestly we shall get on all too\nslowly, even if we utilize both plans.\nGenerally speaking, one-third of our menfolk are in agriculture, and onethird in the non-agricultural productive industries; while two-thirds of our\nwomen are in the vocation of home-making. Thus at least two-thirds of\nall our people enter the vocations of agriculture, the mechanic industries, and\nhome-making, and nearly all these receive their only schooling in our public\nschools. The percentage of the whole of our workers engaged in agriculture\nhas decreased in a century from three-fourths of the whole population to\none-third, and the indications are that it will decrease to one-fourth. As this\npercentage decreases the proportions become more nearly static, and those\nleaving the farm for the city are replaced by those leaving the city for the\nfarm. Under conditions in which only a very small part of the population\nmove from the farm to the town and only an equal number move from the\ncity to the country, the rural community should have for the higher grades\nin its schools strong vocational courses, and the education for the city youth\nshould close with courses related to the city vocations. There should be also\neasy methods of transit from the country life schools to the city schools and\nvice versa. AH will agree that there should be in the city schools some agriculture both as a culture-study and as a means of interesting those peculiarly\nattracted to and adapted for the life of farming or the work of specialists in\nlines related to agriculture. All will agree, also, that the school in the rural\ncommunity should have some instruction in mechanics because of its general\neducational and its vocational value in farming, and because it may enable\nthose youth with pronounced mechanical instincts to find and develop their\npeculiar talents. And all will agree that the girls in all public primary and\nsecondary schools in country and city should study home economics.\nThe expense of developing strong agricultural courses in city public schools\nis prohibitive, because even with state and federal aid few cities would be\nable to support courses for all the vocations in their own districts. Agricultural\nsecondary schools, consolidated rural schools, and the small district rural\nschools, for a similar reason, cannot offer courses in mechanic arts, commercial business, and other city vocations. Large highly differentiated schools\ncovering all fields might be devised, but they would not be near the people\nwhere the pupils can sleep in their parents' homes.\nFor those who cannot secure in their home schools vocational training\nalong the lines they desire, special vocational schools are necessary. For\nthe non-agricultural industries these schools may best be located in large\ncenters of population, so far as practicable, in the atmosphere of the vocation for which preparation is sought, and near the homes of a large portion\nof the pupils, each choosing that school which best meets his needs. For\nthe agricultural industries these vocational schools should be in the country,\npreferably near a town or city. Those experienced in agricultural secondary\nschools designed mainly for young men and young women who are to remain\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\n17\n\non the farm, or are to change from city to country life, are unanimous in the\nbelief, so far as I know, that these schools will not succeed so well as annexes\nto city schools as when separate and on large farms. As the school of art,\ntheology, literature, or science needs an environment, an atmosphere of its\nown, made possible by a strong special group of teachers and students in a\nlarge institution, or in a separate institution, so the finishing industrial vocational school secures advantages from being distinctive as a separate school\nor as a strong unit in a large school. Weak industrial departments in schools\nmainly devoted to non-industrial subjects are being developed pedagogically,\nand as the industries become better organized so as to increase the amount\nand regularity of employment, these industrial departments will oftener\nthan now succeed, whatever the school environment. But it will always be\ntrue that the schools highly developed for special work in agriculture, in the\nmechanic industries, arts, and trades, and in home economics, will establish\nthe highest standards in education in these respective lines. The trend\nseems strongly to the development of large secondary mechanic-arts schools\nand large secondary agricultural schools as parts of our public-school system,\nand to include home economics in both. There are, however, none so narrow\nas to limit instruction in these practical lines to these large special secondary\nschools. The industrial studies are finding more and more room in the academic public secondary schools in cities; and especially in the secondary schools\nof villages, towns, and cities not large enough to support separate technical\nschools. Even short trades courses are finding favor in the public schools\nof some smaller towns where there is need for expert tradesmen in specific\nindustries, as well as in large centers of population. And even the primary\nschools of our cities are giving more and more attention to mechanical and\nhome-making vocational work.\nA most powerful movement has set in to place agriculture and home\neconomics in our rural schools. The efforts have been fairly fruitful in\ndevising ways of successfully installing at least the beginnings of these studies\nin the one-room district school. But modern conditions have decreed that\nthe little red schoolhouse shall live in blessed memory, and that gradually\nthe consolidated rural school shall take its place, and shall grandly combine\nthe general and the rural vocational subjects into a broader, richer, and more\nuseful course of study. Here is the most promising of all fields for vocational\nschool work in relation to the productive industries and to the homes of the\ncommunity.\nIt is worthy of note that there are already established, or being established,\nthirty agricultural secondary public schools out of the 300 needed to place\none in each group of ten of our 3,000 agricultural counties. Even more significant is the fact that 600 consolidated rural schools have taken the place of\n4,000 little district schools and that two-thirds of our district rural schools\nseem destined eventually to give way to the consolidated rural school. It\nseems clear that the great bulk of all instruction in agriculture and country\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "l8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nhome-making will be given in the consolidated rural school. The agricultural\nsecondary school will set standards for the consolidated rural school and\nprovide its teachers, and the graduates returning will make possible its\nexcellence. The colleges of agriculture, the state experiment station, and\nthe federal and state departments of agriculture will each serve most important\npurposes; but they will do their largest work thru the consolidated rural\nschool. In this neighborhood school two-thirds of the farm boys and girls\nwill combine school-going and apprenticeship education on the home farm.\nIn the districts too sparsely settled or too isolated to consolidate their schools,\nthe other one-third of our rural youth will have teachers who have been trained\nin the consolidated rural schools, in the agricultural secondary schools, and\nin the state normal schools equipped to prepare teachers to instruct in farming\nand home-making.\nAN\n\nARTICULATED\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nThe United States has a system of articulated schools for non-agricultural\ncommunities well organized. The primary eight-grade schools, including\nsimple forms of instruction in manual training and home economics, are now\nwell defined in most states. The secondary four-year courses in academic\nstudies, often with electives in technical and industrial lines, in technological\nsubjects, trades, business and home economics, and the shorter vocational\ncourses, as in trades, business, and home economics, are also being definitely\norganized. The same is true of the collegiate schools offering academic\ncourses, often with many elective subjects leading toward vocations; professional courses, as law, medicine, and pedagogy; science courses, as\nchemistry and physics, and engineering courses, as electrical and\nmechanical.\nFor agricultural communities the one-room rural district school with\nsix to eight grades, including wherever practicable some agriculture and\nhome economics, is the well-defined type; and no doubt it will remain in\none-third of our agricultural area. The consolidated rural school with eight\nprimary grades and two secondary-school grades, including instruction in\nagriculture and home economics, is coming forward as a type of local school\nfor all of our more productive agricultural areas. In some cases this school\nis combined with the village school, but in most cases it is in the open country with\nonly farm patrons. Estimates place the number of strictly rural consolidated\nschools, each covering an area approximately five miles square, at six hundred.\nThis type of school is far more advanced in type, in numbers, and in the firm\nhold it has taken on the rural community, than is realized by any but the few\nwho have especially studied this class of schools. Mr. George W. Knorr,\nafter visiting two hundred consolidated rural schools, estimates that more than 99\nper cent, of their farmer patrons have become ardent supporters of consolidation. The farmers who try this form of school are as unanimously in favor\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\ni*,\n\nof it as those who adopted the grain reaper or the sewing machine upon first\ntrial were in favor of those implements.\nThe secondary agricultural school with the third and fourth high-school\ngrades or years is coming forward to supplement the two high-school\nyears of the consolidated rural or village school, and the little unconsolidated\nschool with four-year secondary courses in agricultiu-e and home\neconomics.\nEvery person, so far as I know, who has really absorbed the plan and\nspirit of agricultural secondary schools as developed in this country, and\nespecially those who have followed the farm boys and girls thru these\nschools back to the home farm or into the college of agriculture, is exceedingly\noptimistic concerning the future relation of this class of schools to our country\nlife.\nThe college of agriculture thru half a century of struggle has gained\nan honorable place among collegiate institutions, and these institutions abready\nform a crown to that branch of our system of articulated schools which is\nrelated to our country life. Buttressed by the research work of state agricultural experiment stations and departments of agriculture, the improvement\nof the quality of work in these institutions is going forward rapidly, and the\nmultiplication of agricultural research and educational institutions is greatly\nincreasing the demand for their graduates.\nThere is keenly felt in our agricultural education a need of such an articulation between the schools relating to agriculture and to country life as exists\nbetween all our schools and the colleges devoted to the non-agricultural professions. The farm youth has no continuous school ladder in the line of his\nearly training, and few are encouraged to go on to our poorly filled collegiate\nagricultural courses. Some secondary schools are needed which along with\na broad training lead farm boys forward to leadership in technical agriculture\nas well as into other vocations. But what is still more needed is broad secondary courses which articulate at both ends with the farm; which attract those\nfarm youths who are to remain on the farm and specifically prepare them for\ntheir work.\nThose who fear that providing special schools which would graduate annually 20,000 to 30,000 farm boys and girls in secondary agricultural schools\nwould divide our school system into two systems need only to use arithmetic\nto discover how small a part these are of the three millions who annually close\ntheir school careers. The problem will still remain of reaching the several\nmillion pupils from rural homes. The establishment of several hundred strong\nsecondary schools of agriculture, and of mechanic arts, as well as the introduction of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home economics into our public\nnormal schools, will make possible the introduction of these subjects into all\nour schools. The opportunity which seems to offer of installing vocational\neducation thruout our school system seems a very large interest compared\nwith which mere local interests are of very minor weight. Those interested\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "i82\n\n<\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLWashington\n\nin our youth will be able to make our schools even more American than they\nnow are if the American industries have a larger recognition in all classes of\nour public schools.\nThe connection of our collegiate, secondary, and elementary schools which\ndeal with country life, with our state experiment stations, with the United States\nDepartment of Agriculture, and with other institutions which discover new\ntruths, creates new values as by breeding plants and animals, and helps devise\nnew pedagogical methods in technical studies, on the one hand; and their connection, on the other hand, with th-e practical management of our farms and\nfarm homes, is of far greater significance than any relations between city and\ncountry life schools, important as they may be. The unity with the home\neducation during school life and with the after-graduation life-education is\nthe matter of larger concern. The few finding it well to do so can easily\nshift from non-agricultural to agricultural courses, or the converse, with\nfar less loss to society than will occur from having the schools lead\nmany into fields other than those into which the pupils are to go. The\nschools which today are dwarfed, as compared with the functions they\nhave to perform, are those secondary schools or ''people's colleges\"\nwhich lead to the industrial vocations where large numbers are to be\naccommodated.\nIt should clearly be recognized that the types of primary, secondary,\ncollegiate, and graduate schools to make a well-formed American educational\nsystem are all present, and that the weakness of the system is quantitative.\nThe secondary academic schools leading to the collegiate and graduate professional and so-called higher technical vocations are not outgrown; the\nschools leading to the productive industries are simply undeveloped. To\narticulate with the farm, the shop, and the home in a broader and more unified\nway the vocational studies must be magnified. While all our schools need\nstrengthening, placing equal stress on building up all classes of schools on\ntheir present status would retain the present unequal development. The\nneed of the hour is to build up the industrial vocational courses in our system\nof secondary schools.\nSome conservative persons have wrongly defined the vocational school\nas an institution in which industrial subjects displace the accepted academic\nstudies. The fact is that most of these courses are approximately one-third\nacademic or literary, one-third scientific, and one-third vocational. Practically, the foreign languages and a small part of the other general studies\ngive way to book, laboratory, and shop or outdoor studies related to the basic\nindustries of the community or to home-making. In two ways these courses\nare broader than the general academic course. The student can accomplish\nmore when part of his work is with things, and his book work is brighter and\nmeans more to him. His other studies have a clearer setting, a keener interest,\nand wider co-ordinations. The more practical school leads to a broader\nview of life, better fitting the youth to choose a calling. It at once prevents\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] AGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\nig\n\nthe dreamy student from becoming bookish and holds the too practical student\nlonger on his book tasks.\nOne prominent educator has expressed fear that to supplement our school\nsystem with secondary schools highly equipped for training in farming and\nfarm home-making would peasantize our farmers. Suppose the great state\nof Iowa had lo of these schools with a total of 5,000 students, and should\ngraduate annually 1,000; suppose further that 400 of these graduates would\nbecome teachers of agriculture and home economics in consolidated farm\nand village schools, eventually for the most part becoming farmers or farmers'\nwives; 400 return to the farm direct; 100 go forward to the agricultural\ncollege, and 100 into non-agricultural vocations. How less than one trained\nfarmer per township would peasantize the farmers of a state is not made\nclear. It may be supposed that the author of that statement conceived the\nidea that the oncoming consolidated rural school and the agricultural secondary\nschool would be narrowly agricultural.\nThose who are experienced in developing secondary courses in both of\nthese classes of schools for the vigorous American farm boy and girl realize\nthat the course of study is broadened by adding to nearly all the academic\nwork ordinarily given in high schools strong, inspiring, practical subjects relating to the farm and the farm home. Since the mind is here developed along\nlines in which it is to have food for thought thruout life, the education is\ntruly started for the whole lifetime.\nHow so changing our courses of study in the rural schools that the youth\nnot only receives vocational training but remains longer in school and secures\nmore of the traditional education as well, will peasantize farmers, has not been\nshown. It certainly is not based upon intimate knowledge of the actual effects\nof typical schools now in operation. That education can un-American ize or\npeasantize, is truly a novel proposition.\nMoney can never secure the land from farmers highly trained to succeed\nin and to appreciate the management of farms and farm homes. Strong\nschools combining general and vocational education are the nation's great\nsafeguard against peasantizing the people. Educated people rule. Our\nfathers installed Americanism on this rich continent, and thru a broad\nand efficient educational system the kings of finance are to be kept under the\nrulership of tlie people. Newly centralized commercial powers require newly\norganized power of the people. The productive unit — the man — must be\nincreased in economic, social, and political power, and this requires general\nand vocational education.\nThe same author objects to building up schools especially devoted to\ncountry life, fearing that the village and city schools will be seriously injured\nby withdrawing from them the vigorous farm boys and girls who now attend\nthere. Another writer insists that our republicanism depends upon educating\nall classes together in one set of schools. The experience of 600 consolidated\nrural schools has shown their 10,000 farm patrons that this and many other\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nobjections to country life educational institutions are fallacious. In so far\nas experiments have gone in the mapping of counties to consolidate our rural\nschools, the tendency has been for more rather than less pupils to be conveyed\ninto the schools of villages and smaller town centers. The method of dividing\nthe districts so as to carry more to the village school, thus helping to build it\nup, or to carry more to the consolidated farm school more or less distant from\nthe village so as better to insure a rural atmosphere, is a subject as yet open\nfor investigation. Where there is a village as well as a rural community to be\nserved, probably combining the village school and the school for the rural pupils\non a school farm beside, the village will oftenest best serve the largest number.\nBut the farm school out in the country, and the agricultural secondary school,\nwhere the farm boy or girl at the age of seventeen to twenty boards for two or more\nwinters, will give a vastly broader point of view, a wider acquaintanceship, and a\nstronger social status as well as a better preparation for the management of\nthe farm and the farm home than is possible under the alternative plan of\na little agriculture in a general course of study or of a little agriculture and\nhome economics in existing schools.\nAllowing agricultural education just to grow, or trying the impossible\ntask of securing state money to introduce agriculture into existing secondary\nschools, nearly all of which are in cities, is apparently a very poor alternative.\nLet that education for rural youth grow as it will, but let us give specific direction to federal and state money into vocational schools to set standards for\nand impetus to a more practical education in all schools. All know that\nlocal tax measures of the state or city will do well to yield sufi&cient revenues\nfor the academic studies. Federal and state money, limited to the studies\ndeemed too expensive by the local community, will result in a co-operation\nbetween state and locality which will provide schools including both general\nand vocational education.\nThe proposition in the Industrial School Bill now before the Sixtieth\nCongress has rapidly grown into wide favor. Many national and state organizations of farmers, of labor leaders, of educators, and of manufacturers have\ngenerally either indorsed this bill or have taken such action that their executive\nboards may properly favor this measure in practically its present form. Congressman Davis says that many members of the House of Representatives\nand Senate express the desire to help enact it into a law. It equitably distributes money raised by general taxation, giving its share to every district\nin the land. It is generally agreed that the worst fault of our schools\nis that they discriminate against the productive industries and homemaking; and correcting such a general local mistake is clearly a federal\nfunction.\nThose who earlier feared that national appropriations would tend to centralization realize that taxes raised by the federal government and turned over\nto the localities with which to build up state institutions accumulate the\nstrength in the state and actually decentralize government.\nThe results\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenccJ AGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\nfrom federal appropriations for state colleges of agriculture and mechanic\narts and the state agricultural experiment stations absolutely dissipate that\nfear. Those who feared that the present Secondary Industrial Education\nBill was the forerunner to revive the movement centered years ago in the\nso-called ''Blair Bill,\" which designed to put the federal treasury behind our\npublic-school system, acknowledge that this bill adds no new principle of\nlaw to that in the Morrill Act of 1862, confining the expenditure as it does to\nindustrial education even more rigidly than does that act.\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nFIFTY-NINTH\n\nCONGRESS\n\nThe Fifty-ninth Congress passed the Adams Act, adding $15,000 to the\nsimilar annual appropriation to each state experiment station; and made\ninto law the Nelson Amendment giving to each state college of agriculture and\nmechanic arts $25,000 more annually. It also liberally increased the research\nand educational funds of the United States Department of Agriculture.\nBut of equal or greater significance is the fact that at this session were introduced bills to extend federal appropriations to secondary education in agriculture and the mechanic arts. Following the meteor-like financing by private\nsubscription which gave $800,000 to equip eleven agricultural secondary\nschools in Georgia, two bills were introduced along this line by members\nof Congress from that state. One would give $10,000 to each agricultural\nsecondary school established in a congressional district; the other would\nprovide a fund for a branch experiment station at each of such schools. These\nwere followed by a bill embodying not only these two ideas, but also including\nfunds for mechanic-arts secondary schools in all our cities. A bill to enable\nstate normal schools to prepare teachers to teach industrial work was also\nintroduced.\nIt is stated of this new bill that it simply carries out the intention of the\nCongress of 1862 which inaugurated education for the industries by providing\nfor a college of agriculture and the mechanic arts in each state. It seems\nclear that Congress looked upon all education above the primary school as\ncollegiate education; advanced schools not then having been differentiated\ninto secondary and collegiate institutions. Congress had no means of conceiving the magnitude of the undertaking, nor of the resources the present\nand future decades can afford to devote to this vocational education; and\nat that time there were only vague dreams of our great Department of Agriculture or of state experiment stations.\nBriefly stated, the terms of the proposed bill provide that Congress shall\nappropriate annually to each state ten cents per capita for secondary industrial\neducation. Of this sum each city with more than 2,000 inhabitants shall\nreceive its per-capita share, the only limitation being that this money shall be\nused for studies in mechanic arts and home economics in schools of secondary\ngrade. To the population outside of cities of the size named the ten cents per\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "l86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\ncapita shall be used for studies in agriculture and home economics in secondary\nagricultural schools. In both the city secondary industrial schools and in\nthe agricultural high schools thus established the state or locality must furnish\nthe lands, buildings, and also current funds to provide all the necessary general\nstudies to round out strong courses of study. The only restrictive provisions\nare that the federal money shall be effectively used for studies relating to agriculture, the mechanic arts, and home economics. Since the money is not\nsufificient to be applied to the consolidated rural school and to the village\nschool where rural pupils must attend while sleeping in their parents' homes,\nthat part provided for those who expect to be farmers and farm home-makers\nis directed to be used in agricultural secondary schools of rather large size.\nThis insures that excellence of equipment and teaching force which will justify\nthe nearly mature farm youth in expending time and money to attend.\nThe bill further provides that Congress shall appropriate one-fourth the\nsum received by each agricultural high school for a branch agricultural experiment station to be located at these institutions and requires the state to appropriate an equal sum for these stations. This branch station fund will aid the\npractical teachers to understand fully the soils, crops, and live stock, and the\nplan of farm management suited to the respective districts. It will provide\nmeans with which to co-operate both with the state experiment station and\nwith the United States Department of Agriculture in breeding, testing, and\ndistributing new varieties of field, orchard, and garden crops; in improving\nthe breeds of animals; and in working out systems of farm organization,\nfield management, soil fertilization, and crop production. The assistance\nthese branch stations located in each agricultural district of the entire country\nwould give to the state experiment stations and to the United States Department of Agriculture in enabling them better to do the work of creative breeding,\ntesting, and distributing varieties of plants will, by increasing the values of\nour crops alone, more than pay the entire sum annually provided by this bill\nfor practical education in city and country.\nAs a federal measure the ten-county district plan is far more conservative\nthan the plan of establishing one agricultural secondary school and branch\nagricultural experiment station in each county. To provide one wellequipped school in each county would cost several times as much as to equip\none in each ten counties. And even yet more expensive would be the plan of\nusing federal money to place agriculture in existing consolidated rural, township, and village schools and in secondary city schools where rural pupils\nattend. Our rural township and consolidated schools are developing secondary\ncourses. To pay out of the federal treasury for secondary agricultural studies\nin these schools would mean undertaking to place this instruction where all\nthe pupils could secure it, while yet sleeping at home. The cost would be\nseveral times the cost under the plan proposed, and those who, in opposition\nto the pending bill, propose that alternative surely have not considered the\ncost to the federal treasury.\nThe more conservati/e plan is to use federal\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] AGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\nTg\n\nmoney only to produce leaders and teachers for the proposed larger secondary\nschools and thus to prepare the state and the locality to meet the local expenditure and to manage their home problems.\nThe ten-county plan provides branch agricultural experiment stations of\na\nsize which have proven stable and efficient. Districts of this size provide the\nneeded permanently equipped experiment farm on which the state experiment\nstations and the federal Department of Agriculture can carry on such longtime and careful work as improving the crops and animals of the respective\nstates by breeding, and comparing systems of crop rotation, soil fertilization,\nand farm management.\nThe consolidated rural school and especially the village school, in which\nthe farm boys and girls begin their courses of vocational training, need the\nlarge finely equipped agricultural high school where the secondary vocational\ncourse relating to country life can be completed, where both instruction and\ninspiration will be given. The branch experiment station will articulate with\nthe ten-acre farm of the consolidated rural or village school, and many of the\nseeds and plants and many of the new ways of doing things developed by\ndepartments of agriculture and by experiment stations can be carried by the\nbranch station to the rural school farm and from there thru the pupils\nto all the farms of the country to which they are respectively adapted.\nThis new educational bill, under a plan of restricting the use of federal\nfunds to industrial studies, proposes to broaden, round out, complete and\nmake more effective our entire educational system, alike for city and for\ncountry. It will do wonders for our farm boys and girls, for our city youth\nof all classes, and will start our colored race on a new era of industrial interest,\nenlightenment and efficiency. Instead of breaking up the unity of our system,\nit brings about unity by unifying school education with education outside the\nschool. This measure was written in the light of the lessons learned from\nthe administration of the land-grant or state college and the state experiment\nstation acts.\nFollowing such noteworthy examples as the Minnesota, Wisconsin, and\nNebraska agricultural high schools and branch experiment station organizations, 300 of these institutions would accommodate 100,000 farm boys and\ngirls, most of whom are not seeking an avenue off the farm. Probably 20,000\nwould graduate annually, the majority returning to take leading places in\ntheir farm communities, a large proportion entering upon teaching as in the\nconsolidated farm schools, in village schools, in normal schools, and in the\nsmall district rural schools, and probably 10 per cent, going to the agricultural\ncollege.\nFollowing such splendid examples as the St. Louis, St. Paul, and Washington mechanic arts secondary schools, hundreds of non-agricultural secondary\nschools will accommodate hundreds of thousands of city youth who wish to\npursue courses in mechanic arts, industries, and trades, and girls who wish\nto have technical training along home-making lines. Tens of thousands will\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nannually graduate and be prepared rapidly to gain high eflficiency in the expert\ntrades or in the keeping of homes. Not a few will proceed to the engineering\nor other technical colleges and the graduates of these schools will eventually\ngrow into leadership of many of our manufacturing and transportation industrial enterprises. But the great majority will take the well-paid places requiring masterful artisans, now too often taken from American youth by highly\nskilled foreigners. These schools, instead of being places to turn out cheap\ntradesmen, will supply men who, having joined scientific information, schoolshop experience, and actual service in their chosen trades, will set new standards\nfor our expert trades. Under public management, they will treat fairly both\nthe man who has labor to sell and the man who is seeking to employ labor.\nThey will tend to increase wages in these lines; and they will tend to increase\nthe output from labor and to increase the remuneration both of the laborer\nand the capitalist. Many of the women graduates will splendidly build up the\nhome-economics instruction in all schools where girls attend, from primary\nto collegiate, insuring that the housewives and mothers of our land be expert\nin their work. The improvement which will come thru instruction in\nhome economics in the agricultural high schools and in the mechanic arts\nhigh schools will repay all the cost to the federal, state, and local governments\nrequired under the provisions of this bill.\nProbably the most important feature of the new educational plan in our\npublic-school system is the extension of the school life into the youth's work\nperiod: the dovetailing of the school attendance into the entrance upon active\nlife. The youth in the secondary course in the consolidated rural school\nor in the agricultural secondary school devotes alternate six-month periods\nto school and to the work of the farm. And during the six months out of\nschool the work is made educational by the co-operation of teacher and\nparents. Likewise, some manufacturing concerns co-operate with the schools,\nand give the students apprenticeship training one part of the year, taking\nanother group at another season, or the years of work at school and in\nthe apprentice shop are alternated, or even the months or the weeks in school\nand in the shop are alternated. In some cases the boy's day is divided between\nthe school and the apprenticeship shop. The evening continuation-school\nfor those who must work the whole day is still another form of joining school\narid practical life. General plans need to be wrought out, that the pupil\nmay change from school to real life in a natural way, not easily nor yet too\nabruptly, nor in a way too strenuous for the development of full physical\nand mental health.\nAn arithmetical statement of a completed system of country life educational institutions for a state like Iowa, which is nearly all agricultural, will\naid in an understanding of the new movement to give to those who are to farm\nan education at once broad and vocational. Iowa has one agricultural college\nin the central one of its ninety-nine counties. An agricultural high school in each\ngroup of ten counties would provide ten of these schools. Consolidating the\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] AGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\nig\n\n130 rural schools and the half-dozen village schools of each county into 20\nconsolidated rural schools and 6 schools in which the farm and village\nschools are combined would provide a total for the state of practically 2,000\nconsolidated farm schools and 600 village, town, and city schools to which\nrural pupils are hauled by teams. We have thus one agricultural college,\n10 agricultural high schools at which the pupils must board, and 2,000 consolidated farm schools. It may be assumed that some pupils will go from\nthe village and city schools to the agricultural high school, but that more\nwill go from the farm to the city, general, and special secondary schools, and\nthat for the present purpose the village and city schools may be left out of the\ngeneral figures. It may be further assumed that each consolidated rural\nschool will have 130 pupils, 20 of whom are in the high-school course, for the\nmost part in the first and second high-school years, and no pupils in eight\nprimary grades.\nA normal proportion of students in the three classes of institutions would\nthen seem to be about as follows: Primary students in 2,000 consolidated rural\nschools, 220,000; secondary-school students in these 2,000 consolidated rural\nschools, 40,000; secondary-school students in 10 agricultural high schools,\n4,000; and agricultural collegiate students in the agricultural college, 400.\nNo doubt many would go from the largest consolidated rural schools directly\nto the state normal school, while others would attend the agricultural high\nschool before attending the normal, thus better to prepare to teach in the\nconsolidated rural school. Similar figures might be used to show the relation\nof the city secondary schools articulating with the engineering and other\ncourses in the State University at Iowa City, and in the College of Agriculture\nand Mechanic Arts, at Ames; also of the agriculture, manual-training, and\nhome economics in the village, town, city, and agricultural schools, to the\nState Normal School at Cedar Falls.\nThe bill now before Congress is open to defeat or to improvement and\npassage. Broadly speaking, it proposes to change our expenditure from say\n$4 per capita to $4.10 per capita; and to provide that this added 2^ per cent,\nof our school expenditure shall be placed under a plan where it can be used\nonly for training in agriculture, in mechanical industries, and in home-making.\nWe all know that this is the side of our educational machinery which has not\nkept pace with our needs. Some may be willing to take the responsibility\nof opposing this plan now so auspiciously started, or to load it with other\npropositions good in themselves but handicaps to the main proposition.\nIt is of interest to this assemblage of school officials to state that those\nofficials of state normal schools and of state departments of public instruction\nwho are promoting a federal appropriation for normal schools and those\ninterested in securing federal support to secondary industrial education have\neach recognized that the two measures represent a single movement and that\nthey should be combined. Already steps are under way to frame a bill around\nwhich all can unite in a common movement to put industrial education into\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "IQO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nour public-school system, wherever and in whatever form local conditions may\nrequire. In the secondary schools the studies relating to the industries will\nbe mainly directed toward the preparation of pupils for those agricultural,\nmechanical, and home-making vocations into which most of them will enter;\nbut in a less direct way these studies will be used to prepare teachers for these\nsubjects. The normal schools, on the other hand, will use the proposed\nfederal funds mainly to prepare teachers in agriculture, manual training, and\nhome economics; but incidentally will add materially to the sum of vocational\ntraining, as many of their students will at most teach only temporarily.\nThe greatest object of education is the uplift of the whole people, the greatest\ngood to the greatest number. But this must be done in large part by the\ndevelopment of leaders. Leaders must not be alone leaders of religion,\nliterature, art, and science. There must be leaders of the community, of the\neveryday life, of the common work, and of home-making and social intercourse.\nOur existing schools are rapidly developing along many of these lines. For\nour industrial communities, secondary schools are needed which will produce\nmany leaders broadly trained to be at once economic and moral leaders and\nleaders in social and home-making lines. The agricultural high school, with\nits fidelity to the truths of nature's science, its power-giving along economic\nand home-making lines, its uplift thru noble school officials, its opportunities for experience in social life and in working in public meetings and in\nstudents' co-operative organizations, and with its strong voluntary religious\nwork in Young Men's Christian Associations, and Young Women's Christian Associations, and with its after-hold on its graduates, is a unique and\nmost powerful institution for the production of country-life leaders. The\ncity high school, with studies related to the industries and to home-making,\nand the separate industrial secondary school, also, have great potentialities\nin the preparation of all-round leaders in the industrial communities of our\nnon-agricultural workers.\nThis enlarged expenditure for teaching the children of our native and\nrecently arrived Americans how to make better homes and to increase their\nproduction of commodities has the broadest possible national significance.\nWe are in world competition with nations able and willing to make commodities at lower units of labor charge than we. We must either increase the\nefficiency of our labor units or be willing to sell them at lower wage prices.\nAmerica has charge of the world's highest standards of wage and of living.\nIndustrial education has a very large place beside a reasonable tariff in keeping\nAmerica's dinner pail full. Let us adjust our differences, if indeed we have any,\nand unite on this broad plan to turn the face of our schools from its too exclusive attention to the splendid traditional studies, and let it shine upon those\nwho work with their hands as it now shines upon the so-called learned professions. Let us try to please all except those who fear to add to the education\nof the boy and girl studies along the lines of the industrial work in which\nmost of them must earn their bread and purify their hearts by the isweat of\ntb«ir brows.\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ AGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\n1\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nE. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of public instruction, Topeka, Kan.—\nTo\nprove all things and hold fast to that which is good is the educational spirit of the hour.\nCustom and tradition are no longer terms to conjure with in determining the curriculum.\nIn endeavoring to solve the problem what knowledge and what training is of most\nworth new tests are being applied. The passive interest of the abstract is being supplemented with the active interest of the concrete. The strong presentment of the necessity and value of the study of agriculture and home economics in the pubUc schools, which\nwe have just heard, is in complete accord with the general movement to recognize the\nother 98 per cent, in our public schools.\nIt is not so much a question of what, as of how, and when. With more than half of\nour people engaged in agriculture and home-making, the public has every right to demand\nthat the schools shall train the pupils with a training that shall adapt them to their environment. When we reflect that many states have a rural population of 70 per cent, or more,\nthe need of an industrial training becomes all the more apparent.\nThe question whether agriculture shall be taught in special schools, such as are\ncontemplated in the Davis bill and such as are in operation in at least three of our states,\nor whether it shall be attempted in all of our high schools, is a highly important one.\nWhile I fully recognize the importance of the measure advocated by Dr. Davis and realize\nthe great impulse such a law would give to agricultural instruction, I cannot but feel that\nit would be much better if assistance could reach all high schools where agriculture and\nhome economics are taught.\nIn my own state, Kansas, the Agricultural College is a separate institution and articulates closely with the rural school. With a population of 1,650,000 we should have\nbut comparatively few schools reaping the benefit of national aid. If pupils are obliged to\nleave home it would seem that they might with greater profit attend our large and splendidly equipped Agricultural College. I confess to a great deal of sympathy with the\nargument advanced by Professor Davenport in his address on \"The Place of Agriculture\nin Our American School.\" Instead of special schools for a special class, let us have\nstrong schools with a sufficient number of courses to meet the varying needs of -the studentbody. Breadth of view, a wider outlook, and a closer understanding and sympathy\nwith the life-work of others will follow.\nThe consolidated school will afford much opportunity for instruction in certain\nphases of agriculture, which may easily serve as an incentive to take a more extended\ncourse in the high school.\nIn our state we have a class of high schools that are peculiarly adapted to the introduction of courses in agriculture and home economics. Under what is known as the\nBarnes law, a favorable vote by any county places all high schools therein, maintaining\na four-year course, and preparing fully for the university, in a position where they may\nbe supported wholly by the county at large. At the last general election forty-three of\nthe one hundred and five counties took advantage of this act and today more than eighty\nhigh schools are being supported by their respective counties, and forty more high schools\nare establishing conditions that will render them eligible to like benefits another year.\nAs an equivalent for such county aid, tuition is free to all pupils in the county. In addition to these schools some twenty counties have elaborately equipped county high schools,\nsupported by the county.\nBoth classes of schools are largely supported by the farmers, and it seems peculiariy\nfitting that agriculture and home economics should be taught therein.- It is pleasing to\nbe able to state that excellent courses in these subjects are being offered in several of\nthese schools, and that they are entirely satisfactory to the farmers themselves.\nI have said that it is no longer a question of what we shall teach in the high school.\nThis question has gone beyond the stage of debate. The people whose school it is have\ndemanded that the industrial and vocational shall be recognized, and shall have a place\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nin the curriculum. The next step is to see that agricuhure and home economics have the\nsame place of importance and availability in the high school that they have in the\ncollege,\nLorenzo D. Harvey, superintendent of Stout Manual-Training Schools, Menomonie. Wis. — In the little I may have to say in the present discussion of the general topic\n\"The Place of Industries in Public Education,\" I wish first to express my appreciation of\nthe forcible presentation of the subject of agricultural industries and home economics in public schools to which we have just listened. It has presented in a masterful way the arguments for the extension of educational facilities for industrial education. It has shown\nthe possibilities thru the development of the idea of consolidating rural schools and the\nbroadening of their curricula so as to embrace those studies of vital interest to the country\nboy and girl; and it has outlined an articulated system leading from the home of the\nchild living in the country to the college, while at the same time presenting a course of\ninstruction admirably fitting the child for the active duties of life within his environment.\nI must confess that I am not as optimistic as the writer of the paper, concerning the\nearly and general development of the consolidated farm school. The consolidation of\nrural schools is not a new idea. The six hundred of them now in existence do not present\na large showing for more than twenty years of agitation, but their more rapid increase\nin later years indicates that in the coming years they will increase in number very much\nmore rapidly than in the past. In many states practically nothing has as yet been accomplished. The present systems of school organizations in many of these states make\nconsolidation extremely difficult, while the conservatism of the rural population where\nany increased expenditure of money is concerned acts as a further deterrent. Of the\nsix hundred schools now in existence probably not one realizes the ideal which the author\nof the paper has in mind. It will be many years before that ideal vdll be realized in a\nlarge number of schools. I am not arguing against it. I am simply stating what I believe\nto be a fact, for the purpose of emphasizing the idea that not only the plan proposed but\nall other means of efifort looking toward the development of a better system of instruction\nin rural communities should be utilized to the fullest extent.\nThe purpose of the Davis Bill, as outlined, is one which must commend itself to all.\nI trust it may be so modified that, if it become a law, it shall not operate to fix a single\ntype of secondary agricultural schools for all communities, especially as to area of the\ndistrict which such a school shall serve. I hope the bill may be so modified as to leave\nto each particular state the distribution of the money appropriated to that state for secondary agricultural schools to such schools as shall furnish proper faciUties to a reasonable\nnumber of students without regard to the area of the district served.\nUpon the general topic, \"The Place of Industries in Public Education,\" I wish to\nsay that while I recognize the importance upon social and economic groimds of the establishment of special vocational schools, I think the problem of industrial education is a\nmuch larger one than this. I believe all will agree that with a proper organization of\nthe elementary and secondary school work, the longer pupils can be induced to remain\nin these schools before entering upon a vocation, the better for them^ for society, and\nfor the state.\nI should regret to see distinct vocational schools established in such numbers and\nwith the vocational side so emphasized as to present an inducement for children to leave\nthe public schools earlier than they now do, or earlier than is necessary. We hear much\nof the different types of vocational schools in other countries and especially in Germany.\nWe have much to learn from these countries in the organization of these schools in the\nUnited States, but I hope the time will never come in this country when the falling off\nin attendance of pupils in the public schools shall equal that of Germany as these pupils\npass from their thirteenth to their fourteenth year. Up to the thirteenth year practically the entire school population of Germany is to be found in the public schools.\nIn\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] AGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nHOME\n\n___^\n\nECONOMICS\n\n^^^\n\ny«3\n\nthe fourteenth 'year the number has dropped in many citie? of that country to less than\nro per cent, of the children of that age. If in school at all, they are in the continuation\nor trade schools.\nIn this country manufacturers do not want apprentices at fourteen years of age, and\nat that age they are not sufficiently mature to do the best kind of work in the preparation\nfor a vocation. In our larger cities it is unquestionably true that many children are of\nnecessity compelled to leave school at an early age, and that the continuation school or\nthe trade school must be provided to meet their needs.\nThe report of the Massachusetts commission shows that a very large percentage of\nthe children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen in the public schools have not withdrawn from them because of necessity, but because they were not interested in the work\nwhich was ofiFered them, or because their parents did not see in it anything which appealed\nto them as of value in increasing the industrial efficiency of their children.\nI believe it is entirely feasible to modify our elementary and secondary courses of\ninstruction in our public schools by the introduction of handwork, so that the work offered\nwill appeal, on the industrial side, to these children and to their parents.\nIt is argued in some quarters that manual training is in no sense a preparation for\nindustrial efficiency; that its purposes are cultural rather than vocational. I should\nrather put it that its purposes are both cultural and vocational, and that the work should\nbe SQ organized as to serve both purposes. It is not a question of what has been or is\nbeing done in the way of manual training in this or that public-school system. It is a\nquestion of what can be done and what purpose it may be made to serve.\nIn the acquiring of any trade, I care not what it may be, there are two distinct stages.\nDuring the first stage the learner is concerned with finding out the what of each particular\nprocess which must be mastered, the how in performing, coupled with the performance\nof the process under the guidance and control of the attentive mind. During the second\nstage the learner is occupied in developing skill in the accurate and rapid performance\nof each particular process and in the correlation of these processes to meet the demands\nof the shop in which, he may be employed. This skill is developed through the repetition of that which at the beginning of this stage he could perform reasonably well when\ndone slowly and with the closest attention to every detail of the doing, continued until\nthe process is performed accurately and rapidly with little mental effort beyond that\ninvolved in initiating the motor activity demanded by the process.\nIn the statement of the scope and character of work demanded in the first stage, it\nshould be observed that there are three steps in the mastery of any one process: first,\nthe determination of what is to be done; second, the determination of how it is to be\ndone; third, the doing for the accomplishment of the what thru the appUcation of\nthe how. It must be observed further that the necessary knowledge of the how requisite\nfor the proper performance of the process may not be acquired in advance of any effort\nin doing, but the learner must have in mind how he proposes to perform any act he regards\nas necessary in the process before he begins the action. The result of the action may\nshow him that the manner in which he attempted the doing was wrong and that he must\nrevise his conception of the how. But always the knowledge of a how must precede the\ndoing; the doing modifies the how; this modification reacts upon the doing until the\nproper standard of correctness is reached.\nThe first stage is one thru which every learner must pass in the mastery of a trade\nbefore he can property enter upon the second stage, during which skill in processes and\ntheir use is to be developed, no matter whether the trade is learned in the shop, in the\nschool, or in both school and shop.\nThis is not the time to discuss the educational principles which determine the place,\nscope, and character of manual training in the elementary and secondary courses of\nstudy for training purposes other than for industrial efficiency. But I venture the assertion that the three steps which characterize the first stage in the mastery of a trade must\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfWashington\n\nalso characterize every phase of work in a manual-training course which requires an\nintelligent use of tools and materials in constructive processes, in accordance with sound\neducational principles. Therefore, it follows that the first stage in the mastery of trade\nprocesses, in its rudimentary form at least, is fovmd in all manual-training courses based\non sound educational principles and adequate in scope, and that, with proper equipment\nand competent teaching force, manual training may be extended so as to apply the work\nof this stage to a considerable number of trades. The second stage may be completed\nin the shop, in the trade school, or in both.\nManual training in its earlier stages must of necessity be carried on without direct\nreference or relation to the development of skill in any particular vocation. The training which it gives in close observation of an object to be produced from any given material\nor as the result of effort in the construction of that object, or determination of wherein\nthe effort has failed and what must be done thru further effort to remedy the failure,\nthe training of the hand to execute mental judgments, furnish a preliminary preparation\nof high value as a basis for intelligent workmanship which employs the hands later on.\nIn the later development of manual training it may be so organized as to bear a\nvery definite relation to certain processes largely employed in the industrial world, and\nat the same time to secure the kind of mental training needed for the proper development\nof the individual. In a general way it may be said that the following things are essential\nfor industrial efficiency in the workman:\n1. Habits of close observation.\n2. A high ideal as to what constitutes honesty in workmanship.\n3. Habits of accuracy in work.\n4. Comprehension of what is good in design as related to use in connection with the\nwork in hand.\n5. Knowledge of materials best adapted to different forms and types of construction.\n6. Knowledge of construction processes in the treatment of materials.\n7. Skill in the care of tools and in their use in industrial processes, and skill in using\nmachinery.\n8. Skill in freehand and mechanical drawing.\nThe foregoing statements are general, but specific applications may be made of them\nso far as they apply to any particular industrial process or trade.\nThe practical problem for any community in organizing work in manual training in\nthe public schools so that it may bear the most direct and immediate relation to the industrial efficiency of the boys on leaving school is to consider, first, the manufacturing industries of the community where skill in operation is required and which are likely to furnish\nemployment for the boys upon their leaving school; and then to determine the kind of\ntraining thru which the boys will make the greatest progress toward skill in the special\nindustry or industries.\nIn case there are no manufacturing industries in the community in which the school\nis located, and it is still desired to give training which counts most largely for industrial\nefficiency within the particular trades or skilled industries which are likely to prove most\nattractive to the boys of the commimity, those trades or industries are to be considered.\nWith the incorporation of a properly organized manual-training course as a part of\nthe work in the public schools, greater inducements to pupils to remain in school will\nbe presented than exist under present conditions; and as a result pupils will remain in\nschool longer, will get a broader training, and in acquiring every one of the eight requisites\nI have enumerated as essential for industrial efficiency in the workman they will have\nmade some progress, and in all subjects except those in which skill in the use of\nmachinery is considered they will have made very decided advancement.\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWRLLBEING\n\nNURTURE\n\nI.\n\nHOW\n\nCAN\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\nPROTECTION\nOF PHYSICAL\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PUPILS\n\nWELLBEING\n\nTHE SCHOOL MAKE CONTRIBUTION OF PERMANENT\nVALUE TO PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT?\n\nLUTHER\n\nH.\n\nGULICK, DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nNEW YORK CITY\n\nDuring the past century and to an ever-increasing degree within the past\nquarter-century the school has had thrust upon it a fundamental, new problem\nand a new responsibility: fundamental, because education is not worth while\nif it is secured at the sacrifice of health; new, because only recently has education come to dominate the great bulk of the child's waking time. If the\npermanent result of these new conditions is not to be the uprearing of a generation of physically undesirable citizens, the school must see to it that the\nhealth interests of the pupils are as energetically and as efi&ciently looked\nafter as are any other parts of the school work. This involves the creation\nin each school system of a department of school hygiene or some other organization for the adequate care of this set of needs.\nAmong the reasons for the organizing of a Department of School Hygiene\nwithin each department of education the following may be stated as a fundamental principle:\nThe great increase in the length oj the school year and the changes in the\ncharacter oj the child's physical environment make attention to physical health\nnecessary now as it has never been before.\nThe schools do not differ from other institutions of Ihe time in having\nundergone profound changes during the past century. One hundred years\nago, 5 per cent, of the people of the United States lived in cities of 8,000, or\nover, population; now 36 per cent, of the people live in such cities.\nThen, few children had more than three months' schooling per year; now, city children have ten months' schooling per year.\nThen, the recesses were out of doors; now, only a limited number of city schools\nhave space in which the children can take such outdoor games that were possible in the\nold school yard.\nThen, practically all the pupils had to walk considerable distances to and from school;\nnow, city children have to walk a few blocks only.\nThen, there was a large variety of outdoor niuscular work for the children to do on\nthe farm— aiding in doing the chores, milking the cows, getting the horses, caring for the\npoultry, tending the garden; now, the bulk of the work is done by machinery. It is no\nlonger possible for a large percentage of the city children to do their needful muscular\nwork by helping their parents.\nThen, in the schools there were taught chiefly the three R's; now, because of these\nchanged conditions of daily life, it has been found necessary to introduce into the schools\nmuscular exercises, manual training, nature-study, cooking, dressmaking and the like.\nThen, a considerable territory had to be drained to get enough children to make the\nsmall countrv school; now, in the thickly settled areas of cities great school buildings\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n196\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nare erected on nearly every block.\nThe constant hearing of noise, the lack of quiet, the\nlights in the houses, and on the streets at night — these are all relatively new and evil.\nThen, we had children helping their parents; now, we have child-labor.\n\nAll these make a profound contrast between former conditions and those\nwhich obtain now.\nWe are told that 25 or 30 per cent, of the school children have eye deformities sufficiently serious to interfere with their school progress. It is the\ngeneral opinion that this condition is directly related to the unwise treatment\nof the eyes in school life.\nIt has been discovered that a very considerable percentage of the children\nhave such difficulties with the nose and throat as to interfere with proper\ncirculation or proper respiration. A very large number of children do not\nhave such care at home as insures their coming to school cleanly in person.\nThe hearing of quite a number of children is below par, so that they fail to\ntake advantage of much of the oral instruction that is given. Some of the\nchildren develop crooked backs, or scoliosis; occasional cases of chorea have\nbeen discovered. Sensational stories have been told with reference to the\nmalnutrition of city school children. Allowing for all the exaggeration that\nthere may be, it is undoubtedly true that there is a remarkable number of\nchildren who, because of unwise feeding or of insufficient feeding, are in a\ncondition of vitality too low to profit by the school education. More than\nhalf of all the children in the schools have sufficiently decayed teeth to account\nfor many of the neurotics and for a great deal of the malnutrition.\nFrom 30 to 40 per cent, of all the children in the middle grades are one,\ntwo, or three years behind their grades. This in many cases is due to some\nphysical cause.\nTo help remedy this situation, there needs to be a Department of School\nHygiene.\nAttention to the physical wellbeing oj school children would result in great\nand immediate economy.\nIn all of our great cities, a considerable proportion of the school children\nare above the normal age for the grades. According to the report of the city\nsuperintendent of schools of New York City for the year ending July 31, 1907,\nthe number of children in the public schools above the norm.al age on June 30,\n1907, was as follows:\nFirst year\nSecond year\nThird year\nFourth year\nFifth year\n\n9>o73\ni9>039\n26,514\n3o>25i\n30)813\n\nSixth year\nSeventh year\nEighth year\nSpecial D\nSpecial E\n\n22,862\ni3)S02\n6,412\n4,289\n13,769\n\nTotal\n\n176,524\n\nIt is difficult to estimate the direct money cost to the school system of these\nover-age pupils. Some of them are only one year over age, while many more\nare two, three, four, and even five years older than they should be for the\ngrades they are in. For safety let us estimate that only 50 per cent, or 88,262\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nWELLBEING\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\nsuch children in New York are behind their grades on account of defects\nwhich might be remedied. At the average cost of tuition last year— $30—\nthe loss to the city amounts to $2,647,860, for each year that these children\nfail to make progress.\nA further and important consideration is that if the number of backward\nchildren was reduced by half, the necessity for part-time classes would be\ndone away with.\nThe Americanizing oj the large alien population involves their receiving\nnew ideals and new habits oj life with rejerence to health and the care oj their\nown children.\nA large fraction of the children who are in our city public schools either\nthemselves come from non-English speaking countries, or are the children\nof those who come from those countries. How large a proportion of the\npopulation of our great cities is made up of persons of foreign parentage is\nnot generally realized. The facts as told in the late census in regard to some\nof our leading cities are as follows:\nPOPULATION\naty\nBoston\nChicago\nDetroit\nJersey City\nMilwaukee\n\nOF\n\nNATIVE\n\nAND\n\nPer Cent. Foreign\n\n72.2\n77-4\n82;8\n77-4\n\nFOREIGN\n\nPARENTAGE\nGty\n\nNewark\nNew York\nSt. Paul\nSan Francisco\n\nIN\n\n1900\n\nPer Cent. Foreign\n82.8\n76.9\n\nThe public schools are a primary factor in the development in 72.6\nthese per78.1training\nsons of ideals and feelings that are basal to life in this republic. The\nwith reference to efficient living, right ideals of health, and the care of children needs to be given to these children as it does not need to be given to\nthe native-born American citizen, whose social heredity carries such basal\ninformation.\nThis education can best come thru the example of a Department of\nSchool Hygiene in its care of physical health.\nThe present state oj medical knowledge allows us to aid in educational\nmatters in a way and to a degree never bejore possible.\nDuring the past generation medicine has been becoming scientific. Our\nknowledge of preventive medicine has developed almost entirely within this\ngeneration.\nBy means of this new medical knowledge it is possible for the skillful\nphysician to discover and remove many conditions prejudicial to health and\neducation, which were beyond our reach a century or so ago. Boards of\neducation should avail themselves of this new development of medical science.\nProblems bejore us indicate the need oj expert medical counsel. Some of\nthe problems are as follows:\nPosture.— The tendency of the children to acquire bad habits of posture— malposirion\nseems\nof the spine, with resulting interference with circulation, respiration, and digestion,\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nto be inevitable so long as the present hours of sitting still remain. Thus, school furniture\nof a proper character is important.\nVision. — It is not enough for us to discover the cases of ocular deformity which are\noccurring in the schools. What we need to know, if possible, are the exact causes of such\ndeformities.\nNose and throat. — There seems to be a great increase in the number of children\nhaving difficulties with the nose and throat. Is this due to general disability, to dust in\nthe school rooms, to malnutrition, or to any other removable cause ? What are the best\nways of handling these difficulties ?\nNutrition and growth. — We believe that there are many children who fail to profit\nby their education because they do not have enough nutrition.\nNervous diseases. — Many children have the beginnings of nervous diseases which\ninterfere with their school life, and which are more or less serious in their subsequent meaning. We need to know the causes of these diversions from the normal and the best means\nof meeting them.\nFatigue. — What are the conditions for the most efficient study on the part of the\npupil, i. e., can a child do more in eight hours than in seven ? Can he do more in seven\nhours than in six, or the reverse ? We have no accurate information in answer to these\nquestions, nor can such information be secured easily. It demands the most expert work\nand wide acquaintance with what is being done elsewhere.\n\nIn the modem scientific business life the technical expert has a permanent\nplace. The erection of the modern city structure involves a co-operation of\nengineering and architecture as never before. The electrical and mining\nwork being done involves groups of experts, each connected with some special\nphase of the subject. The same applies to business. The general business\nman has vanished; his place has been taken by experts in various lines. The\nschool boards have had thrust upon them new problems, as have business\nand science. The erection of school buildings has involved the work of\nskilled architects. The size of the timbers that will support the roof of a given\nspan, the strength of the structure in relation to its height — these are technical\nquestions of architecture and engineering.\nQuestions of stress and strain of material have thus come within the purview of one of the subdivisions of the work of boards of education. Similarly,\nboards of education have been pushed into the business world in the purchasing\nof their supplies. The hundreds of different kinds of material used in all the\ngrades in all of the schools, the coal for fuel, and the like, involve for their\nwise purchase and administration the same buying expert that is demanded\nfor any business house. Questions as to the purchasing of coal and other\ncommodities are not questions of psychology and pedagogy, but are questions\nof business. In what quantities, and what to buy, and when to have delivery\nmade, what systems of auditing and accounting to adopt — these are technical\nquestions and they must be met by the technical business expert.\nIt is my opinion that the group of problems centering about the health of\nschool children demands technical treatment of a nature similar to that required\nfor the departments whose duties I have just sketched. If the children's eyes\nare becoming defective because of lack of wisdom in the choice of type, the\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nWELLBEING\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\nigg\n\nlength of line, width of margin, the spacing between lines, it is of fundamental\nimportance that something be done to procure proper textbooks and thus\nremove the cause of the eye deformity. But for this, the advice of the technical\nexpert is needed. It is not a matter of untrained common-sense — any more\nthan the question of the stress and strain in a building is a matter of untrained\ncommon-sense. If the present modes of sitting in the public schools are\nresponsible to any degree for the crooked backs that we sometimes see in children, we should know it, and then change the habits of sitting. This, again,\nis a matter for the trained orthopedic surgeon. It is not a question of psychology or pedagogy — at least not until after the diagnosis and treatment have been\ndecided upon.\nHow much home study shall children of a particular age be allowed or\nrequired to do ? This, also, is not a question of psychology or pedagogy;\nit is a technical question for the physician. What lessons shall children study\nat home? This is a question of pedagogy and school administration; but\nthe number of hours for home study, or the time when a child may do his best\nwork — these are biological problems. These are problems that are capable\nof more or less exact determination.\nSuch facts as these lead us to believe that there should be, co-ordinated with\nthe other activities of boards of education, a department composed of men\nwho are technical experts on the various questions of health in relation to\nschool life.\nThe school will make no contribution of permanent value to physical\ndevelopment till it seriously attacks this series of problems with the implements\nof science.\nIs it not obvious: (i) That the detection of contagious disease in the\nschools, involving daily visits and the power of the law to act, belongs in the\nnature of the case to the board of health ? And further (2) that the care of\nventilation, recesses, lighting, seating, exercise, hours of home study, is the\nbusiness of the board of education ?\nThe general principle involved is that where the object is the protection\nof the community the board of health is responsible, and where steps necessary\nto the proper education of the individual are concerned, the Board of Education\nis responsible. If these propositions are true they leave but one division of the\ntopic open to discussion — namely:\nWho should conduct the examination of school children for defects liable\nto interfere with proper growth and education, such as adenoids, defective\neyesight, and hearing ?\nWhoever does this work, it is further obvious that such records must follow\nthe child from grade to grade and also from school to school; that they must\nbe considered by the class teacher and, most important of all, that each case must\nbe consistently followed up so that in so far as is possible such disabilities may\nbe removed. That is, they are an important part of the school records and must\nbe so made and administered as to be available to the school authorities ; so\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nthat the Board of Education must at least be one of the active parties in such\na medical examination.\nFurther than this there is as yet no general agreement. But as an individual itseems to me that this work should be done by the board of education\nbecause: (i) it is done for educational purposes; (2) it must be constantly and\nintimately connected with school records and activities; (3) it does not need\nto be connected with the other work of the board of health; (4) it differs\nin kind from the inspection done for the detection of contagious diseases.\n\nIII.\n\nMEDICAL\n\nTHOMAS\n\nINSPECTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS AS CONTRIBUTING\nTO HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY\n\nF. HARRINGTON,\nM.D., DIRECTOR OF DEPARTMENT\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nOF HYGIENEj\n\nIt is now more than sixteen years since Boston started the agitation for\nthe medical inspection of schools in order to harmonize the two great duties\nwhich the state owes to its children — namely, education and the preservation of\nhealth. Prior to the introduction of medical inspection into the public schools\nof Boston (1894) every state, having upon its statute books a compulsory educational law, was in the position of compelling by law the children of its province\nto go directly into the midst of dangers to their health. Unfortunately some\nstates are yet in that same indefensible position. That these dangers are\nreal and a menace to the individual and to the community no one denies today;\nthat they can be almost entirely avoided or removed is beyond dispute. How\nfar medical inspection of school children may contribute to health and efficiency bypointing out the prevalence, the causes, and the means of the removal\nof those factors tending toward mental stagnation and physical retrogression\nis the problem which I have been asked to present to this association.\nAt the beginning of the nineteenth century Peter Frank, of Austria, issued\nhis System oj Complete Medical Police^ setting forth the duties of physicians to\nschools. In 1832 the number of lessons was diminished in Sweden for reasons\nof health, and in the same year France issued regulations concerning medical\ninspection in schools. Many of the scientific congresses of Europe in the\nthird quarter of the last century discussed the need of medical inspection of\nschools. School physicians were appointed subsequently in different cities\nof Sweden, Austria-Hungary, France, Egypt, Belgium, and Holland, as well\nas in Japan, Chili, Argentina, Switzerland, Russia, Roumania, Servia, Germany,\nEngland, and the United States.\nThe progress was not without opposition. Furst came the distrust on the\npart of the teachers that such additional authority established in public schools\nwould give rise to friction, confusion, and over-emphasis of the sanitary and\nthe hygienic factors in school life. Then the argument of the municipal\nauthorities that the financial expenditure involved was not justified by the\nexisting state of health of the school children; the attitude of the medical\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nWELLBEING\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\nJOI\n\nprofession that the private practice of physicians might be injured thru the\nmeasures employed by school inspectors; and lastly the anxiety of parents lest\nmeddlesome interference might destroy the rights and the authority of the\nhome. Then, too, the impatient pressing forward by zealous advocates and\nthe jealous warding off by honest conservatives add much to the confusion\nand disturbance incidental to the introduction of all new public measures\nas well as in changing fixed traditions. Gradually, however, these fears\nsubsided and the opposition passed into mingled feelings of indifference\nincredulity, or ridicule.\nLittle was then known of the great possibilities in preventive medicine.\nTuberculosis was an inherited disease; spinal curvature was due to a ''fall*\"\ndeaf children were heedless or disobedient; measles and scarlet fever were\ndiseases which every child should have; diphtheria was \"quinsy,\" unless it\n''turned into croup\" from which \"no one ever recovered.\" The child suffering from defective vision was the dunce of the schoolroom until, growing too\nlarge for the grade, or driven from school by ridicule and shame, he found\npeace in the truant school or in the shop and factory where his defects became\na menace to limb and life. The many statutes on law books the world over,\nhaving for their object the prevention and regulation of child-labor, the enforcement of compulsory education, and the disposition of juvenile truancy and\nmisdemeanors, all find their greatest field of application among children whose\ndiscontent at school led to the violation of these laws. Necessity for the wageearning assistance has been, and is, no doubt, often the cause for many parents'\nsacrifice of their children's education; nevertheless if the voice of those matured today who were forced to leave school at an early age could be recorded,\nmany thousands would, I feel sure, attribute the former rather than the latter\nas the real cause of their limited schooling.\nThe idea that medical science had any relationship to the problems of\npublic scliool life was not entertained prior to the great awakening in preventive\nmedicine during the epoch 1880-90. During this remarkable period Robert\nKoch discovered the bacillus of tuberculosis; Eberth, the organism of t)rphoid\nfever; Klebs and Loeffler, the bacillus of diphtheria; Lavaran, that malaria\nwas transmitted by mosquitoes; Fehleisen, the streptococcus of erysipelas;\nKitasarto, the bacillus of tetanus — all discoveries that transferred tuberculosis\nfrom the class of diseases supposed to be inherited, and placed it in the category\nof diseases preventable and curable; that proved diphtheria to be a specific,\ncommunicable disease, and not a filth disease; that suggested that skin affections may be contagious, that lockjaw may be epidemic; and that night air\nis as healthful and as free from disease as day air.\nIn such a renaissance it was but natural that attention should center upon\nthose affections which for ages had been known to be communicable and\nmost prevalent at the earlier periods of childhood. The legal authority to\ncarry out such an investigation was the board of health; the most likely place\nto find the facts was in the aggregation of children in school. Thus originated\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nthe first scientific basis for medical inspection of schools.\nThis was at Boston,\nMassachusetts, in 1892.\nThe relationship of public-school life to medical science since this introduction ofmedical inspection is one of interesting evolution. First came the\nmovement to prevent the schools from becoming centers of infectious or contagious diseases; then followed the attention to such hygienic problems as\nschoolroom environment, proper seating of the children, the lighting, heating,\nand ventilation of school buildings; next came the examination of each school\nchild in order to ascertain his physical asset for the life mapped out for him and\nthe removal of remediable causes of handicap or a modification in the school\nprogram and extra school life of the child in order to avoid possible shipwreck.\nThis was followed by the scientific study of the development of great groups of\nchildren in order to obtain accurate data of their physical and mental growth,\nso that the factors of heredity, age, sex, race, environment, and nutrition\nmight be properly estimated in their bearing on pedagogical progression and\nracial deterioration. The later stage in this evolutionary process has to do\nwith all those measures tending to the promotion of the physical health and\nthe corresponding growth of the individual child and is embraced in the term\n\"school hygiene.\"\nI.\n\nThese stages are best considered separately.\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nHEALTH\n\nINSPECTION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThis was a method inaugurated in this country at Boston, Massachusetts,\nin 1894, and has been followed more or less closely by the cities in this country\nand abroad. Briefly, the plan adopted has been as follows: The city is\ndivided into districts and a physician appointed by the board of health has been\nassigned to each district. These physicians are both agents of the board of\nhealth and inspectors of schools. They are all engaged in private practice.\nThey are required to visit each school in their respective districts daily, and\nto examine all pupils referred to them by the teacher and who in the judgment\nof the teacher are ill. If any pupil is found to be suffering from any contagious\ndisease, or is otherwise too ill to remain in school, the inspector advises\nthe teacher to send him home for temporary observation by his parents or\nfamily physician. The inspector does not prescribe for the child, nor advise\nor criticize anything beyond that which pertains strictly to the isolation of the\nchild, and he carefully avoids any word or act which might be construed as\nan infringement upon the rights of the family or the attending physician.\nHe is not required to give a diagnosis even. He is concerned more in the\nprotection of the other children at school than in the treatment of the ill child.\nIn his capacity as agent of the board of health, the inspector receives daily\nall notifications of communicable diseases reported by physicians and he\nvisits the homes of those so reported residing within his district for the purpose\nof examining the places and plans of isolation adopted by the family. He\nreports to the board of health his approval or disapproval of such plans, and\nhe visits the patient as often as may be necessary to inform himself of the con-\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWELL BEING\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\nao?\n\ntinuation of the isolation adopted. No case will be discharged from this\nquarantine until the inspector certifies that recovery is complete and that all\ndanger of contagion has passed. This plan has been modified somewhat by\nlocal conditions, and its administration has been effected by the school authority\nin a few localities.\nMedical inspection under board of health supervision prevails at BuJBFalo,\nN. Y. ; Camden, N. J. ; Chicago, 111. ; Des Moines (west side), la. ; Detroit, Mich. ;\nElgin, 111.; Evansville, Ind.; Hartford, Conn. ; Kansas City, Mo. ; Milwaukee,\nWis.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Montclair, N. J.; Newark, N. J.; New Haven|\nConn.; New York, N. Y.; Ogden, Utah; Philadelphia, Pa.; Plainfield, N. J.;\nProvidence, R. I.; Salt Lake City, Utah; Syracuse, N. Y.; Washington, D. C;\nWaterbury, Conn.; IndianapoHs, Ind.; Baltimore, Md.; Cincinnati, Ohio;\nMount Holly, N. J.; Cleveland, Ohio; New Orleans, La., as well as in\ntwenty-three cities and forty-seven towns in Massachusetts where medical\ninspection of schools is a state law. The board of education appoints the\ninspectors at Ann Arbor, Mich., at Paterson, Atlantic City, Passaic, Englewood, Orange, and Asbury Park, N. J. ; as well as in ten cities in Massachusetts.\nAt Grand Rapids, Mich., and at Jersey City, N. J., the medical inspection is\ndone by nurses appointed by the school authorities. A detailed account of\nthe work as carried on in the different cities of this country has been furnished\nto me by the several superintendents of schools. I desire to thank these\nofficials for their valuable aid and co-operation in compiling .these\ndata.\nIn many cities the system is in an experimental stage; in a few it has been\nabandoned on account of municipal financial curtailment; in some places\nits workings have won commendation; while in other places it has been\nseverely criticized even while its adoption has been urged. These criticisms\nare against the method and means of administration, not against medical\ninspection per se, and have given rise to much confusion. An important fact\nin the method of medical inspection under the board of health is that the\ndetection of cases of contagious diseases among the children is done by the\nteacher and not by the medical inspector; if the latter confirms the suspicion\nof the teacher, the child is excluded from school; if the inspector does not\nagree with the conclusions of the teacher, the child returns to its classroom.\nNon-agreement is very frequent, and it requires exceptional perseverance for\na teacher to hazard the chagrin of a second mistake, yet disastrous consequences\nmight result from such hesitation. In Boston during the year 1905, 21,111\nchildren were referred to the medical inspectors; 9,241 were found free from\nany disease. In London between 20 and 30 per cent, of the cases submitted\nby the teachers were not suffering in any way. The greatest criticism against\nthis system of inspection is that it lacks uniformity; that it excludes pupils\nand does not provide any means of ''follow up,\" nor any guarantee that the\nchild will receive medical care; that the duties of the inspector as an agent of\nthe Board of Health brings him in contact with much contagion in the homes;\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfWashington\n\nand finally that the dual duties and divided responsibility are not conducive\nto the best in health and efficiency of school children.\nWithin recent years medical inspection has widened its scope beyond\nthe detection and isolation of communicable diseases among school children,\nand has come to include all questions of physical defects and mental backwardr 3ss of children. A recent act of the Massachusetts legislature requires\ncities ctnd towns to provide medical inspection for all pupils in the public schools.\nThe following excerpt iridicates the scope of the new law:\nThe School Committee of every city and town shall cause every child in the public\nschools to be separately and carefully tested and examined at least once in every school\nyear to ascertain ether he is suffering from defective sight or hearing or from any other\ndisability or defect tending to prevent his receiving the full benefits of school work or\nrequiring a modification of the school work in order to prevent injury to the chilS or to\n-ricure the best educational results.\n\nThere are many causes of ill health and mental dwarfing which are seldom,\nif ever, acute and requiring immediate inspection. On the contrary, they\nare detected by their effects on the daily school life of the child, and are not\ndiseases dangerous to the public health. The problem, then, is one of pedagogy\npure and simple. The advantage and the necessity for data such as this\nlatter form of inspection alone can furnish is beyond measure. Future\nprogress in physical and mental growth depends almost entirely upon these\ndata.\nThere are in the United States today not less than 150,000 persons so\nfeeble-minded that institutional care is advisable, yet the latest census gives\nthe number in institutions as 16,500. More than three-tenths (30.2 per cent.)\nof these have one or more physical defects; 77.2 per cent, of all admissions to\ninstitutions for feeble-minded persons occur before twenty years of life have\nbeen passed, and the admissions at the ages of fifteen to nineteen years are\nmore than twice as numerous as in the group twenty to twenty-four years.\nIt is important to add here that the percentage of foreign-born inmates is\nmuch smaller than among the native white population. If to these figures\nwe add the 17,000 supposedly feeble-minded among the inmates of almshouses,\nand the 40,000 children in reform schools, we have a population in this country\nnot equaled in any civilized country or age. Almost 11 per cent. (10.9 per\ncent.) of the insane in this country are physically defective. More than\n30 per cent, of the children in the elementary grades in the public schools\nare over the normal age of the various grades.\nScience today has proven conclusively that the blunting of the moral sense\nhas a distinct anatomical or functional stigma which in many cases is removable. Few teachers in cities where attention to defective eyes, throats, and\nears has been directed have failed to witness the transformation, mental, physical, and moral, following the correction of refractive errors, the removal of\nadenoids causing deafness or oxygen starvation and abnormal metabolism.\nThe extent of physical defects in children may be concluded from the\nresults of the examination of 200,000 children in New York between the ages\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendenccl\n\nWELLBEING\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n20 C\n\nof five to fifteen years: 60 per cent, were under-nourished; 66 per cent, needed\nmedical and surgical care; 40 per cent, hadlaad teeth ; 38 per cent, had enlarged\ncervical glands ; 31 per cent, had defective vision ; and 18 per cent, had enlarged\ntonsils, while 10 per cent, had adenoids.\nIt has been estimated from the result of a recent investigation among\nschool children in New York City that there are in this country 12,000,000\nchildren having physical defects more or less serious that should receive attention from parents and family physicians. There is no evidence that the percentage ofchildren suffering from physical defects is any greater today than\nit was fifty years ago. Medical experience and vital statistics indicate the\ncontrary, and any attempt to charge physical deterioration to the present-day\nschool life must fail from lack of evidence. The only possible exception to\nthis statement is defective vision. Time alone can prove whether all the defects\nof vision recorded today are permanent.\nThus the problem in relation to physical defects becomes one of prevention\nand remedy. How can these be accomplished best ? The question is plainly\nwhether the inspection of school children is a part of the duty of the board\nof health in its protection of the general public health, or whether its object\nis to ascertain and determine the fitness or unfitness of the child for education\nat school, due regard being given to the nature of the work imposed as well as\nto the child's capacity and environment. If the detection of infectious diseases\namong school children is the object and aim, as well as the limitation of\nmedical inspection, few will deny that the agents of the board of health should\nhave exclusive right upon all premises, schools included, and that it is the duty\nof these agents to exercise preventive measures whether they relate to the\nchild, the school, the home, or the workshop. Any number of foci of infection\nfound and eliminated, however small, justifies the existence of the agencies\nemployed in affording this protection to the individuals; yet the actual number\nof cases of communicable diseases found among those pupils thought to be ill\nis surprisingly small, less than 15 percent. The diseases classified as communicable and coming within the legal scope of the health department are\ndetrimental to the health and eJB&ciency of the child, only so far as they become\ncomplicated by possible sequelae. Assuming that teachers are not trained\nto detect these sequelae, the presence or absence of such complication should\nform a part of the notification blank which permits the child to return to\nschool after exclusion. The general law requires that the child be free from\ncontagion liable to affect the other children before being permitted to return\nto school. In some cities it contains the additional statement that \"the child\nhas recovered fully\" from the disease. If the attending physician or the\nagent of the board of health would furnish to the schools data of the child's\nphysical condition after an attack of contagious or infectious disease, the\nnecessity for further inspection would be greatly reduced, and the child's health\nand efficiency would be promoted immeasurably. Today these defects form\nWith such inforthe basis of the great need of medical inspection in schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washiniftun\n\nmation before her, the teacher would have a guide by which the school work of\nthe child could be regulated so as not to aggravate nor cause physical defect \\\nTo summarize, then, the value of medical inspection under boards of\nhealth, it can be said:\nFirst, that the inspection has its greatest value as a part of the general preventive\nduty invested by law in that department;\nSecond, that 85 per cent, of cases of exclusion from school are due to causes over\nwhich the health department has no exclusive jurisdiction.\nThird, that no child should be given a certificate of health after an illness demanding\nexclusion from school until a careful examination has demonstrated that such illness has\nnot left a defect which in all probability will be a hindrance to his health and efficiency.\nFourth, that any defects thus resulting should be made known at the time of his\nentrance or return to school.\nFifth, that dual responsibilities and duties, as carried out in school inspection under\nthe board of health, must necessarily result in confusion if not inefficiency, and it does\nnot relieve in the least degree the responsibility imposed by law upon school authorities.\nSixth, that something more adequate than board of health inspection is needed to\nfollow up and relieve the results of inspection, and to secure data upon which may be built a\nrational system of education having for its basis the physical well being of the individual\nchild.\nThis plan I have called\nII.\n\nMEDICAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIt was my privilege to point out in an address before the Boston Medical\nLibrary Association in February, 1907, the antithesis, \"Medical Supervision\nversus Medical Inspection of Public Schools.\" Since that date the School\nCommittee of Boston has established a department of school hygiene having\nfor its basis such supervision in its broadest sense, a plan which it is believed\nwill make for the greatest health and efficiency in school children.\nIt is no new theory to assert that mental development without a true\nphysical equivalent is unstable and undesirable; that individuals differ as\nto capacity and capability of mental acquirement; that the standard of a\nnation's health depends directly upon the physical state of its children — its\nfuture citizens, men and women. Physiology and psychology have for years\npointed out the correlation and intimate dependency of mental and physical\ngrowth; that race, heredity, age, sex, climate, nutrition, period of growth,\nseason, environment, former diseases, etc., are all factors, often the predominating factors, in deciding the fate of the individual.\nAncient and fixed as these truisms are, modern educational institutions\nseemed to be indifferent if not oblivious to these lessons. Individuals in large\nnumbers have been sacrificed, races have struggled against deterioration,\nnations have been heavily burdened. Mental instability and physical degeneracy have vied with each other for the mastery of the being. Crime, depravity,\nand pauperism have resulted. Legislature and private philanthropy contented\nitself with ministering to the result rather than toward finding and eliminating\nthe cause. Pedagogues have given the subject scant notice and have been\nsatisfied with the development in the child of the greatest amount of mental\nstrength.\nThis they have considered their special duty. Money, energy, and\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWELLBEING\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n207\n\ntime have been wasted in trying to make all children equal, in trying to continue amachine-like method of instruction until finally the waste products so\nclogged the wheels that investigation for the causes became necessary.\nThe results found were startling. At Copenhagen, 18 per cent, of the boys\nwere sickly on entering school. This percentage rose to 30 after two years\nof school life and reached 40 per cent, at puberty. Among the girls in the\nsame school the sickness increased from 12 per cent, to 32 per cent, during the\nfirst three years of school life, and during the period of twelve to sixteen years\nthe ill outnumbered the well by 10 per cent. In Germany one-fourth of the\nnumber of pupils are physically below par; nervousness among children in\nthese schools increases from 10 per cent, in the lower grades to 60 per cent.\nin the highest grade. The Danish commission found that 29 per cent, of\nboys and 41 per cent, of girls are sickly. In Sweden the percentage of illness\nrose from 5 in the first school years to 36 in the second year, and to 40 per cent.\nin the fourth year. At the thirteenth year of age the curve of sickness was 65\nper cent. At Moscow, the percentage of illness at different ages was 58 at\nten years, 51 at eleven years, 100 at twelve years, 61 at thirteen years, and 57\nat fourteen years. Combe's investigation at Lausanne showed:\nAges\nBoys, per cent, ill\nGirls, per cent, ill\n\n8\n64\n88\n\n9\n43\n75\n\n10\n42\n60\n\nII\n40\n66\n\n12\n33\n68\n\n13\n29\n61\n\n14 years\n34\n39\n\nAt Rugby School, England, 1,000 boys (thirteen to fifteen years of age)\nshowed 36.5 per cent, under height, 47.1 per cent, below normal weight,\n42.3 per cent, below normal chest measurements, 49.1 per cent, of the\naggregate cases had acquired deformities, 15.7 per cent, had albumenuria.\nThere are no data bearing on the subject in this country other than that\nfurnished by the 1907 examination of the hearing and the vision of all children\nin the public schools of Massachusetts: 432,937 children examined; 96,609\n(22.3 per cent.) had defective vision; 27,387 {6.2, per cent.) had defective\nhearing.\nMedical inspection as carried on in America has done little to solve the\ngreat problems in pedagogy suggested by the above data. In the absence of\na standing army with compulsory military service whereby the physical status\nof the whole population may be learned, it becomes necessary and essential\nto study closely the advancing army of school children so as to gain that information necessary for healthy development. Nothing can be taken for granted ;\nevery problem must be solved rationally; every factor of home life and school\nlife must be weighed carefully and each given its value properly. This requires\nthe co-operation of pedagogue and physician under a different relationship\nthan that prevailing in existing board of health systems of school inspection.\nThe physician should be counselor and adviser to the teachers, school authorities, and home authorities in adjusting the many questions of mental and\nphysical correlation in school curricula. He must be a part of the school\nsystem to which the parent and state intrust the child. He should have super-\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washingtor\n\nvision and control of all those questions having to do with the physical welfare\nof the school child and the guidance of those means best calculated to accomplish greater health. In this way only can the curative and the preventive\nas well as the constructive measures of health be fostered and strengthened.\nm.\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nThe Department of School Hygiene estabhshed at Boston, Massachusetts,\nthe first in this country, if not in the world, has all these factors. The organization provides for a director of school hygiene, three assistant directors, as\nmany special instructors in physical training, special assistant instructors in\nphysical training, instructors of athletics, and assistant instructors of athletics, supervisors of playgrounds, playground teachers, heads of playgrounds,\nhelpers in playgrounds, and helpers in sand gardens, as the board may from\ntime to time authorize; a supervising nurse and assistant nurses; an instructor\nof military drill; and a medical inspector of special classes. The director of\nschool hygiene shall have general supervision and control of all matters affecting the physical welfare of pupils and teachers; of medical inspection, except\nthat under the control of the Board of Health; of school nursing; of physical\ntraining, military drill, athletics, sports, games, and play engaged in by pupils\nor conducted in buildings, yards and grounds under the control of the board,\nor in other buildings, yards, and grounds that it may have the. right to use for\nsuch purposes. In the normal school, the health of the pupil-teachers is\nunder personal supervision of the director, who is a physician. Here as well as\nin the high schools a gymnasium is equipped and special teachers are provided\nfor instruction and the physical examination of the girls. Military drill\nis provided for the boys. Both courses are compulsory. All high-school\npupils, boys and girls, are compelled to take a setting-up drill of ten minutes'\nduration each day. This is given by room captains selected for the purpose.\nIn the elementary schools and in the primary schools, calisthenics and drills\nin the classroom and corridors are given by the teacher under supervision of\nthe assistant director.\nFrom the kindergarten to the normal school one principle is emphasized —\nnamely, that proper breathing, proper standing, and proper carriage are the\nthree essentials of all physical training. These essentials are taught and\nenforced in the schoolrooms in every movement of the child, and not left to\ngymnasium or calisthenic periods or military-drill periods alone. Instructors\nin athletics have a rating and a certification similar to regular teachers, and\nafter written and practical examination. Selected teachers in the elementary\nschools act as play-teachers for the children of these schools after hours daily,\nand on Saturdays and holidays, extra compensation being allowed for this\nwork.\nSchool yards in crowded districts are being equipped with suitable apparatus for playgrounds for younger children. The season is to run from May i\nto November 25; matrons, janitors, and teachers are furnished by this depart-\n\n|\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintcndencel\n\nWELLBEING\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n200\n\nment. On large playgrounds belonging to the Park Department, as well as\nat the public baths, arrangements are made whereby instruction in athletics,\nswimming, games, and play may be carried on under school supervision, thus\noffering the best means to make these activities a source of better health to all\nthe children rather than a spectacular exhibition by the few. A specific appropriation amounting to more than $50,000 annually is provided for these purposes by legislative act. This appropriation cannot be used for any other\npurpose.\nThe nursing division of the department is under the direction of one supervising nurse who has at present thirty-four assistants. The division is provided for by an additional special appropriation of $25,000 annually. Rooms\nare equipped at schools in each district, and each nurse has an assignment\nof approximately 2,700 pupils. These nurses are appointed from a certified\nlist similar to that of other employees in the service. The following report\nof the first twenty nurses appointed under this department for the period\nSeptember 11, 1907, to February i, 1908, shows the work possible under this\nadjunct to health and efficiency:\nDiseases of: Ear^ 1,492 cases cared for; Eye, 6,078 cases cared for, including\n3,649 suffering from defective vision; of these 1,131 were corrected by oculists; Nose,\n2,602 cases, of which 1,405 had adenoids, 423 of whom had the obstruction removed;\nMouth, 1,765 cases including 1,686 who had carious teeth; Throat, 1,695 cases, including\n683 of hypertrophied tonsils, and 608 of tonsilitis; Skin, 10,139 cases, all of which were\nfollowed to their homes and the parent or guardian instructed how to care for the same.\n\nIn addition to the above 2,563 pupils having abrasions and wounds received\n9,144 dressings; 2,034 miscellaneous affections, including 350 septic wounds,\n312 suffering from renal disease, 121 having rachitis, 207 suffering from\nmalnutrition, 227 with epilepsy, 126 with chorea, and 548 with bronchitis,\nanaemia, and heart disease were treated; 3,120 excluded pupils were followed\nto their homes; 3,293 were taken to family physicians, resulting in 3,202 being\ncured and returned to school at the minimum of absenteeism; 4,772 were\ntaken to hospitals on request of parents; and 3,223 of these were cured and\nreturned to school; 7,559 home visits were made for the purpose of instructing\nor advising parents concerning the children, or in order to persuade the parents\nto seek proper medical or surgical aid for the child. There were also 2,882\naffections looked after of which there is no classification. These do not include\nthe specific infectious diseases.\nThe nurses are not permitted to visit homes of contagious diseases.\nThe great advantage of having a nurse under the school jurisdiction who may\nlook after the minor ailments in school life and who visits the homes of children,\ngiving advice and assistance to mothers, and in harmonizing .the fixed customs\nand traditions of a great alien population with our habits and standards of\nliving is solving'many vexatious problems of the past and forms a link between\nthe school and the home not possible by any other means. It does not seem\npossible to conceive a more satisfactory arrangement nor a more effective piece\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nof school machinery than nurses under school supervision. With a corps\nof medical inspectors under this same supervision, who would conduct a\ndaily clinic in their respective school districts, there are no problems connected\nwith the health and efficiency of school children which could not be quietly,\nrationally, economically, and effectually solved. Until such an organization\nis perfected in part or in whole, little progress can result from the efforts to\npromote the health and efficiency of our school children.\nDISCUSSION\nE, C. Moore, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. — A health program is\nneeded for all schools. For years our ideal of education has been wrong. It must be\nnot a sound mind in a sound body, but a sound mind making and keeping its body sound.\nThe mind in control in the school, and the minds being trained there, must make and\nkeep the bodies of the students sound. There is no other way. As Dr. Allen has put it:\n\"When the state for its own protection compels a child to go to school it pledges itself not\nto injure itself by injuring the child.\"\nShall the board of health or the board of education undertake this work ? A part\nof it must be done by the board of health. Combating contagious diseases falls naturally\nwithin its province. School funds should not be used for that purpose, but the best health\nofficer is one who is present all the time and ever-watchful of the welfare of the child. That\never-present health officer is the teacher. She must in the main be the guardian of conditions to see that they are hygienic and she must develop the cardinal physical virtues\nof breathing, sitting, standing, and walking properly.\nThere are other conditions which immediately affect school work which she may detect\nbut which she cannot of herself remedy. Some of them are caused by the schools. All\nof them affect school work and in the very degree in which they obtain they render school\nwork impossible. For this reason it belongs to the schools to do all in their power to\nremedy them. In so doing they are treading on the well-established preserves of the\nphysician, and the physician is apt to regard their encroachment with distrust and concern. The situation is a delicate one. A line must be drawn between what school authorities may undertake and what properly belongs to the province of the medical profession .\nI believe that it is a safe principle to lay down that the schools must not undertake to do\nwhat other social institutions, the home, the hospital, the clinic, the settlement, the medical\nprofession, stand ready to do and can do perhaps better than the schools.\nIt may be easier to hire a surgeon to do the operative surgery that should be done to\ngive a certain number of pupils their chance, but I am convinced that it is better to employ\nthe agencies already existing to get the work done.\nThis principle would limit the medical work of the schools to inspection and even\nthat must, it seems to me, be limited and of a superficial sort. Certain defects go uncared\nfor because their presence is unknown. In every schoolroom some of the pupils cannot\nsee well, cannot hear well, cannot breathe properly, have uncared-for teeth, or irregular\nheart action. If parents but knew of these conditions, they would in most cases see to\nit that they are remedied and if they will not on their own initiative, they can be persuaded\nor coerced to have them cared for. The program of medical inspection with which I am\nfamiliar aims to concern itself with defective eyesight, defective hearing, defective teeth,\ndefective breathing, and defective heart action. It is in the charge of a health laboratory\nwith a director and three assistant physicians. With this laboratory the teachers of the\nschools co-operate. It is the duty of each class teacher to test as carefully as possible\nthe eyesight and hearing of the pupils in her class. The physician in charge of eye-examining tells me that the teachers make the preliminary tests in a very satisfactory manner.\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "211\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nWELLBEING\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\nAll the more difficult cases are sent to the laboratory for examination and all the examinations which the teachers make are under the direction of the laboratory staff. Reports\nof all examinations which show conditions which need care are sent to the parents with\nurgent recommendations that the case be taken up with a specialist or with the family\nphysician.\nThere is a follow-up system to see that the proper steps have been taken.\n\nMiss Sadie American, executive secretary, Council of Jewish Women, New York\nCity (founder of Vacation Schools in Chicago, 111.).— There is one point that I specially\ndesire to emphasize. It is the necessity for providing more fully for our girls, in play, in\nathletics, and in vocational or industrial training. Not sufficient regard has been paid to the\ngirls, not sufficient careful study has been given to conditions and to their needs. Those\nof you who have had anything to do with reformatories for girls must know the appalling\nnumber of girls between the ages of ten and sixteen who are in such institutions. It is\nmy firm belief that many of them are there because of the insufficient provision for playi\nfor physical activity, for amusement, if you will, for desires perfectly legitimate, but which\nhave not been satisfied. If we properly provide for our girls the dance halls will not be\nfilled and the well-known consequences of the dance hall may be lessened.\nA second point that I desire to make is the necessity for educating the parents. A\nfriend of mine — a teacher — recently showed me the following note: \"Dear m'am. I\ndon't want Mary to spend her time in no dancing. If I want her to jump I can make her\njump myself.\" This is typical of the attitude of many more highly educated than was\nthis mother whose Mary would probably have learned to dance in some less favorable\nplace. Along the line of Dr. Gulick's paper another experience comes to my mind of an\neducated mother who resented her child being sent home from school with a note advising\nthat the adenoids be removed. She felt that she knew what was good for her child and\ndid not wish to be interfered with. We have much to do not only to secure proper medical\ninspection and the school nurse, but to make parents of all groups and grades understand\nthe intent and the need and the meaning of such innovations as medical care of school\nchildren and as play.\nA third point is that we need school playgrounds, no matter whether there be municipal\nplaygrounds or park playgrounds or settlement playgrounds. We need these playgrounds\nout of doors next to the school if we can have them, and if not, then in the basement, or\non the roof, or wherever else it is possible, for not until we learn to associate in the mind\nof the child the school with his play, will we have less of a truant problem. The school\nshould be the center of the life of the child, next to the home, with which he associates his\njoys and his pleasures as well as his work. Alas, in the tenement districts, to many it must\nbe instead of the home. But when he does associate the school with his play and with his\nwork of the hand as well as of the head, the school will become the influence and the lasting\ninfluence which it should be.\nAnd finally let me say that we have passed the theoretic stage in regard to the effect\nof work with the hand in addition to and in connection with work for the mind, whether\nwe call this industrial training or vocational training or manual training.\nThe vacation schools of Chicago have proven that such hand work holds the children\npurely by their desire to come, and the police of that city testify that juvenile arrests are\nat least one-third less in the districts in which there are vacation schools, than they were\nin these districts when there were no such schools. Juvenile arrests, I say, and not juvenile\ncrime, for there is great difference between them, and that which is called mischief in the\nhome of the well-to-do and where there are larger spaces for play n\\ay be interference\nwith law or ordinance and cause arrest and send a boy— yes, shove a boy— along the criminal path.\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nADDRESS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAT THE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nRECEPTION\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nTHEODORE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAT THE\n\nWHITE\n\n[Washington\n\nHOUSE\n\nROOSEVELT\n\n[Stenographic Report]\nGentlemen and Ladies:\nOf all the bodies of citizens that I have received here at the White House,\nthere is none which occupies a more important relation than yours. I am\ntempted to say none has come that has occupied as important a relation to\nthe nation, because you men and women who deal with education, who\nrepresent the great American policy of education for all children, provided\nby the public as the prime duty of the public, bear a relation to the family, a\nrelation to the future of our whole people, such as no other like number of\nindividuals can bear. I own six of the children that you educate, and I am\nprepared to extend cordial sympathy to some of you.\nSeriously, friends, it is idle for any man to talk of despairing of the future\nof this country, or feeling unduly alarmed about it, if he will come in contact\nwith you here, and with the forces that you represent. Fundamentally this\ncountry is sound morally, no less than physically. Fundamentally, in its family\nlife, and in the outside activities of its individuals, the country is better, and\nnot worse, than it formerly was. This does not mean that we are to be excused\nif we fail to war against rottenness and corruption; if we fail to contend\neffectively with the forces of evil; and they waste their time who ask me to\nwithhold my hand from dealing therewith. But it is worth while to smite\nthe wrong for the very reason that we are confident that the right will ultimately prevail. You who are training the next generation are training this\ncountry as it is to be a decade or two hence; and, while your work in training the intellect is great, it is not as great as your work in training characterMore than anything else, I want to see the public school turn out the boy and\nthe girl who, when man and woman, will add to the sum of good citizenship\nof the nation. It is not my province, nor would it be within my capacity, to\nspeak about your pedagogic problems. You yourselves are far better able to\ndiscuss them. But, as a layman, let me say one or two things about your\nwork.\nIn the first place, I trust that, more and more, our people will see to it that\nthe schools train toward and not away from the farm and the workshop. We\nhave spoken a great deal about the dignity of labor in this country, but we\nhave not acted up to our spoken words, for in our education we have tended\nto proceed upon the assumption that the educated man was to be educated\naway from and not toward labor. The great nations of mediaeval times who\nleft such marvelous works of architecture and art behind them were able to\ndo so because they educated alike the brain and hand of the craftsman. We,\ntoo, in our turn, must show that we understand the law which decrees that a\npeople which loses physical address invariably deteriorates, so that our people\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRECEPTION\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nWHITE\n\nHOUSE\n\n21^\n\nshall understand that the good carpenter, the good blacksmith, the good\nmechanic, the good farmer, really do fill the most important positions in our land,\nand that it is an evil thing for them and for the nation to have their sons and\ndaughters forsake the work which, if well and efficiently performed, means\nmore than any other work for our people as a whole. One thing that I would\nlike to have you teach your pupils is that whether you call the money gained\nsalary or wages does not make any real difference, and that if, by working\nhard with your hands, you get more than if you work with your head only, it\ndoes not atone for it to call the smaller amount salary.\nThe term, \"dignity of labor,\" implies that manual labor is as dignified as\nmental labor; as of course it is. Indeed, the highest kind of labor is that\nwhich makes demands upon the qualities of both head and hand, of heart,\nbrain, and body. Physical prowess, physical address, are necessities; they\nstand on a level with intellect, and only below character. Let us show that\nwe regard the position of the man who works with his hands as being ordinarily\nand in good faith as important and dignified and as worthy of consideration\nas that of business men or professional men. We need to have a certain readjustment ofvalues in this country, which must primarily come through the\nefforts of just you men and women here and the men and women like you\nthruout this land.\nI would not have you preach an impossible ideal; for if you preach an ideal\nthat is impossible you tend to make your pupils believe that no ideals are\npossible, and therefore, you tend to do them that worst of wrongs — to teach\nthem to divorce preaching from practice, to divorce the ideal that they in\nthe abstract admire from the practical good after which they strive. Teach\nthe boy and girl that their business is to earn their own livehhood; teach the\nboy that he is to be the homemaker; the girl that she must ultimately be the\nhomekeeper; that the work of the father is to be the bread-winner, and that\nof the mother the housekeeper; that their work is the most important work\nby far in all the land; that the work of the statesman, the writer, the captain of\nindustry, and all the rest, is conditioned — first, upon the work that finds its\nexpression in the family, that supports the family. So teach the boy that he\nis to be expected to earn his own livelihood; that it is a shame and scandal for\nhim not to be self-dependent, not to be able to hold his own in the rough work\nof actual life. Teach the girl that so far from its being her duty to try to\navoid all labor, all effort, that it should be a matter of pride to her to be as\ngood a housewife as her mother was before her. Sometimes the kindest and\nmost well-meaning mother, sometimes a kind and well-meaning father also,\ndo as much damage to the children as the most thoughtless and selfish parent\ncould, by bringing them up to feel that the goal of their attainment should be\nthe absence of effort instead of effort well directed. We have all of us often\nheard some good but unwise woman say, \"I have worked hard; my daughter\nshan't work;\" the poor woman not realizing that great tho the curse of mere\ndrudgery, of overwork, is, that it is not so great as the curse of vapid idleness;\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nand it does not make any difference whether the idleness is that of the hobo\nat one end of the scale or the gilded youth at the other. Do not waste time in\nenvying the idler at either end of the social scale. Envy is not the proper\nattitude toward them. The proper attitude toward them is a good-humored\nbut thorogoing disapproval of the man or woman who is so blind not only to the\ninterests of society as a whole, but to his or her own real interests, as to believe\nthat anything permanent can be gained from a life of selfish and vacuous idleness. Such idleness is the poorest investment in the long run that can be imagined; and there is no surer way to forfeit all chance of real happiness than to\nset deliberately to work to treat pleasure as the only aim after which to strive.\nTeach the boy and girl to work; teach them that their proper duty is in the\nhome; their duty to one another and toward their neighbors. Then teach\nthem more; teach them to build upon this as a foundation the superstructure\nof the higher life. I want to see our education directed more and more\ntoward training boys and girls back to the farm and the shop, so that they will\nbe first-rate farmers, first-rate mechanics, fit to work with the head and to\nwork with the hands; and realizing that work with the hands is just as honorable as work with the head. In addition I want to see a training that will\nmake every boy, every girl, leaving the public schools, leaving the schools of\nthe nation, feel impelled so to carry himself or herself that the net result, when\nhis or her life has been lived, shall be an addition to the sum total of decent\nliving and achievement for the nation; and have them understand that they\nare never going to amount to much in the big things if they don't first amount\nto something in the little things.\nThe effort should be made to teach everyone that the first requisite of good\ncitizenship is doing the duties that are near at hand. But, of course, this does\nnot excuse a man from doing the other duties, too. It is no excuse if a man\nneglects his political duties to say that he is a good husband and father, still\nless is it an excuse if he is guilty of corruption in politics or business to say that\nhis home life is all right. He ought to add to decency in home life decency in\npolitics, decency in public life.\nSo my plea is not that the homely duties are all sufficient, but that they are\na necessary base upon which to build the superstructure of the higher life.\nOur children should be trained to do the homely duties in the first place, and\nthen, in addition, to have it in them so to carry themselves that we collectively\nmay well and fitly perform the great and responsible tasks of American\ncitizenship.\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDESIRABLE\nANDREW\n\nS.\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nUNIFORMITY AND DIVERSITY\nEDUCATION\nDRAPER,\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nOF EDUCATION\nYORK, ALBANY,\nN. Y.\n\nOF\n\n21 c\n\nIN AMERICAN\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nI can scarcely begin without mention of the fact that my entrance into the\naffairs of the National Educational Association was twenty years ago, in this\nmonth, in this department, and in this city. It was the beginning of personal,\nprofessional, and official relations which have been a constant satisfaction to\nme. I had the temerity to present a paper on determining the qualifications\nof teachers. It took ground for state regulation, for the subordination of\nlocal methods to a state system which would at least protect every district\nagainst the relatives, and dependents, and supporters, and adherents, of school\nofficials, unless they could pass examinations and teach; but it stood for the\nfreedom of all who could stand up among men and women and exercise freedom without harm. If anyone should recall that it was a bit crude, he will\nat least do me the favor of remembering that the speaker was then very young.\nCrude or not, it started an intellectual and pedagogical ruction in the department. But what provided the basis for a very earnest discussion then is\neverywhere accepted now, unless it be in isolated sections which I lack the\nhardihood or the courage to mention.\nThe next year at Nashville I became president of the department. The\nrecord sets forth that sixteen votes were thrown for me, that fourteen went for\nMr. Moffett of Alabama, that there were eight scattering, and that an open\nresolution, without a ballot, was required to effectuate my election. Mr.\nMoffett was considerate enough to join in the conclusion very heartily, and I\nheld the office. The next year, with a much larger attendance, I was continued with every expression of unanimity, and the New York and Philadelphia\nmeetings of the department are among the grateful memories of my association\nwith the doings of the schools. I should therefore be false to much that I\ncherish, and I should attain the heights of ingratitude, if I were not to respond\nheartily to your invitation to present this address.\nGROWING\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nIn the last twenty years the growth of uniformity in the plans and policies\nof the schools has been marked. We all know the reasons. In part they\nare internal and in part external. We are good travelers and great readers.\nWe are all moved by the same ambitions. We would have as efficient and\nprogressive schools as any people. We are moved by the very uniform,\nand certainly the almost universal, advances in the thinking and the doing of\nthe country. We have gained in bigness and in weight, and the inertia which\noppressed us before there was a great ball to roll has given place to the new\ndifficulty of safely applying the tremendous energy of a mighty ball in motion.\nRejecting the attitude of a wise old man apprehensive about something; new,\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "2l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nand without pessimism, of which I have not a grain, I am going to query,\ntonight, whether our information is not more general than our discrimination\nin its appHcations, whether the diversity in our situations ought not to play\na freer part in the determination of our policies, and whether we ought not\neven to be upon our guard against a uniformity of educational organization\nwhich may either overreach or fall short of the educational need of imperative\nsituations. And, notwithstanding the difficulty of the task, I am going to\ntry to reason out and lay down some propositions upon which we may stand\nconcerning desirable uniformity in the logic, and diversity in the instrumentalities, ofAmerican education.\nILLUSTRATIONS\n\nIN UNIFORMITY\n\nA dozen years ago the president of the University of Illinois had some small\npart in securing the appropriations for a fine new library building, and then\nindulged in some pardonable reflections about where it should stand. It\nwas his first experience in the matter of placing buildings in Illinois. He\nreasoned that it might well be placed so that it would ** quarter\" a little\nupon the course of the sun, so that the rather plain stack-rooms in the rear\nmight be as unobtrusive as possible, and so that the front, when taken in\nconnection with other buildings, might present a sort of crescent to the main\nentrances to the grounds, and add a little oneness and warmth of feeling to\nwhat the architects call \"the ensemble.\" He figured it out, had the plat\nstaked out on the exact ground where all this might be accomplished, and\nmade it all very graphic by causing ropes to be strung around the stakes, so\nthat none could lose the effect. He procured the governor to come and look,\nand the great head of the state said that it was \"good.\" He led the Board\nof Trustees to the scene and exploited to them the sentimental magnificence\nof the prospect. He could not fail to observe that they appeared to have\nsome latent doubts about the matter, but he noted with satisfaction equal to\nhis appreciation of their goodness that their skepticism was suppressed by\ntheir consideration for himself. Returning to the council chamber, they too,\nin formal resolution, pronounced it all \"good.\" Then at high noon of the\nnext day there was an alumni feast which was attended by revelry and mirth\nand much freedom of talk. In the midst of the hilarity one unsubmissive\nunregenerate got up and said only this and nothing more: \"Before the trustees\nbreak ground for that library building, it is to be hoped that they will have\nsense enough to pull it around square with the w^orld;\" and the uproarious\nacclaim which he evoked drove the information into the soul of the president\nthat his ambitions and ideals about landscape gardening and architectural\neffect were being quickly prepared for a peace offering to the Illinois reverence\nfor the cardinal points of the Illinois compass. His later information was\ncorrect. The ceremony was marked by sympathy for the sacrifice, but by\nentire firmness and determination; and that building stands upon an exact\neast and west line with its beautiful face squarely turned toward the mathe-\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n217\n\nmatical but evasive great north pole, with what seems to me a serious and\nworried look because the curvature of the earth defeats its eternal effort.\nYet it was well. It is seldom that anything in which we are interested is\nas important as it seems to us at the time. It was better that the building should\nconform to common and harmless thought, than that it should for all time be\nobliged to encounter the universal standards of its owners about the fitness of\nthings.\nThere are some things that are not likely to be changed. The highways of\nNew England will always follow the streams, seek the easy grades, wind about\nthe mountains, and be grateful for the woods; no matter how long, or how\ncrooked, or how heavy, the road may be. The highways of the prairies will\nalways be as straight as an arrow, exactly a mile apart, both north and south\nand east and west, and they will never get in conflict with magnetism nor with\nmathematics. But in each case they advance on lines of least resistance, and\nadjust the advantages of the situation to the uses of the people. There are\nusages or whims, as well as mountains and streams, which cannot be changed.\nIn the cemeteries about my New York home the graves are laid with reference\nto the size of the lot, and the trees that are upon it, and the number who are\nto occupy it, and without much thought of where the sun rises; but about my\nIllinois home the dead are laid on east and west lines, with the head to the\nwest, so that when the trump of the archangel shall sound, the sleeper shall\nlook to the east upon rising, lose no time in the bewilderment of turning\naround, and suffer no prejudice in the preferences of the eternal kingdom. It\nis better to conform to it than to be distressed by futile attempts to reform it.\nPreaching is a good thing, but much of it is wasted because irrational, unspiritual, or aimed at the unchangeable. Uniformity is often a good thing, but it\nwill find its match in the manufactures of Connecticut. Multiformity is often\na good thing, but diversified agriculture will not stir enthusiasm among the\nwheat growers of Minnesota and the eastern Dakotas, the corn growers of\nIllinois and Iowa, or the cotton growers of Georgia and Alabama.\nIgnorance is unpardonable. Information comes easily. But what is well\ndepends upon conditions. Reason must deal with facts. Policies must\nadapt themselves to situations. No matter how informed one may be about a\nmovement which has somewhere been successful, no matter how contagious is\nhis enthusiasm, no matter how good the motive; it is all wasted if the thing\ncannot go where it is to be tried, or if it must cost in one way or another more\nthan it can come to. If time is of no value, if energy is not occupied, if novices\nor geniuses are only wandering in intellectual forests and wondering about\ngame, there is no harm : there may be possible good. But seasoned and intensive lives cannot wait upon mere possibilities; certainly not upon those that\nare too remote. Even discovery and invention have come from lives that\nwere balanced and intense, that evolved theories that were rational, and that\nfollowed probabilities that were at least within the realm of realization. And\nno matter how much we owe to research, to discovery, or to inv«ntion, the\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nworld's work has been borne and the world's advance has been made by men\nand women who are able to see what may he done, and who have the force\nand the discrimination which can do it.\nNO\n\nOBSTACLES\n\nTO\n\nEDUCATIOI^\n\nEducation comes pretty near being the American universal passion. All\nthe people believe in it. If that is not literally true it is so near it that no\none can disbelieve in it without ostracism. If one is indifferent to it, it is\nbecause he is a mental toper or an intellectual degenerate. All the people\nbelieve in all the people having all they will take of it. If there is one who\ndoes not it is because he is un-American, out of sympathy with the fundamental\nphilosophy of the nation. All the people believe in all kinds of education\nfor all the people. That belief stirs some troubles of its own. Some do not\nstop to think whether the kind of education will go in a particular place, whether\nit will profit a particular people, whether it will make misfits or whether it\nmay break the intellectual and industrial equilibrium of the country, and\ntherefore impair the individual happiness and the moral and economic\nstrength of the nation.\nNow do not infer too quickly that the speaker may be lost in some sort of a\nwilderness, may have become blinded to the lights of a lifetime by some stupefying and profane influences. Every boy and girl, every man and woman, in\nAmerica, is to have the utmost of educational opportunity that the country,\nhaving regard to the national unity and the rights of all, can provide. Everyone is to be helped to the attainment of any distinct purpose which he may\nacquire. Everyone is to be given aid in forming his purposes, and cheer on\nthe road to their realization. We are in no danger of ever thinking that lowly\nbirth may be an obstacle to intellectual greatness. We shall be nearer right\nin thinking that high birth is a greater obstacle. We shall never think that\none kind of training is good for one class, and that the people in another class\nare not to be allowed to partake of it; or that there is another kind of education\nwhich is suited to one class, and that none in another class can ever w^ant anything to do with it. The suggestion is so repugnant to the thinking of the\ncountry that it merits neither refutation nor consideration. The democracy,\nthe very atmosphere of America dissolves social sets, redistributes professional\nand business inheritances, and intermingles the wealthier and the working\nclasses, very quickly. The boy of poor parents has about as good a chance\nas any other boy to be the rich man of tomorrow : the child of the wage-earner\nhas as much prospect of intellectual conspicuity or commanding influence in the\nnext generation as has the child of the president of a university, or the president\nof the nation. Indeed, we carry our philosophy to such an extreme that it\noften puts an undue handicap upon the child of momentary prosperity. Fortunes in lands and securities, and in mental acquisition and in political preferment as well, are not much transmitted, or they are so much divided in\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] UNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nthe transmission, or are so dissipated by the inheritors, that they count but\nlittle. The exceptional legatee has burdens and troubles of his own.\nNot much but work counts. It may be by the hand, it may be mental,\nit may be moral. It counts most if it embraces all. It must be adapted to\nqualities and environment. It must reckon with conditions and possibilities.\nIt must be incessant, sustained, disciplined, progressive. The worker must\nregard other workers: the work must articulate with other work. There must\nbe ideals, but they must be rational. It matters little what the work is, if it is\nof a kind which the world wants done, and if the one who undertakes it really\ndoes it. It matters much if it is of no account, or if the one who undertakes it\nhas no habit of taking care, no interest in the process, no pride in the finished\nproduct. If it is well done, no matter what it is, the world will appreciate the\nwork and regard the man who does it. And more than by inheritance, more\nthan by situation, more than by favor or by chance, the qualities and the\nworth of the man are determined by the measure and the fineness of his\nwork.\nThe efficiency of the worker, the fineness of the work, the consequent worth\nof the work to the country, and the reflex influence of the work upon the\nworker, turn very largely upon the free and natural, rather than upon the\nconstrained, selection of work by the worker. To assure the results which\nare desirable he must choose for himself. Of course he must have incentives\nand inspirations; of course he must have lights and opportuAities; but he\nmust be left to his internal inclinations, tastes, and gifts, as well as to his\nexternal inspirations and opportunities, to choose the work which he wants to\ndo, if there is to be much promise that he will do it well enough to be happy\nin the doing of it, and thus make it of some account to other people and therefore of more account to himself.\nI make bold to raise the query whether the educational system of America\nhas not had an overwhelming trend which has taken away much of the freedom\nof choice and naturalness of selection which are necessary to the best individual\nand public results from the adaptation of people to work. I suggest a question\nas to whether we do not have an abnormal, indeed an alarming, number of\nmisfits between workers and work. It might not be amiss to go even farther\nand raise a question as to whether there is not something in the common thought\nand common ambitions of the country, and as a consequence something in the\nprevalent theories and plans of the schools, which actually leaves us with great\nquantities of work to do which goes undone, and also with great numbers\nof men and women who are not doing what they might do, and not doing\nmuch of anything anyway, when the very unfolding of their humanity depends\nupon the number of those who do tiring and productive work.\nPerhaps the difficulty, if there is a difficulty, may be expressed more clearly,\nand possibly a remedy may be signified, in this way. There are great, powerful,\nand productive nations where the overwhelming and successful policy is to\nkeep the masses down.\nThe laws are so made, the professions so guarded,\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nthe expression of political opinion so obstructed, the political assemblies so\nunrepresentative, and the social classes so incrusted and segregated, that the\ndoor of opportunity is practically or completely closed to a child of the people.\nThe thing is definitely fixed and steadfastly maintained in a way which will\nenable the few, and their children for indefinite generations, to enjoy privileges\nwhich they never earned, thru the political subordination and the physical\nlabor of the multitude. We hold all that in abhorrence in this country. Our\npolitical fathers, no matter where our natural parents lived, determined that\nany law or usage which affected or continued such conditions must go down\nwherever the flag of the Union should signify the thought of the nation. We\nhave not departed from the attitude of our fathers. We have worked out their\nphilosophy in a largeness of fact and thru a wilderness of difficulties of\nwhich they never had the slightest expectation or conception. We are now\ncommitted to that philosophy, not only because it was the philosophy of the\nfathers, but because it has gained strength thru the difficulties it has\nexperienced, and shown its beneficence thru its practical applications.\nWe have undoubting confidence that we have the brains and whatever physical\nstrength may be necessary to work it out completely, no matter how wide the\nterritory over which the flag floats and no matter how many or how diverse\nthe people who live beneath its beautiful folds. And we surrender no tithe of\nall this when we raise the question whether, in the severity of our determination\nto avoid the subordination of the many to the few in other lands, we have not\ngone too far toward the other extreme and advanced conceptions which, acting\nupon the susceptible and ambitious temperament of the people of the United\nStates, have led too many to think that they can succeed by wits without\nwork, and can manage the business of other people before there is evidence that\nthey are able to manage their own.\nIn our rhetoric and declamation every American is a king. This is idealistic\nbut very often it is misunderstood. For any practical end it lacks the necessary\ndiscrimination between kings and between people. On the whole, it must\nbe admitted that the kings have been rather a poor lot, and on the whole it must\nbe said, if we say anything about it, that we have plenty of people who are\nkingly in that sense alone. In the theory, 'the intent, and the outworking\nof our pure democracy, every man stands equal with every other man in the\nmaking and the protection of the law. But that is far from all. The rest\ndepends upon himself. As to the rest, he is unequal with other men. And\nthe rest is largely in liquid state until it is given form and consistency in the\nschools.\nThe schools are filled with fallacies. The boys are pointed to the millionaires, to the inventors and discoverers, to presidents of banks and railroads, to\nmilitary and naval heroes, and to the presidency of the nation. One who\nlacks ambition for these places is deemed to be hardly worth the counting.\nAmbition, training in the culturing studies, wits, and luck are thought to be\nthe stairs to eminence and glory. Yet the men who have reached altitudes\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nby such means are rare in the extreme, and with rare exceptions they have been\nunsubstantial and unreliable when they got there. The men who have attained\neminence and held it securely have been hard, severe, long-continued, uncomplaining, and unrelenting workers. The sign boards at the cross-roads in\nthe courses of the schools have pointed the boys to professional occupations.\nThe road to these seems easy to a boy, and it is a rare boy who will not choose\nthe easier thing. Yet, as a good friend, a natural lawyer, an honored judge,\nand a senator of the United States, wrote in my autograph album when I was\na law student, \"The successful lawyer, above almost all other men, must\nearn his bread in the sweat of his brow.\" The physician who is not a systematic, joyous, seasoned laborer is a dangerous character to have about your\nhouse. It is so with clergymen and engineers and bankers and merchants\nand all the rest who make any real impression upon life.\nThe schools not only overlook or undervalue the processes which are\nessential to any success worth talking about in commercial, professional, and\npolitical life, but they are exceedingly undiscriminating about the situations\nin life which are of most account to the particular liver, as well as about the\nstudies and processes and the hard labor by which they are to be reached.\nThe man who has a craft, and comes somewhere near being the master of it,\nis to be envied in comparison with the man who has got into a bank or a printing office and cannot get to the fore in it. And the man who has developed\na farm, with all of its interesting and inspiring attributes, is a veritable king\nwhen compared with those who have taken rooms in the basements of the\nprofessions. Neither the successful craftsman nor the efficient farmer has\nto ask special favors. Both grow balanced and hardy thru the demands\nand the limitations of their work, and both are doing work which the world has\nto have. Both are as independent as need be, and independence makes for\ninfluence and respect in the common life.\nBut the control and direction of children have been much relaxed, and\nwe have had a pretty hard attack of something which has attacked educational\nvalues, rejected known roads, indulged in novel speculations which can neither\nbe demonstrated nor disproved, which points to everything and gets nowhere.\nThe trouble with the schools, certainly the lower schools (and there is\ntrouble with the lower schools, at least) is that they lack definite aims, unless\nthey are aims which ought not to appeal to more than a moiety of the people.\nThey do not train into the child the habit of taking extreme care, and they do\nnot demand clearness of process and completeness of result. They do not\nsufficiently recognize the imperative demands of labor and exactness as the\nessential basis of a national system of education. So much must come first,\nin any event, and after that there may be free choice when the child is old\nenough to make a choice. There is not only the lack of the essential foundation, but also of the opportunity for the subsequent free choice. The overwhelming influences of the schools are all in the direction of a superficial culture,\naltho sustain«d and successful work is the instrument of all true culture;\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nand of professional and managing vocations, altho the places are over-full.\nChildren have to leave the schools to escape their trend. If they do not\nleave for that purpose, they certainly do leave because it is not made worth\nwhile for them to stay. But one-third of the children in the elementary schools\ncontinue to the end. Only a part of these go to the high schools, only onethird of those who go to the high schools remain beyond the second year, and\nonly one-sixth to one-tenth of those who go continue to their graduation. All\nthe rest drop out along the way, because the need of the children's help to\nearn the family support is pressing and because they think that it is more to\ntheir advantage to have their children leave school than to remain.\nIt is not saying that a child should not have his free choice in determining\nwhat he shall do ; nor is it implying that he shall not be helped to any opportunity for which he wants to try, to say that there is exclusiveness and repression in such a situation, and that in the outworking of our democracy in our\neducation the forcing of children to such an alternative as that must disappear.\nFreedom of choice does not imply that all our children shall have a literary\nor professional training; it does not demand that in all parts of the country\nthere must be the same kind or the same grade of schools; it does not demand\nthat in its name children shall be guided into vocations that are overstocked,\nor for which they are not adapted; it does not demand, most certainly, that\nchildren shall be led into vocations that misfit them, or given the alternative of\ngoing without training for a vocation which they might want, and which it\nwould be profitable for the country for them to have. The demand of our\ndemocracy is for equality of opportunity. We have gone too far or we have\nnot gone far enough. We cannot avoid the question. We cannot escape the\nattitude of the Constitution: but perhaps we may understand it more perfectly.\nThe demand of the economic situation and of common justice, that there shall\nbe schools suited to the needs of all people and leading to all manner of vocations, will have to be heeded.\nThe fact is that we men and women of the schools keep close track of one\nanother. The news of the schools is all printed and we read it. We travel\na great deal. We each undertake to keep up with all the rest. The discussions have all been of the same general character, and the projections have\nall been in one general direction. We have each added whatever subjects\nof a culturing curriculum the people would stand, and brought in all the\nincidental novelties the conventions could suggest. The school boards have\nbeen almost paralyzed. Obstacles to education are not allowed in this country ;\nbut may not some obstacles to some education in some places be healthful ?\nThere has been skepticism, but no one has felt just confidence enough in his\nskepticism to say bluntly, \"Pull that building around square with the world\nbefore we go any farther about it.\"\nSCHOOLS\n\nTO\n\nSUIT\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nWe are eternally conforming and standardizing. What we want is not\nschools that are alike, but principles that are fundamental and schools as\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superinteudence]\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n22:1\n\ndiverse as the conditions are. Of course, all schools must have standards, but\nthey must be standards of sense, standards of character, standards of information, and not standard or uniform courses, or uniform methods, for all the\nschools of a state or of the country. The universal comparisons between\nstate systems and between city systems, and the universal effort to have as\ngood as any other state or city has lead to results which are as remote as can\nbe imagined from the needs of the greater part of the constituencies of the\nschools. What is needed is to bring the teacher and the parents and the\nchildren near enough together to make it possible for them to understand the\nneeds and make the most of the possibilities of one another.\nFor years the tendency of one enthusiast after another in the community has put more and more upon the schools. There are societies to effect\neverything that ever developed in a dream, and an average school superintendent or an ordinary school board is a weak defense against the onset of a\nsociety of enthusiasts, particularly of women enthusiasts. Politeness and\nplatitudes have to suffice, where policemen and fortifications are necessary.\nNewspapers agitate, just as a matter of \"newspaper policy,\" which means a\npolicy which will sell more papers. A mere sentiment comes to be a cause\nof the people, and that which confuses and takes from the concentration\nand efficiency of the schools gains a place in their curricula.\nAuthorship and the publishing business play a part in the multiplicity of\nstudies, and a worse part in prolonging and attenuating studies beyond their\nright. The school life of the child is within limits of age. It is none too long.\nIt is precious time. Whatever takes more than its right subtracts just so\nmuch from something else that is vital to the rounding-out of the child's life\nto its utmost. Whatever does not give him added power to do makes for\ninsipidity and saps his strength. Say all we will, and say it truly, about a\nchild needing a complex education to fit him for life in a complex civilization,\nthe fact remains that the things which make for complexity should not be\npermitted to begin so early as to endanger his imperative need of oral and\nwritten language and of the simple processes of mathematics.\nWe are a considerate and tolerant people. For a score of years good\npeople whose minds seem to live in an inflated atmosphere have pretty nearly\nmonopolized the attention in the schools where teachers are prepared. In the\ncolleges and universities — their proper field, if they have a proper field— their\ndoctrines and propositions are rather sharply resisted by other departments,\nand the zone of their research and confusion is healthfully circumscribed.\nBut ''researching\" in the normal and training schools has few limitations, and\nthe consequent uncertainty attains a density that brings average minds to\nprostration. The effect upon the young girl teachers is pathetic. They are\nnot only called upon to do more things than they can do, in order to meet the\ndemands of enthusiasts, but they are invoking the aid of occult sciences, and\nfeel obliged to accomplish ends by constrained methods and devices which are\ndestructive of that freedom which is the essence of effectiveness in teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nUseless illustration and exploitation consume time, if they do not obscure thr\npoint and defeat the end. Out of it all the children do not have trained into\nthem the ability to do some particular thing. The parents are confounded.\nThe school boards have become pretty nearly helpless. The general public is\nrestless and anxious.\nIt is imperative that there be a closer adaptation of schools to situations,\nand that schools have more and longer control over children and move forward\nto definite ends. There is being much said now, and it is necessarily said,\nabout the development of technical and trade schools in the towns. But that\nis but one manifestation of a wider difficulty.\nThe schools must meet the needs of a particular people, whether these\nneeds are high or low, academic, professional, commercial, agricultural, or\nmanufacturing. We cannot expect the people to adjust themselves wholly\nto schools We must adjust the schools in very considerable measure to people.\nFor some reasons it is better to describe a farm by saying that it is in the northern half of Section 20 in Township 9 in the north range No. 3, west of the 6th\nprime meridian, as they do in Nebraska, than it is to say that 83 acres, more\nor less, are in the town of Aroostock in the county of Skowhegan, and bounded\nby stone fences or lanes, monumented by a blazed tree, a deer's antlers, a fox's\nhole, or a red heifer, as they may do in the Maine woods. But one system will\nhave to prevail until a better one comes in, and there are more important things\nthan prime meridians in locating boundary lines, when the lands go down in the\nfamily, and you don't have to give, and nobody wants to take, a mortgage upon\nthem. It is well if a people have got far enough to need and to support high\nschools and colleges, but if they have not, there is even greater need that they\nshall have elementary schools suited to their exact needs, and whether they\nhave or not, their elementary schools must be adjusted to their conditions and\nlook forward to their work, or the bottom will fall out of the high schools, or\nthere will come an educational cleavage which is repugnant to that theory of\ngovernment which has been the backbone of our prosperity and is the hope\nof our future.\nWe hear a great deal about consolidating schools and carrying children\nlong distances to central schools in order to have graded schools and finer\nbuildings. It is well where the people with such lights as they have, or will\nhave, want it so, but there is no pedagogical reason why it should be forced\nupon them. There are difficulties about children being carried several miles\nto school, and there are pretty strong reasons why it is well to have a school\nwithin walking-distance of every home. Graded schools have troubles of\ntheir own. A school does not have to be a big school in order to be a very good\none. The teacher who has to reckon with the life of the family and the outlook of the child, may be, and often is, doing much better teaching than the\nteacher who is bent upon conforming her processes to the creed of a training\nschool or the philosophy of the books, without such an understanding of\ndoctrine as will enable her to know that dogma is not of much account where\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superinteadence]\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n225\n\nit fails to meet situations. The percentage of strong and balanced characters\nwho come out of the country schools, where the teaching is more personal and\ndirect, is greater than of similar characters growing out of schools where classiand the teaching necessarily more impersonal and indirect.\nfication imperative\ns\nModern conveniences are lessening the difficulties of the country schools.\nThere is no overwhelming advantage in huddling people or pupils together\nmore than they do it themselves under the necessities of the case. And it is\na great pity that there is so much educational confidence or courtesy as to\nkeep some doctrines about conformity in education from meeting with something like the frigid reception which bulls about conformity in religion would\nencounter in the General Assembly of my church. Sweeping generalizations\nare as inapplicable in one field as in the other.\nThis principle holds as good in the upper schools as in the lower ones.\nSome are \"standardizing\" American universities just now. You cannot\nstandardize American universities any more than you can standardize the\ncolor of American apples, or the height of American women. There are\napples that command the top of the market even tho they are not red, and\nthere are women who are mighty, even tho they do not approach the altitude of the Broadway squad of the Metropolitan police. So there are\ncolleges and universities which are first-class, even tho they have less than\na thousand students and do not attempt many things that the larger ones make\nmuch of; and there are others which are second-class or third-class with two\nthousand or three thousand students, who are offered everything that can be\nnamed in an educational bill of fare. Classifying and standardizing are\ndifficult and often dangerous processes in this country. They are impossible\nin American education. If it is a mere matter of association or congeniality,\nnone will object, for that is a harmless matter of feeling and of tastes. If it is a\nmeans of educational helpfulness, it might well use better descriptive words.\nIf it is a process of discrimination, of exclusiveness, of depreciation, then it\nmust end where all meanness in education eventually does. There is no\nconclusive argument against the big college or the little college, the rich college\nor the poor college, the classical college or the industrial college. It is a\nquestion of fitness and efficiency, of adaptation and of accomplishment. No\nmatter what other attributes it may have or may lack, that college is of the\nfirst rank in America which sends its flag farthest into the ranks of ignorance\nand meanness by turning out the largest percentage of true and productive\nmen and women.\n\nA few years ago Harvard University put the entrance requirements at the\nschools of law and medicine upon the basis of an approved baccalaureate\ndegree. That was well. The schools suffered somewhat in attendance, but\nadvanced scholarship gained by it. Then other universities discussed it,\nsome attempted it, and a small number accomplished it. It was all well\nenough. But there was an assumption in the discussion that a move which\nThat is not\nmight be a good one at one institution must be good at another.\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIWashingtuii\n\nnecessarily true. By far the greater number of professional schools could\nnot exist upon that basis, and it is desirable that such of them as are honest\nand doing the best they can shall exist. All intending professional students\ncannot follow a prescribed course of scientific training until they are twentysix or twenty-eight years old before they are allowed to begin practicing a\nprofession, and all people cannot afford to pay the fees which professional\nmen so trained feel entitled to exact. You may tell me that I am standing for\nthe lower rather than the higher ideals in scholarship. No, I am standing for\nthe rational, the serviceable, and the fruitful ideals in scholarship. I am\nstanding for schools that can serve the country. I am glad that some institutions are reaching the highest altitudes, glad that the time has come when\nstudents no longer need to go to foreign universities for the very best instruction.\nBut every school is to have its chance, and every student is to have his chance.\nYou may well believe that the time will never come when all or nearly all of\nthe great men in any profession will be enrolled in the alumni of a single\nprofessional school, no matter what its admission requirements may have been.\nA full proportion of the great men will always come from small or weak\nschools in which there is some ordinary teacher who fires their lives. Schools\nare to meet situations that exist, and uplift constituencies of their own. They\ncannot do that by merely copying or conforming.\nLACK\n\nOF\n\nAIM\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nThe advanced schools, or their departments, have become so much differentiated that each has a very definite aim. By the time students are old\nenough to enter them they have gained rather clear purposes, and they select\nthe school and the department which can do for them just what they want to\nhave done. That is so in some measure, though much less so, with the middle\nschools. They are too often afflicted with more of a desire to undertake the\nnatural work of the colleges and the professional schools, which they cannot\ndo well because they cannot have the instructors, the equipment, or the basis\nof preparation for it, than they are endowed with a proud ambition to do the\nlegitimate work of schools of their grade, so that when pupils have finished,\nit is known that they are in possession of the information and the power to do\nsome definite thing which can be given a valuation in the world of education\nand in the world of fact and of affairs. Still, the pupils who remain after\nthe second year in the high school do begin the process of satisfying ambitions\nwhich have begun to take definite form; and if they are clear enough of vision\nand strong enough of purpose, they often find the helps which their particular\nambitions stand in need of.\nThere is practically nothing of this in the elementary schools. That\nis a most serious and menacing fact in American education. If it is said that\nthere cannot be because of the immaturity of the pupils, it is answered that\nit is not so in other great national systems of education, and that the pupils\nare quite as immature there as here.\nThe only aim in our lower schools is\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] UNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n227\n\nthe grade above, and the one above that, and the road leads either to intellectual\nculture without any definite vocational aims, or to employments that are\nprofessional or at least semi-professional in character. As a result the multitude tires of it. The minority follows it, and, notwithstanding the steadily\nincreasing exactions, more gain access to the professional and managing vocations than is good for them, good for such vocations, or good for the country.\nBut the majority quit the road all along the line because they cannot see\nthat it is going to lead to any definite acquisition that is going to make it to\ntheir advantage to remain.\nIt is a very common impression among the poor, and among some who\nare not so poor, that there is really more advantage to the child in going to\nwork than in continuing in school. And if there was really work for them, and\nif they were actually being trained into it, how many of us could justly say\nthat the conclusion is devoid of reason ? But the grave fact is that the 60 per\ncent, of the children who drop out of the elementary schools without finishing\nthem are not prepared for any definite work, no matter how simple, and the\nwork they find does not lead to their improvement because it is of a kind\nwhich grinds the heart and bone out of them for the enlargement of dividends.\nThere are other facts associated with this one which must be mentioned\nbut need not be argued. Any great work having relation to both sexes imperatively claims the co-operative effort of both men and women. The number\nof women teachers, the consequent low basis of wages, the agitation about\nequal pay for similar work in spite of all economic and educational considerations, and particularly the pernicious manipulation of party politics by organizations ofwomen teachers in the larger cities, is preventing, speaking generally,\nthe stronger men from engaging in teaching, and is forcing out some who\nhave already commenced. For obvious reasons it is a menace to that balance\nin the work of the schools which is imperative to the interests of both boys and\ngirls who are to form ambitions and find employments in a balanced world.\nThe doings of the primary schools in the great cities have undue influence\nupon the operations of the primary schools in the entire country, and this is\nparticularly illustrated in the growing disposition to make a teacher's position\na comfortable subsistence for life, protected by law, rather than an imperative\nand responsible instrument of common needs and of the best public opinion.\nOf course it has grown out of the very largeness of the system, and the\nunjust and reprehensible treatment which has ^metimes been inflicted upon\nteachers by weak, or worse than weak, superintendents and boards of education. It all illustrates the difficulties which justice and effectiveness have\nto encounter at the hands of democratic government, and it particularly exemplifies the importance of thrusting all partisanship out of the management of\nthe schools.\n\nThese things contribute to a situation which wastes the lives of pupils.\nWith the unnecessary studies, the undue prolongation of studies thru a\nseries of ])ooks in a single study, and thru the undue emphasis upon mere\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nmethods and exploitation; with the fact that the pupils are not reaching\nforward to some definite thing in which they are interested; with the further\nfact that the home is no longer of much help because the character of the\nhome has changed, and because the work and processes of the schools are so\nchanged that parents are unable to comprehend them, there is little wonder\nthat the work is often behind the age of the pupil, as it is. Then there is the\nfurther fact that there is a very common national indifference if not repugnance\nto enforced attendance upon the schools. So there is no lack of explanation\nof the wastage in the work of our elementary schools, and of a percentage of\nilliteracy in the United States which exceeds that of any other favored nation\nin^the world.\n''all men are created equal\"\nWhat is the matter and what is to be done ? Our democracy has often\nbeen misinterpreted and misunderstood. It is not strange that it has been\nmisinterpreted, because there has been no other democracy like it. Something very important happened in this country on the 4th day of July, 1776,\nand because of that, some things even more important have happened since.\nOur independence enlarged the freedom of a people who inlierited and never\ngave up their full share of the liberty of the nation which had gone farther in\nmaking laws, and in defining human rights under human laws, than any other\nnation in the world. Independence of itself gave us some rather inflated\nideas about freedom, and those ideas have been still more inflated by the rather\nloose thinking of the millions who have come to us with the notion that freedom\nwas offered and exemplified by the absence of the army or of the police, more\nthan by the free play of moral sense, the equal rights of all, not some, of the\npeople, and binding obligations and limitations of moral as well as civic\nlaw. The trouble has been that in the prevalent thought freedom has been\nregarded without much thought of the foundations upon which it must rest,\nand the limitations within which it must operate, and the processes by which\nit must be enlarged, if it is to be secure or is to be enlarged at all.\nFor a familiar but excellent illustration of this, see the difficulty we have\nin getting children into and keeping them in the schools. The attendance\nupon school is more irregular in the United States than in any other nation\nwith whom we would be willing to be compared. It is not merely because\nthere are people here who are indifferent to schools. There are such in all\nnations. It is not because we have more of these than other peoples have.\nIt is because the measure of control is less here than there, and because of the\ncommon misunderstanding in this country of what freedom truly is, and of\nhow it is to be retained or enlarged. In a word, it is because public sentiment is\nnot quick about seeing the need of, or keen about sustaining the processes for,\nenforcing attendance upon the schools. We hold out more freedom of choice\nthan other peoples. Our schools attempt more than theirs. They do what\nthey undertake more completely than we. The habit of sending all children\nto school is much better established with them than with us. It has been\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n220\n\nestablished by law and by force. Our fallacious reasoning about freedom\nforces upon us a percentage of illiteracy several times larger than that of any\nother very well-organized and well-governed country in the world.\nWhat is to be done? Laws and educational systems — and educational\nsystems are one expression of laws — have to be recast frequently in order to\ncorrespond with the growth and progress of peoples. It is not necessary to\nconclude that our national and political fundamentals are wrong, as some\nseem disposed to do. It is only necessary to give those fundamentals a rational\ninterpretation and erect a more perfect superstructure upon them.\nOne says, ** Everybody who is well informed now sees that the declaration\nthat 'all men are created equal' is only a glittering platitude.\" This is not true.\nThat phrase was neither perversity nor a pleasantry. Far from its being\nmere rhetoric or bombast, it is, in my conception of the great soul of the nation,\na tremendous basic fact, and I am proud of being one of the people who have\nconfidently entered upon and successfully moved along the rugged road to its\nmost complete realization in human history. I do not believe that the men\nin the Continental Congress were capable of mere bumptiousness or that\nthey were incapable of expressing what they intended in very good English\nphrase. Of course, their manner of expressionVas of their day and generation.\nWithin that limitation they succeeded very well in expressing the things to\nwhich they pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor.\nHas anyone ever supposed that, when they declared as a political truism\nthat all men are created equal, they intended to say that men are equal in\nheight or in width or in weight ? Has anyone supposed that they intended to\nsay that all men are equal in the tenseness of their feelings, or in the direction\nand the strength of their thinking ? Or has anyone imagined that they intended\nto be understood as thinking that all men are equal in their possessions, their\nattributes, or their opportunities ? Washington's armies fought for no such\nidle contention, for no such absurd ideal, as this. It was a lawyer's phrase.\nIt was the phrase of good lawyers and it was a good phrase. The lives and\ntraining of the men who framed it, the only logical hypothesis upon which\nit can be made consistent with all the other things they said, and the only\ninterpretation which makes the Declaration worth the struggle of the Revolution—all combine to make it clear that the laws of this country were to guarantee all men and women an entire equality of legal protection and legal right,\nthat the common power should not be used to keep one down nor to lift another\nup, and that the laws of the land should articulate with God's justice in holding\nout to everyone the legal right to the equal chance to make the most of himself.\nAll that we have to do in order to enable our schools to promote our national\nideals is to go back to the fundamentals of our political faith, square our\nentalities which enable\nI theories with their obvious intent, and create instrum\nrational ideals to run their natural course, as the waters of the uplands follow\ntheir even channels to the sea.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nany law of the government or any usage of the people. It is not to be long\nhindered by the lack of educational instrumentalities which may aid it. Of\ncourse, the large factor is in the personal qualities which are looking for a\nchance, which can recognize a chance when they see it, and which have wits,\nand force, and endurance, and patience enough to make the most of it. But\nthese are not the only factors. A child's destiny is not settled in this country\nby the circumstances of birth. It is a great thing to live in a land where\nexperience proves that riches quite as much as poverty, the city quite as much\nas the country, and conceit quite as much as necessity, are barriers on the roads\nto the elevations. But even this is not all. A child's future is not to be clouded\nor obstructed by any assignments which a teacher may make, by any false\nvaluations of the prizes of life, by any fallacious theories about the kind of\nsuccess which is of the most worth, by any wasting of his time in order to accommodate the rigidity of an organization, or trying out the vagaries of pedagogical\nspeculation, or by any forced misfits which must logically follow official, legislative, or professional misconceptions of the relations of our democracy to the free\nopportunities of men and women. It is time to stop practicing upon children in\nthe schools; it is time to stop implying that work with the head is better than\nwork with the hands ; it is time 'to stop forcing them into grooves which satisfy\nnotions that are too common, but in most cases lead to a loss of every kind of\nefficiency and to ends which are alike humiliating to the individuals most concerned, and opposed to the general welfare of the nation. It is time to put the\nemphasis upon work, no matter what it is about; it is time to inspire expertness, no matter what in; it is time to help qualities adapt themselves to productivity, no matter in what direction. Charity is not to be confused with the work of\nthe schools. The right to an education is inherent. With that right the child\nmust sink or swim, and more will swim if there is no confusion about it.\nBut the schools must reach every child, no matter whether his parent wills\nit or not. We must have more definite aims, and we must assure more concrete results. We may expect the complexity of the educational system to\nmeet the complexities of our modern civilization, but in some way each school\nmust have a simpler life which will help, and not confound, all who are concerned in it. Every American child must have an open, free, clear, legal,\nAmerican chance. So far as he is constrained or guided, it must be only in aid\nof his own freedom and in the direction of his own best possibilities.\nUNIFORMITY\n\nIN\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nTo help everyone gain his best chance, we must know what we are after.\nWe must have a better understanding of the principles which we are trying\nto make good.\nEvery child, everyone in the land, must be recorded, to the end that his\nrights may be assured.\nEveryone must have an elementary education, and before everything else\nan elementary education must mean the power to read and write and master\nthe simple processes of mathematics\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nAND\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n231\n\nThe school must have equal respect for every manner of work. It must\nknow that without application and endurance there is no hope, and that with\nthem there will be some result of just as much moment as any other result which\nit might have gained.\nThe work of the school must have definite aim, and its ends must be\nassured. There is too much scattering. Before a child is permitted to leave\nthe school it must be known that he has a definite possession which can never\nbe taken from him. The schools must carry him as far as, under the conditions\nof his life, the schools can be of help to him.\nThe schools must train for every vocation for which there is any reasonable\ndemand, and the child must be under the control of the school until there is\nground for confidence that he has some need of finding his chance, some desire\nand application, some fitness for employment which will enable him to begin\nto earn a living.\nThe child must be allowed his free election of vocation after he has acquired\nthe simpler work of the elementary schools. But he must know that he is not\nto drop out and not to be allowed to waste his time, at least until he reaches\nan age or a situation where the case is apparently helpless and hopeless.\nThe work of each school, being simpler and more definite, must be more\nintensive. Unnecessary time is consumed. It is worse to waste the time of\na child than to take away any other right that he may have. He must get the\nlarger part of his culture thru his work. It will be a finer and truer culture.\nCulture that comes thru mere instruction is well, but it is secondary and\nmust wait upon the essentials. The same with mere information. If he has\nthe elements which give him the power to get it, he will get it when he needs\nit or when he wants it. If he does not, the public cannot help it.\nAll the children of the United States are entitled to be taken out of the list\nof the illiterates and to be taught to do some definite thing, and to be made\nto know that their success depends upon their doing it better than others do.\nThen the unexpected and the surprising successes will doubtless be multiplied,\nand whether they are or not, the nation will be the stronger for it.\nDIVERSITY\n\nIN MEANS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nWith some reasonable agreement about the measure of opportunity which\nthe educational activities of the nation are bound to hold out to every American\nchild, and with our abundant knowledge of what is going on in every part\nof the country, there will be all of the uniformity desirable if we encourage the\nfreest diversity and individuality in means and methods. It is not necessary\nthat the schoolhouses be of the same height and color. They do not all have\nto have heating plants that balk when called upon for special effort, and forbid\nan open window at all times. The schools do not all need to have identical\ncourses of study, and there is no reason why they should use the same books.\nThe teachers need not have the same convolutions in their brains that have\nformed in the brains of those physiological psychologists who fall down in\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\ntheir physiology and get beside themselves over their psychology. It is of less\nmoment what one knows when he enters a school than what he knows when he\nleaves it. It is enough if he has the power and the will to do the work. With\nsome reasonable promise of that, he is to have his chance. The most unpromising\nfreshman often develops into the particular star of the Commencement morning. There are to be standards, but they are to be the standards of individual\ninstitutions. The degrees of all of the colleges ought never to be expected to\nrepresent the same thing. We are to prevent fakes and frauds. It is well\nfor a state to protect academic terms from such abuse by fixing the attributes\nwhich an institution must have before it can hold itself out to be a high school,\nan academy, a college, or a university. But being within the legal requirements, and being honest, it must find its\" own level and abide its own doings.\nThe pupil, the student, and the teacher are to use the means they have or can\nget, in their own way, to their own advantage, and to the common good.\nTHE\nMARGARET\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF THE SCHOOL IN TRAINING\nRIGHT CONDUCT\n•\n\nE. SCHALLENBERGER,\nPRINCIPAL\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SAN\n\nOF THE\nTRAINING\nJOs£, CALIFORNIA\n\nFOR\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nFew people think. Man is born into a religious, social, and political\nworld. If his mother be a Presbyterian, he is a Presbyterian; if he is bom\nunder the Stars and Stripes he is predestined to believe in the equality of man\nand to shout lustily with his fellow-countrymen the battle-cry of freedom.\nIn reality he is no more a Presbyterian than a Methodist, no more a free man\nthan a slave. He is merely living in the atmosphere of Presbyterianism and\nhis mental action — such as it is— is conditioned by the significance of the flag\nwhich floats over him. There may be occasional slight movements of the gray\nmatter, but if snapshots of brain formation could be taken from time to time\nthruout life tlie pictures would be almost identical, for the activity in the\nbrain cells is never sufficient to change the pattern of their arrangement.\nWhose fault is it ? Largely yours and mine. But we educators think ! Some\nof us, yes, and so did the mediaeval philosophers when they disputed about\nhow many angels could stand on the point of a needle.\nIt has frequently been pointed out that the progress of civilization is\nnot marked by a steadily upward curve, but that there are great heroic periods\nin which such powerful thinking has been done that the very foundations of\nsociety have trembled and the solidly built pillars and posts of accumulated\nthought have swayed and fallen like slender twigs. Invariably this tremendous upheaval has been the work of the few, and immediately these periods\nhave been followed by an almost slavish idolatry of the many to the \"new\nthought,\" or what is worse, by an ignorant unemotional acceptance of it as\ntruth. Always miniature heroic periods are in progress. Always there are the\nfew who are thinking and the many who are thought for. We educators who,\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR RIGHT CONDUCT\n———____\n\n^63\n\nlike all the rest of the world, are thus classified into thinkers and thought\nfor, fall into our places naturally, and it seems to us logically, with a certain\ncalm conviction that because it always has been so these positions are a part\nof the eternal fitness of things. We do not seem to realize that it is our function\nnot only to think, but to think to some purpose, that purpose being the production ofthought in others, whoever the others may be. If these statements\nare accepted even thinking educators may be thoughtless. Neither the best\nschool principals nor the most brilliant and painstaking superintendents are\naltogether thoughtful; if they were they would provoke more disputation and\nreceive less adoration.\nBut altho it is true that as a rule few people think, on the other hand\nthere may be conditions physical, civic, or religious that stir into violent action\neven the most sluggish intellects; and then we have whole communities thinking\nout loud. Oregon, occupied during the last three years with the prosecution\nof those concerned in the gigantic land frauds of the Northwest, has succeeded\nin convicting more than two dozen men, among them a United States attorney,\na United States senator, and a congressman. Oregon today is thinking out\nloud. And San Francisco, dearly beloved city of our Golden West, laid waste\nby earthquake, girt round by fire, and betrayed by her own self-chosen rulers\nand trusted citizens; San Francisco, the proud warden of the Golden Gate,\nbowed down with sorrow, humiliated, trembling with indignation, but refusing\nto be conquered by any combination of circumstances; San Francisco, aroused,\nalert, sadder and wiser; San Francisco, too, is thinking out loud. And all the\nworld is listening, but, unfortunately, not to learn. San Francisco is not a\nbad city — as cities go; she is better today than she has been for long years;\nfar better than other cities which have not yet begun to think. There is more\ninterest in civic affairs, there are more \"good citizens\" in California today than\nthere have ever been in the course of her history, because there are more people\nthinking. Bartly P. Oliver, foreman of the grand jury that indicted Abraham\nRuef, the city boss, and Eugene Schmitz, the corrupt mayor, and a long list\nof business men and city oflficials for extortion, said to Lincoln Steffens:\nI don't know whether this work will have done any good to San Francisco ....\nbut it has done good to us jurymen.\nI wish the law required twenty or fifty thousand\nmen on a grand jury. If that many citizens could sit there as we have, see what we have\nseen, hear what we have heard, they would all become good citizens; citizens first, I\nmean, and business men and heads of families second.\nThey would save San Francisco.\n\nNot fifty or even twenty thousand men sat on this grand jury, but hundreds\nof thousands of men followed with keen interest the problems with which the\ngrand jury were confronted, and, in following, did, perhaps, the most profound\nthinking of their lives. The result is even now apparent. San Francisco,\nknowing her sins; San Francisco, confessing her sins; San Francisco, publishing\nher sins; San Francisco, repenting her sins; San Francisco, atoning for her sins,\nis a better city to-day — God bless her !— than she has ever been before.\nLet us be fair. All of our great cities are full of corruption. Not one of\nthem would \"show up\" well under the searchlight of a Heney, a Langdon, a\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nBumes, and Spreckels. And smaller communities are not better; they are\nmerely untried.\nWhat has all this to do with the subject under discussion — The Function\nof the Schools in Training for Right Conduct? Everything. These cities\nand communities are made up of men and women trained in our schools.\nThere is no evading the question of our responsibility. To be sure we can\ndodge like cowards behind the high board fence of excuse and lay a large part\nof the blame upon the home, the church, the press, the stage, the saloon,\nand the community at large. These excuses may be valid enough, but it is\nnot \"good form\" for us to make them. The individual continually explaining\nwhy he has not done and why he cannot do as his reason and conscience\ndictate is mentally and morally dead, and it would be better for the world\nif he were physically dead; there would be more room left for the doers.\nWhat is true of an individual in this respect is true of an institution. It goes\nwithout saying that there are excuses to be made for the failure of the schools\nto produce true citizens, but in the name of all that is in good taste, let us not\nbe the ones to mention them.\nThe public school, then, to whom the state intrusts its children for training,\nis not succeeding in the moral training. What are we going to do about it ?\nThat is what we have met here from all parts of our country to consider.\nThat is what we are here to think about.\nWe cannot hope to do much in a few short hours, but may we not search\nout some of the vulnerable points in our teaching and aim our arrows at those\npoints ? May we not offer one or two suggestions as to method of procedure ?\nA. In the first place it will be necessary to agree upon a few fundamental\nprinciples. Training for right conduct means training for good citizenship,\nand training for good citizenship means training for social efficiency. There\nseems to be absolute unanimity of opinion among those who have given the\nsubject most thought that social efficiency is the meaning of all education.\nAll that the boy is in school, all that the man is in the world means social\nefficiency or social unfitness. Schoolmen, philosophers, psychologists, and\nsociologists are agreed upon this major premise.\nB. This being true it follows that enormous emphasis should be put upon\ntraining for right conduct and that this emphasis to be most valuable should\nbe given by the right people, at the right time, and in the right way.\nI. Who are the right people to train our hoys and girls in good citizenship ?\nAnyone of average intelligence who devotes even an hour to the answer of this\nquestion, dwelling upon it earnestly, honestly, and thoughtfully, will know\nthat the right people are not necessarily the holders of teachers' certificates,\nor the proud possessors of normal-school diplomas, or of college degrees,\neven if the latter contain the euphonious letters M.A. or Ph.D. We spare\nyou analysis of the ideal teacher for the training of citizens, not, to be honest,\nfrom lack of time, but from lack of ability to do the subject justice. A few\npoints, however, might profitably be mentioned.\nFirst, then, our ideal teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nRIGHT\n\nCONDUCT\n\nknows about things, knows a little about many things, and a good deal about\none or two. Secondly, the j-ight man to be a trainer of American citizens\nis the one who voluntarily chooses to be a teacher; he has not been driven\ninto the teaching ranks by force of circumstances, because he has failed to\nmake a successful lawyer, or because he hopes to make one. He is proud of\nhis calling and embraces every opportunity to advance it. He thinks more\ndeeply and more often upon the meaning of education than upon the logical\nsequence of a course of study. He is sympathetic in his attitude toward\nchildren, remembers how it felt to be a boy, and believes in what Chester W.\nRowell calls \"the glory of youth.\" He is so happy in his work that he frequently forgets he is earning a salary. He has not obtained his position by\na \"pull,\" nor does he countenance this method of placement in others. Being\na citizen in a democracy he does not take upon himself the prerogatives of an\nautocrat. And last, but not least, he is not merely a schoolman, but a man\namong men, interested in the general welfare of the community, taking his\npart actively and thoughtfully in the duties of citizenship, never neglecting\nhis obligation to vote for the best man. This last point is important. How\ncan he hope to impress upon his boys the responsibilities of citizenship if he\nhimself is indifferent to one of its most binding obligations ? It is his very\nparticipation in the civic problems of his country that makes him a fit interpreter ofthe fundamental principles underlying a democracy. Wide awake\nand patriotic himself, he discusses with his boys and girls the essentials of\ngood government in the home, the school and the state, enriching the discussions with concrete current illustrations that he can obtain only in active\npolitical life and vitalizing them by an enthusiasm, a personality, if you please,\nthat no amount of poring over facts in the latest textbooks could give him.\nTherefore, in behalf of the state, we beseech you, principals and superintendents here assembled, when placing men in your schools to select big,\nhonest, clean, whole-souled voting men.\nNow let us be consistent. Statistics show that only 24 per cent, of the\nteachers of our public schools in the United States are men. In the New\nEngland states the proportion is much lower, about 8 per cent., and there is\na steady decrease from year to year thruout thfe country. About three-fourths\nof the training then for social efficiency or, in other words, for good citizenship,\nmust be done by women. Where are they to drink from the fountain of\ninterest? How are they to be brought to think deeply upon questions of\ncivic purity ? How are they to widen their personalities ? Where are they\nto obtain that subtle but essential qualification of a good teacher, prestige ?\nDo we not say over and over that impression without expression is futile,\nthat patriotic emotion without action is despicable ? Obviously then it were\nbetter for women teachers to have no impressions regarding civic questions\nand no emotions. You may have observed a few such women in our public schools. Would it be surprising if it were found that they were the first\nto find the weight of their souls unbearable and to part company with them\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nat the schoolroom door; if they were the first to become infected with what\nDr. Frederic Burk, in a recent essay, aptly, if, somewhat inelegantly styles\n\"the dry rot\" ? But this we know, present conditions of political life do not\ntend to make women the most intelligent citizens possible, yet women do the\ngreater part in training citizens.\n2. Training for right condiict in the schools should he given at the right\ntime. — What is the right time? At a superficial glance this seems easy to\ndetermine. Beginning with the child's entrance into the schoolroom, it\nends with his departure. This statement rolls off the tongue too glibly to\ncarry with it much meaning. It is one of those dangerous ready-made,\nthought-destroying propositions. If the aim in training for right conduct is to\nbe social efficiency, then its expression is manifold. Shall all the forms of\nconduct be taught to all of the children all of the time, or is there a development and growth in the moral life corresponding to that which conditions our\naction as regards the child's physical and mental life ? Undoubtedly there is,\nand tho here is a great field for legitimate child-study, yet enough has been\ndone to establish the general law and to give us a basis for thoughtful procedure. To attempt to give to the six-year-old child the principles of good\ngovernment underlying school and family life would be nonsense, while it\nwould be equally foolish to expect of an upper-grade boy or girl the same\nkind of obedience exacted of the first-grader. The adolescent period so turbulent and sensitive requires the most skillful and delicate treatment, and\ncalls into play the teacher's widest experience of life, understanding of Uterature, and sympathy with youth. Each group or grade of children has its\nown moral problems, and each has its right time for their solving. No human\nbeing, save the teacher herself, can tell just when this time is to come, but\nshe should know what her special problems probably will be and that there\nis a right time for their solving, and should educate herself to recognize the\ntime and to be ready to meet it. The great point is to choose the time when\nthe children can best be led to think upon the problem.\nBut aside from the fact that children can be grouped in the large, according to their mental development, and trained in right conduct, there are those\nwho need individual attention. The right time for them is not in the presence\nof the group. Indeed most children need private conferences oftener than\nwe realize. The mere separation from the others, and the setting aside of a\nspecial time for a personal interview emphasizes the importance of the subject,\ntends to arouse deeper thought, and impresses the child with the delicate\nfeeling of the teacher. No one understands this selecting of \"the psychological moment\" better than the wise and tender mother of whom the heroine of The Widow O^Callaghan's Boys is an excellent example. You remember\nhow, wishing to get the willing consent of her eldest son, Pat, to a plan, upon\nthe success of which depended the general welfare of the family, but which\ndemanded on his part a real sacrifice, she waited impatiently until evening\nwhen the other children were in bed, soliloquizing during the day as follows:\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nRIGHT\n\nCONDUCT\n\no-,^\n\n\"^^\n\nThere's toimes to be spakin' and toimes to be kapin' stiUl Niver a word mu«t\nI be sayin' till the rest of 'em's abed, and it's hard waitin', so it is. It's my belafe that's\nwhat makes some b'ys so unruly— takin' 'em at the wrong toime. Sure and b'ys has\ntheir feeUn's loike the rest of the world. Spake to 'em by their lone silves when you've\naught to say to 'em. There's niver a man of 'em all, not even Gineral Brady himself,\nwould loike bein' bawled at in a crowd about somethin' that needed thinkin' over.\n\nShe speaks truly; if we want right conduct, we must first obtain the\n'^thinkin' over,\" but too often the being \"bawled at in a crowd\" destroys the\n\"thinkin' over,\" at least of the question under consideration; it has been\nknown to start a very vigorous line of thought, however, concerning the boy's\nopinion of the teacher.\nThere is another sort of right time, a time conditioned by the needs and\nideals of the age. The twentieth century has its own special virtues and vices\nand sins, the product of new desires, temptations, opportunities, and responsibilities. Our moral catechism, while founded upon the everlasting principles\nof brotherly love, is a much larger volume than is found between the covers\nof the little primer of Rules for Righteousness, written when life was largely\nrestricted to the experiences to be found in a community bounded by a day's\njourney on horseback, and in which all the inhabitants lived the simple life.\nNew conditions are arising every day, tending more and more to confuse the\nthoughtless and weak-minded as to what is right conduct, and giving opportunities for the socially unfit to riot ad libitum in selfishness, greediness, criminal\nnegligence, thievery, and even murder. Partnerships of good and bad qualities, of right and wrong action in the same individual, definite partnerships\nentered into for the purpose of \"getting on\" in the world are among the most\nprominent evils of our day. A man entering into such a partnership with\nhimself makes his virtues the tools of his vices. Smug respectability, certain\nforms of generosity, and even of fair dealing, temperate habits, and exemplary conduct as regards family life leave a man free to exercise his ingenuity\nin the adulteration of foods, the erection of unsanitary buildings, the manufacture of unsafe machinery, the slavery of little children, the obtaining of\nspecial business privileges, the exemption from legitimate taxation, the bribery\nof public officials, in other words leave him free to lie, to steal, and to murder.\nProfessor Edward A. Ross in his brave little book. Sin and Society, describes\nfor us most graphically this new American variation. He names him the\ncriminaloid, and he tells us why we suffer him. He says :\n\nThe real weakness in the moral position of Americans is not their attitude toward\nthe plain criminal, but their attitude toward the quasi-criminal. The shocking leniency\nof the pubUc in judging conspicuous persons who have thriven by anti-social practices\nis not due, as many imagine, to sycophancy\nIt is due neither to sycop.hancy nor\nunthinking admiration of success, but to perplexity.\n\nIf this countenance of immorality by the people is due to their perplexity;\nif the state is calling at this special period of its history for civic reformers,\nthen the school must clarify thought and must answer the call. It must\nsend out citizens prepared to meet the crimin^loids; sane, clear-headed\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nfellows, honest and fearless as our Heney, who will tear away the masks of\nthese \"grafters'* and reveal the hideousness beneath. But the state needs\nnot only educated leaders, but also educated followers. Not every boy and\ngirl can be trained for leadership, but we can at least do much to relieve the\npublic mind of perplexity. We can teach our children to look behind masks\nand to call things by their right names. We can substitute knowledge for\nignorance, certainty for douh)t, clearness for confusion. We can teach our\nchildren to think upon the problems that need to be solved in their own day.\nAnd this brings us to one of the most difficult details of the subject with\nwhich the school is confronted: that of the time for the teaching of right\nconduct in relation to the daily school program. Shall it have a fixed place\namong the other school disciplines, or shall it be taught incidentally as\noccasion suggests or demands ? It is, of course, true that we should train for\nsocial efficiency all the day through, that each subject is but a means to this\nend, otherwise we may very well be educated (if one may thus misuse the\nword) criminals instead of citizens. This utilization of subject-matter selected\napparently merely to give mental and physical efficiency in the interests of\nsocial efficiency is admirably treated in several books, published within the\nlast five years, and it is to be hoped that teachers may not only read but heed\nwhat is said therein. The teacher who even attempted the utilization of\nsubject-matter selected apparently merely to give mental and physical efficiency for the teaching of social efficiency could not fail to keep before her own\nmind, at least, the true goal of education and that would be a great point\ngained; for the truth is that the rank and file of our teachers^ while acknowledging as a logical deduction the supremacy of right conduct as above what\npasses for right arithmetic or right geography, yet do not demonstrate their\nso-called belief in actual practice. It is probably partially due to the fact that\nonly the best teachers are able to teach in this way. The others moralize,\nand — the sentence is stronger unfinished.\nAll teachers possess, however, that evasive, unanalyzable characteristic\ncalled personality, and the teacher's personality is with the children literally\nall the time, leading always toward or away from right conduct. Far more\nof a point should be made in the education and selection of teachers of\npersonality. Personalities can be strengthened, widened, and made beautiful.\nTrainers of teachers are much to blame when they graduate weak, narrow,\nugly personalities. But, taking our schools as we find them today, taught\nby men and women intellectually brilliant, average, and dull, technically\ntrained, self-trained, and untrained, earnest and careless, enthusiastic and\nblase, shall we recommend that training for right conduct have a definite\nplace upon the school program ; shall it be taught incidentally or shall it be\ntaught directly at all ?\nTo hark back to one of the first conclusions of this paper, the schools at\nlarge are not making a success of their training in right conduct. We must\ndo something about it.\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nRIGHT\n\nCONDUCT\n\n2^0\n\nMr. Frank Cramer in his admirable essay on ''Moral Training in the\nPublic Schools\" says :\nNothing like a general effort has been made as yet to formulate the requirement\nthat can properly be laid upon the schools, or the materials and methods with which\nto meet them. We are standing now with our feet in the edge of the water and shivering, like the naked little boy, more from fear than cold, deterred from going back by\nshame and from going in by the goose-flesh conviction that we shall never be able to\ndo it\nSwimming is best learned by going into deep water\nThough we are\nstill very far from a general agreement about what things ought to be taught, how they\nshould be taught and the order of teaching in our purely intellectual work of the schools,\nyet enormous progress has been made.\n\nThe inference is, of course, that the same progress will be made in moral\ntraining if only we once seriously begin. And we must begin with the same\nsolemn earnestness with which we begin any great undertaking. If only we\nwill listen to the warnings of the state, if only we will watch those who are\nfighting the great social evils of the world, if only we will observe the sad\nconfusion and perplexity in the minds of our well-meaning citizens, if only\nwe will follow the lowering of our business ideals and their influence upon our\npolitics, surely we who have so much opportunity and ability for the righting\nand preventing of these wrongs for the state will not dare to wait. Of course\nwe shall make mistakes, of course we shall make failures; but the trend of\nthe curve will be upward. We ought long ago to have taken definite action\nregarding training for right conduct. When we are all thinkings then the\nactual work will begin. What I mean is to make it a great national movement, for no one is so ignorant as not to know that heroic work is being done\nhere and there thniout the country and especially in the great cities; but\nit needs big supplements, the inspiration of big thought and the strength of\nmighty co-operation.\nA form of incidental training for right conduct — if training it can be called\nand if right conduct it can be called — ^has always existed even in the worst of\nour public schools, the conduct being merely action conformable to the will\nof the teacher in order that his work might be made easier, and the training\ntherefore being appeal tp fear of bodily pain. The incidental method, then,\ntho radically different in character today, has the sanction of custom behind\n\\i, and doubtless some of the very best training for right conduct in our schools\ntoday is done in this way. Education itself is sometimes defined as ability to\nsee and to seize opportunity; and the thoughtful teacher, alert, wise and tactful,\nseeing and seizing the incidents of the everyday life and turning them to\naccount for the inculcation of principles of government and norms of conduct\nis fulfilling her duty nobly. The careless teacher, on the other hand, allows\nthe \"psychological moment\" to pass by unheeded, crowded put by the petty\ndetails of the day's work — examinations, promotions, or the best method of\nteaching partial payments. The dull teacher is blind— she does not see the\nopportunity; the blase teacher is indifferent— she does not seize the oppormnity; and the untrained teacher is crude and deals with cases requiring the\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nutmost delicacy so hurriedly and thoughtlessly that she does more harm than\ngood. Indeed, the greatest adverse criticism to be brought to bear upon\nthis method is that it does not require sufficient thought on the part of the\nteacher. Even those who use it most successfully are apt to depend entirely\nupon the thought furnished by previous experience vitalized by the inspiration\nof the moment; but too often this inspiration, being merely the excitement of\na passing emotion, containing no life-giving quality and ready-m.ade thought,\neven if it be one's own, is deadening.\nThe incidental method of training for right conduct cannot be universally\naccepted as all-sufficient, and a definite portion of the day must be set aside —\nperhaps the first part of a morning hour before fatigue sets in — for the thoughtful discussion of ethical questions. What ethical questions ? The teacher,\naided by the principal or superintendent, must decide The discussions must\nnever take the form of sermons, nor should the subjects for discussion be\nmade to order for the teacher, following a logical chart or scheme. That is\nthe way we used to teach the other school subjects until psychology and sociology taught us better. Formalism is the death-knell of originality or\nenthusiasm. I know a city in which the superintendent prides himself upon\nthe fact that at any selected hour of the day every child of a certain grade is\nbeing taught exactly the same lesson ; if it be the arithmetic hour the children\nare solving the same problems; if the language hour they are learning the\nsame poem; if reading, they are reading the same selection, etc., etc. Could\nany device serve better to take the sparkle, the initiative, the very thought\nout of a teacher? These discussions then must not be logically blocked out;\non the other hand they must not be haphazard and must fit in with the life\nof the child. They must be those that in general appeal to a particular group\nof children. They must meet the needs of the age. They must not be too\nhard or too easy of solution, for above all other virtues they must possess that\nof arousing and sustaining thought. A teacher's notebook for the jotting\ndown of subjects based upon concrete instances awaiting their future arrangement ishelpful. But it is not proposed at this point to enter into a consideration of the method of conducting these conferences, but rather to suggest that\nwe decide to give some definite portion of the day to this work. To be sure,\nthe careless teacher will be careless, the dull teacher will be dull, and the\nblase teacher, blase. The regularity of the discussions will, however, serve\nto emphasize the carelessness, the dullness, and the blase attitude. It will\nbring these facts insistently to the attention of the superintendent and of the\ncommunity, and may result in the removal of the inefficient. On the other\nhand, the necessity for having something to say will force the lazy teacher to\nthink, the mediocre teacher to think more deeply, while the wise and thoughtful teacher will be given time to do artistically what she has been hurriedly\npushing thru ''between classes,\" and best of all, it will allow time for the\nchildren to think, to weigh evidence, to study conditions, to suspend judgments, to clear up perplexities.\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nRIGHT\n\nCONDUCT\n\n_J4i\n\n3. Training for right conduct should he done in the right way.—\\i we could\nbe sure of training for right conduct being done by just the right people and\nat just the right time— in every sense of the words ''right time\"— then the right\nway would follow logically, and we should be living in Utopia. But America\nis still some distance from Utopia; we cannot be certain of either the people\nor the time, so it is necessary to speak of ways of training.\nIn what ways then shall we train for right conduct ? There is time to consider but a very few, but the training should be\n1. In a way to arouse and sustain thought.\n2. In a way to produce excitement.\n3. In a way to stimulate good action, rather than to emphasize bad.\n4. In a way to develop proper humility.\n5. In a way to develop responsibility for the welfare of others.\n6. In a way to form standards of conduct appHcable anywhere.\n7. In a way to produce right conduct.\n\nI. In a way to arouse and sustain thought, — Few people t^ink. The\nschools are to blame. The great need of our day is clearness of vision. Not\nmany people aspire to be \"arch fiends,\" yet a goodly number attain that\ndistinction. Hiding under the cloak of respectability, conforming to many\nof the accepted principles of good citizenship, probably temperate in habits—\nthat was one of Abraham Ruef's striking virtues — clean physically,. generous\nto the few, providing liberally for the family, loyal to the clan, the criminaloid's\nambition is ever to make a good appearance among his fellows, to bear a good\nname, to be known as a good citizen. Even his crimes are disguised under\nthe term \"business irregularities.\" Suggestion is a potent factor in conditioning mental processes, and one can readily understand how such a man may\nnot only persuade the world but even himself that he is really a pretty good\nfellow. Do we find anything analogous to this in our schools? Some of\nthe most popular high-school fellows \"crib,\" that is, lie; \"swipe\" anything\nfrom a physics' folder to a freezer of ice-cream, that is, steal; sign their parents'\nnames to letters of excuse, that is, commit forgery; evade or defy laws made\nfor the public good, that is, sow the seeds of anarchy. The boys do not\ncommit these crimes in order to be bad, but rather in a spirit of daring or\nbravado. They do not look upon their misdeeds as crimes; under their\nnew and catchy slang names, they are mere school \"irregularities.\" What\ncan we do about it? Suggestion is a potent factor in the conditioning of\nmental processes; it may be made to function for good quite as well as for\nbad conduct. Suppose at the time set aside for the training in good citizenship (one advantage of the selected time as opposed to the incidental method\nis that the questions involved can be approached more easily indirectly), suppose\nat this period a wise teacher could bring before his class the larger questions\nof business ethics and political honor in a series of inspiring, intellectual,\nserious, but not sentimental talks, illustrating freely from current events, and\ndelicately carrying the discussion sometimes into the very border land of\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nschool life, leading the class to think and letting them draw their own conclusions. His work would do much to dispel the clouds of ignorance in which\nboy mind is enveloped. I am thoroly convinced that if boys could be\nmade to see that their \"irregularities\" were crimes they would not commit\nthem. In a certain sense these sins against society are far more dangerous\nfor society than the more personal vices of drinking and smoking, e.g., to\nwhich the schools have given always a good deal of emphasis. Heaven forbid\nthat I should plead that our boys should not be wisely instructed regarding\nthe effects of these drugs upon the growing body; but there are other worse\nvices to which we seem almost indifferent. The honest working man who\ntakes a glass of beer with his luncheon is a prince of purity compared with\na man like Abraham Ruef, even if the latter should never have tasted a drop\nof liquor in his life. These beginnings of sins — these sins themselves —\ncommitted in school life are sins against society, and our children must be\nled to think about them in this light.\n2. In a way to produce excitement. — Training in right conduct must not\nbe tame. Undoubtedly one of the greatest incentives to crime is the excitement involved. It must be interesting as mere intellectual gymnastics to lay\nbig schemes of any sort. The scientist has his theories, the poet his dreams,\nthe business man his plans, and the politician his diplomacies, and there\nmust be great pleasure in watching their development, and enormous excitement in overcoming obstacles to their successful achievement. The fact\nthat his schemes are laid for the purpose of duping and defrauding people\nfalls into insignificance in the mind of the criminaloid when he considers\nthe pleasure to be derived from their skillful manipulation, and final consummation. Even lesser crimes partake of the same excitement. The\nsneak thief who deftly and perhaps artistically removes a man's watch from\nhis waistcoat pocket undiscovered must experience a thrill that is akin to\nthat of the valiant army officer skilled in military tactics crawling stealthily\nupon the enemy to suprise them unawares. Mentality is all of a kind; it is\nonly the purpose for which mind functions that differentiates a saint from a\nsinner. Judge Lindsey tells us that he himself was tempted as a boy to rob\na hen roost, not for the sake of the possession of the fowls in question, but\nlargely from the excitement in it, and he frankly adds that he was preserved\nfrom the fulfilment of the act not by a realization of its wickedness but by an\noverpowering feeling of cowardice. Most of the vandalism committed on\nholidays and after school is due to this desire for something to happen. A\ngreat deal of the attempt to evade rules and law is merely the uncontrolled\ntemptation to match mind with mind and see who wins out.\nOur training for right conduct ought to take on a more lively, attractive\naspect. Being good and doing good is made too tame. In the vernacular\nof the child, \"There's nothing doing.\" There is no reason at all why the\nexercise of good conduct should not often be very exciting. To use but one\nof many illustrations, probably the element of surprise in all schemes is one\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR RICIIT CONDUCT\n\nof the most pleasurable. Let us have surprises, then. ''Not possible,\" you\nsay, \"in school life?\" Then socialize the school life and make it possible.\nAt Christmas time. Thanksgiving time, St. Valentine's Day, May Day, and on\nvarious other holidays rather elaborate surprises can be arranged for; but all\nthru the days opportunity may be given. Invalid friends can be surprised\nwith gifts made in school, parents and other relatives can be surprised on\ntheir birthdays, absent classmates may be written surprise letters— often they\nare surprising indeed. Literary, musical, and dramatic programs, themselves\nintrinsically exciting, planned with the utmost secrecy, may cause any amount\nof pleasure to the surprisers and to the surprised. Sometimes a class luncheon\nis planned to be eaten on the lawn or a ''banquet\" in the hall, and the principal\nis supposed to be greatly impressed as well as enormously astonished when\nhe discovers that the banqueters have provided not only edibles but toasts.\nThese surprises give rise to a good deal of scheming, and active minds are kept\nbusy outwitting others equally as active; but mentality is functioning in the\nright direction ; for the aim of those who are scheming is to give pleasure and\nnot pain to those whom they succeed in outwitting. There is nothing wrong\nin scheming if its methods are square and its purpose high. As we say in\nSan Francisco, \"It takes a Heney to outwit a Ruef.\"\n^. In a way to stimulate good rather than to emphasize had action. — Training for right conduct should be affirmative rather than negative. One of the\ndangers of the incidental method of moral training is that the incident chosen\nis almost invariably the commission of a wrong act which the teacher tries to\nbring the children to see and to acknowledge is wrong, and in which, therefore, they must not indulge. Subtle suggestion is not so easy for that reason.\nThe class know from the beginning that the incident is the text, and that its\ntreatment is to be a good deal like a sermon. Then, too, the negative character of the incident emphasizes the everlasting \"don't,\" always depressing and\nsometimes demoralizing.\nBut if there were a time for it the teacher could speak frequently of the\ngood deeds going on in the world, in the country, the state, the city, and sometimes in the school. I say sometimes in the school, because there is always\ndanger of making children self-conscious and of developing not good citizens\nbut goody-goody prigs. Again sensitive children like the Widow O'Callaghan's Pat hate \"bein' bawled at\" before others quite as much when they\nhave done right as when they have done wrong. As a type of what seems\nto be a wise use of an occasional emphasis of good conduct in the school,\nlet me quote from a newspaper clipping the following item. I omit the name\nof the place and the school. \"The grammar-school graduates of the X\nGrammar School, now members of the Y High School, who have received\nstraight 'A' records for this last month's work (allow me to say in passing\nthat in this high school there is no undue stress put upon marks, A being,\nhowever, evidence to the child that the work outUned is being well done)\nwere tendered a reception and banquet by the grammar grades of their former\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nschool. Toasts were given and resolutions drawn up expressing the children's\npride in these high standings attained by their former classmates\n\"\nPride in the honestly acquired successes of others and expressive appreciation ofit tends to inculcate brotherly love, one of the chief factors in social\nefficiency.\n4. In a way to develop proper humility. — Much stress in all books upon\nmoral training is laid upon the cultivation of self-reliance and self-respect.\nIn doing this care must be taken to avoid what might be called self-sufficiency.\nIn the adolescent period boys and girls tend to become laws unto themselves ;\nnot only do they resent restriction because it interferes with their desires,\nbut they chafe at it because they do not believe in its necessity. They feel\nperfectly sure of themselves; they trust implicitly and unquestioningly their\nown judgments; they are abnormally self-reliant.\nSmall doses of simple psychology for these young egotists prove effective.\nIf not able to take up the abstract question of what mind is, they can, at least,\nknow some of its laws and how its working is conditioned. Nothing fills us\nwith greater humility than the fact that we cannot always trust our judgments, that tho they may be true in the sense that with the apperceptive\nbasis furnished they could not be otherwise, yet nevertheless other judgments\nbased upon a richer experience may more nearly reach actual truth. When\nonce this fact has been grasped — and it does not take long to teach it, because\npsychology, new and mysterious, is always interesting to children — they will\nbe found much more open to conviction and will even voluntarily concede\npoints of whose truth they acknowledge they are not convinced. This conces ion isby no means to be confused with blind obedience. It is the voluntary suspension of one's own judgment until a broader basis for forming it\ncan be acquired, meantime trusting in the wisdom of more-experienced friends.\nSometimes this humility has to be taught quite early in life, and, if traced\nto its source, self-sufficiency is found here also to be due largely to lack of knowledge. But children must learn that, if they cannot be brought to see the right as\nwe see it, to mistrust their judgments and to rely for the time being, at least,\nupon ours. We ourselves do likewise when confronted with questions too\ndifficult to be answered by our weak intellects, as Professor Barnes so well\npoints out in his latest book, Where Knowledge Fails. We stop trying to\nknow what baffles our intellect, and ''where knowledge fails\" give ourselves\ntrustingly into the friendly arms of faith. Surely no one will deny that a\ncertain amount of humility might very well be made an influence in the conduct of the average American youth: \" 'tis a consummation devoutly to be\nwished,\" but can never be accomplished by unceasing reiterations as to the\ncrudity and foolish characters of his judgments. He must be taught to mistrust them and to have faith in ours.\n5. In a way to develop responsibility jor the welfare 0} others. — Much of\nthe so-called discipline in school could be avoided if bays and girls were impressed with a sense of responsibility toward their schoolmates.\nFor instance,\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR RIGHT\n\nCONDUCT\n\nthe boy who disturbs his class by foolish pranks, who will not settle down\nto serious work, because it is more interesting to act the clown while the class\napplauds, will be greatly benefited, and the characters of the class greatly\nstrengthened, if they, realizing their responsibility for their neighbor's conduct,\nrefuse to be amused by his silly or even witty tricks. Children should know\nthat it is the privilege of boys and girls to attend school, and that only those are\nsuspended or expelled whose bad conduct is influencing others unduly. If\nnow they refuse to be influenced they may be the means of winning back into\nthe ranks of good citizenship a fellow-being who otherwise may be forever an\noutcast from society. Too often the incorrigible is actually made by the attitude of those who not only suffer but applaud his doings. There are schools,\nhowever, in which the pupils are so interested in the conduct of one another\nand feel so strongly their own responsibility concerning it that when a child\nmust be sent away from among them, they are deeply sorry, and, blaming themselves, wonder what they might have done to prevent the necessity of the\nexpulsion. I am not advocating children's preaching to one another, tho\nsometimes a child's advice is taken kindly, especially that of a girl to a boy,\nbut we might, at least, impress the fact that enjoying and applauding bad\nconduct make the applauder a coworker with the wrong-doer; and — what\nseems to be more easily understood and accepted — ^lead directly to his downfall.\nEach one of us is his brother's keeper. This is a responsibility put upon us,\nGod-given, not to be avoided.\n6. In a way to jorm standards oj condttct applicable anywhere. — A socalled well-organized school may be so well organized and so schoolish as to\nfurnish very narrow limits within which conduct can function. That is one\nadvantage of a self-governing system, like the George Junior Republic. There\nthe youth meets exactly the same problems as will confront him in adult life\nand he early learns to see things in their true light and to call things by their\nright names. While this extreme discipline is not possible, or for the average\nAmerican child necessary, yet it is highly desirable that our schools in their\nfunctioning more nearly approximate the activities of the larger world.\nEspecially, it seems to me, should children be given opportunity to form ideals\nof business methods. Honor in business dealings is a fact upon which\nAmericans have justly prided themselves. Children should know this and\nbe taught to keep the standard liigh. Square-dealing between man and\nman is still, thank heaven, the American ideal.\ny. In a way to produce right conduct. Training for right conduct, begun\nin thought, must end in conduct. No amount of thinking about social efficiency will necessarily result in conduct. Too often teachers leave off their\ntraining just at the point of its going into effect, e.g., perhaps some of the best\nwork attempted in the correction of wrong conduct in the personal interview\nis left incomplete. The child, brought to see the error of his ways is honestly\nrepentant, and full of good resolutions for improvement. And here the\nteacher feels the climax is reached, and he is aUowed to go on his way re-\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\njoicing. Probably he falls into the very same trouble the following day and\nperhaps the interview is repeated, ending at the same point and so on indefinitely. Bad habits are not broken by means of mere resolutions, nor are\ngood habits formed in this way. The teacher should ask, when the point of\nrepentance is reached, \"Now what are you going to do about it ?\" A child\naccustomed to the old form of procedure in which the resolve is the end of\nall things is always surprised at this question, and it must be confessed, his\nrepentance and sorrow sometimes visibly weaken when he gets the full\nforce of the suggestion. If he is not able to block out a course of action,\nthen the teacher must help him and help him also in keeping it. Older boys\nand girls are greatly interested in the psychology of habit, and are charmed\nto find that the laws of habit are not hard to prove, while the so-called repentant, full of empty resolves, is easily brought to a realization of their futility\nwhen he learns that \"there is no more contemptible type of human character\nthan that of the nerveless sentimentalist and dreamer, who spends his life in\na weltering sea of sensibility, but never does a concrete manly act.\" In our\ntraining for good conduct we have put too much emphasis upon intention and\nresolution, and not enough upon conduct itself. We are prone, having gained\nthe resolution, to take the conduct as a matter of course. The deduction\nmay be logical, but it is far from psychological.\nSUMMARY\n1. Few people think. Failure to think rightly, failure to think deeply, failure to\nthink at all are the great causes of social unfitness.\n2. It is the function of the school to train for social efl&ciency. Social eflSciency\nmust be based upon thought. Much of this thought must be ethical in character. It\nshould be directed by the right people, at the right time, in the right way.\n3. Professional schools, departments of education in universities, and superintendents\nshould strongly emphasize these points.\nRECOMMENDATION\n\nSince it is a function of the school to set standards of conduct for the citizens\nof the state, and since incidental training for right conduct is too uncertain\na method to be generally accepted, therefore, definite training for social efficiency should have a place on the school program of each school in our country.\nTHE\nI.\n\nSCHOOL\nREED\n\nAS AN\n\nB. TEITRICK,\n\nINSTRUMENT\n\nDEPUTY\n\nOF CHARACTER-BUILDING\n\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT\nHARRISBURG,\nPA.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nEvery view of life proves the pressing need and the paramount importance of moral\ntraining. It is a subject not easy to deal with. It bristles with difficulties both real and\napparent and it is certainly worthy of the earnest thought of the broadest and best-cultured\nminds. When in the midst of learning, dishonesty and immorality flourish, not because\nof education, but in spite of it; when we find men weak and irresolute where they should be\nstrong and purposeful; when we find hands untrained to practical uses, minds unable to\ngrasp the common wants and rights of existence, hearts in which high ideals of character\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCHARACTER-BUILDING\n\n247\n\nand strong impulses toward true usefulness are overswept by indifference and selfishness,\nthe need for increased effectiveness in moral training becomes imperative.\nWhether we consider essentials for character-building or observe petty weaknesses\nof\nsociety and flagrant violations of moral and civic law, we are lead to form these conclusions:\nFirst, more effective moral training is imperative. Unselfishness must supplant\ngreed for gain, purity in politics must supersede political intrigue, \"honest work for an\nhonest wage \" must succeed inefficient service and doubtful business methods. The need of\ntoday in the physical world is not so much for giants as for strong, well-developed normal\nmen. In like manner in the moral world we do not so much need heroes as men and women\nwhose moral vitality rests upon plain living, high thinking, and righteous doing.\nWhen we inculcate right ideas of life and labor, and a sound morality in what are\ntermed the small affairs of life, we have laid the cornerstone of true character-building.\nSecond, citizenship demands moral qualifications. Personal morality is the morality\nof the state. The annals of a nation portray the virtues and vices of the mass of its people,\nand its rise or retrogression is measured by the moral standards of its citizens. The republic in its plan of self-government recognizes the necessity of individual moral excellence.\nGovernment by the people can reach its summum honum only by perfecting manhood and\nwomanhood. The secret of progress for the state, the key for all problems, the solution\nof all vexed questions lies in lifting up the individual.\nIt is not enough that the voter, juror, or public official be efficient and intelligent, he\nmust possess the moral fiber which makes him unswervingly resolute and unimpeachably\nhonest.\nThird, the state has a right to expect moral training from all of her institutions, but\nespecially from her public schools. Except the church, no public institution can be compared with the public school in its influence on the character of the people. The public\nschool is the state's chief instrument for character-building. Future citizens work together\nside by side on the same footing in the public schools and are governed by common laws.\nA proportionately large number of the hours of youth are spent in school and childhood\nimpressions are well-nigh indelible.\nIt is true that the primary object of the school is intellectual development and training, but much harm would result if brain were fed and stimulated while cunning of hand\nwas neglected and heart and soul were left to starve.\nThe chief responsibility for moral training during youth undoubtedly rests with the\nhome, but the school forms an invaluable adjunct in supplementing and fostering such\nculture.\nWe should observe the distinction between moral training and moral instruction,\nsince moral instruction is only one of thf avenues of approach to moral training. Direct\nmoral instruction in school work is necessarily limited but the moral training afforded\nby the public schools is practically unbounded.\nThe public school, as an instrument of character-building, achieves results in two ways:\nFirst, it may give moral instruction. Altho we recognize the truth that morality\nis not developed by precept or mere repetition of a code of ethical laws, it cannot be questioned that moral instruction in the public schools when timely, earnest, and possessed of\nliving interest is most helpful in forming right habits of thinking, doing, and living. Such\ninstruction must possess the quality of reality to be effective. It must yield both inspiration and strength to appropriate living truths. Morality held in theory is like seed without\nthe sowing, ripening, and harvest. Whatever touches the heart influences character.\n\"As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he.\"\nVast wealth of material for moral instruction is found on the pages of history and\nbiography, and in the literature of song and story. The rise of the righteous, the triumph\nof truth, the power of the patriot, the devotion of lovers of liberty, the victory of the just,\nthe tales of physical bravery and moral courage as depicted on the pages of history are all\nIn biography the youth may walk with the world's choicest\nfull of moral inspiration.\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nspirits and be inspired and ennobled by the records of their works and lives. When we\nconsider the man, Lincoln, the fact possesses rare significance that as a boy his constant\ncompanions were the men and women of the Bible, Pilgrim's Progress, Shakespeare, and\nPlutarch. Patriotism, devotion to duty, fidelity to trust, sacrifice of self for others — all\nthat belongs to an intense and vital spirit urged on by great desires and high moral purposes speak to the boy or girl from the records of the world's worthies. The literature of\nsong and story is a great storehouse of food for the nurture of character, and its garners are\never overflowing with legends of the great and good deeds of all ages. Moral teaching\nfed from such reservoirs as these must be fruitful and will be satisfactory.\nSecond, it gives indirect or incidental moral training. Perhaps the school performs\nits highest mission as an instrument of character-building in the incidental training in\nmorals which it affords. The common school is the best possible image of society. It is\na larger edition of the home and a smaller edition of the nation. The general tone, atmosphere, and management of the school should show proper regard for moral principles\nand be such as to promote individual morality. Environment and atmosphere are more\npowerful than formulated ethics. Mental images arc being formed continually; and it\nis not so much what is said but what is that leaves an indelible impression upon the child mind. In this connection it should be observed that a good teacher is the important\nfactor, a teacher whose personality walks beside the pupil pursuing his homeward way,\nsits beside him at the evening meal, pervades the atmosphere of the whole evening and\ndraws him back in the morning with irresistible force.\nNot only does the general environment of school life build and strengthen character\nbut the actual work of the school is most helpful in this direction :\n1. Thru the branches taught. — Not only does the mere effort required to do mental\nlabor yield valuable moral discipline but each branch in the school course develops and\nstrengthens certain moral attributes. Every operation in mathematical work enforces\nthe unchangeable principle that a certain line of action is bound to bring certain results;\nthat there is no way but the right way. This is one of the most necessary and valuable\nlessons in the whole field of moral culture and corresponds to that inviolable law of the\nspiritual realm, \"whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap.\" Reading unfolds\nto the youthful mind the inspiration of the vast and varied realm of literature. Grammatical work cultivates the power of making close distinctions and logical inferences.\nGeography gives broad views of peoples and industries and indicates the natural causes\nfor the lives of nations. The nature of physiological instruction is such as to teach purity\nin \"the care and use of the body and reverence for its Maker.\n2. Thru the mechanical work of the school. — Whatever develops the personality\nof the child develops character. Writing and physical exercises are chiefly valuable in\nthis line in so far as they give control of the body and direct self-activity. One of the ultimate aims of drawing is to open the mind to the beauty and significance of nature and art.\nManual training aids in developing self-reUance, self-control, and a sense of power. These\nare elements that tend to produce strong character.\n3. Thru discipline. — Public-school discipline is a potent factor in characterbuilding inasmuch as it tends to establish right habits. The general organization and\nmanagement of the school are such as to make such habits necessary. The mere regular\nand prompt attendance at school is in itself a valuable training. When there are added\nto this such other school requirements as system, industry, obedience, self-reliance, and\nregard for the rights of others, what a mine of moral training is revealed !\nFor character is ultimately a habit; its base rests in countless small achievements,\nand it rises into noble and towering strength because numberless victories are wrought into\nit, as the cannon captured from many foes were melted and molded together to make the\nmajesty of the Vendome Column in Paris.\nMorality means strength and self-control, courage to defend the weak and to stand\nalone for the right, unflinching devotion, transparent truth, stainless honor.\nWe cannot\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHEISCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCHARACTER-BUILDING\n\n249\n\nlay too much stress upon the imperative necessity of using and keeping pure the fountain\nfrom which such far-reaching influences flow.\n\nII.\n\nHENRY\n\nG. WILLIAMS,\n\nDEAN\n\nOF STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nOHIO\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nATHENS,\n\nO.\n\nThe words \"instrument\" and \"building\" found in the subject assigned for discussion\nat this hour indicate clearly means and end, or means of production and the resulting\nproduct. The implication is that one of the functions of the school is to produce charto go a little farther and say that the one all-inclusive function of the school\nacter. wish\nI\nis to produce character. It is character, in its true sense, rather than the school, that is\nthe great necessity in our moral, social, and economic life. The school is sunply one of\nthe means to this end. Given : A rational creature in a rational world, with an afjinity of\nthe one for the other, and time in which this rational creature may learn to know his\nenvironment, and an education will result, even without the school. But the school has\nbeen organized to aid and direct the individual in his search for such truth as will make\nhis life efficient in its contribution to the sum total of the world's happiness and goodness;\nto enable him in life to do well some part of the world's work and in death to bequeath to\nthe race some heritage of accumulated wisdom and some improvement of the world's\nideals of individual and civic righteousness.\nThe one fundamental and ultimate aim of education is the production of a vitaUzing,\npropelling character that shall be the exponent of the world's highest thought and achievement in its intellectual, moral, physical, ethical, and aesthetic efforts. We iiave been too\nprone to practice our profession as tho the work of the school were to be confined to\nintellectual achievement alone. This is the greatest weakness of the school today. Our\neducation has become so exclusively intellectual in its scope that we hav6 educated too\nmany of our boys and girls away from the domain of the manual arts. If the world's\nwork is to be done and civilization is to be advanced thru the doing of this work, we\nmust educate and train men and women for social efficiency, to do their work and not leave\nit to the hands of the untaught, the indifferent, the time server, the non-idealistic, the\nindividual without aspirations, the pessimistic fatalist. Man is something more than a\nfated fact among the blind forces of nature. Every individual possesses the consciousness\nof an unrealized self, and such a consciousness is as natural as the power to think, but it\nmust be appealed to early in life and so encouraged and trained that its possessor will\nearly realize that he is the architect of his own ideals. Here is a most important sphere\nof activity for the school. Two goals should be set up for the pupil to reach: one goal\nhe can be led to see clearly; the other lies hidden for a time beyond it. The first goal represents the immediate aim of education— the mastery of the lesson for the day, the successful\ncompletion of a subject, or of a prescribed course of study, the possession of a coveted\ndiploma, or the assignment to a long-sought position as the result of patient, diligent\npreparation. But the holder of such position has not yet begun to do the world's work.\nThe guiding hand of the teacher is no longer felt upon his shoulder. The man with the\ndiploma and the position is now called upon to initiate and to direct his own course. The\nfirst goal has been reached and he is now ready to pass it, but what shall be his guide, his\ninspiration ? He finds he needs to have another goal set up before him. That goal is\ncharacter— the ultimate aim of education— and if the two aims, the immediate and the\nultimate, are not in direct line from the point of starting, there is something radically\nwrong with the system of education under which he was trained to reach that first goal.\nThe way to run a straight line across a field is to have at least two stal^es ahead of you, then\nkeep yourself and the two stakes all in one straight line, and keep going. The ultimate\nstake must be over in the next field, a point which you may not expect to reach, but a point\nwhose location is just as necessary for your guidance as any other goal in the line. That\nultimate stake, or goal, is the ideal, and is an ever-advancing goal. It is too sacred to\ntouch— you cannot reach it, altho you may reach the place where it was. It advances\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nas you advance. It lures you on, and if the ideal is a well-rounded, efficient character,\nyou wiU always find it straight ahead. There is entirely too much zig-zagging in our\nmethods of instruction. If our methods are sound, they will always take us straight\nahead toward that great ultimate goal, character. I contend that there is little value in\nsubject-matter alone unless by its mastery the child or the student becomes more efficient\nin doing something the world needs to have done. There is today much extraneous matter\nin the curriculum. Some of it affords merely intellectual training or discipline; some of\nit is nothing but mere rubblish. Unless subject-matter not only affords opportunity for\nmental discipline, but arouses the dormant self-hood of the child, and, as Bishop Huntington once said, \"rings the rising bell in the dormitory of the soul,\" it has but little place in\nthe curriculum.\nCharacter is a growth, not a spasm, and the school must supply many of the conditions of such growth. Nothing that has the power to grow can grow hy and 0} itself.\nGrowth comes from within and is not imposed from without, but the conditions of growth\nmust always be supplied by forces entirely outside of the thing that possesses the power to\ngrow. To the seed containing the latent possibility of growth must be supplied light, heat,\nmoisture. But all these could not put life into the seed or change the nature of that life.\nSo it is with the child. The school must supply conditions of moral, intellectual, and\nphysical growth. With our changing conditions in the social, political, and industrial\nworld, we find the home is not able to give the physical and moral training it once gave.\nWe cannot depend upon the home or upon the church to do all for the child that he must\nhave done for him in the way of moral training. The public school must shoulder a large\ngeneral responsibility in this direction, and thru its ethical and aesthetic training, do\nfor the child what the home primarily ought to do.\nNot only must the school assume much responsibility for moral instruction, but for\ninstruction in the manual arts as well. The days of the apprentice have passed. The\ndays when each home was a factory are gone. By the passing of these two institutions, the\nchild has lost much of the heritage of the fathers, and is sent to school to have his intellect\ntrained and his hands neglected. By such a system we are educating our children away\nfrom the domain of manual labor and the sense of honor in toil. The world's work must\nbe done, and it ought to be done by those whose minds as well as hands have been trained.\nUnskilled and uneducated labor is a great curse to any country with an ideal. If character means a well-rounded development for efficiency in living, then our children need\nnot only to know things but to know how to do things. Character means more than\nnegative goodness, and more than mere morality. There are many people who live a\nsort of goody-goody life who do not possess much virility of character or steadiness of\npurpose. They are not the people who do the world's work. Those who have been\ntaught to use their hands, to honor the worker and praise his work, are people who live\na positive efficiency. They can build better cities than their fathers did and make better\nbread than their mothers made, because they have a sounder, more wholesome character\nthan those who have been educated to ignore the worker and despise his work. The great\nmasses of laboring people in this country do not want your sympathy, but they do want\nyour interest and confidence in the work they are doing.\nThe public school must not educate the boys and girls of our land away from manual\nlabor, but educate them into it. The boy who is already on the farm should be so educated\nthat he may become a better farmer than his father ever was. Agricultural education must\nbecome an integral part of our system of public education. Manual training and home\neconomics are more vitalizing in the production of character than cube root or the split\ninfinitive. Character is a growth, and no man ever grew good over night — nor bad, either,\nfor that matter. The things the boy thinks and does and sees work silently but fatefully\nto shape his character. Knowledge of the right alone will not save a man. His will and\nhis hands must be trained to do the right. The personality of the teacher will also do as\nmuch as the curriculum in the building of character.\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA\n\nPLAN\n\nOF\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n'\n\n2 CI\n\nWe were told yesterday by President Roosevelt that our work is a most important\none, and in these words: \" It is idle for any man to talk of despairing of the future of this\ncountry or feeling unduly alarmed about it, if he will come in contact with you here, and\nwith the forces that you represent.\" And also in these words in that memorable address yesterday: \"While your work in training the intellect is great, it is not so great as\nyour work in training character.\" Let me close with the words of the same great exponent\nof civic righteousness, used by him in an address to the National Education Association on\na former occasion :\nThe most characteristic work of the Republic is that done by the teachers, for whatever our shortcomings as a nation may be, we have at least firmly grasped the fact that v^c\ncannot do our part in the difficult and important work of self-government, that we cannot\nrale and govern ourselves, unless we approach the task with developed minds and x^ath\nthat which counts for more — with trained characters.\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE FAMILY\n\nMRS. JOHN M. GLENN, BALTIMORE, MD.\n{An Abstract)\n\nMrs. Glenn gave an interesting account of an examination into home\nconditions of school children in South Baltimore, Md. Lack of sufl&cient and\nproper food and of home care was found to furnish abundant reasons f6r\nfailure to make progress in school. The examination showed that the family,\nnot the child, is the unit, and that the family and the child must be educated\ntogether. The school, the church, the charity agent, and the health department must co-operate to educate the child as a member of the family.\nThere is great need for \"parent-teacher associations\" in every city and in\nthe rural communities as well; in the former to mitigate the hardships of\ncongestion; in the latter to relieve the isolation by bringing together the parents\nwith the teachers and children in helpful social intercourse.\nThe great problem of child-labor, which is as serious in the country and\nthe small town as in the city, can best be solved thru parent-teacher associations in which the real needs of the child and his preparation for life are\nfreely and fully discussed. In this way, teachers come to find out what is\nin the home and often to find what is really strong and good and ennobling.\nThere should be a very positive attitude on the part of the teacher and the\nschool toward the social life in the home and the community.\nSchool gardening associations and schoolhouse improvement clubs all work\nfor the betterment of the community, and these societies may find opportunities\nfor their work in every school, whether in city or country.\nA PLAN\nMISS\n\nJANE\n\nBROWNLEE,\n\nOF MORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nLECTURER,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\n[An Abstract Prepared by the Atdhor]\n\nThis plan is not a theory but has been in use in one school for ten years,\nin another eight, and for shorter periods in other schools thruout the east,\nIt has ceased to be an experiment.\nwest, and northwest.\nIts purpose is twofold: to awaken in the child a consciousness that he is,\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\n*\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nand that he has a mind and a body; to arouse in him a sense of responsibility\nfor the care of his servants.\nFive or ten minutes are to be consumed at the opening of the morning\nsession, the thought to be alluded to during the day as opportunity offers.\nThru questioning, the child is led to tell about his body: \"Why do you\neat food?\" \"Suppose you refuse to eat, what then?\" \"Can anybody eat\nyour food for you ?\" This is the beginning in the child of self -responsibility.\nHe learns that here is something he must do for himself just as long as he lives\non earth, and very much of his success and happiness in life depend upon the\nway he does it.\nIn much the same way, he is led to see that the mind must be properly fed,\nlessons forming the greater part of its food.\nHe is then led to consider the real child, the higher self, who is master of\nthe two servants, body and mind. The food of the real child is thoughts.\nJust as nobody can eat his food, or learn his lessons for him, so no one can do\nhis thinking for him.\nA subject for thought is selected, and is held by the entire school during\nthe month. The child is taught how to put this particular thought into\npractice in home and school. Among the subjects used are kindness, obedience, courtesy, regard for the rights of others, truthfulness, honor, loyalty, and\ncourage, physical and moral.\nROUND\nA.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nTABLES\n\nSTATE AND\nTENDENTS\n\nTOPIC: COUNTY\nI. WHAT\n\nA\n\nJ. W.\n\nSUPT.\n\nOLSEN,\n\nCOUNTY\nPUBLIC\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSUPERIN-\n\nFOE\n\nSHOULD\n\nMINNESOTA,\n\nST.\n\nKNOW\n\nPAUL,\n\nMINN.\n\nIt is generally conceded that the city needs for school superintendents men of broad\ngeneral scholarship, special professional preparation, executive ability, and experience,\nvaried by actual work along different lines of school life. Now, tho the fact is not so\ngenerally conceded, the country district needs supervision quite as scholarly and efi&cient.\nThe county superintendent should be a man of scholarship just as broad, preparation\njust as professional, as that of the city superintendent, and should, moreover, be a man\nhaving an intimate acquaintance with country schools and their needs. The man who\nwould be a county superintendent worthy the name, therefore, will take steps to equip\nhimself with the knowledge implied by a liberal education and professional experience,\nplus that knowledge which is the result of practical contact with rural-school conditions.\nWhether we impart knowledge simply for its own sake, or as a means to the end of right\nconduct in life, the imparting of it and the desire to get more of it is the largest concern of\nour schools. Huxley suggests that knowledge is useful in proportion as it tends to give\npeople right ideas, which are essential to the foundation of right practice. Only temporarily and accidentally can th« schools of a county get beyond the ideals of its superintend-\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "S.iperintendenre]\n\nCOUNTY\n— —\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nDO\n\nent. Time and again it has been said that \"the function of supervision is to realize the\nideals of the supervisor.\" How can he properly frame a course of study that will meet the\ngeneral and the individual need unless he himself possess such knowledge of science,\nmathematics, literature, history, philosophy, as will give to his vision a comprehensive\nsurvey of the vast field of education, making clear the relation of the part to the whole,\nthe whole to the part, as will give him wisdom to select from this store that which will best\nsuit those for whose education he is, as supervising officer, directly responsible? His\npersonal equipment must be acquired by observation and experience, be assimilated\nthru a process of hard, conscientious thinking Its value to those dependent on him will\nbe measured by his intelligent, common-sense application of it to the problems confronting\nhim. He must know, not only things, but men— and children, the coming men; must\nhave an ideal ever before him of the manhood and womanhood into which he would\nhave the boyhood and girlhood under his care develop. This means practical childstudy, practical man- and woman-study. A friend of mine has given an excellent address\non the subject, \"The Best There Is in the Child; How to Find It; and What to Do with\nIt When Found.\" It is part of the work of the county superintendent to find the best\nthere is, not only in every child, but in every man and woman of his parish, and to use\nthat best for the highest good of the whole.\nHe should reaUze that the complex civilization of the twentieth century demands\nmore of the school than ever before; but his professional knowledge must be so rooted\nin the principles of sound pedagogy that he can distingviish between the fad and that movement which has in it the elements of life — which will be of real and permanent value.\nAs the result of his ovm experience, he should know what is education, what is culture.\nHe must have learned that he cannot give save from his own supply; he cannot arouse\nintellectual ambition nor kindle the spirit of social service, unless he have the love of knowledge and of humanity strong within him. Only life begets life. He should know that\nonly by superior qualities of head and heart can he inspire his teachers and ofl&cers with\nthat confidence in him which will result in cheerful following of his lead toward the larger\neducation. To be more specific — he should, as soon as he has the superintendency in\nview, to the best of his ability familiarize himself with general conditions in his county,\nso that his energies, after he goes into office, may lose no time in directing themselves\ntoward certain special improvements.\nHe should know and be able to plan for the best in rural-school architecture, including heating, lighting, ventilation, and sanitation, so that the buildings for which he is to a\nconsiderable extent accountable may be models of usefulness, comfort, and beauty. He\nshould be able to guide in the purchase of libraries, textbooks, and apparatus. He should\nknow the difference between good teaching and bad — how to praise the good so that it\nwill become better; how to transform the bad to good.\nHe should so know the school laws of his state, with the opinions of constituted\nauthority as to their interpretation, that his advice in matters of difficulty will be simple,\ndirect, and easily followed. Both in personal interview and in public address he should\nbe able so to present the needs of his schools that parents, officers, and taxpayers will not\nfail to appreciate their privilege of immediate and future reform. And he should know\nnot only what is required for his own county, but the needs of the entire state, so that he\nmay be in a position to co-operate with the department of public instruction and other\ncentral authority in creating the best public sentiment and in securing necessary legislation.\nAs time passes and he learns the general need, he will also acquire considerable knowl\nedge, more or less intimate, not only of the individual teachers of his county, but of the\nindividual children, with their home surroundings, helpful or hindersome. If he is a\ncollege man—and the time is coming when the county superintendents will be college\nmen— he will be in all the better position to make a plea with the parent for the broader\n•ducation when the fettered abilities of the child cry out for it.\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nHe must know not only how to keep aloof from local animosities, but must have the\nwisdom of the serpent and the harmlessness of the dove for the healing of neighborhood\nstrife. Retaining his own independence of character, he must at the same time know\nhow to be \"all things to all men.\" Tact does not necessarily mean insincerity. Besides\nmaking the machine run smooth, oil has a beneficial influence on the machine itself. At\nthe same time, those county superintendents so unfortunately situated as to be in states\nwhere re-election depends upon the whim of the people should know that they cannot be\nleaders, cannot do their best work, without that courage that does what conscienceinspired judgment dictates, regardless of whether it wins or loses votes.\nThe county superintendent should be a real forerunner of progress. In an excellent\naddress on supervision, Superintendent Babcock, of Oil City, Pa., said:\n\" Confronting every human being is the unknown world. To comprehend this world\nin terms of its own thought is the task fate sets for every soul.\"\nIn this suggestion as to the captaincy of the individual soul lies the suggestion as to\nthe infinite possibilities of our work — a work that does not terminate\n\" When the lessons and tasks are all ended,\nAnd the school for the day is dismissed,\"\nbut is taken up in continuous session in the university that knows no graduation.\nThose who were present at the conference of a year ago will perhaps remember my\npointing out that, under the prevailing system of general election, we cannot hope to\nattract to and retain in the county superintendency our best men and women. It is to be\nhoped that Commissioner Draper, Superintendents Gunnels, Nelson, and others engaged\nin heroic efforts to raise the country superintendency to the dignity of a profession, learned,\nable, permanent, and affording chance of promotion, will accomplish that for which they\n\nII.\n\nHOW\n\nFASSETT\n\nCAN\n\nTRAINED\nAND\nHOW\n\nA. COTTON,\n\nSTATE\nI.\n\nCOUNTY\nSHOULD\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS BE PROVIDED\nTHEY\nBE SELECTED?\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nDUTIES\n\nCOUNTY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\nIND.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nThe county is one of the important units or divisions in the state government; in\nsome respects the most important. Being such a unit, it naturally determines many\nthings vidthin its borders. The county is responsible for its schools and their proper\norganization, the principal work of such an organization being to bring about equal opportunity for all children.\nIt would probably be impossible to find anyone who would maintain that the countr}child should not have educational opportunity equal to the best that is provided in the\nstate. The claim for equal educational opportunity for all would doubtless receive universal sanction, and yet educational opportunity is so unequal in this country that startling\ninjustice is done to many of our children.\nWith short terms and poor facilities, with inexperienced and often poorly prepared\nteachers overburdened with classes, and with little supervision, the country school, in its\neffort to train the children for country life, has not been able to compete with the city\nschool in its effort to train the children for city life. Put six months, and in many instances\na shorter term, over against nine or ten months; put a poorly located, poorly heated, poorly\nventilated, poorly equipped single-room schoolhouse over against a centrally located,\nwell-built and well-equipped modern building; put a reasonable distance, with good\nwalks or streets, over against a long distance with poor roads; put well-quahfied, experienced\nteachers, with daily supervision, over against meager qualifications and inexperience; put\nthe richness of social life, with libraries and lectures, over against a dearth of these advantages, and the real situation may in a measure be vmdetstood.\nOf all the hindrances that keep the country child out of his rights the poor teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superiuleiideuce ]\n\nCOUNTY\nSUFERVISION\n—————— ———^—— —^——^^^—^—\n^_____^\n_—\n\n^\n\n2CC\n\nshould be placed foremost.- The school exists for the children, and the school can be no\nmore than the teacher. With a wide-awake, well-prepared teacher even the shortcomings\nof a limited term with poor equipment would be reduced to the minimum. Short terms,\nsingle-room\nin isolated districts, many classes and poor facilities, with good'\nteachers, are schoolhouses\ninfinitely better\nthan the finest equipment with incompetent teachers. In\nthe last analysis poor teaching is the chief cause of unequal educational opportunity.\nThe supreme need, then, is a sufiicient number of well-trained teachers to take charge\nof all our schools. It might well be contended that with such teaching as we have in many\nschools at present the terms are long enough and the provisions are good enough. With\na real teacher in each schoolroom in this country for four or five years further argument\nfor better things would be unnecessary.\nThe supreme work of the county superintendent, then, is to bring about better conditions in the country schools — to insure the country child educational opportunity equal to\nthe best that is provided in the state. In light of the above discussion the duties of the\ncounty superintendent fall naturally under the following heads :\n1. To unify the work of the county in education, including such questions as —\na) Keeping constantly before the people definite aims and methods.\nb) By indicating well-worked-out courses of study for both the elementary and secondary schools.\nc) By perfecting educational organizations such as township (town) and county\ninstitutes, county associations, reading circles, industrial clubs in connection with the\npublic schools for boys and girls.\nd) By bringing about close co-operation between the county farmers' institutes and\nthe teachers of the county.\nNotice that the county superintendent is to make the work a unity and not necessarily\nto bring about complete uniformity. He is to encourage individuaUty in the teacher and\nto commend always any power of initiative. If the work is made so uniform that the system is a machine and the teacher is merely a puppet, then it would be better to have no\ncounty superintendent of schools.\n2. To set the pace or standard in educational progress —\na) By skillful leadership for a very large majority of the teachers.\nb) By being a sharp goad for some of the teachers — a very small majority perhaps.\nTeachers need inspiration. The mere presence of an educated, professionally trained,\nresponsible leader with the license power, is very valuable. In some states the examination of all teachers is placed with the state instead of the county superintendent. The\nwork of selecting first-term teachers should be placed in the hands of the county superintendent, who is constantly mingling with the teachers and examining the work of the children in the upper grades of the public schools, and who, on account of such work, is better\nable to select beginning teachers. A county superintendent who is a close observer and a\ngood judge of human nature can select bright boys and girls from the seventh and eighth\ngrades in the public schools and encourage them to prepare to teach school. He can\nwatch their careers thru these grades and the high school and from these he can select\nhis teachers with much more intelligence than it is possible for a State Board of Education\nor State Superintendent of Public Instruction, or any other state authority so far removed,\nto select them. The county superintendent, then, should license all first-term teachers.\nThe state should examine and license teachers after they have had one year's experience,\nrefusing always to license anyone who has not the endorsement of the county superintendent or of the proper city or town superintendent.\n3. To supervise : that is, to set up some pedagogical or professional standard as in\ncity and town systems; to correct errors, and to suggest better ways. In other words, to\ntake to the teachers sympathetic, constructive supervision. In my judgment a superintendent's success can be determined as largely by the number of good teachers he makes\nout of poor material as by the number of teachers he can dismiss from his system on\naccount of poor work.\n4. To aid in the choice of teachers, both in granting licenses and in locating teachers.\nOne of the most important duties of the county superintendent of schools is that of helping\nminor school officials to select teachers for the several schools under their charge.\n5. To make the standard of the county as high as the best school in the county,\nthus making the county rather than the township (town) or the district the unit of efficiency.\nof the county in close touch with the best thought m the outschools\nkeep the\n6. To\neducational\nand more particularly in the state.\nworld,\nside\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\nII.\n\nNATIONAL\nCHARACTER\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nQUALIFICATIONS?\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOY\n\nTHE\n\n[Washington\n\nCOUNTY\n\nIt goes without saying that the county superintendent of schools must have broader\nscholarship, larger professional training and greater zeal than any of his teachers. He\nmust also maintain as high a standard of morality as his teachers. In fact, the standard\nshould be higher if any difference. The county superintendent is chosen from the ranks\nof the teachers and can be reasonably expected to uphold the honor and dignity of the\ncalling. Any question here probably hinges upon what the standard of morality of the\nteacher is to be. In discussing this standard it must be remembered that the real teacher\nis always more, much more than a mere instructor. While consciously imparting knowledge, the teacher is unconsciously teaching infinitely more than the mere facts in the subject in hand. Imitation is one of the strongest factors in education. Unconsciously the\nchildren take on the physical bearing of the teacher, his manner of speech, his mode of\ndress, his ways of thinking, his very character. The teacher becomes the model of the\nchildren whether he will or no. It is not sufl5cient then that he be a good instructor merely.\nHe must possess that subtle something called personahty which by its very presence\nteaches.\nRecognizing this as true, the people, almost as a matter of fact, have come to set up\na higher standard of conduct for the teacher and superintendent than for others. And\nthis is perfectly proper. In our school work we set up high standards of character. In\nhistory, in literature, in physical culture, every day we are placing before the boys and\ngirls the loftiest ideals of manhood and womanhood.\nThe county superintendent of schools occupies an ofl5ce of highest importance and\ndignity. No official in our school system, or in any other department of our state or\ncounty government, has it in his power to do so much good or so much harm, for he is\ndealing primarily with teachers, many of them young both in years and experience, and\nwith school children. The choice of a man for the position should mean that the best\nteacher in the community has been promoted; that he is not only teaching boys and girls\nboth by precept and example, but that he is a leader of men and women, a teacher of\nteachers. In order to be this he must have scholarship equivalent to that of a full four\nyears' course in a standard college, and professional training equivalent to that in the best\nstate normal schools in this country.\nThe best county superintendents of schools have done notable work in building up\nhigh schools, in erecting modern school buildings and in spiritualizing country life by\nestablishing consolidation and by introducing agriculture into the high schools and consolidated schools, and by organizing corn clubs for boys and cooking and sewing clubs\nfor girls. Such work has enlisted the farmers and the best people everywhere in school\nwork and has made them feel that they have a part in that work. Perhaps the best work\nof most of the superintendents is in looking after the individual teacher. Many of the\ncounty superintendents in Indiana have done notable work during the last five or six\nyears. For the last three years one county superintendent has printed his plans for the\nyear and has explained fully at the preliminary township (town) institutes, one in each\ntownship (town) in the county, exactly what is expected in reading, writing, history, geography, industrial work. etc. This enables him to expect definite things when he visits\nthe teachers later.\nAt the close of the first week of school he requires a report. This report calls for the\nnames of pupils and enables the truant officer to know from the superintendent's office\nat the close of the first week of school all pupils who are not in school. It calls for the\nprogram, and enables the superintendent to secure music and drawing and industrial\nwork in the high schools, and history and language in the lower grades. He writes many\nletters to his teachers about their programs and other phases of school organization as\nsoon as this report is received. The report also calls for the condition of the building, and\nsupplies needed, and enables the superintendent to \"go after\" the school trustees for the\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superinleudeuce]\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n2^:7\n\nthings needed at the beginning of school. He seldom fails to get the needed supplies when\nhe goes to the trustees in this way.\n\nThis superintendent's visits to the schools are not mere social calls. If he finds a\nteacher below par in any respect, he tells him so frankly and agrees to see him again within\na short time. In writing about his work recently this superintendent said: \"Yesterday\nI visited a teacher who had so improved in order and discipline that it did not seem to be\nthe same school.\" On the other hand, this superintendent stands for the teachers' rights\nand interests with his trustees until all know that he is always for the teacher, when the\nteacher is right. When he criticizes his teachers he invariably suggests methods for improving their work and in such spirit as to make them feel that he is their friend and is\nready to give them any promotion they are ready for. As a result of this relation the\nteachers consult with their superintendent freely and tell him of their difficulties as they\narise.\nThis superintendent makes use of the township (town) institute which afifords him\nan opportunity to follow up the things that he has seen while visiting schools. In these\nmeetings he talks over the work frankly, especially mentioning all examples of superior\nteaching or discipline, and urging the other teachers to visit these stronger teachers. This\nsuperintendent is a graduate of the Indiana State Normal School and of a university, having taken his master's degree in the latter institution.\nIII. THE\n\nGREAT\n\nPROBLEM\n\nIS THE\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIn order to provide trained coimty superintendents in every county, it will be necessary for the several counties to pay larger salaries. There is no other way to secure\nsuch men. In the present agitation all over this country for better things in education\nthere are a few fundamental propositions that teachers, citizens, and legislators everywhere need to keep in mind if anything is to be accomplished. The first of these, and the\none that overshadows and conditions all the rest, is that we have come to a stage in educational affairs in which the question of efficiency is involved. It is not a money question at\nall. It is not merely a question of securing more pay for teachers and superintendents.\nThat is a secondary purpose. Primarily it is a question whether we can any longer, under\npresent conditions, secure and maintain eflSciency in our schools. The worth and progress of any calling depend upon efficiency. Its rank and dignity are determined by the\ncompetency of its men and women. The professional plane of any calling depends\nfinally upon the quality of its own members.\nTeaching is not yet a profession in this country. The salaries are so low that teachers\ncannot make extensive preparation for the work. As a result there is practically no professional test and the scholarship requirements are very low. Despite all this it ought to\nbe said that thousands of competent men and women have deliberately chosen the calling\nand have prepared themselves to be teachers, superintendents, and college professors,\nand are doing efficient work; but the existing conditions make their work difficult, and\neven call their efficiency in question so that the public is in danger of losing their services\nsooner or later.\nIV.\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\nDEMANDS\n\nCOMPETENT\n\nMEN\n\nAND\n\nWOMEN\n\nSo we have come to a time when something definite should be established in the\nteacher's work. There is a problem of teaching or there is not. If there is such a problem\nevery teacher who takes up the work should have studied it. Teaching should be put\nupon a professional plane. Certain definite requirements should be fulfilled before any\none is permitted to teach school. That is, a standard of efficiency should be established\nand maintained. There should be distinct tests of personality, scholarship, and professional ability. The General Assemblies of the several states can help the cause of education and materially hasten the day of larger efficiency by eliminating the unprepared and\nincompetent from the ranks of the profession.\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nNA2UONAL\nV.\n\nCOMPETENT\n\nMEN\n\nEDUCATION\nAND\n\nWOMEN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCOMMAND\n\nGOOD\n\n[Washington\n\nSALARIES\n\nBut at the same time the state sets up new standards of efficiency for teachers it must\nhold out larger inducements in the way of salaries. The compensation for teaching has\nalways been inadequate; and while it is true that real teaching cannot be paid for in\ndollars and cents, we have come to a time when the public must more nearly recognize\nits worth. The laborer is worthy of his hire, and the teacher is no exception to the rule.\nTeachers hitherto have seemingly been afraid that the public would think they were teaching for money, and the kind public has saved them from this humiliating reputation.\nWith the demands made upon the purse in keeping awake and alive to the interests of the\nschool it has been almost impossible for men and women who have no other source of\nincome to remain in the calling. Somehow the pubUc has gone on demanding that teachers\nappear as well as other people, that they buy books and magazines, and at the same time\nthe public has not concerned itself about the funds with which all this is to be done. It\nwould probably be a revelation to many good people to know that the average teacher\nmust stop to consider whether he can afford to spend five dollars for books which he really\nneeds in his business. The teachers themselves have been altogether too modest in the\nmatter. They have waited for the public to right their wrongs. They have not organized\nand gone after their rights. The teachers have permitted the public to fix salaries instead\nof fixing them themselves. And the public has drawn a distinction between what teachers\nand other people need to live upon. Here is a principle which teachers should insist\nupon — that salaries are not to be fixed for teachers, but for citizens for whom the public\nhas a high regard.\nIt is probable that the public would consider it a great joke to talk about teachers\nliving as well as other people. But why is not this the proper basis ? Teaching is difficult\nwork; it takes skill and brains and vitality. Why should it not bring as much as writing\nbriefs, or dispensing medicine, or selling dry goods? Why, indeed! Simply because\nteachers have not demanded it. The remarkable thing about it all is that we have gone\non all these years with such miserable pittances for salaries and have accepted them like\nso much charity. Let us say again that the question has come to be one of maintaining\nefficiency in our schools. And it must be borne in mind that increased efficiency, increased\nsalaries, and increased funds must come together in the solution of this problem.\nVI.\n\nINCREASED\n\nSALARIES\n\nAND\n\nHIGHER\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\nAnother principle ought to be kept in mind in considering this whole question, and\nthat is that this is not a fight for higher salaries on the part of teachers. It is a struggle\nto maintain the present efficiency of the schools and a demand that the calling be put upon\na plane that will make larger efficiency possible. To this end teachers want conditions\nestablished which will make merit the sole measure of tenure and pay. At the same time\nthe pay is increased it ought to be made impossible for unprepared, incompetent teachers\nto profit by the increase. Otherwise the calling will be commercialized and cheapened\nCompetent teachers are not begging; they are simply asking for their own. This point\ncannot be made too strong. While good teaching cannot be paid for in dollars and cents,\npoor teaching is paid infinitely too much. Anyone who knows anything at all about the\nschools knows that there are scores of teachers in this country who earn less than nothing.\nThese should be taken off the payrolls, and it ought to be made impossible for them ever\nto get back. Any new provisions which would make it possible for them to continue and\nto draw larger pay would put teaching on a lower plane than it now is. And so every\nteacher who has the right view is insisting that a new standard of qualifications and increased pay must come together. More pay is not what we want, but larger efficiency\nand more pay.\nFinally, to impose a new standard of efficiency without increasing salaries is useless.\nThat kind of a scheme cannot deceive teachers any longer. They have finally realized\nthat they cannot live on high ideals.\nWith eggs at thirty cents and butter at thirty-five\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nj^g\n\ncents this has come to be a simple bread-and-butter problem. And so raising the standard\nof qualifications without increasing wages would simply make it impossible to fill the\nplaces at all. We have probably said enough to show that it would be unwise to raise the\nstandard and increase the salaries without providing means for paying the salaries.\nVII.\n\nHOW\n\nSHOULD\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nBE\n\nSELECTED?\n\nThe second half of the question, \"How Should They Be Selected,\" remains to be\nanswered, and this is the most diflQcult part of the question.\nThe Indiana plan, with some slight modifications, is, in my judgment, a very desirable\none. The township trustees in the several counties elect our county superintendents for a\nterm of four years. The candidates are required to hold the highest grade state, commonschool certificate. They are required to be actively engaged in school work.\nVIII.\n\nSUGGESTED\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF\n\nELECTING\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOur township trustees are not required to possess any educational qualifications.\nThis is the weakest point in our system. The system should provide for both a township\ntrustee, and a school trustee; the former to look after the roads, ditches, poor, etc., and\nthe latter to look after schools, assessing all property for taxation, etc. The two should\nelect a third man to be known as the principal of the township schools. This man should\nreceive his certificate and qualification from the state and should be superintendent of\nthe schools of the township, and a member of the county board of education. This county\nboard so constituted should elect the county superintendent, and should not be limited\nto the county in selecting a man.\nThe minimum salary should be $2,000.\nThe superintendent should be elected and then allowed to serve during good behavior.\nI have mentioned some of the more important duties of the coUYity superintendent;\nindicated his qualifications, and suggested the minimum salary for such qualification and\nservices, and described the best method of electing this official. With some such standard\nof qualifications, duties, and method of election, the country schools of this nation would\nsoon provide an education for all children as good as that provided in the best city systems in this country.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. M. GuiNN, department of education, Tulane University, New Orleans, La. — In\ndiscussion of the above suggested that the matter of preparation must in some sense be\nin doubt until the superintendent has discovered what problems are to be met. He further\nsaid: A school, therefore, for superintendents in which problems of such character may\nbe discussed, scholarship kept alive, and the progress of the work brought to attention would\nbe a great help in such cases.\nThe question was asked as to how many states elected their county superintendents\nby popular vote, and eleven superintendents indicated that this was done in their respective states. It was also discovered by question that seven of the states represented in the\nRound Table require the county superintendent to hold a state Ucense.\nState Superintendent Aswell, of Louisiana, stated that in Louisiana the county\nsuperintendent is selected by the county board without regard to the section of the state\nor county from which he comes. Politics exert but little weight in his selection, and\nefficiency is considered the chief qualification .\nState Superintendent Stockwell, of North Dakota, gave his hearty indorsement\nto the statements made with reference to the removal of the office of county superintendent\nas far as possible from political influence, but expressed the opinion that this was hard\nindeed to do. In this statement he found a hearty second in State Superintendent\nAckerman, of Oregon.\nState Superintendent Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, stated that since\n1854 county superintendents in Pennsylvania had been elected triennially by the school\n\nii\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\ndirectors of the several counties, and that the state superintendent was authorized to pass\non their qualifications. The salaries of the county superintendents in Pennsylvania range\nfrom one thousand to eight thousand five hundred dollars, and many of the superintendents\nhave held office from twelve to twenty years. The office in his state is non-political;\nhe himself has served nearly twenty years under various political regimes. Popular election isthe way not to be followed. Dr. Schaeffer also objects to the stressing of the expert\nidea, as experts are ordinarily developed by years of experience.\nState Superintendent H. A. Gass, of Missouri, stated that local option prevailed\nin his state with reference to county superintendency; that in fourteen years only twenty\ncounties had adopted the plan; in the other counties the office of county commissioner\nobtains.\nHe expressed the opinion that the method was a failure.\nState Superintendent F. G. Blair, of Illinois, asked the following pertinent question: How can a good superintendent be retained in office, if politics be allowed to enter\ninto the election ? The answer to the same was by common consent deferred indefinitely.\nIII.\n\nWHEN\n\nINSPECTING\nSCHOOLS,\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nG. G. JOYNES,\n\ncounty\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nWHAT\nSHOULD\nSEE AND DO?\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nA\n\nONANCOCK,\n\nCOUNTY\nVA.\n\nAs a summary answer to this, I would say he should see all that is wrong and set\nabout to right it. This answer assumes that a county superintendent of schools is a trained\nman — educated, experienced as a teacher, and better if promoted to the office from the\nrank and file of teachers for general fitness and good sense, essentials necessary in this\nday of professional \"line-up,\" if a man is to see what ought to be seen and do what ought\nto be done in school inspection. Let us suppose a superintendent is aptly appointed, and\nnotice some of the things he should see and do :\nFirst, outside the schoolroom. The environment should be carefully looked after.\nThe fences and outbuildings should be neat, clean, and white-washed or painted. The\ngrounds should be laid off — separate playgrounds for boys and girls — ^trees planted. On\nthe girls' side arrange for plants and flowers, leaving room for such games as tennis and\nbasket-ball. On the boys' side arrange for and encourage manly athletics. The superintendent should note the character of the games, and, acting thru his teachers, give such\ngeneral direction as to do away with teasing or imposing on smaller and weaker pupils.\nThe general conduct of the boys should be noted — whether polite and kind, or given to\nrowdyism and the use of bad language, cigarettes, etc. I once found a principal of a\nlarge grammar school in the habit of smoking cigarettes on the'school grounds. His large\nboys left the school grounds a short way to do the same thing. Another principal of a\nhigh school, an A.B. from one of our strong colleges, joined his large boys during noon\nrecess to go off behind a barn near the school grounds for a smoke, out of sight of the\nsmaller boys. These. were valuable teachers. It occurred to me that teachers in such\nclose touch with the boys could lead them from this habit. The suggestion was made,\nthe evil remedied. By seeing and knowing what to do, most of the playground evils may\nbe removed and the introduction of pure and clean school athletics made easy. This is\nvery important. Eight out of ten of our most serious troubles in the rural schools begin\non the playgrounds. A superintendent can do much along this line to improve the general\ndiscipline and well-being of his schools. To do this, however, he must have tact and good\nsense enough to be in easy touch with his teachers. To sum up : a county superintendent\nshould see all conditions and should set in motion among the teachers, the pupils, and the\npatrons plans most conducive to a good environment and healthy development of that\nwhich is best in the social life of the school on its playgrounds.\nSecond, indoors. The ventilation of many rural schools is so bad that usually this\nrvil will force itself upon a superintendent, and should be remedied permanently. The\ngeneral appearance of the room — its walls, whether bare or ornamented with pictures and\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n261\n\nbest work of pupils; the blackboards and character of work thereon; the floor, if clean;\nthe furniture, if abused; the general appearance of children, if tidy or otherwise; the\ngeneral deportment of children, if orderly, attentive, studious, or the opposite; the general\nbearing of the teacher— how the teacher conducts the recitation, how the children recite.\nThe daily schedule of exercises, which should be prominently posted in every school,\nshould be examined to see that no time is lost, and that a proper division of time to each\nsubject has been made. The grading and classification should be noted. Oftentimes\nnew or inexperienced teachers make grave mistakes in these, causing much trouble, which\nthe experience of a practical superintendent can at once relieve.\nBy all means, the superintendent in rural schools should look over the character book. This book should be accurately kept by every teacher, open at all times to superintendent, trustees, and visitors. In it the name, date, and conduct of each and every\npupil who has violated any school regulation or who has dona something worthy of praise\nshould be entered. The wisdom of this is far-reaching. It gives the pupil a written\nschool record. This has been known to regulate the deportment of the entire school\nwhich before the introduction of this method was not at all satisfactory. A superintendent\nand his school board visited a rural school a few days ago numbering 180 pupils. The\ncharacter books showed that one boy had been spoken to four times during the school\nsession, and that over 90 per cent, of all the pupils had given satisfactory school deportment.\nIn looking over this book, a few words kindly spoken by the superintendent has proven\na great help to refractory spirits. In no case should a superintendent talk to the school\ntoo much. All talks should be short, pointed, and illustrate some truth or subject familiar\nto the pupils. Nothing should be said or done to disturb the friendly relation between\npupil and teacher, or to unsettle the authority of the teacher. The real value of a superintendent isnot measured by the length of his tongue, but by what he has the ability to see\nand his power to do.\nFinally, what a county superintendent should see and do in a general way. When\nnecessary he should vi'^it the patrons to establish order and harmony and proper relations\nin the school work. To illustrate, a boy about fifteen years old not long ago moved into\nmy division from New York City. He had been very refractory in the schools of that city,\nin fact came from a house of correction. He entered a rural school, taught by a very kind\nand even-tempered young lady. She had a great deal of trouble with him. He would\nnot study, was continually in devilment of some sort; finally, one day, for rank insubordination she was obliged to suspend him. Before leaving, he cursed her, threw coal\nthru the window-panes, frightened the smaller pupils, and left in a rage. The matter\nwas promptly reported. I called next day to learn particulars and see upon what terms a\nreconciliation, if possible, could be made, that the boy might have what he much needed —\nthe benefit of a good school. I visited the home. The father was absent in New York\nat work. Found the mother, had a talk with her, and after some time she persuaded the\nboy to come into the room. Around the fireside I told the two what had been done,\nshowed the teacher's side, showed the boy's side, and the boy's need. Tears fell from the\nmother's eyes as I tried to reach out in love for the heart and confidence of her wayward\nboy. Love and truth won. They will always win. A pair of handsome brown eyes, that\nat first flashed defiance and disobedience, softened into a kindly radiance, when the boy\nrose, and from behind his tears said: \"Mother, I want to go and ask her pardon, and if\nshe will take me back she shall never have trouble with me again.\" The boy's life was\nto his word. The school was benefited by his transchanged\nformation.from that day. He stood\n\nAgain, rural schools outgrow their buildings. The superintendent should be quick\nto see this, and arrange to give the school suitable quarters. In my division this has\noccurred very often in the past five years. One school did this recently, when the district\nwas already so much in debt it could not take up the case. I called a meeting of the citizens,\npresented the facts, appealed for aid to accommodate the children seeking the benefits of\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nthat school.\nAt once the community organized, raised the money necessary, and the\nannex is now just completed.\nIn a section where there are a number of small single schools, the superintendent\nshould study the situation and see when consolidation is necessary to improve conditions.\nIn bringing this about he should not be too hasty, should not invite antagonism, but see\nwhat can be done and then do it. One of the first strictly rural, that is, out-in-the-country,\nconsolidations arranged in my section was the Hunting Creek Grammar School. There\nwere schools located at the angles of a triangle, not far from the shores of the Chesapeake.\nOne a deserted, rickety, old store; another, a two-room, one-story shanty (could see daylight thru it anywhere); the third, an abandoned old church. I saw the necessity of\nconsolidation. The trustees came into the plan, then a few of the leading citizens who\ncould be relied on to help — these quietly looked about and found where a good lot about the\ncenter of this triangular section could be purchased; then a meeting of all the citizens of\nthis section was arranged. This took place one afternoon in the spring on the lot selected\nfor the new building. After explaining the school work in the old buildings and showing\nthe possibilities of a good grammar school in a modern school building to be erected, I\nasked the citizens present to express themselves. When the vote was taken only one\nman in the whole crowd voted against the consolidation. The school board was present,\nand before the crowd left the lot was bought, and arrangements made to clear off the forest\ntrees except such as were to remain. The following fall the school entered a modern,\nup-to-date, four-room building. Need I add that three years after, two pupils from this\nschool sent prize work to the Jamestown Educational Exposition — one, the best map of\nhis county; another, the growth and development of the Diamond Back Terrapin, a\nmarvelous exhibit of nature-study work, which piece of work is now in the National\nMuseum of Argentina, S. A., by special request of the commissioner of education from\nthat country.\nA superintendent should see the trend of public sentiment and turn it in favor of good\nschools. I have in mind a community carrying a school population of 413, located on an\nisland in the Chesapeake Bay, nearly opposite the mouth of the Potomac River and fifteen\nmiles from Onancock, formerly a part of Lee School District, all trustees living on mainland, none nearer that fifteen miles. There were two old stores and two old churches\nused for schoolhouses. The Legislature passed a bill allowing Tangier Island to be made\na separate school district. A few of the leaders who had some influence with the Lee\nDistrict School Board opposed this. Nevertheless, upon every visit to this community I\ncalled a public meeting and discussed some phase of the school work, usually closing\nmy effort by showing the wisdom of having their school affairs in their own hands. In\nless than eighteen months the situation was ripe for a separate school district, the consolidation ofthe old schools into a central school at a cost for building alone of $5,500 —\nthis in a district where the district (township) tax amounted to $85, from a community\nof working people, li\\dng from the waters of the Chesapeake Bay by handling oysters, fish,\nclams, and crabs. They did not ask state or district for money, but every man, boy, and\nmany of the women, and the young women contributed. One Saturday night the committee needed $500 on building fund. Sunday morning the pastor of the Island, who was\nheart and soul in the work, announced before preaching that $500 was needed to carry\non the school work. He preached a sermon on education, and in a few minutes raised the\nneeded $500. Tangier now has its own school board, manages its own business, pays\nthe maximum school tax, and perhaps the finest school building on any of the many islands\nof the Chesapeake, from Havre De Grace to Cape Henry, stands on Tangier Island, a\nmere sand spit, one-half mile (widest inhabitable part) by three miles long. From the\nthird floor, or grammar-school department, can be seen all the shipping of the great bay\nin daily transit for twenty miles to sunset side, and to the east twelve miles away to the\nshores of Accomack. Public sentiment put every dollar into this plant, and then equipped\nit from top to bottom.\nThe boys and girls helped to pay for the desks.\nThey saved of\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n26^\n\ntheir earnings, in Uttle barrels, spare pennies, and when the committee announced a\n\"barrel-rolling\" day for them to meet and open their barrels and hand in their contributions for school furniture, they had saved a bail-bucket full of pennies, in amount $166.71.\nOne little fatherless girl of thirteen years, with ankles bare and brown, and dress worn,\nworked in her small flat bottom boat over the mud bars of Tangier Sound, catching and\nselling crabs, supporting herself and helping her mother, and without asking aid from\nanyone dropped into her barrel as her contribution for desks $1.36. Public sentiment\ncrystallized and properly directed will bring results.\nIn conclusion, a superintendent should see the existing conditions of his schoolseach school — cut out the evils and the useless, and be quick to put in the best methods,\nthe safest plans, for a harmonious development of child-Ufe, thus helping to usher in the\nera when our Reptlblic shall be the world's acknowledged leader in all great achievements.\nThis can best be facilitated by wisely guiding American child-life.\n\nIV.\n\nWHAT\n\nCAN\nLAWTON\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTY\nPEOPLE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nTO DO?\n\nB. EVANS, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nLEAD\n\nTHE\n\nOF SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, GA.\n\nThe county superintendent is something more than a schoolman. He is a public\nofficer in charge of a great trust. He should bear in mind that the school system belongs\nto the people, not to him. They constitute the court of last resort, and have the power\nand the right to abolish the whole thing if they want to. He has mainly duties, while\neverybody else has rights.\nIf the public is to be led, it must be enUghtened. There is nothing in a school system\nthat should be concealed from the people. It is fair to say that the schools should be\nkept before the people's notice and made conspicuous, not for the sake of the superintendent\nand his glory, but rather for the cause of which he is the exponent and trustee.\nThe public can be taken into one's confidence regarding plans for the future. They\nwant to know why more money is needed, why better teachers should be employed, why\nnew houses should be built. And knowing all these, the school funds are more readily\nenlarged. Do not be afraid of the people. Individuals may rant, but the great silent\nmass will stand by the man who is .right.\nThe people should know the real intent and meaning of the modern school, and what\nis going on in other places, and what the masters think on great educational themes.\nFurther than that, the home training and rearing of children, their habits, companionships, diet, and health are all facts of which the general public is ignorant. What training\na child should have before he comes of school age, what should be expected of the home\nafter he enters school, to what extent parents should help with the home studies, and cooperate with the teacher, and many other such topics open the way for the superintendent\nto lead the thought of his people toward a high, noble, and useful system of correlation of\nhome and school.\nIt is only when the public is led to know what a really great school system is that the\nsuperintendent can count on them for great things. The first and greatest of all things is\na wilUngness to vote heavy appropriations for school purposes. To advocate concealment\nof why money is needed is to invite suspicion and to court disaster. To prove one's case\nis generally to win it with an enthusiastic public. What the public wants is knowledge,\nand the reason why. There are few communities where the funds are withheld if only\nthe superintendent be brave enough to state and maintain his propositions.\nEvery superintendent should have an ultimate plan and should work out his system\nin accordance. He should know where he is going and add a bit, year by year, toward its\nattainments. He should not work in the dark nor at haphazard, but definitely. He\nshould announce his plan, and enthuse his people for its early accomplishment. Let him\nstate boldly and definitely what his people need, and they will become as impatient as he is\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nto see the results. Let him have an end in view, a complete plan, an aim, and if he be\nwise and enthusiastic, the community gathers momentum like water down hill.\nOne great purpose of the superintendent is to steer the schools clear of the rocks of\ncounty politics. I am reliably informed that in some places the politicians mark the\nschools as political spoils.\nIt is the duty of the public to let the schools alone, especially in the matter of selecting\nteachers. The most baleful influence upon the school systems of the country is the political\ninfluence of powerful men who seek to make the schools the source of support for indigent\ngentlewomen. They may be needy, they may be worthy, but it is a crime to support them\nat the expense of the public and of the children, if they are not good teachers — and this\nlatter the superintendent alone should decide. How many weary battles have been fought\nfor the schools, for the children, and for the pubHc itself, by the superintefldents of the land,\nwho have bared their breasts to the storm and said they would have none of it, that the\nschools were for the teachers, and not for the kinf oik, or poUtical allies, and friends I\nSo long as teachers are employed upon any other basis than that of schoolroom ability,\nthe system is doomed to inefi&ciency. Everybody will recognize the truth of the statement,\nin his calmer moments, that school teachers should not be selected upon a basis of sympathy\nor political reward. Even the board members recognize that. Therefore, when there is\nno election pending, when the waters are calm and no instance is up, and nobody to be\nmade an example of, then is the time to get the board to bind itself by formal resolution to\ndo the right thing when the next time comes. Then when the crisis arises and a few wish\nto override the schools, there is a rule against it which the superintendent and the board\nmay fall back upon to protect the schools.\nThe superintendent should have the power to prepare an eligible list of candidates\nfrom which the board agrees to elect the teachers. This power being granted, the superintendent should make it his earnest duty to find good teachers by all means in his power.\nBy all these means we see the duty of a superintendent toward the public may be\nstated in these propositions:\n1. To inform them of what is going on in the school system, to conceal nothing, to\nhave everything open to their view and comment.\n2. To enlighten them regarding the nature of public schools, their mission and purpose,\nand the means by which any one community can be kej)t in line with the best community.\n3. To hedge the schools about vrith every safeguard against the unworthy influence\nof the politician who wishes to use them for his own benefit, and to protect them against\nsympathetic men who wish to make them a refuge for indigents.\n4. To create that spirit among the people that will make them AAdlling to vote large\nsums of money for the improvement of the schools, and to put their best men in charge of\nthe school afifairs.\nThis may be hard but it is not impossible. By wisdom and tact, and, above all, by\npatience, a superintendent, recognizing his limitations and his powers, can lead the people\nyear by year to build better, tho it be little at a time, until he can at least leave the schools\nbetter than he found them and his successor can take up the good work where he left ofi\".\n\n\\. BY\nFRANCIS\n\nG.\n\nBLAIR,\n\nWHOM\nSTATE\n\nSHALL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nBE SELECTED?\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nILL.\n\nA free common-school system maintained by public taxation is justified on the ground\nthat the welfare and safety of a democratic state demand an educated citizenship. In the\nmanagement of a system thus conceived and thus supported there are at least three large\ninterests which demand attention in the solution of every large question which arises.\nThese three interests are the interests of the state, the interests of the taxpayer and the\ninterests of the children. In the practical operation of the common-school system it is\nthe general practice to have a board of men or wonien appointed or elected who shall\nbe responsible for the successful conduct of the school and who are supposed to be\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nsomewhat familiar with the large interests involved and able to treat\nthem all justly\nWhen a board of education meets to consider the building of a schoolhouse\nthey are supposed to understand the interest which the state has in the proposition, the attitude\nof\nthe taxpayer, and the needs of the children who are to Uve and work in the building. It\nis well-nigh impossible for any board thus constituted to do equal justice to all of these\ninterests. The taxpayer is usually present to insist that the appropriation shall be\nkept\nwithin limits. The board of education will constantly be reminded of his interests.\nThey will have their window open toward the broad acres of ground that must be\nassessed and taxed; toward the herds of cattle and horses, the flocks of sheep; toward\nthe town lots, stocks and bonds, and bank balances. They are, as a usual thing, not\ngiven to neglecting the interests of the taxpayer. The law will constantly call their\nattention to the requirements of the state in the matter, but the interests of the children,\nthough ever present, may sometimes not make as strong an appeal as do the interests of\nthe taxpayer. I believe that any board of education or any body responsible for the\nmanagement of the public-school system will come more nearly to serving all of the\ninterests justly when they seek earnestly to serve the largest and best interests of the\nboys and girls who are to attend the school.\nBut the purchasing of a lot or the building of a schoolhouse is not the paramount\nfunction of a board of directors or a board of education. They perform their greatest\nwork when they meet together to select a teacher. While I am not given over much to\nreligious forms, I believe that a board of education might do well to have at least a period\nof silence in which they should try to think of the children whose interests that teacher is\nto serve. If any discussion comes up as to whether the taxpayer will be willing to pay\nsuch and such a salary or not, or whether it would be wise to take on local talent rather\nthan to go outside, or whether it would not be wise to take the graduates of their own high\nschool in preference to better-trained teachers, I say, when such questions come to the\nfront, I should like to have someone touch a button and have the children whose teacher\nthey are trying to select come into the room, and to have someone say:\nGentlemen, these interests which you have been considering are all worth while and\nyou should seek to do justice by them, but here are the children whose interests you have\nbeen elected to conserve. These children are to sit at the feet of this teacher for five days\nout of the week and nine months out of the year. They also have rights in this matter. A\ntrustee who robs the minor heir of his lawful portion is no more guilty than that school\ndirector or trustee who deprives a child of his district of the very best teacher that can be\nhad.\nT believe that the common-school system must be kept close to the people. They are\na part of it and it is a part of them. Therefore, the oflScers who administer it must be\nelected by the people to represent them. In administering most of the aflfairs of the\nschool, a board thus constituted and thus elected is the most satisfactory method which\ncan be devised. One of the finest exhibitions of unselfish service for the common good is\nthis vast army of men who give their time and services free to this great institution of the\ncommon school. It is doing them no discredit, however, to say that there are certain\nmatters which come before them upon which they may not be competent judges. I am\ninclined to think that this is the case when it comes to selecting a teacher. There are\ncertain elements in the make-up of a teacher which a board of education may be competent to judge. The looks of a teacher, her language and manner, all that complexity\nof things which we usually call personality, may be as well discerned by a board of business men as by an expert in education. I have been greatly surprised several times to\nsee how a member of a board of education vdW detect a flaw in the personal make-up of a\nteacher which has escaped entirely the eye of the expert schoolman. The personal appeal\nwhich the candidate makes to the board will, in the main, be the same sort of an appeal\nthat his personality makes to the children. But there are at least two other large elements\nin the make-up of a teacher, neither of which is a matter which can be easily judged by a\nboard of directors.\nThe teacher must know the subject which he is to teach.\nThere is\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nno substitute for this. In most cases the board of education assumes that the possession\nof a certificate is a guarantee on this matter, but certificates are sometimes so general in\ntheir character as to give little information concerning special knowledge of special subjects.\nHere is clearly a demand for the judgment of an expert to ascertain the fitness of the candidate in this particular respect. I have found boards of country school directors employing\nindividuals who had certain superficial manifestations of learning, but who were so shallow-minded and ignorant that they could not hold the respect of the children for a week.\nThe teacher must not only know the subject, but he must know something of the mind\nof the learner and the ways in which he acquires knowledge. He must also know how\nto take the subject-matter and the child's mind and bring them into that economic educative relationship out of which grows, buds, and blossoms the child's education. This\nskill is not a matter which an ordinary board of education can discover. It demands the\neducational expert.\nIt seems to me that in the selection of a teacher for the country schools the county\nsuperintendent is the proper person to select and nominate the teacher, the board having\nthe power to confirm or reject the nomination. In this way boards of directors in a county,\nwhere the director plan is used, could hold the county superintendent responsible for the\nkind of teacher placed in their schools. And the county superintendent would have this\ndecided advantage: he could place teachers in the various schools who had the fitness to\ndo the quantity and quality of work which he wished to have done in his county. He\nwould have an opportunity to carry his ideas and plans throughout the system of schools.\nI hear the testimony every once in a while from perfectly competent supervisors that their\nplans have failed in many instances where boards of directors have persisted in employing\nteachers who were either incompetent or unfit to do the work, or who in some instances\nwere antagonistic to the general plan.\nIn cities, the city superintendent is the person who should select and nominate the\nteachers. The board of education ought to act as trustees of a business concern, selecting\na man in whom they have confidence for the head of their system, letting him have the\npower to nominate the teachers who are to serve under him in order that his ideas may\nreceive the right sort of treatment throughout the system of schools. The board could\nhold the superintendent responsible for the success or failure of the schools\nThis suggestion has nothing new about it. The plan, in some form or other, is being\nused in various parts of the country. I believe that when our facilities for preparing\nteachers have greatly increased and when their selection and nomination is placed in the\nhands of educational experts that our school system will be greatly strengthened and the\nrights of the children wiW. be much better served.\nVI.\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nA. C. NELSON,\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nTHE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT\nSCHOOL BOARD\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nSALT\n\nLAKE\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nCITY,\n\nUTAH\n\nIn the short time allotted to me to discuss the relation of the county superintendent to\nthe school board, it will not be possible to enter into details in the treatment of this\nimportant subject. Yet, if the few observations that I shall endeavor to make will be\nappropriate and contribute in the least measure to the merit of the program which has been\noutlined for this department, I shall be gratified. The work to be done by the county superintendent and the school board is of such importance in the administration of our educational\nsystem that it would be difl5cult to emphasize too strongly the necessity of exercising great\ncare and judgment in selecting these officers. And still, frequently but little thought is\ngiven to this vital question. But, perhaps, under present conditions, we may not expect the\naverage member of the school board in the country districts to possess any great degree of\nspecial training or fitness for the work he has undertaken. This makes it all the more\nevident and imperative that the county superintendent must be a person of culture, char-\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nacter, training, and education. His teaching ability and his leadership must be such as\nto give him recognition In his community.\nDiogenes, when taken a prisoner and sold as a slave by the pirates of the Mediterranean, was asked his trade or occupation. The sage replied: \"I govern men.\" The\ncounty superintendent, to establish and maintain a relationship with his school boards\nthat will be conducive to educational interest and growth, must be able, if not to govern\nmen completely, to influence them to concerted and harmonious action. In a school\nsystem good courses of study, good schoolhouses, good textbooks and appliances are all\nimportant, but none of these alone nor all of them combined will accomplish much without\nproper school organization. In order to obtain this result the work and experience of a\nwell-trained, efficient educational leader is required.\nThe superintendent must possess a strong and pleasing personality. He must know\nmen. Many a superintendent who is honest, active, reasonably intelligent, and able to\nperform the duties prescribed by law, falls far short of accomplishing what he otherwise\nmight because he is not a leader among men, because he cannot gain their good-will and\nconfidence. Frequently he may fail to gain their confidence because he does not take\nthem into his confidence. He may overestimate and put too high a premium upon what\nhe may term his prerogatives, and look with an eye of jealous suspicion upon a suggestion\nwhich might be offered by his co-laborers — for such should the school board be. While\nit is essential for him to lead and to have the power of initiative developed to a high degree,\nyet he must be willing to recognize and act upon any commendable suggestion offered by\nthe school board or a school patron in advocating measures for the betterment of educational conditions. It is an indication of skill and leadership in the superintendent, not\nonly to accept suggestions properly given, but occasionally, if not frequently, to have others\nurge and stand sponsor for measures which are distinctively his own. How often do we\nfind in legislative bodies men, not only defending, but earnestly urging, the passage of a\nbill which they had no influence or interest in framing, but to which they now give their\nuntiring eft'orts because they have been requested to introduce it. So the superintendent,\nto succeed to the greatest limit, must be diplomatic. He must organize and marshal- the\nforces which are within his reach and command them to subserve the legitimate purposes\nhe may desire to have accomplished. To establish this harmonious action the superintendent must have the school board's willing support. He will find it to his advantage to\nconsult and counsel at frequent intervals with the different members privately, and especially should he do this with the more influential members. In doing this it is not at all\nnecessary for him to compromise his honor or his dignity. Nor will such a course in the\nleast impress the board with an idea that the superintendent is weak and inefficient and\nmust come to them for professional aid. The assistance he seeks from them is largely of an\nadministrative nature. As a rule men feel complimented when they are consulted on\nmatters of importance and it is a vicious man, indeed, who does not put aside his prejudices and bias under such circumstances and honestly give his best judgment under an\nappeal that has a tendency to place responsibility on him.\nWhen the county superintendent has succeeded in establishing the relation of friend\nand co-laborer with the respective school boards under his jurisdiction, he has brought\nabout a condition that will, in most instances, enable him to bring about a high standard\nof educational growth. Many a superintendent fails in bringing about this standard because the importance of this co-operation is overlooked. He devotes his time almost\nentirely in making plans for his teachers and reports for his patrons. I would not give out\nthe impression that it is unnecessary to give attention to this part of his work, but it must\nnot be emphasized to the exclusion of all else. While it is eminently necessary for the\nsuperintendent to meet frequently with his teachers in institute, it is quite as important\nfor him to have frequent meetings of the school boards. The day has passed when a\nsuperintendent may be a mere passive official. He must be a positive force in every field\nthat has a just claim to his attention\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nIn my own state, the school boards, in all the larger counties, meet several times a\nyear to discuss matters of educational interest and importance. These meetings are attended with commendable regularity and it would be diflBcult to place too high a value\nupon the results that have come from them. It is not unusual for our school boards to\nattend the regular county teachers' institutes each month. In our State Teachers' Association they have a section which is always attended by a large representation from all\nparts of the state. This, together with subscribing for and reading some valuable school\njournal, has resulted in creating a strong and continually increasing educational sentiment.\nIn most of the states, county school boards have the right by law to employ teachers.\nThis is an important duty, a duty that is almost sacred, and it should be performed with\ngreat care and judgment. Thru the co-operation which has resulted from the conditions\nthat I have briefly indicated, in Utah county superintendents are consulted in this important\nwork and in many instances boards have delegated to them the authority to select the\nteachers who are to train her future citizens. The ideal relation of the county superintendent to the school board is that of teacher, leader, organizer, and educational inspirer;\nand that of the board to the superintendent of friends, assistants, and supporters.\n\nVIT.\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT\nW.\n\nW.\n\nSTETSON,\n\nAUBURN,\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nME.\n\nAuthority that wins its own recognition has its basis in service. Those who are most\ninterested in the welfare of the schools are ambitious to see the head of the national department of education a member of the president's cabinet. This promotion will not come\nuntil a portion of the expense of maintaining the public schools is paid from the national\ntreasury. If the ofl&cers having the matter in charge should neglect to make repairs on a\nfew of our battleships, ample funds would be available for this purpose. When the\nnational government contributes its portion toward the support of the public schools\nthe department will be authorized to prescribe minimum courses of study, minimum conditions of licensing teachers, and a minimum school year, all of which will be of such\nmodest standards as not to be embarrassing to any state.\nMany state educational departments are not rendering the service of which they are\neasily capable, to the local communities. When each commonwealth provides one-half\nthe amount necessary for the support of the public schools, then the state superintendent\nwill be given the power to prescribe a minimum course of study, minimum conditions for\nlicensing teachers, minimum salaries in the common schools, minimum grounds and\nbuildings, and a minimum school year. These minima will be somewhat in advance of\nthose established by the national department.\nThe local taxing unit will be held responsible for raising the remainder of the funds\n(i) necessary for the proper administration of the local schools. It will be authorized to\nestablish maximum courses of study, maximum conditions of licensing teachers, a maximum\nschool year, and maximum salaries. National and state aid vrill be paid to those communities only which comply with the conditions enumerated above.\nWhen the nation has done its duty and the state has assumed its responsibility in the\nmatter of providing better school privileges for all the children, then there will exist an\nintimate and responsible relation between the county and state superintendent. This\nrelation will be personal, professional, and ofl&cial. The county superintendent will be\ncourteous in the most distinctive sense of that term, and as cordial as his limitations will\npermit. Professionally he will hold himself responsible for having a thoro knowledge of\nthe aims, methods, and means approved and recommended by his ofiicial superior. Officially he will be inspired by that kind of loyalty which defends without asking questions\nand devotes itself to crowning the contest with victory.\nThis position has no place for one\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nwho is wreathed in smiles while facing his chief and whose face automaticaUy assumes\na\ngrin when his back is turned.\nWhen speaking to experts and from experience one is warranted in leaving many things\nunsaid. On occasions like this it is not necessary to say: It is good to be good, it is\nbad\nto be bad, and you must not be naughty.\n\nVIII.\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION OF THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nCOUNTY SUPERINTENDENT\n\nJ. Y. JOYNER,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nRALEIGH,\n\nTO\nN.\n\nTHE\nC.\n\nThe relation of the state superintendent to the county superintendent is twofoldfirst, general; second, specific.\nThe work of the state superintendent must be done and all his plans executed largely\nthru the county superintendent. The general relation between them, therefore, should\nbe one of confidence, respect, loyalty, sympathy, and cordial co-operation. The state\nsuperintendent and the county superintendent should be bound together in the closest\nrelationship by the cohesive power of a common, unselfish purpose, the noblest ever put\ninto the heart of man, the elevation of mankind to a higher plane of civilization, citizenship, and service thru the education of childhood.\nIn the accomplishment of this high purpose the county superintendent should unconsciously and irresistibly look to the state superintendent as a trusted leader and an\nindispensable, sympathetic co-worker. In all things the state superintendent should be\nto the county superintendent a counselor and friend, easy of approach at all times, from\nwhom the county superintendent will be sure of a patient, sympathetic, and courteous\nhearing and answer in all his struggles, perplexities, and complaints; and to whom he\ncan look for help in his honest failures, and encouragement, appreciation, and commendation of his conscientious work and his real success. In criticism and correction, the state\nsuperintendent should be candid, but kindly, never dogmatic or dictatorial. In consecration toduty, in courageous discharge of it, the state superintendent should seek to be\nan inspiring example for the emulation of the county superintendent.\nFor the establishment and maintenance of this general relationship, I believe it to be\nabsolutely necessary to have personal conferences between the state and county superintendents. Nothing can take the place of a hand-grasp, a face to face talk, a personal\ntouch, a spoken word of encouragement, a sympathetic exchange of experience and confidence. These can be secured only thru general conferences between the state superintendent and all his county superintendents, and thru personal visitation of the county\nsuperintendent by the state superintendent in his particular field of work.\nIn my own state, this relation is fostered and strengthened by an annual conference\nbetween the state superintendent and the county superintendents in a state association,\nwhich every county superintendent is required by law to attend unless providentially\nhindered, his expenses being paid out of the county school fund. In addition to this\nstate association, the state is divided into five districts of about twenty counties each,\nwith an association for each district, meeting also annually for conference between the\nsuperintendents of all the counties of that district and the state superintendent. In this\nway the state superintendent meets personally every county superintendent at least twice\neach year; and the county superintendents have an opportunity to meet and confer with\nhim and each other at least twice in each year. In these meetings, there is the fullest and\nfreest exchange of ideas and experiences and practical discussions of all phases of educational work. They have proved invaluable for strengthening the personal relation\nbetween the state superintendent and the county superintendent, between county superintendent and county superintendent, and in securing uniformity, unity, and harmony, and\nin enabling each county superintendent to profit quickly by the successful experience of\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\np. very other county superintendent and of the state superinlendent in any particular lin\nof work.\nThe state superintendent also spends as much time as he can spare from his office\nduties in visiting the counties and helping the county superintendent in his own field. In\nthe long buggy rides frequently taken with the county superintendent to meet his appointments, the long talks, and the close personal association sometimes for several days, the\nstate superintendent and the county superintendent come to know and to understand\neach other better and to sympathize with each other more; and the state superintendent\nacquires information about the progress and the needs of the work and about the difficulties\nof the county superintendent that could be acquired in no other way and that is absolutely\nnecessary for him to sustain the proper relation to the county superintendent and to direct\nintelligently the work of the state.\nIn considering the specific relation of the state superintendent to the county superintendent, is\nt necessary to consider first the general nature of the specific work of the county\nsuperintendent. Speaking in general terms, the county superintendent's work may be\ndivided into civic, professional, and executive.\nHis civic work has to do with his relation to the general public. In a democracy, a\nsuccessful system of schools must have its roots in the minds and hearts of the people, and\nmust be shaped to meet the needs of their life and to elevate that life to a higher plane. The\nschool cannot do its best work unless the people are behind the schools. The school will\ngenerally be as good as the people desire and demand and no better. An important part\nof the work of the county superintendent, therefore, is the cultivation of public sentiment.\nThe pubUc must be led to see the importance and necessity of education in an age like ours,\nin a government like ours; to realize the needs for regularity of attendance, for proper\nequipment in houses and furniture, for school terms of sufficient length, for suitable\nenvironment in schoolrooms and school-grounds, for competent teachers, for adequate\nsalaries, and for the money to supply all these. Interest and pride in the local school\nmust be stimulated.\nCo-operation between the home and school must be fostered.\nFor the cultivation of that mysterious but potent force that we call public sentiment,\nand for bringing it to the point of insistent public demand for all these, a tactful and almost\ncontinuous campaign is necessary. This campaign must be directed by the county superintendent. In its direction he should have the help of the state superintendent. The\nstate superintendent can help by furnishing facts and arguments for general circulation\nthru printed bulletins and thru the newspapers. He can also render valuable assistance\nby public addresses, by helpful suggestions to the county superintendent and by plans\nand programs from time to time. For the successful direction of this part of his work,\nthe county superintendent must have the respect, confidence, and good-will of the people.\nIf he deserves these, the state superintendent can strengthen him and help him by welltimed expressions of confidence and approval, printed and spoken — in other words, by\nholding up the hands of the county superintendent wherever they deserve to be upheld.\nThe professional work of the county superintendent has to do with the teachers and\nthe course of study. This is in many respects the most difficult and delicate part of his\nwork. He has a right to look to the state superintendent for help and direction in this\nwork. In fact, under the present conditions, in the South at least, at present salaries, for\nthe rural-school teachers at least, the rank and file of such teachers are mainly dependent\nfor professional study and improvement upon the provisions made and directed by the\nstate and county superintendents for home study and training, thru teachers' associations,\ncounty institutes, and reading circles. In order to have any uniformity, continuity,\nand correlation in this work for the home training of the rank and file of the teachers, the\nstate superintendent must maintain the closest personal relationship to it, and, in fact,\nmust largely plan and direct it thru the county superintendent.\nIn my own state, the course of study for the public schools is prescribed, prepared,\nprinted, and distributed by the state superintendent.\nTo aid the county superintendent\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] MENTAL\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nIN SERVICE\n\n271\n\nin the professional training of his teachers, bulletins upon the teaching of different subjects,\ncontaining also a Ust of the best books for teachers on those subjects, have been prepared i\nprinted, and placed in the\nof every teacher by the state superintendent. The state'\nsuperintendent also has inhands\npreparation now a bulletin containing suggested\ncourses of\nreading and study for teachers, typical suggested programs for teachers' associations, and\nclassified lists of the best books for teachers. These bulletins will be distributed to assist\nthe county superintendent in the successful conduct of his county teachers' associations\nand in the successful home training of the rank and file of those teachers.\nThe executive work of the county superintendent, in the sense in which I have used\nthe term, has to do mainly with the business side of his work. This is perhaps the most\ntiresome and trying part of his work. As the real executive head of the county-school\nsystem, he must look after the finances, must be responsible for the performance of their\nduties by all other county-school officials, and for the general execution of the school law.\nHe is in danger of having his entire time consumed and his entire energy sapped by the\ninnumerable, deadening details of this part of his work, and of sinking into a mere office\nmachine. The state superintendent can greatly lighten this part of his work by the preparation and distribution from his office of labor-saving blanks and record books for school\ncommittee-men, teachers, and other school officials, and by aiding him in systematizing the\nwork.\nEvery state superintendent knows that the relation which he must sustain to the\ncounty superintendent in this part of his work must be one of loyal support, so far as the\nfacts will justify that support, in cases of complaints and appeals, and one of sharing cheerfully the burden with the county superintendent and assuming frequently a responsibility\nfor the relief of the county superintendent. From the very nature of the case, the office\nof the state superintendent must be a sort of clearing-house for executive troubles. I am\nsure that other state superintendents have learned, as I have, that it is safest to refer all\ncomplaints to the county superintendent and local authorities and to hear their side of the\ncontroversy before answering the complaint, and that such a hearing is due the county\nsuperii^tendent. In other words, the relation of the state superintendent to the county\nsuperintendent in his executive work should always be one of co-operation and loyal support instead of antagonism, in so far as the facts will justify him.\nI am sure that every other state superintendent has learned from experience, as I have,\nthat it is frequently a great relief to the county superintendent to have one somewhat\nfarther removed from the scene of action and from local influences and prejudices to whose\nshoulders he can shift an unpleasant and embarrassing responsibility, and that the state\nsuperintendent owes it to the county superintendent to assume that responsibility for the\nrelief of the county superintendent. How often have we ourselves sighed for the blessed\nprivilege and opportunity of having somebody else a little higher up and a little farther\nremoved to whose shoulders we might shift a disagreeable duty or a hard responsibility\nwith rehef and profit to ourselves and to our work. It is true that some things can be\nbetter done by higher officers farther removed from aggrieved complainants.\nThe state superintendent should be willing to help the county superintendent in his\nexecutive work to retain the confidence and good-will of his teachers and his school officers\nand the general public.\n\nB.\n\nROUND\n\nCONDITIONS\nJAMES\n\nM.\n\nTABLE\nOF SUPERINTENDENTS\nLARGER CITIES\nOF MENTAL\n\nGREENWOOD,\n\nGROWTH\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF TEACHERS\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nKANSAS\n\nOF\n\nIN SERVICE\nCITY,\n\nMO.\n\nIn opening this discussion I shall present a background upon which the intellectual\nprogress of principals and teachers depends after they have been once regularly employed\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nto teach, and then briefly indicate the lines of activity along which I have worked with the\nprincipals and teachers of the schools of Kansas City.\nI. Under the conditions of intellectual growth, it is pertinent to inquire what effects,\nif any, it produces on the character and disposition of the individual, and what energy\nand power it communicates and engenders in his mind. If no perceptible changes in\nmental habits are produced, then the attempt has been valueless. It should be stated,\nhowever, that all knowledge to be useful in its effect in the formation of right mental\nhabits must be liberal and accurate. This implies that every branch of knowledge has a\nbeginning, a middle, and a present but vague boundary which is continually receding. To\na learner, whether young or old, the beginning is always new and strange; at the middle stage\nof a branch the learner has gained some knowledge and has a wider outlook in that direction, and has added somewhat to his intellectual insight. As he proceeds toward the\nboundary, he begins to get some true notion of his own power and strength in the mastery\nof one branch. From what has been enunciated, it is evident that there is a low or beginning stage in which the learner is engaged in collecting material, and in adjusting himself\nto the process of shaping the crude material into groups and masses of knowledge, and that\nhe gradually passes into that higher stage of knowledge in which he can begin efifectively\nto apply his thoughts to his collected groups, and to use them as helpful material for his\nmind to work on, A beginner is always inaccurate and remains subject to this defect\ntill he has acquired something more than the mere elements of the branch he is studying.\nIt is for these and other reasons that I am fully convinced that every principal and teacher\nought to investigate thoroly some one or more branches of knowledge early in life, and\nthose who have not done so seldom learn any one branch thoroly in later years. The\nvalue of accuracy cannot be felt till one has made considerable progress in some one\nbranch of knowledge, and he begins to look back on his own meager attainments. If he\nrealizes his own weakness, this is the best index of his need of essential growth.\nKnowledge quickly evaporates from that mind which holds it in fragments, or small\nquantities. Consequently, those who have given deep attention to one or more studies\ncan learn, and frequently remain learners, to the end of their lives, and are able tj retain\nand apply large or small quantities of other kinds of knowledge, however distinct the\nfields of investigation may be.\nFrom these reflections, it is obvious that , owing to so much surface work in secondary\nand higher institutions of learning, and the numerous options offered in courses of study\nwithout serious and deep work in any one branch, a very large majority of principals and\nteachers vegetate, but never grow, after they once feel secure in their positions.\nII. Practical methods of working with a corps oj principals and teachers. — (a) What\nI shall say under this head appHes directly to the working plan I have pursued in Kansas\nCity, and it may be impracticable elsewhere.\nThe first kind of a meeting to which I invite attention is the regular monthly meeting\nheld on Saturdays at which time all the principals and teachers assemble at 9 a.m., and\nthe session closes at 1 2 m. These meetings are held in the auditorium of the Central High\nSchool which will seat comfortably two-thousand persons. Upon assembling a few\nminutes may be required to make any special or general announcements. Immediately\nafter the announcements, if any, the assembly breaks up into three or more sections — the\nprincipals and high-school teachers forming one section; the fifth-, sixth-, and seventhgrade teachers another section; and the first-, second-, third-, and fourth-grade teachers\nthe third section. These section or division meetings continue till 10:30 a.m., and after a\nfifteen minutes' inteYmission they reassemble in the Main Hall.\nThe programs for the two divisions of the grade teachers are made out during the\nsummer vacation by the assistant superintendents who assign two persons to lead in the\ndiscussions, the first to have a paper of twenty or twenty-five minutes, and the second of\nfifteen minutes, and these programs are announced at the preliminary meeting held on\nSaturday before the schools open for the year the following Monday.\nThe grade sections\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] MENTAL\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nIN SERVICE\n\nelect their own presiding officers, and select persons to carry on the discussions in\nfiveminute talks after the leaders have read or spoken their allotted time.\nDuring the latter half of the year, class exercises are frequently given\nbefore each\nsection, designed to illustrate some phase of school work, and after the pupils have\npassed\nout, these exercises are commented on.\nIn the high-school and principals' section a similar plan is pursued half the time. By\nthis is meant that every other meeting is broken up into departmental meetings in which\npapers are presented and discussed. At the other meetings subjects are presented as in\nother associations having a formal program for all the ])rincipals and high-school teachers.\nThe program is made by a committee of this section.\nUpon reassembling at 10:45 a.m., the exercises of the hour are usually introduced\nby a musical selection, after which a general address is delivered by some celebrity either\nresident or from abroad.\nAll the section meetings are wholly professional or semi-professional and bear distinctly on the whole system of school work from the kindergarten thru the high school,\nwhile the formal addresses are informational and cultural — liberahzing.\nb) Half-way in point of time between the monthly meetings are held the principals'\nmeetings.\nThese meetings begin at 9 a.m. and close at 1 1 .-30 a.m. and are held on Saturdays.\nThe superintendent during vacation makes out the yearly program for these meetings\nand assigns two speakers or essayists for each topic. The first prepares a paper not to\nexceed twenty-five minutes, and the second, a paper not to exceed ten minutes. After the\nreading of these two papers the subject is open for general discussion allowing each speaker\nfive minutes, and in which all may participate. Free discussions are regarded as very\nvaluable features of all teachers' meetings. It affords an o[)portunity for one to talk\nforward as well as back.\nc) There is a literary club, called the Greenwood Club, which has been in existence\nfor a third of a century. While it is composed largely of principals and teachers, in it all\nkinds of public questions are presented and discussed. About thirty meetings are held\neach year. These meetings are held in the Assembly Room of the Public Library on\nFriday evenings. The session begins at eight o'clock and closes at ten o'clock. One\npaper is formally presented, after which any one present can speak for five minutes.\nThis is a sort of public safety-valve to which all persons are invited. Any one present\nis a member.\nThere is no fee for membership.\nd) For the purpose of enabling teachers to prepare for the annual professional promotional examination, I talk to them and to all others who wish to avail themselves of the\nprivilege, on Saturdays from 9 a.m., to 10 a.m. when the monthly teachers' meetings or\nthe principals' meetings are not in session. At these meetings professional subjects are\npresented in such a manner as to enable the teachers to get a better insight into educational\ntheory and practice and a historical basis upon which these depend.\ne) At the beginning of each school year two or three of the best recent books on education are recommended for the principals and high-school teachers to read, and to write a\nreview or criticism of one of these books of not more than six hundred words, and hand it\nto the superintendent.\nOne or two good books thus read and analyzed each year will keep principals and\nhigh-scliool teachers in close touch with much of the best current educational thought.\n/) Frequently, during the year I call the attention of the principals and teachers\nto such new books as I have read or examined on special lines of work. Recently a book\non How to Teach Reading came under my notice, and it was such a book as would be\nexceedingly helpful to grade teachers, and I mentioned it, and more than fifty of these\nbooks were called for by grade teachers that afternoon.\ng) There is hardly a day that teachers do not ask me what new books I have recently\nread, and have I not read something or do I not know of a book that would help them\nin their general work or along special lines in which they are interested.\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n—\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Washingto*\n^\n-— — f\nh) Many of our grade teachers are working for degrees at the University, but I do n6t\nfind that their school work suffers or is even sHghtly neglected on that account. It is ihy\ndeliberate opinion that a large, full-flowing fountain of pure water is a far better stream for a\nlearner to quench his thirst from than a tiny rill that is almost stagnant.\nTHE\nMR.\n\nGEORGE\n\nNATIONAL\n^\n\nSUPPLY\nS.\n\nDAVIS,\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTEACHERS\nAND\nTHEIR\nAPPOINTMENT\n\nASSOCIATE\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTRAINING\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAFTER\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nIn every large city school system the provision of an adequate supply of properly\nprepared teachers is one of the most difficult problems with which we have to deal; and\nthe training of these teachers after appointment is co-ordinate with, if it does not transcend\nin importance and magnitude, the problem of a sufficient supply. This latter problem\ncannot be regulated or solved by an artificial system or arbitrary arrangement, because\nit is almost entirely controlled by economic conditions. In prosperous times other occupations pay better than teaching, and the supply lessens automatically. In times of\nfinancial disturbance or depression, the supply, especially of women teachers, increases.\nThe loss of position, the reduction in wages, or the curtailment of business opportunities\nfor the men, in many instances impels the women of the family to seek remunerative\noccupations outside the home. This was abundantly evidenced during the recent business panic by the number of applications for reappointment as teachers on the part of\nwomen, both married and unmarried, who had formerly followed that vocation. The\nwork of training teachers after appointment, however, can be and has been systematized\nwith methods that are fairly satisfactory and permanent.\nIn the city of New York 1,472 new teachers were appointed last year; while the\nnumber of vacancies during that period was nearly 1,800. From these figures may be\nseen the large number of new teachers absorbed annually into our city school system, and\nthe extent of the task of training them to become eflicient workers is apparent. This\ninflux of new material each year, amounting to over 10 per cent, of our entire teaching\ncorps, places upon the supervisory staff a constant and onerous task. These teachers\ncome to us from various sources, each giving a different preparatory training which has\nto be harmonized with the actual practical work of the schools. It is found that those\ncoming from the city training schools adapt themselves to our conditions more readily than\nthe others. This is due to their six months' substitute and observation work in the schools,\nwhich forms a part of their two years' course of training, and to their consequent better\nacquaintance with the course of study. It is in this respect that the supply from other\nsources, with their less practical training, find themselves at a disadvantage at the\nstart.\nFor the beginner in the profession of teaching, the essential element of equipment is\na thoro knowledge of the subject-matter to be taught — an element that is frequently lacking. To this should be added a knowledge of a few fundamental principles and methods,\nsome knowledge of child-nature, an interest in human affairs, a love of the work, and an\nambition to succeed. Accurate knowledge of the child-mind is a thing to be hoped for,\nbut it is rarely, if ever, acquired by any of us. Upon this equipment, to which, in the case\nof our own training schools, is added the desirable element of experience, we can base an\neffective system of training subsequent to a teacher's appointment.\nIn the city of New York this system comprises the following direct active agencies:\nthe board of superintendents; the district superintendents; the directors of special\nbranches, with their assistants; and the principals, upon whom rests, most directly, the\nresponsibility for the proper and eflScient training of the teachers appointed to their schools.\nA brief consideration of the means employed by the last of these agencies, the principals\nof schools, will be of more interest than a consideration of any of the others.\nIn different schools the problem varies both in difficulty and extent.\nSome schools\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ ATiCiVr^L GROWTH\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nIN SERVICE\n\n275\n\nwiU receive at one time two or three new teachers; others will receive as many as ten,\nor, as I have known, as many as eighteen, all of them inexperienced. This, at times, is\nunavoidable and the problem has to be met.\n\nThe first step in the teacher's training is to see that she is property assigned to grade\nand class. Sometimes the principal is restricted by conditions, and the assignment\ncannot be in accordance with the teacher's present abilities; but in general, an attempt is\nmade to suit the assignment to them. This gives the teacher\nconfidence and makes her\nfeel that there is an intelligent and sympathetic mind guiding her. Her subsequent training by this means, in the process of gaining efiiciency, requires an assignment of greater\ndifficulty, when a measure of success has been attained. It should range gradually\nthru several grades or years of work, with classes of both boys and giris, if possible. The\nchanges of grade, however, should not be so rapid as to prevent accurate acquaintance\nwith a definite field of work. Otherwise there is confusion and discouragement . The\nperiod of probation in our city extends over three years. At the end of that time, most\nteachers have found themselves and receive their permanent licenses as an official acknowledgment of their promise of continued success. Their training, however, by no means\nends here.\nIt is continued in various ways during their whole career.\nThe next step is to require the new teacher to make a plan of her work for the term,\nbased upon the course of study. This makes certain that the teacher analyzes her field of\nlabor and enables her to see its scope. If this is insisted upon by the principal, and no\ncopied plan of some other experienced teacher is accepted, the novice is much strengthened.\nThe plan submitted should be carefully criticized and returned. It may be that the plan\nproposed by the teacher is not one that is profitable to work, with. It should then be\nsuggested that the teacher compare it with those of other experienced teachers on the\nsame grade, with a view to modifying it, if necessary. Her next attempt will probably\nproduce an acceptable scheme of work. These first plans should not be exhaustive nor\nminute, but general in character. They are chiefly to make sure that the teacher realizes\nthe amount and scope of the work to be done in the time at her disposal. Care should be\ntaken not to require too much in the way of plan books, notebooks, and progress books.\nThese things are often carried too far and tend to make the teacher mechanical and to\ndeprive her work of its life, freshness, and spontaneity.\nIn all schools, one of the general means of training teachers, both the experienced\nand the inexperienced, is the conference. Usually, these are held twice a month; in\nsome cases, oftener. Sometimes they are general in nature, according to some prearranged\nplan of the principal; at other times, particular; the subject being suggested by observations made during the work of supervision. They are held for the purpose of helping\nthose teachers that are in need of inspiration, confidence, or knowledge of method. The\nteachers themselves take a prominent part in them, the principal guiding the discussion\nto accomplish the aim desired. Probably the most effective of these special conferences\nare those arranged by grades. In these, the teachers of the classes of the same grade come\ntogether and discuss some phase of their work, their difficulties, their expedients for\novercoming them, their methods, or the results attained. At times, the teachers of the\ngrades above and below that being discussed may be called in, so that they may see the\n-relation of the work of their respective grades. There is much enlightenment to be derived\nfrom this plan. It gives perspective and prevents teachers from becoming mere pieceworkers. To make these conferences effective, the principal must visit the classes subsequently, to see that the points brought out are heeded.\nGeneral conferences and lectures, with large bodies of teachers, are usually ineffective,\nespecially when they are planned from a central bureau and attendance upon them made\ncompulsory. A conference is valuable only when there is something of interest to confer\nabout, but not when it is held merely for the purpose of complying with a schedule.\nAnother means of training made use of freely and effectively is the visit by the teachers\nclasses in the school, or to some other school, for the purpose of observing someother\nto\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nthing definitely determined beforehand. It may be to see some special method of teaching,\nor it may be to get inspiration or a new point of view from the observation of good regular\nwork. With the younger teachers, those in need of training, the observation of good\nregular work is productive of most good. These visits should be made with the main\npurpose of learning, not of criticizing; and the principal should know in advance just\nwhere such teachers should go and just what subject to observe. The opportunities to\nmake these visits will sometimes be sought by the teachers; at other times they are suggested to them. In the latter case, the teacher may be getting into a rut; or, perhaps, it is\nthought that seeing the greater difficulties under which other teachers labor and do good\nwork will be a source of encouragement and content. Under our by-laws, a teacher may\nhave three days each year for these visits, without loss of pay. Reports are required, and\nthese reports are frequently made the subject of discussion at grade or general conferences\nheld immediately afterward. By these visits, many good things are spread from school to\nschool or brought in from schools other than our own. The only drawback noticed in\nconnection with this system of visitation, or hospitation, is that some schools doing especially\ngood work in certain subjects have, at times, been overrun with visitors, not only from\nour own schools but also from schools outside the city. Some principals, therefore, have\nhad to restrict visitors to certain days and even to special appointment, as their genera^\nwork was being interfered with.\nMuch may be accomplished in the training of young teachers by helpful suggestions\nin their reading. At this point of their career, I do not think that reading upon the general\ntheory and history of education is profitable. It should rather bear directly upon their\ndaily work. It must be remembered that they are now face to face with the problem of\nlearning the art of education; and their efforts should have reference to the acquisition\nof that art. Standard books on methods and the practice of teaching, good educational\nmagazines well edited, and not given to the over-elaboration of trivial things, or to the\ncareful development of the obvious, supply good material. The intimate and practical\nsuggestions of the latter appeal to the beginner and often prove helpful. But this, like\nall other matters, must be watched.\nNearly every school in the city of New York has an excellent reference library which\nis used by the teachers and principals in aid of their daily work. Some of our principals\nreinforce and illuminate their suggestions by referring their teachers, as need arises, to\ncertain passages, paragraphs, or chapters treating of the matter under consideration. They\ndo not burden them with whole books, but give them just enough to cover the point. One\nprincipal has tried, with good results, the plan of withdravdng from her work, for an hour\nor so, a young teacher who, perhaps, is tired from her efforts with a large or troublesome\nclass, and setting her to work with a request to read up some special topic. At these times,\nthe principal may take the class or put it in charge of a teacher in training assigned to the\nschool temporarily. The teacher, in this way, gets a new grip on her work thru rest and\nabstraction from classroom duties, and, at the same time, acquires something useful\nin her teaching.\nOf our great public libraries, of the opportunities offered by our colleges and universities which are largely attended by progressive teachers and which constitute a great\nattraction for. teachers from outside the city, it is unnecessary to speak. These, with the\nart galleries, the museums, and other potential facilities for culture and amusement are\nadvantages that have a strong influence in the broader training of the teacher.\nFor the young teacher, the beginner, I do not advocate university work. This is\nbetter deferred for a few years. Often, when it is not deferred until some mastery of her\nprofession is attained and felt, the school work, the study, and the health of the teacher\nall suffer together. Her professional reading, during the apprentice period, should be\ndevoted to the acquisition of a thoro and accurate knowledge of the subject-matter to be\ntaught and of good methods of teaching. Such a knowledge of subject-matter we might\nfairly assume, but it is not safe to do so. I have had young teachers inform me that they were\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] MENTAL\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nIN SERVICE\n\nstudying for academic degrees; and at the same time their classes were poorly disciplined,\ntheir work unorganized, and the pupils uninterested. For the beginner the class and\nthe class-work present all the material for study that the average teacher can successfully\ncope with. All the time that teachers, in the earlier stages of their career, may devote\nto study and maintain themselves in proper physical condition, will be needed for the fitting\npreparation of their work from day to day. Unless this preparation is thoro, they cannot\npresent their lessons interestingly and with confidence; and their energies, in consequence,\nare absorbed in disciplinary problems which gradually induce a loss of self-control, a\npersonal quality absolutely essential in a good teacher.\nI do not believe that the organization of all these elements or means of training into a\nformal system of conferences, visits and reading courses with compulsory participation\nfor all beginners and weak teachers, would be effective. Efficiency in this work must, in\nthe end, depend upon an esprit de corps, engendered by those who lead. If this is lacking,\nthe training is either perfunctory, mechanical, or haphazard. The nearest that we have\ncome in New York City to any compulsory work for self-improvement is a proposition to\nadopt the plan in operation in Chicago, I believe, by which teachers showing weakness\nin any line of work may be required to attend a certain number of hours at the training\nschool for the purpose of correcting the defect. If compulsory, this arrangement might\nact in the way that the power to inflict corporal punishment is said to act. This is, the\nmere existence of the requirement would make its use practically unnecessary. I cannot\nimagine a teacher going back to training school, even for a brief period, without some loss\nof dignity and self-respect. Yet, the feehng that this might be required would, perhaps,\nbe a great stimulus to those that are lax or indifferent in their work, simply from the desire\nto avoid the requirement.\nBut above all conferences, except those with individuals, above any system of visiting\nor course of reading, we must place the efforts of the principal of the school, put forth\nintimately and sympathetically with each teacher in need of help. Upon the principals\nmore than upon any other agency depends the degree of efficiency of every school system.\nThe work of their schools is the reflection of their influence; and the character of that\nwork, except in a few individual instances, will never rise above the standards which the\nhead of the school is capable of setting.\nThe little matters upon which depend good discipline and good instruction must,\nat the start, be carefully looked after. In repeated visits to the class rooms; in carefully\nconsidered suggestions, and, at times, admonitions; in just criticism and judicious praise;\nin helpful illustration; and in actual demonstration of suggestions, all by the principal,\nare found the most effective means for the training of young teachers in their practical\nwork. Some principals will mechanically issue written directions and consider their\nduty performed. Others will require an enormous amount of written preparation of\nplans and notes, to the inevitable discouragement and disgust of their teachers, who,\nfinding themselves oppressed by a ponderous mechanism, grow to dislike their work and\nto distrust their leader. Such things only restrict and harass spontaneous effort. They\ntend to fashion the worker into a machine instead of a thinking, sympathetic human being\nwhich a true teacher must be. The spirit of a school must be free, natural, enthusiastic,\nand cheerfully serious. Such a spirit provides an irresistible impulse to earnest effort\nand the most favorable conditions for good work. It inspires a receptive mental attitude\n4hat will seriously incline most teachers, not only to accept, but to seek criticism. In\nshort, by tact and ability, the principals must establish and maintain a state of mutual\n'confidence between themselves and their assistants. While sensitive to faults, they must\nalways be patient, encouraging and ready to help— to show how; they must set a high\nstandard and inspire their teachers to strive for it. We have many at the head of oor\nschools capable of doing this, but we have too many that are not.\nIf the work of training teachers subsequent to appointment is to become more efficient\nwe must demand high qualifications of our principals, each of whom must be, in the fullest\nianing of the title, the principal teacher of the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCAl^ION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nDISCUSSION\n[Reported by C. E, Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.]\nC. N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. — The superintendent\nfinds one of his most important duties to be the making possible the improvement of the\nwork of the new teacher. In the Indianapolis Training School a special emphasis is\nplaced upon practice in the school arts. All cadet teachers before receiving regular appointments have had experience in actual charge of schools. Over every two cadet\nteachers there is placed a director who criticizes the work and endeavors in every way to\ndevelop the cadets into efifective teachers. One year of practice must be had before the\ndiploma of the training school is given. This scheme proves very efficient in meeting the\nlocal conditions of Indianapolis.\nTime is often wasted in school visitation. In many cases the visit is aimless and the\nresults decidedly unsatisfactory. A far better scheme is to send out groups of teachers\nfor school visitation, under the immediate direction of the assistant superintendent. These\nvisits should also be followed by conferences concerning the work which has been observed.\nWalter H. Small, superintendent of schools. Providence, R. I. — Conditions in Providence are somewhat unique. A large percentage of the teachers are trained at the\nBrown University and the normal schools. Candidates for normal-school work must\nbe high-school graduates. They are then given a two years' course followed by special\ntraining under the state critic. Two teachers are assigned to each state critic, who work\nfor one-half year under her special guidance and instruction. The new teachers are\ndistributed thruout the schools for one-half year's preliminary training, after which diplomas are given.\nAfter receiving a diploma the teachers are on the substitute list and ordinarily are in\nservice about a year and a half before appointment is received.\nCollege graduates have similar training for one year, under close inspection. After\ntwo or three years' experience permanent appointments are given, and annual elections\nare dispensed with.\nThe critic teachers, in addition to their special supervisory work with training-school\nteachers and new teachers, visit any teachers in order to see whether weak spots may not\nbe strengthened. In addition, encouragement is given for continued courses at the Brown\nUniversity and other institutions. About 40 per cent, of the Providence teachers are\ntaking these courses.\nJohn W. Cook, president, State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. — In our normal school\nwe especially attempt to develop teachableness on the part of teachers. Our teachers\ncome to us after having completed the high-school course and have with us two years'\nwork. The first year this is largely academic work in which the various school subjects\nare studied, with what might be termed the pedagogical attitude. Two years of practice\nwork are given these normal students.\nI. C. McNeill, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tenn. — A unique institution in\nMemphis assists the teachers. This is known as the Goodwin Institute. It is endowed\nfor the purposes of establishing literature courses and a free public library. During\neach week two or three lectures are given under the auspices of this institute. The teachers\nare specially provided for, university courses being given in connection with this institute.\nI believe that it is far easier to secure the growth of teachers thru encouragement\nrather than fear.\nAddison Poland, superintendent of schools, Newark, N. J.— My problem is modified\non account of the proximity of Newark to New York. It makes it necessary to establish a\ndifferent basis of securing new teachers. We dispense with formal examinations such as\nare required in New York City, and have a salary schedule in which the maximum salary\nis reached far sooner than in the larger city.\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] MENTAL\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nIN SERVICE\n\n270\n\nJ. A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio.— We strive hard to avoid\ninbreeding, believing that if our teachers can be secured from many places, a far better\ngeneral average can be secured than otherwise. We therefore endeavor to tempt teachers\nfrom many of our colleges for our work.\nIn spite of this a large percentage of our elementary teachers come from our city\ntraining school. Twenty per cent, of our teachers are college graduates. The increase in\nour salary schedule has very greatly increased our supply of candidates for positions. We\nplace much emphasis upon such matters. The Columbus teachers have a voluntary reading circle with a large attendance. Many of our teachers are taking courses in the university.\nW. C. Martindale, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Michigan.— Fifty per cent,\nof the Detroit teachers are graduates of the Detroit Training School. For some time the\npractice prevailed of having our high-school faculties recommend those who in their judgment would be the best teachers. This did not prove a satisfactory scheme. We now\nhave definite academic requirements, a certain standard of scholarship being insisted upon.\nThis is followed by giving each candidate an oral examination by the faculty of the training\nschool. At the best, however, trivialities determine the judgment as to the fitness of candidates. All candidates are required to take a physical examination.\nW. H, Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio.— In Cleveland we have\nemployed a substitute supervisor. This supervisor looks after the work of the new teachers.\nEach grade is given, during the year, special instruction. The teachers of Cleveland are\ndivided into four classes; promotion from class to class is made at the recommendation of\nthe superintendent.\nC. F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y. — Growth is the key-note\nof the hour. It is uniformly true that some teachers cannot grow. The great question\nfor superintendents to answer is: \"How can we be inspirers?\" Above all I believe that\ninspiration is necessary. However, in addition to inspiration, administration is necessary,\nbut, above all, put a substantial premium upon the growth of the teacher.\nJ. A. Whiteford, superintendent of schools, St. Joseph, Mo. — How can superintendents help principals ? One way is to send some of them to the Department of Superintendence. The securing of satisfactory new teachers is to me one of my most difl5cult\nproblems. I have found that testimonials are of no value, even testimonials from superintendents ofhigh standing. I personally value most highly a personal letter to me from a\nfellow superintendent which is sent in response to a letter to him which I have written. I\nhave found, in practice, that the recommendations of our university speciaUsts are valueless.\nStratton D. Brooks, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. — The progressive\nsuperintendent is compelled to realize sooner or later that if he is to be effective he cannot\navoid irritating the incompetent.\nEligible lists, while not entirely satisfactory, are helpful. I believe it is unquestionably\ntrue that the upper half of the eligible list is better than the lower half.\nWe in Boston have appointed a supervisor of substitutes. Her chief responsibility is\nto give human interest to the work of our substitutes. Principals, even, seem to be unable\nto do all that they should in the way of supervision. Too often it is true that the principals\nthemselves are incompetent. I beheve that in Boston one of our most helpful schemes is\nthe Sabbatical one on half salary. This is really not an expense to the district inasmuch\nas those eligible for the Sabbatical year are universally on the maximum salary and their\nplace is taken by substitutes who receive half the salary.\n\nHenry P. Emerson, superintendent of schools, Buffalo, N. Y.— The state law of\nNew York determines the requirements for candidates. In Buffalo we have never experienced any lack of candidates for positions. We find, however, that the work of the\nToo often\nsupervisors is ineffective, so far as it concerns the improvement of principals.\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nthe principal merely feels relieved and abandons all responsibility as to special supervising,\nbecoming from year to year less effective himself.\nHenry S. West, assistant superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md.- — The feature\nof our promotional examinations in Baltimore is the study of some special problem. By\ndoing this the teachers are lead to do some original systematic work along lines in which\nthey are specially interested.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — There is danger\nof developing too much reverence for the regularly constituted source of supplies. Free\nopportunity for admission to our ranks should be given to all who have succeeded no matter\nby what method they have secured success. The shortage of teachers will be solved by\nmaking the profession more attractive. The teacher is the one who can make her standing\nin the community high. As to the improvement of teachers, proper supervision is the\nfinal and vital thing in securing it.\nWm. H. Maxwell superintendent of schools. New York City. — I care very little for\nthe college graduate in the elementary schools. I will continue to care little for them until\nour university departments of education have learned how to turn out good teachers for\nthe elementary schools. The great problem before school superintendents is the galvanizing into life those teachers whose brains are ossified. The final solution must, in all large\ncity school systems, come thru the principal of the school. The school principal while\nmost helpful to the teacher when he is helpful, may, if he is a martinet, blight the enthusiasm and efficiency of the young teacher.\nI came to this meeting to get light upon the problem \" How we can make good principals out of poor ones.\"\nThis hope has not been fulfilled.\n\nC.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENTS\nCITIES\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nTO WHAT EXTENT SHOULD STATE UNIFORMITY LAWS APPLY TO\nCITIES IN RESPECT TO COURSES OF STUDY, TEXTBOOKS, AND\nMETHODS IN (A) ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, (b) HIGH SCHOOLS?\nI. JOHN W.\n\nCARR,\n\nsuperintendent\n\nof public schools, DAYTON,\n\nOHIO\n\nIn order that there may be a system of public schools, elementary and high, it is\nnecessary that there be state laws governing the same. These laws should be such as to\nsecure uniformity in most particulars; and, at the same time, there should be a certain\namount of elasticity, so that the system may be modified to suit local environments. In\nthe discussion of this subject we shall endeavor to point out some particulars in which\nthere should be uniformity in all cities of a state and also some particulars in which each\ncity should be allowed to choose for itself.\nThe state law should define an elementary school and specify certain subjects that\nshould be taught in these schools — such as reading, writing, spelling, geography, history,\ngrammar, and the like. So far as I know, the law in all of the different states designates\ncertain legal branches that must be taught in all elementary schools. Of course these legal\nbranches should be taught in the elementary schools of every city in the state. Furthermore,\nthese branches should be given prominence on the daily program and should not be taught\nin a perfunctory way. But in addition to these legal branches, city boards of education\nshould be authorized by law to add other subjects to the curriculum in the elementary\nschools, and to pay teachers from the pubhc funds for teaching these subjects. Any\nother course, in my opinion, would prevent the proper development of the elementary\nschools in our cities.\nBut what subjects should city boards of education be permitted to add to the required\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "281\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nLAWS\n\nbranches ? Should there be no limit ? If a limit, what should it be ? This brings us\nface to face with a problem that is very difficult of solution. The overcrowded curriculum\nin the elementary schools results from adding this thing and that thing and still other\nthings to the course of study without any eliminations. A halt must be called by somebody at some place. I for one believe that the state should not only prescribe legal branches\nof study for the elementary schools, but there should be some sort of an understanding\nrelative to the minimum amount of time to be devoted each week in each grade to the\nlegal branches. I am not ready to say that this should be enacted into statute law, but\nschool superintendents, school boards or teachers in some way should come to a definite\nunderstanding relative to the amount of time to be devoted to the legal branches, and then\nthere would be a necessary limit both in reference to the number of other subjects and the\ntime to be devoted to these subjects in the elementary schools.\nAmong the subjects that city school boards should be authorized to add to the elementary course, I would mention music, drawing, physical cultvire, and manual training\nin some form for both boys and girls. By naming these subjects, I do not mean necessarily\nto exclude all others, but these should receive first consideration. If such subjects as\nGerman or any other foreign language are taught in the public schools, boards of education\nshould be authorized to provide instruction in the same, only on petition of a considerable\nnumber of the patrons of a district, and then not all pupils should be required to take these\nsubjects. City boards of education should also be authorized to provide special schools\nfor truants and defectives.\nOnly in a general way should state uniformity laws apply to the high-school course of\nstudy in cities. The law should require each city to maintain a high school and the course\nof study should be at least four years in length. The state law should enumerate certain\nhigh-school subjects all or any of which may be included in a high-school course of study in\nany city in the state.\nBut the board of education of each city should have the right to adopt a high-school\ncourse of study for its own schools. This would afford an opportunity for each city to\nhave a high-school course of study that would most nearly meet the needs of the particular\nlocality.\nI favor state uniformity of textbooks in the required legal branches of the elementary\nschools. I believe that this uniformity should apply to city schools as well as town, village,\nand country schools. I offer two arguments in favor of uniformity of textbooks in the\nelementary schools :\nFirst, the cost is less and the quality of the books not necessarily inferior.\nFor several years I lived in Indiana where there was state uniformity of textbooks in\nthe elementary schools. Afterward I moved to Ohio where each board of education adopts\nits own textbooks for the elementary schools. I could not help noticing the difference in\ncost of textbooks in Indiana compared with those in the city where I now reside. The\nadvantage in each instance is in favor of state uniformity. Expressed in per cents., the\nadvantage in cost in favor of state uniformity follows: Spelling book, 70 per cent., series\nin readers 137 per cent., series in arithmetic 14 per cent., series in language-grammar 18\nper cent., series in geography 46 per cent.. United States history 28 per cent. In the case\nof the readers the series in use in the Ohio city contains eight books and the Indiana series\nbut five, but on the whole, the Indiana books are as well suited for school use as the others.\nThe number of books in each series in other subjects is the same— in some instances the\nbooks are identical. It is an easy matter to see that there is quite a difference in cost to\nthe people.\nBut the first cost is not the only real difference. Every time a family moves from one\ncommunity to another in a state where there is not uniformity of textbooks, a different\nset of books must be purchased. This is expensive business with no corresponding\nadvantages.\nThe argument is sometimes advanced that a state having uniform textbooks does not\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nhave an opportunity to secure the best textbooks. So far as my experience goes, I believe\nthis argument to be fallacious. In Indiana, standard textbooks were offered for adoption,\nthe only difficulty being to secure standard first and second readers at ten and fifteen cents,\nrespectively, as provided by the law.\nThe second argument I present in favor of state uniformity of textbooks in elementary\nschools is that it prevents agents of publishing houses interfering with local school affairs.\nThe schoolbook agents whom I have known compare favorably with gentlemen engaged\nin any other legitimate line of business. But human nature is human nature, and representatives ofpublishing houses are not always able to withstand the temptation to get this\nparticular person elected on a local board of education or defeat that one, for the special\nadvantage it will be to them at the next adoption of textbooks. This interference I believe to be detrimental to the best interests of the schools, and furnishes one of the strongest\narguments in favor of state uniformity of textbooks in the elementary schools.\nIn reference to high schools I do not think there is the same urgent need for state\nuniformity of textbook as in the grades. There is a far greater difference between the\nhigh schools in a state — rural, village, and city — than elementary schools. Yet I see no\nreason why it would not be advantageous both from an educational and a financial standpoint, ifthere was uniformity in some of the high-school textbooks, such for instance as\nalgebra, geometry, and Latin. We are still in the experimental stage in reference to highschool texts in English, science, manual training, commercial subjects, and, to some extent,\nhistory also. For that reason I favor local adoption of such texts.\nAs I am not aware of any state uniformity laws relative to methods of instruction, I\nleave this branch of the subject for others to discuss.\nII.\n\nCARLETON\n\nB.\n\nGIBSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nGEORGIA\n\nThe venerable subject of state uniformity has the virtue of freshness and originality\nas a topic for discussion before any department of this Association. In undertaking to\nprepare some observations on the subject for this meeting, I examined one volume after\nanother of the Proceedings, and failing to find any paper or discussion, took up the\nadmirable index of all volumes from 1857 to 1906 and was surprised to find that the\nsubject had never been presented in any department.\nFrom the beginning of state systems of schools, there has been of necessity state\nuniformity in the subjects prescribed for the common-school curriculum. From time to\ntime the several states have made a few additions to the list of subjects originally prescribed, guardedly adding, however, only such subjects as were acknowledged to be in\nthe list of rudimentary branches or those that by common consent were admitted to be\nclosely akin to the traditional school subjects.\nState uniformity of textbooks seems to have had its origin in the demand, not for unification of school work thruout a state, but for less expensive school books. And this\ndemand seems to have come not from the actual first cost of an outfit of books, but from\nthe additional, and often unnecessary and unreasonable, expense resulting from the frequent change in books, especially in rural schools, where the teachers were changed every\nsession, or from the migration of pupils from one school district to another. The latter\nhardship fell most heavily upon the large tenant class in rural districts, who were least\nable to bear the expense of a new outfit of books every year. The initial demand for state\nuniformity has almost invariably come from that class of citizens.\nThe agitation of any questions relating to schools by the pubHc at large has always\none saving factor, which is that it quickens general interest in public education. And\ntherefore, as the discussion of this one topic of state uniformity and its concomitant effort\nto reduce the cost of books have everywhere reached the masses of the people, it may not\nbe far from correct to say that to state uniformity more perhaps than to any other issue\nis due the awakening of interest in public education and the initial efforts at systematizing\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIFORMITY\n\nLAWS\n\nand organizing the work of the country schools. As the resuUant of state uniformity of\ntexts, following the prescribed uniformity in branches authorized, has come in many\nstates an admirable course of study for all the common schools of the state. This has\ngiven definiteness to the work, created higher ideals and stimulated teachers to better\npreparation for efficient service.\nUniformity in textbooks as an expediency has therefore contributed in no slight degree to the welfare of the common schools in the creation of a more lively popular interest\nin education, in safeguarding the important matter of economy in the management of\nschools for the masses of the people, in systematizing and organizing the work of the country\nschools, in bringing about a definite and logical course of study, and in stimulating teachers\nto reach higher degrees of efficiency.\nWhere such conditions existed, there was no demand for uniformity of texts, springing from natural and local causes. If such demand arose, it came from sympathy for the\nless fortunate in educational matters, or was stimulated by zealous persons who concerned\nthemselves actively with bringing about a change in the important industry of making and\nselling schoolbooks. Where the masses of the people are fairly well aroused to the importance ofeducation, where the schools are being conducted upon sound business principles, where the work is well organized and a definite course of study carefully planned is\nlaid out, where by intelligent supervision and direction proper stimulus is given to increasing efficiency, there is no occasion, I submit, for state uniformity of texts and course of\nstudy. Wherever a community, town, city, county, or in the larger cities, even a ward or\nborough, has brought about general educational conditions far in advance of the average\nconditions prevailing, state uniformity could contribute nothing to the welfare of its schools.\nFor a city or community supporting its schools entirely or in large part to be required\nto conform to a state uniformity law is seriously to embarrass and hamper the legislative\nand executive authorities of the schools in their efforts to make the system adequately\nmeet the needs of the community. The tendency of state uniformity would be to dwarf\nthe development of a system of schools in a rapidly growing and progressive community\nwith all the problems incident to its more complex life. The intelligent direction of the\neducational affairs of such a community demands that there be recognition of the dominant\nlife of the people, of their chief interests and concerns, and that the dominant life of the\npeople shall largely influence the schemes for education. If state uniformity is adapted\nto the interests of the rural schools, and it does serve its largest purpose and accompUsh its\ngreatest good in connection with those schools, it could not only contribute nothing to the\ninterests of the schools of a progressive city, but would seriously detract from their highest\nwelfare. The school authorities of such a community, recognizing the dominant interests\nof its people, not only might wish to adjust its course of study and introduce certain subjects bearing directly upon such interests, but should feel resting upon them an obligation\nto shake off the traditions of school work and by certain changes in the course of study,\nsubjects taught, and general methods of conducting the school, bring the people's schools\nto conserve their interests in the highest possible degree of efficiency.\nAny extensive uniformity in texts or in courses of study, whether town, city, county,\nstate, sectional or national, has a tendency to operate against the development of initiative\nand progress in educational work. The more rigidly fixed are the limitations as to books,\ncourse of study, and methods, the more discouraging it is to a thoughtful student of education to work out his problems, and the more impossible it becomes to take any initiative\nin correcting evils. State uniformity is good when confined to schools of uniform needs.\nIt will often be found in the schools of a very large city that their needs are quite divergent.\nThis is recognized in New York, and the plan of uniformity m texts is therefore not\napplied to all the schools of the city of New York.\nWhere a state contributes less than half the funds necessary to maintain an institution\nor a school system, it should be willing to have a minor voice in directing the educational\nTo contribute little toward support and undertake to control i^i\naffairs of that system.\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nundemocratic and offensively paternal. The most important factor in the stability and\nperpetuity of a democratic government is the self-control of self-supporting and adequately\nmanaged lawful institutions operating for the moral uplift of the people. The principle\nof local self-government is inherent and everlastingly fixed in the American people. Whenever a bit of territory demonstrates beyond ■ question its ability to control its own affairs\nand adequately maintain its institutions, it is the fixed policy of this people to grant it all\nthe rights and privileges of statehood. When a town grows into an important municipality and reaches the point where it must have new charter regulations, there is in all\nsections of the country a readiness on the part of the state government to grant the\nmunicipality the privilege of controlling its own affairs within the general constitutional\nprovisions of the state. The same principle should apply to educational institutions and\nsystems of schools. There is an abiding sense of justice in the American people which\nimpels them to recognize the right of institutions and social units self-supported and\nadequately managed within general constitutional limitations, to control their own affairs.\nAgitation in favor of a uniformity of texts in city schools and other local systems has\na tendency to magnify unreasonably the importance of textbooks as tools with which the\nteacher workman must work. And in proportion as this tendency grows will the higher\nspiritual work of the teacher be overshadowed. To prescribe certain texts for a wellorganized city high school and hold over the students, as well as over properly\ntrained specialists in the several departments of such a high school, the imperative demand\nof the state that such books shall be used, and no others, is to attach undue importance to\nthe implements of the school. To force such teachers and students to use books which\nmay be adequate to the needs of many rural high-school classes, but entirely adequate to\nthe demands of a well-organized, well-oiS&cered urban high school, is often obnoxious to\nsuch teachers and students and detrimental to the interests of the school.\nIn some states that have enacted uniform textbook laws, provision has been made\nfor the careful selection of the best texts for rural schools by able, upright, and unfettered\nexperts; and in the state's contracts with successfully competing publishing houses,\nprovision has been made whereby all city and other local systems within its borders, providing in major or even in minor part fi;nds for the maintenance of their schools, may have\nthe benefit of the state prices on prescribed texts, if the local systems desire to use any of\nthem. This of course would apply to elementary schools, as a state which does not recognize and support a system of high schools would have no right to adopt textbooks, prescribe a course of study, and contract for the supply of such books to high schools within\nits borders locally maintained.\nWherever the matter of expense and immunity from overcharging of local retailers\nare of serious concern, a progressive municipality or local system might as a matter of\neconomy impose a very low ad valorem tax, barely sufficient to cover the actual cost of\nsupplying the schools with necessary texts, and under careful business management of the\nschool authorities provide such schools with an adequate supply of good textbooks at much\nless cost to the patrons of the schools than where they must be bought from local retailers\nwith or without a state contract. This is done in many cities under a free textbook law,\nand is found to be not only a matter of business economy, but an important factor in adequately equipping the schools for efficient work.\nIn the absence of such a free textbook law and the imposition of a special tax for\nschoolbooks, a local system may devise a simple plan by which a small fee or per capita\ntax may be collected from all pupils entering the schools, and the aggregate of these fees,\nconstituting a book fund wisely managed by the proper school officials, could be used to\nsupply the schools not only with texts, but with all stationery,\" apparatus, and equipment\nof tools and materials for all the special lines of work such a school system may wish to\ncarry on. Where such a plan has been worked out and tactfully and judiciously introduced, ithas readily met with popular favor, because as a matter of economy its value has\nbeen readily recognized.\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superiatendfiice]\n\nPRINCIPLES\nI.\nWILSON\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nPUPIL\n\nMETHODS\n\nCHILD-CITIZENSHIP\nL,\n\nGILL,\n\nORIGINATOR\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nOF PUPIL GOVERNMENT\nAND\n\nOF THE\n\nTHE SCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCITY,\n\nCITY\n\nGERMANTOWN,\n\nPA.\n\nSome time ago I came to a realization of a fact so simple and plain, and yet so important that it seems strange that we have not always recognized it and acted upon it. It is\nthis: citizenship is a practical art, and ought to be taught in a practical, systematic, scientific, direct way.\nHaving made that discovery, as hundreds of thousands may have done before, I\nfelt compelled to use it for the happiness and welfare of our children and our children's\nchildren. The result of my endeavor is a very simple plan which gives immediate pleasure\nto the pupils, aids greatly in correcting every wrong, develops a good spirit, aids in the\nconstruction of a strong and good character, and helps the young people to form good\nhabits of life and citizenship.\nOut of every hundred boys, roughly speaking, there are not more than from one to\nsix who are viciously mischievous and they have much more good than bad in them and\nprefer to get large, visible, good results, with honor and glory, than to do wrong with a\nchance of punishment and ignominy. This plan provides the escape for these boys from\ntheir bad life and impels them, and they are glad to be so impelled, to accept the immediate\npleasures of active, productive, visible right doing. The ninety-nine other children are\nat the same time reaping their reward of happiness and better conditions.\nOur people are willing to spend large sums of money to help reform boys who have\ngone astray. The money that it takes to support and reform, or rather, attempt to reform\none boy, vidll, by means of the school-city method and plan, save ten, probably a hundred,\nmaybe an entire thousand boys from that kind of life which makes them candidates for\nthe reformatories. In view of these facts I appeal to you to use at least as much power to\nprevent the developing of candidates for the reformatories as is used to reform them after\nthey have gone astray. This process is immeasurably cheaper and at the same time is\nimmensely richer in good results.\nCharacter the real object of public instruction. — The greatest aim and object of public\neducation is to cultivate in the individuals to be educated a good conscience, and to secure\nfor them a wise and resolute self-government and the desire and ability to co-operate for\nthe common good; or, in other words, a good character. Sharpening the wits and storing\nthe memory with facts, the apparent object of schools, colleges and universities, is, in\nreality, but a minor matter, and will easily and necessarily follow the attainment of the\nchief end of education.\n,\nTeaching precepts, old — Training systematically in citizenship, new. — Teaching the\nprecepts of morality and the doctrine of one's relation to his fellows and to his country is\nas old as literature. Enterprising and true teachers have always sought for ways to put\nsuch teachings into practice, and they have been successful as teachers in proportion to\ntheir success in this matter. A well-developed method of practical character-building\nand training in morality and in performing the duties and exercising the rights of citizenship, as is done in the school city, is thoroly systematic and successful and is new.\nPublic policy should demand it.— Every country should require it as a matter of public\npolicy, and the highest legislative power in the state ought to give authority to it. There\nare many school-teachers and officers who are bright enough to see the importance of training the children in citizenship and to form good characters, and there are many who are\nsufficiently unselfish and self-sacrificing to perform the labor of thinking about and\ninstalling what is to them a new method in their schools. Such teachers should be encouraged\nto l)egin the work without waiting to be compelled by law.\nAn adequate method has been found.— h practical method which may be used in a\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nwholesale way in all schools, for students of all ages, which makes it possible and easy for\nteachers to lead their pupils to cultivate good consciences, to govern themselves wisely and\nto co-operate for the general good, will do for the cause of morality, education, and human\nwelfare what the steam-engine and electric apparatus have done for the cause of manufacturers and human comfort. The school-city method of popular government has proved\nitself to be fully adequate to this great purpose. This large claim is not rashly or unadvisedly made.\nIndustrial training — healthful division oj child's time. — It is not claimed, however, that\nthis method can take the place of other needed progress in public instruction, made necessary by the social, political and industrial evolution which has accompanied the gener£(l\nintroduction of machinery and the immense immigration from the farms to the cities, all\nof which have a direct bearing on the moral and civic conditions, and, consequently, call\nfor notice in this place. The changed conditions demand for the public thrift and the\npublic safety that children be trained in productive industry, and that intelligent attention\nshall be given to making a healthful division of the children's time among book- work,\nproductive industry, recreation, and rest, and to the proper housing and feeding of the\npeople. Let it be noted that by productive industry is not meant that kind of manual\ntraining in which a child is engaged only two or three hours a week, and in which he uses up\nmaterial furnished out of the public funds and does not give a visible and commercially\nvaluable and adequate return.\nSupervision needed. — Even such enterprising ones need the encouragement and help\nof constant supervision by a competent and legally authorized specialist in moral and civic\ntraining. Such special supervision is at least as important as state supervision of any\nbranch now taught in the schools. This is necessary for many reasons, a notable one\nbeing that many teachers who have had no experience in the use of the method and do not\nfully understand the principles involved, think it would rebound to their credit if they should\nchange the plan and thus make it appear to be wholly or at least in part their own. Such\nones generally fail in accomplishing the object of the school city, and the whole plan is\nabandoned, unjustly discrediting the movement. Some of these same teachers would have\nsucceeded had they been under competent supervision. Most teachers are women, who\nhave had no practice or knowledge of citizenship, therefore they need the assistance of\nsupervision.\nThose who take up a new method, even with very best intentions, naturally tend to\nrelapse into their old habits. To prevent this thev need constant encouragement, till the\nnew habit is fully and permanently established. Whenever a teacher says \"The pupils\nhave lost interest,\" it is only another way of saying \"The teacher has lost interest and has\nfallen back into his old ways.\"\nThere are school teachers and officers who will not take the trouble to introduce this\nmethod. Whether or not the latter are in the vast majority may not be of much importance .\nThat there are any such is sufficient reason for looking to the higher powers for favorable\ndecision in this matter.\nA question for statesmen. — Whether the children of a nation shall be trained as subjects of a monarchy, as is being done ordinarily thruout the world, or as self-respecting,\nco-operating citizens of a republic is a question that demands the attention of broadminded statesmen, whose insight is sufficiently penetrating and whose outlook is farreaching enough to enable them to discover a vast peril to the democratic institutions of\nour great republic at the present time, whose judgment is good enough to enable them to\nrecognize the remedy when it is placed before them, and who have enough backbone to\nact promptly and effectively in this matter. They should put it beyond the choice of all\nwho might hinder. They should lay down the law that the schools of a republic shall train\nits people while children as citizens, not as subjects, and that they shall make the developing of good character in the children the first aim and a specific practical part of the dailA'\nwork of the schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superinteudence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nPUPIL\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\n287\n\nFacts and philosophy.— In the United States, the greatest and most successful of aU\nrepublics, the one great failure in the government is the municipality, and this is a sore\nspot that threatens death to the democratic spirit of our republic. It is worth while to\nanalyze the situation, with a view to seeing the principal causes for the weakness in American municipal government.\nThe most glaring defect is that a great mass of the educated people do not go to the\nprimaries, and they neglect their municipal duties. That leaves the effective political\nvoting power in the hands of those who are comparatively uneducated. They in turn are\norganized and manipulated by men who make a business of municipal politics, not always,\nbut generally, for the money they can get from the public treasury, and, by means of\nblackmail, from private persons and establishments, and especially from those engaged\nin forbidden or restricted practices and business.\nAnarchy fostered.— Under this pressure, secret opposition and disloyalty to constituted\nauthority is constantly fostered. Many pupils regard their pleasure and interest as opposed\nto those of their teachers, who are apt to be thought of as spies and in some cases as\nenemies, instead of friends and guides.\nOld-fashioned school government is monarchy, in which the teacher endeavors to rule\nby means of his conscience and arbitrary authority, and the political results are as we see\nthem in the municipalities of the United States.\nThe remedy. — The recognition of the cause of the evil is almost a declaration of the\nonly remedy, which is systematically to train the individual wisely to cultivate his own\nconscience and be governed by it, rather than by that of the teacher; to co-operate with his\nfellows for the common good, rather than for mischief; to form the habits of law and order,\nrather than those of anarchy. In other words, the remedy for the apathy of educated men,\nin reference to their municipal duties, which is in effect anarchy, not of the lowest, but\npossibly of the most dangerous type, is to train them while young to think and act and to\nform the habits of citizens, instead of, as in the past, training them in the schools and colleges as subjects of monarchy. It is encouraging to notice that there has been improvement in this in many schools in the past ten years, and that the best and most successful\nteachers have always to some extent led their pupils, instead of driving them.\nLost liberty and death. — \"Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty,\" and the educated\npeople have not paid the price. Among the consequences are insuflScient results from the\nexpenditure of public funds, more disease and a higher death-rate than there should be.\nThe people have lost a part of their liberty, if, because of the inability or dishonesty of the\npublic servants, they must labor additional hours to pay their taxes, and quite as much\nso if they have lost life because of bad drainage, dirty streets, impure water and milk, bad\nfood, or other evils which should be prevented by the government.\nSchools and colleges are to blame. — As this state of affairs is charged to the account of\neducated people, let us take a closer look. We see practically the following: The uneducated men, who can be easily handled by the machinery of the bosses, all vote; most\nof those who have had but little schooling vote; a college and university education is almost\na certain guarantee that a man will not attend the primaries or perform his other municipal\nduties. This seems to throw the blame on the schools, colleges, and universities. They\nteach right principles. The fault does not seem to be in the books. The fault is in the\nschool management. From the primary school till the man graduates from the university\nhe is made to feel and to know that he has simply to obey, and nothing further to do with\nthe government of himself and his fellows, and that he is a tattle-tale and sneak if he\nbrings a wrong-doer to justice, and is mean and dishonorable if, when called upon by the\nauthorities to testify, he does not so shape his testimony as to clear the offender.\nPlan of school city.— The plan of the school city is to organize all the children of each\nschoolroom, under a charter given by the higher authorities, as citizens of a municipality.\nThese citizens elect a mayor, judge, other administrative and judicial ofl&cers and a presiAll citizens in the room who have not been elected or appointed\ndent of the city council.\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washiu^tun\n\nto some office are members of the city council. The mayor appoints his cabinet and\nsubordinates, and has power to remove them at will. Nomination by petition, propor\ntional representation and the initiative and referendum enable the whole body of citzens to\nexpress and enforce its will at any time, either with or independent of its officers. Elections, for several reasons, occur frequently, once in ten weeks — and experience has shown\nthat it is desirable to make the term of the police officers short. In most primary schools\nevery citizen not elected or appointed to some other office is a candidate for a place on the\npolice force, for which a high ideal of gentility and kindness is set.\nSchool state. — To create a good esprit du corps for the whole school and for 'obvious\ncivic and educational purposes, the school cities in one building constitute a school state\nand elect a governor, chief justice, secretary of state, and such other officers as may be\ndesired, and each city sends one or two representatives to the state legislature. Affairs\nof the whole school or of citizens of two school cities will be taken care of by the state\nofficers.\nSchool national government and international relations. — School state governments\nmay be united in school national governments and these may set up international relations.\nGood results. — Many instances of fine moral results are reported from the different\nschools. Of course, the results are not uniform, as the school city is not an automatic\nmachine out of which all must come in exactly the same shape. It is a method, and its\ndegree of success depends upon the interest and skill of the principal and teachers who\nuse it.\nAlmost without exception, when a troublesome boy accepts the responsibiUty of an\noffice in the school city, he instantly puts off his ugly character and assumes one of glad\nobedience and respect for authority and others' rights, and at once begins to help in all\nthat is right, instead of hindering, as was his habit. If, then, the teacher understands the\nmethod and is true to it, he will be friendly to the boy, consult and encourage him, sympathize with him and help him to maintain his enthusiasm, and the boy is saved permanently. Women teachers, with correct intuitions and hearts full of sympathy, if they\nunderstand the simple method, will seldom fail to make the work of regeneration permanent. The condition of the school city is almost an exact index of the character and\ncondition of the head of the school and of the teacher.\nIndustrial, moral and civic evolution. — When our Republic was young, the mass of her\npeople lived on farms. Boys and girls went to school only two or three months in the year.\nFor the rest of the time they labored with their parents in the fields and at the spinningwheel and loom, always under moral, religious, industrial and civic influence, and training.\nThe hoe and spade of the colonies have given way to the steam-driven machines on the\nvast prairies; the spinning-wheel and hand-loom to immense cotton and woolen mills; the\ncountry forge to stupendous rolling-mills, furnaces, foundries, and forges. By such means\nthe children of today are separated during work hours from their parents.\nNo systematic character training. — The pubHc schools, which consume these released\nhours and years in training the intellect and cramming the memory, make no systematic,\nintelligent endeavor to furnish that kind of character-training which our ancestors received\nfrom their parents. The War of the Revolution failed to wipe out that vestige of monarchy\nwhich lurked in the government of the little country school. That was too insignificant\nto be thought of, for in those days the American citizens' characters were built in the open\ncountry, under the influence of their parents, the heroes of the Revolution. Now, American\ncharacter is developed in great swarming buildings, under the weight of a heavy, crowded,\nintellectual curriculum, and that vestige of monarchy which was left in the school has grown,\nwith the increasing months of the school year, to large proportions and is wielded by\nmasters, who themselves have been trained as subjects, not as free men.\nThus, the pubhc schools and colleges, boasted bulwarks of our liberties, have unwittingly, but ceaselessly, nursed the spirit of monarchy, and thru childhood and youth\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendeuce] MET HODS\n\nOF FUPIL\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nsubjected our whole people to it, to that extent, that when they reach the age of manhood\nthey do not go to the primaries and municipal polls, and thus they fail to enter into their\nheritage of citizenship. This is what has made government by the bosses not only possible, but inevitable. F'ortunately, some of the municipal bosses, may be many of them,\nare so patriotic that they would gladly see political power restored to\nan intelligent, active,\nfaithful citizenship, and will not use their power to prevent their own children from being\ntrained in the privileges and responsibilities of faithful citizenship.\nSchool-city children's contribution to the cause oj universal peace. — School cities have\nbeen established in other parts of the world. Last week J completed arrangements for\nthe exchange of letters between the school citizens of Japan and the United States, to be\ndeveloped on a large scale. The arrangements provide for translations. The letters may\ntake up any topics, tho the basis of the correspondence will be civic interests and international friendship. The good results for which I hope, not only for the cause of international peace but of geography, language, and civic and social relations, are so obvious that\nit is unnecessary for me to take time at present to point them out. There has alreadv\nbeen enough corresponding between school children of different nations to demonstrate\nthe feasibility of this project, carried on systematically and on a large scale, for the specific\npurpose of developing international friendship and peace.\nObjections. — There is no possible objection which can be raised against the school\ncity, which cannot with the same reason be raised against the teaching of arithmetic and of\nany moral precepts or practices. For instance. Dr. Harris says if he wanted his grandchildren tolearn the disreputable practices of ward heelers, he would send them to a school\ncity as constituted by Mr. Gill. We do not teach these practices in the school city any\nmore than in a church they teach lying and stealing.\nAppeal to all school superintendents. — I hereby appeal to you, superintendents of all\npublic schools and to all patriots and friends of a government of the people, for the people,\n[and by the people, to join in this movement to provide that every child who enters a school[house shall be treated while there as a free man, and be confirmed in the character and\n[habits of a free-born, faithful, and patriotic citizen, not only ready to die, if necessary,\n'for his native land, but what may be more difficult and quite as important, actually living\n[for his race, patiently and fearlessly defending his rights and faithfully performing all his\n^public duties.\n\nII.\nOLIVER\n\nP.\n\nCORNMAN,\n\nDISTRICT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCITIES\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nI have so high a regard for the sincerity and singleness of purpose of Mr. Gill in his\nhampionship of the particular method of pupil government that he advocates, and so\nhoro a respect for his unselfish devotion to the cause, that I regret that in discussing this\nquestion I am constrained to view the method and its results from a quite different point\nof view. Perhaps we may find consolation for the strange disparities in the reports of\nmen supposed to be viewing the same thing by recalling Saxe's old poem of the five bhnd\nmen and their diverse accounts of the elephant they went to see, and by frankly acknowled\nedging the certain blindness inherent in us all upon which William James has discoursed\nentertainingly.\n\nir\n\nMany of our plans of pupil government, it seems to me, do not sufficiently concentrate upon the problem of realizing the best possibilities of the individual pupil, but are\nsuggested and controlled by the ulterior consideration of finding a remedy, or panacea if\nay be, for the admitted and deplored ills of the body politic.\n\"The Shame of the Cities\" is, unfortunately, so familiar a story with us that it is read\n\nwith a shrug and the hopeless interrogation, \"What are you going to do about it ?\" A\nfavorite reply to this question, and one which in this age and country of enthusiastic belief\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nin the possibilities of education is certain to receive the emphatic indorsement of almost all\nwell-meaning people, is \"Begin with the children, and so inculcate right principles and\ndevelop in them civic consciences that the rising generation of upright men and women\nfully conscious of their civic responsibilities will so regenerate the cities that their government will become the pride, rather than the shame of the Republic.\" The \"school city\" is\nthis reply narrowed down to a very definite and specific form of application.\nThe failure of our municipal governments is so lamentable, the motives of the \"schoolcity\" reformers so unquestioned, the suggested remedy apparently so efficacious, that\nboards of education, the newspapers, public-spirited citizens, in fact the laity in general,\ngive the \"school city\" their cordial support. The only class of people who question its\nvalue as a panacea for municipal ills are the experienced educators of our public-school\nsystems. Here and there \"school cities\" have been organized. In some schools they\nhave been declared successful, in others they have been given up, but the great majority of\neducators seem to regard the paternal form of government that obtains in the schools\ngenerally to be the legitimate form for school purposes, and the method by which the best\ncharacter training can be most successfully accomplished. This is not entirely due to a\nmere conservative adherence to the old established order of things (the tendency in education has too often been the other way, adopting the new for newness' sake being frequently\ncharged up against the modern schoolman), but is based upon careful and intelligent consideration ofthe case in the light of expert knowledge of child nature and its possibilities,\nand of experience of the behavior of children in the community life of the school. It is\nheld by many educators that while a main purpose and actual accomplishment of the\nschools is to train their pupils in self-government, yet it is not possible to organize such a\nthoro-going system of self-government as that contemplated in the \"school city\" without\nits being under such surveillance and control by the school authorities as essentially to\nnegative its self-governing elements, and that a frank paternalism is better than a thinly\ndisguised one. Indeed, it is asserted that a merely nominal self-government, strictly\nsupervised and directed by the teacher, such as the \"school city\" must inevitably become,\napproximates only too closely (however unintentionally) the form of government — bossrule under free men's charters — by which many of our municipalities are actually controlled.\nThe analogy of the school organization to the city de facto government becomes so true\nunder such conditions that the children run the danger of having their habits of thought\nand conduct trained along the very lines which a true training in good citizenship would\nlead them to combat. These and other dangers of the \"school city\" have been well pointed\nout by Dr. Harris who sees in such a civic dramatization the dilemma for the pupils of a\nschool of demagogery and unscrupulous politics or of servile discipleship under the almost\nhypnotic leadership of a strong teacher.\nThese are some of the considerations which bring many educators to pause before\nthey adopt this otherwise most attractive scheme for the civic regeneration of the race.\nBut the value and success of the \"school city\" cannot be settled satisfactorily on a priori\ngrounds. The matter must be put to the test of actual trial, and the results carefully and\nimpartially studied. General testimony of principals who have organized \"school cities,\"\nunchecked by other investigation, seems to me of little value in establishing scientific\nconclusions. Many who have started the \"school city\" are so enthusiastic for the great\nend in view that their judgment of the means is liable to be colored; others are likely to\nfeel that the partial or complete failure of the \"school city\" may be charged up to their\npersonal mismanagement, and so do not care to report lack of success. In order that the\nstudy should be of real value it should be conducted at first hand by actual visitation of the\n\"school cities\" to observe their operations, and by conference with the principals and\nteachers having them in charge. The actual sentiments and opinions of the children\nthemselves should also be obtained as a very important part of the whole inquiry.\nIn investigating results of the \"school-city\" experiment, I have not been able to make\nany such thoro-going inquiry, but merely submit as a partial contribution toward the solu-\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] METHODS\n\nOF PUPIL\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\n201\n\ntion of the problem the returns from a questionnaire answered by the teachers (forty-five\nin all) of three schools in which \"school cities\" had been organized for about one year,\nand the answers made by the pupils of one of the schools to another set of questions submitted to them.\nIn order to secure as far as possible unbiased replies, the pupils were directed to omit\ntheir names and write only grade and sex upon their papers. Returns were not obtained\nfrom pupils below third grade, as most of the questions, tho very simple, are beyond the\ncomprehension of first- and second-grade pupils. Many of the third-grade, and even\nsome of the fourth-grade pupils wrote \"I do not know\" in answer to the questions\ncalling for reasons. The replies were collated separately for boys and girls and by grades\nand departments (grammar and primary). Some interesting differences for age and sex\nwere thus disclosed.\nThe summary of results showed that the distribution of \"ofl&ces\" had been very\ngeneral, nearly half (47 per cent.) of the 601 pupils reporting having served as officers.\nThe higher the grade the greater the dislike for office, as 13 per cent, of the primary pupils,\nand 50 per cent, of the grammar pupils replied that they objected to serving. The grammar-grade pupils seem to be more willing to obey the officers, since 25 per cent, reply that\nthey object, while 37 per cent, of the primary scholars object; but the older pupils are\nmore skeptical as to the value of the plan, for only 68 per cent, wish it continued, while\n82 per cent, of the primary pupils vote in its favor. The girls are slightly more favorable\nin their judgment of the officers, 69 per cent, replying that they regard most of the officers\nas good, while only 63 per cent, of the boys record this opinion. The girls are also more\nwilling to obey in the ratio of 78 per cent, to 62 per cent. They manifest about the same\ndegree of interest in the continuance of the \"school city,\" 73 per cent, of each sex voting\nfor it.\nIt is frequently asserted by the advocates of the \"school city\" that the pupils are not\nonly practically unanimous for it, but are filled with enthusiasm about it. This is probably due to the fact that the children are questioned when assembled together, and by one\nwho, they feel, is enthusiastic for the system. Any experienced teacher knows that under\nsuch circumstances children will vote unanimously for anything. The individual returns,\nhowever, show little enthusiasm and considerable doubt as to the value of the plan. A\nlarge majority of the teachers (91 per cent.) it is true, voted in favor of continuing the\nexperiment, many, however, because of the great end in view, some merely because of\nthe monitorial features of the system which they favor; but they do not give strong testimony of its value and in all these schools the plan was finally abandoned. The teachers\nconsidered that about one-fifth of all the officers elected discharged their duties poorly,\n8 per cent, of the teachers reported noticing \"many\" cases of disrespect to the officers,\n26 per cent, reported little interest even in elections (altho children take a great interest\nin any break in school routine) while 68 per cent, reported that their pupils showed little\ninterest in the \"school city\" in general.\nIn one school a special test was made of the pupils' spontaneous interest in the \"school\ncity.\" The general election was to be held according to charter, three times a year, i. e.,\nat the beginning of each term — the school year being divided into three periods. Two\ngeneral elections were held, but the time for the third was purposely allowed to pass by.\nNot a child out of over 850 took sufficient interest to ask why election was not held. The\nelection of classroom officers was arranged to take place at beginning of each month.\nThis also was allowed to lapse in May, seven elections having been held previously during\nthe school year. Only two instances were reported of pupils asking the reason for this\nomission. Such unconscious testimony strongly substantiates the opinions expressed\nby the teachers of the lack of interest in the system. Moreover, 27 per cent, of all the\npupils, 32 per cent, of the grammar grade, voted to discontinue the system. This in\nspite of the fact that they believed the school authorities to be strongly in favor of the plan.\nOf course, the anonymous nature of their report gave them freedom to vote as they thought;\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nbut no doubt many were influenced by the favorable opinion of their teachers. If onefourth or one-third of the citizens of the United States wished its form of government\nchanged, the country would, it seems to me, be in a deplorable way. A mere three-fourths\nmajority in favor of the Republic would certainly not be a very satisfactory one. Of the\nthirty or more \"school cities\" organized in the public schools of Philadelphia all but one or\ntwo have been discontinued. Those that still claim existence have been so modified as to\nretain little more than the monitorial features of the original plan .\nAgain it is claimed that children as a rule show excellent judgment in the election\nof their officers, tho why they should show good judgment in this difficult matter when\nthey have very poor judgment in almost everything else (immaturity not being the period\nof \"judgment\"), is difficult to understand. Teachers report that they regard only 68\nper cent, of those elected as \"good\" officers and that 17 per cent, were \"bad\" in conduct\nby ordinary school standards, while only 66 per cent, of the pupils report that they considered most of the officers \"good.\" These reports seem to show that the judgment\ndisplayed in choosing officers is what might be expected of children, crude and faulty.\nIt is sometimes claimed that the election of the \"bad\" boy to office makes a surprising\nchange in his conduct and general attitude toward the school. This is, perhaps, true in\nsome instances, but not in all, nor even in a majority of cases. In the opinion of the\nteachers about one-half (47 per cent.) of such cases showed some improvement under the\nresponsibilities of office.\nIn the grammar grades, as noted above, fully half the children do not wish to hold\noffice. In a couple of instances not a pupil was willing to serve for his class. The unwilUngness to hold office in the higher grades seems to be due largely to the development\nof desire for popularity and of ideals of honor and friendship, that do not appear in the\nlower grades. The desire may be wrong, and the ideals imperfect, nevertheless they operate as .strong motives either to refuse office or to discharge its duties perfunctorily. like\nTouchstone's Audrey these ideals may be poor things but they are their own and the best\nthey have and we should be exceedingly careful how we tamper with them. \"Because it\nmakes enemies,\" \"because you lose friends,\" \"because I don't like to report others,\" are\nsample reasons given. Others simply object for selfish reasons, \"Because you don't\nhave so much fun,\" \"because it is too much trouble,\" etc. The primary-grade pupil\nwho hardly knows what popularity means, who is a natural tale-bearer, and who scarcely\ndevelops friendships to a degree worthy of the name, makes the more wilHng and efficient\nofficer. Indeed, it has seemed to me that in the lower grades (leaving out of consideration\nthe first and second grades to whom the whole system is nearly if not quite incomprehensible) the \"school-city\" plan works most smoothly. They take the matter seriously, not\nquestioning for a moment the wisdom of the school authorities who have organized the\nsystem, and accepting with childish faith the things about it that they do not understand.\nThe intelligence of the higher grade pupil, which a priori should fit him better for citizenship and assumption of officership in the \"school city,\" enables him to see the weak points\nof the system, while his selfish interests and emotional development prompt him to shirk\nhis responsibilities.\nIt is claimed for the \"school city\" as an incidental merit that it greatly improves the\ndiscipline of the school in which it is organized. This is hardly borne out by the testimony of the questionnaire. A large majority of the teachers hold the opinion that it exerts\nno effect one way or the other, a small minority (11 per cent, for classroom discipline and\n35 per cent, for general discipline) hold that it exerts a good influence, while 2 per cent,\nexpressed the belief that its influence is for the worse. I am inclined to conclude from\nthis testimony and from my own personal observation that the influence of the \"school\ncity\" upon the school discipUne is not very considerable. A well-disciplined school will\ncontinue so after organization as a \"school city\" and a poorly disciplined one is not likely\nto be very greatly improved. Indeed, a \"school city\" is liable to become riotous in the\nextreme, unless carefully supervised and controlled.\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nPUPIL\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\n203\n\nThe answer to the questions of the pupils' questionnaire ^ which called for reasons for\ntheir opinions, plainly disclosed the great difference in the point of view of primary and of\nhigher grade pupils; the former seemed to miss the significance of the \"school-city\" idea\nalmost completely; the latter, while showing somewhat greater appreciation of its meaning,\nwere inclined to place school-boy and girl ideals and traditions of conduct above it. Nowhere was there manifested enthusiasm for the \"school city,\" nor a sense of the relation\nbetween present and future responsibilities. The answers seemed to show that pupils of\nthe elementary school are neither ready for, nor desirous of, a system of self-government\nin the school.\nThe discussion thus far has been restricted to the executive functions of the \"school\ncity.\" The legislative and judicial branches of the \"school-city\" government should be\nconsidered in detail, but time limitations forbid. It must suffice to say that the exercise\nof these functions is considerably more difficult than those of the other branch of government calling to a still greater extent upon capacities which the child does not possess. It\nis true that a \"school city\" may be organized in all these departments, and be kept running\nunder the careful and constant direction and supervision of the school principal and\nteachers. Just as the modern animal trainer can teach his four-footed pupils the most\nmarvelous tricks, the children can be made to play the game more or less well, but the selfgovernment is only nominal, and the real significance of the plan, either completely misundersto d or at best but very vaguely apprehended. This is in complete accord with\nwhat is now known of child nature from careful observation and experiment of the trained\npsychologist and pedagogue. Children are not miniature replicas of adults, but are essentially different in many of their instinctive traits, emotional dispositions, and intellectual\ncharacteristics. The \"school-city\" system appeals to instincts and emotions which either\ndo not exist or are undeveloped, and makes demands upon the child's intelligence which\nhe is unprepared to meet. In short, it shoots over the pupils' heads, and so fails to effect\nthat development of the civic conscience, and that preparation for good citizenship for\nwhich it is designed.\nThe lack of interest that the children manifest in the \"school city\" after the first flush\nof novelty has subsided, the comparatively neutral effect that it has upon the discipline of\nthe school, the great amount of supervision and control that must be exercised by the\nteacher in order to produce even the semblance of success, all seem to indicate that the\nsystem is not adapted to the nature and development of the pupil of the elementary school,\nand tell strongly against its value for the great object which it has in view.\nTho the \"school city\" may not accomplish what is- claimed for it, nor be a legitimate\nmethod of training in citizenship, yet there may perhaps be derived from its study suggestions for the utilization of class and school spirit, and the development of a helpful cooperation on the part of the children that will be of considerable value in that general\ndevelopment of character upon which all good citizenship is necessarily based.\nIt is this general development of character that is the fundamental consideration.\nThe special forms of training as provided in the \"school city\" and by other similar devices\nare unimportant if not positively meretricious. I think this has been borne out by such\nscientific investigations as we have at hand. Instance the following conclusions reached\nby Earl Barnes as the result of a concrete study of the development of children's political\nideas: \"The sense of the abstract state and of their obligations to it will come to children\nonly later in life. Special emphasis on citizenship as usually understood in elementary\neducation is largely wasted time; and yet the patriotic teacher will breed patriots in all his\nattempts to make good men and women. Citizenship is but one attribute of good and\nintelligent men and women and this study calls us back once more to the wholeness of\nelementary education. All attempts to make good artisans, good leaders of commerce,\ngood soldiers and officers, or good citizens and rulers by any short-cut will produce only\nonC'\none-sided, uncertain, and dangerous grown-up children.\" With these conclusions I am\nfullv in accord.\n\niL\nI\n\nL\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent E. C. Willard, Stamford, Conn. — We are obliged to teach textbooks in civics abstractly. By this method, the subject can be taught concretely. We\ndifferentiate this from all other subjects. If has been an unqualified success in Stamford.\nIt may do a great deal of good and certainly no harm. It has been in successful operation\nten years in one of the schools of Syracuse, N. Y. ; also in one school in Philadelphia eight\nyears. Thirty schools in Philadelphia have used it successfully from one to three years.\nThe results always depend upon the tact of the teachers using it.\nSuperintendent J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. — We are still experimenting.\nWe are not ready with positive conclusions. Great caution is necessary in introducing a\nplan of this kind. The results so far in Birmingham are good. The boys have been\nmade responsible. This has helped the teacher. Most school troubles are caused by\na few active spirits. The great majority are silent. This scheme gives voice to the great\nmajority. It is especially successful in four schools in Birmingham. It gives voice and\npower to the better sentiment of the school and public sentiment in the school, as everywhere else, is the controlling spirit.\nSuperintendent Winfred Howard Babbitt, Hawaii. — There is a peculiar situation in Hawaii. There are children of many different nationalities, to be made into\nAmerican citizens. The value of school city is here greater than elsewhere. Great\nresults have been accomplished by this method, greater, I believe, than are claimed for it\n\nD.\nTOPIC:\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nON AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF TEACHERS\nEDUCATION\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nFOR\n\nIn the absence of Secretary Wilson, of the Department of Agriculture, Dr. A. C. True,\ndirector of the Office of Experiment Stations, was asked to represent the Department of\nAgriculture.\nDr. True spoke informally and the substance of his remarks was as follows :\nThe Honorable Secretary of Agriculture has been prevented from coming to this\nmeeting because of press of other business. He has not commissioned me to represent him\non this occasion, but I feel that it is proper for me to say a few words relating to the educational work of the great department over which he presides. The secretary is greatly interested inall that pertains to the education of our rural people and under his administration the national Department of Agriculture has been encouraged to promote very actively\nthe movement for education along agricultural lines. Later in this meeting Mr. Crosby\nwill describe somewhat specifically what the department is doing in this matter, and I will\nnot anticipate what he has to say.\nI may, however, call attention to the fact that a large part of the work of the department is broadly educational. Thru its investigations and explorations it is collecting\na large amount of new information on agricultural subjects which it is disseminating\nbroadcast thruout the country thru numerous popular and scientific publications.\nUnder the law by which it was established the department is authorized to use the\nterm \"agriculture\" in its broadest sense. Not only farming, but also horticulture, forestry,\nand whatever relates to the growth and preservation of plants or domestic animals, in\nvillages and cities as well as in the open country, come within its province. The department is,therefore, doing much which is of interest and value to teachers, students, and other\npeople in the towns as well as on the farms.\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIn recent years the department has found that it is very desirable to supplement its\npublications with local demonstrations of new crops and methods and with oral instruction at farmers' institutes and other assembUes of people interested in agriculture.\nIt has also reaUzed that if the work done by the department and the state agricultural\nexperiment stations is to be thoroly utilized for the improvement of our agriculture\nand the intellectual and social uplift of the masses of our rural people, the minds of the\ncountry children must be prepared to receive the new information which may aid them\nin their future life work. The department has therefore engaged in the propaganda for\nthe introduction of agricultural subjects into our school curricula, and in co-operation with\nthe agricultural colleges and educational leaders in the various states has sought to ascertain\nand define what is feasible in the development of a system of agricultural education suited\nto the needs of the vast number of our people who live in the country and carry on our\nagriculture.\nEntering into the movement for agricultural education at a time when it had few\nfriends, the department has greatly rejoiced in its rapid progress in recent years. Today\nthe leaders of pubhc opinion in this country, with the President of the United States at\ntheir head, are generally convinced that our schools should be brought into closer touch\nwith our industries and that subjects relating to such a fundamental industry as agriculture should be included in the school curricula.\nResponding to the demands of this movement, this great National Education Association is every year showing a deeper interest in measures looking to the improvement of\neducation for our rural people. And today this Association is to take an important\nadvance step in the organization of a Department of Rural and Agricultural Education.\nIt seems that we have reached a new stage in the development of this movement.\nThus far it has been mainly a propaganda for reform. Now the time has come for the\ndefinite formulation of programs for these new phases of education and the undertaking\nof many experimental efforts to adapt the new courses to our general educational schemes.\nYou, who are actually engaged in the work of our schools, are therefore banding yourselves\ntogether to study the problems of agricultural education and to make and put into effect\nplans for this new type of education.\nThere is reason for general congratulation that the cause of agricultural education\nhas reached such a point. The Department of Agriculture is glad that you are met here\nfor such a purpose. It desires to aid you in this great work in any way that it can. It\nnow seems assured that the forces in favor of the improvement of the education of our\nrural people are to be greatly strengthened by a closer organization and sympathy. We\nmay therefore hope for widespread and permanent results in the cause of agricultural\neducation in the near future.\n\nNOTES\nELMER\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nTRAINING\nBROWN,\n\nUNITED\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\nSTATES\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n{An Abstract]\nCommissioner Brown urged that in the training of teachers of agriculture both the\nscientific and the pedagogical purpose should be kept steadily in view. He expressed\nconfidence that effective co-operation could be maintained in such education between\nscientific speciahsts on the one hand, and pedagogical teachers on the other hand. He\nreferred to Senate bill 3392, \"to provide for the advancement of instruction in agriculture,\n\nB\n\nmanual training and home economics in the state normal schools of the United States.\"\nThis bill, said Commissioner Brown, is one of several which have been introduced at\nthis session of Congress, providing for national aid to education in the several states, and\nparticulariy for national aid as regards education in agriculture, home economics and\nThe fact that several bills touching in different ways upon this\nother industrial subjects.\n\nIIL\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nsubject have been brought before Congress is a clear indication of public interest in this\nmatter.\nPrinciple involved. — The principle involved in the granting of such aid to the states\nby the general government has already found definite lodgment in the policy of the national\ngovernment, as shown by the appropriations made under the second Morrill act, of 1890,\nand the Nelson amendment of 1907, providing for a more complete endowment and support of agricultural and mechanical colleges. It is generally agreed that the working of\nthis principle, in its bearing on the support of the land-grant colleges, has been extremely\nbeneficial. One indication of the value of such appropriations is seen in the fact that\nthey have encouraged rather than retarded the support of these state institutions by the\nseveral state governments.\nThe information at hand in the Bureau of Education shows that in the year 1896 these\nland-grant colleges received in the aggregate 29 per cent, of their support from the national\ngovernment. Ten years later, in 1906, owing to the increase of state appropriations, this\nproportion of their support from federal funds was reduced to 15.4 per cent. In this tenyear period the congressional grant was increased by 19 per cent.\nIncrease in state aid. — Continuing, Commissioner Brown said: In the same time\nthe amount which these institutions received from their several states was increased by\nabout 240 per cent. Whereas in 1896 twenty-five of these institutions received more than\none-half of their support from the national government, in 1906 only fifteen received more\nthan one-half of their support from the national government. These figures show a wholesome tendency. They would seem to indicate that the granting of national aid for the\npromotion of education might safely be extended to other classes of institutions, provided\nit can be shown that there is a national need that these institutions be advanced more\nrapidly in their educational efficiency than they can be advanced without such national\naid. The land-grant colleges were intended to meet what was clearly a national need, that\nof institutions in all of the states which should promote agricultural improvement by\nproviding the higher grades of agricultural instruction.\nThis had been found to be an extremely difficult undertaking- Even with the encouragement bythe first Morrill act, 1862, the development of these institutions was painfully slow. Since the granting of an annual appropriation for their better support, under\nthe second Morrill act, their usefulness has been very rapidly extended and increased.\nDuring the period since 1890, however, industrial changes have gone forward with great\nrapidity, the tendency of our rural population to gravitate toward the cities has continued,\nand the need of a better industrial education for our city populations has been emphasized\nby the increasing severity of world competition. For all of these reasons the problem of\na better education of an industrial type, in both country and city, has steadily become\nmore acute.\nFederal assistance needed. — It is extremely doubtful whether these growing needs\ncan be met in the near future in a majority of the states unless the encouragement of federal\nappropriations be added to the efforts of the states and of local communities. There is,\nhowever, good reason to hope that any appropriations which may be made to this end by\nthe national government will encourage and promote such provision by states and communities as will in good measure meet the need. Commissioner Brown, in concluding,\nsaid: I would recommend that, as a preliminary to any new federal appropriation for\neducational purposes in the several states, a special inquiry be instituted by Congress to\ncover the points indicated, and any other items which may properly enter into a plan of\nfederal appropriation for educational purposes.\n\" In my judgment a large saving would be effected even if such an inquiry should\noccupy from one to two years of time and involve an expenditure of from fifty to one\nhundred thousand dollars.\" The speaker also called attention to the fact that certain\nmodifications should be made in Senate bill 3392 before it is put upon its passage.\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "AGRICULTURAL\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nCO-OPERATION\nI.\n\nKENYON\n\nL.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSTATE\nAGRICULTURAL\nNORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nBUTTERFIELD,\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nPRESIDENT\nMASSACHUSETTS\nAMHERST, MASS.\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nSTATE\nCOLLEGE\n\nIn 1905 Governor W. L. Douglas, of Massachusetts, appointed a state Commission\n'on Industrial Education, of which Hon. Carroll D. Wright was chairman, for the purpose\nof investigating the needs of the commonwealth with respect to industrial education, and\nof reporting a plan of operations which would meet the need. That Commission 'presented\nto the legislature of 1906 a strikingly complete and extremely valuable printed report, a\ndocument destined to become a classic in the literature of the subject.\nAgriculture as a phase of industrial education was fully recognized in this report, and\namong other recommendations of the Commission was one for the establishment of a normal department at the Massachusetts Agricultural College for the purpose of giving instruction to teachers who desire to teach elementary agriculture in the public schools.\nThis was the result of careful consideration of the methods and facilities for the training of\nteachers to teach agriculture. The Commission had discussed the feasibihty of such instruction in the state normal schools, in a proposed special normal school for agriculture, and\nin the agricultural college. They decided that the greatest economy and efl&ciency would\nbe subserved by the establishment of a normal department in agriculture at the agricultural college.\nIn accordance with this report, the legislature established such a department and in\n1907 made an appropriation of $5,000 per year to carry out the law. In the same year\nthe college organized a Department of Agricultural Education and appointed as full professor William R. Hart, of Nebraska. Instruction to the regular students of the college\nis given in this department. For teachers already in service a Simimer School of Agriculture was held at the college in 1907.\nThis decision of the Commission and the establishment of the Department of Agricultural Education and of the Summer School of Agriculture at the college, of course,\nraised the question, What shall the normal schools do with reference to work of this type ?\nShall they refrain entirely from such instruction, shall they develop courses parallel to\nthose offered at the college, or shall they give courses supplemental to those at the college ?\nThis question was brought up for further consideration thru a proposition advanced byPrincipal F. F. Murdock, of the Massachusetts State Normal School at North\nAdams, that the agricultural college and the normal school should co-operate in the training of grade teachers for work in elementary agriculture, and if possible in supervision of\nagriculture and nature-study. The proposition in brief was: (i) That the college should\nengage an instructor and supervisor of elementary agriculture who should give a portion\nof his time to the instruction of students at the normal school, another portion to the supervision of those schools in Berkshire County which the normal school is endeavoring to\nassist in the introduction of agriculture, and the remaining time to such instruction in the\nagricultural college and general supervision and assistance to the teachers of the state as\ncircumstances will permit. (2) That the normal school should contribute its facilities of a\nscience department, a garden of two and a half acres, and the children in the training school.\nThe principle involved in this proposed scheme of co-operation is substantially this :\nAgriculture is recognized as a distinct subject, and one possessing, even in its elementary\nwork, strong technical aspects. Hence it will be differentiated in scope, purpose, and\nmethod of approach, from the nature-work of the lower grades, and even irom some phases\nof school gardening. It seems to follow, therefore, that the agricultural college, by reason\nof its equipment, its atmosphere, and its teaching force, is the proper place for the instruction of teachers in the subject-matter of agriculture.\nOn the other hand, the normal school, because of its purpose, its facilities, and its\nteaching body, is the proper place for the study of the child and for practice in teaching,\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nor, to put it more exactly, is the proper place for the development of the material and\nmethods of instruction with special reference to the mental needs and capacities of the\nchild. The agricultural college emphasizes the technical aspect, the subject side; the\nnormal school emphasizes the pedagogical aspect, the child side. This does not mean that\nthe agricultural college usually ignores the pedagogical, nor the normal school usually\nignores the technical, aspect of the question. Obviously there is no sharp line of demarkation, but obviously also the spirit and atmosphere of both schools, dififering in emphasis,\nare both needed for the thoro development of the plan. It is to be observed, moreover,\nthat this plan has to do with elementary agriculture. The question of instruction in highschool agriculture has not thus far been considered in the scheme of co-operation, tho\nthe agricultural college is providing for such instruction.\nI have hesitated to outline this plan because it is at present only a plan. But if the\nlegislature, acting according to the wish of the state Board of Education and of the Board\nof Trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, appropriates additional funds, this\nplan will go into efifect approximately April i. Nevertheless, I have used this proposed\nand tentative plan for the purpose of this discussion because I think it involves two fundamental principles, namely: (i) That the emphasis in the agricultural college and the\nemphasis in the typical normal school, with respect to the training of teachers to teach\nelementary agriculture, will differ one from the other, tho the division is not sharply\nmarked. Both are complementary and both are vital. (2) That the natural and desirable method of training teachers of elementary agriculture involves a measure of co-operation between the two institutions.\nThe development of methods remains largely for the future. There will doubtless\nbe some exchange of pupils. There probably will be exchange of teachers. And even if\nnothing more is done than that the college instructor whose special field is agriculture\nshall assist at the normal school and in overseeing the efforts to introduce elementary\nagriculture into the schools, the principle will be recognized and generous co-operation\nwill be secured.\n\nII.\n\nALFRED\n\nBAYLISS,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nWESTERN\n\nILLINOIS\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMACOMB,\n\nILL.\n\nI know nothing which I can contribute to this discussion likely to be of more value\nthan a brief account of an instance of rather close co-operation already established between\nthe College of Agriculture of the State University of Illinois and the normal school with\nwhich I am connected.\nAt present such work as we are attempting in agriculture is in charge of our instructor\nin biology (Mr. J. T. Johnson), who, as a side line, while an instructor at the university,\nnearly completed a full course in the agricultural college. Because of the friendly relations\nexisting between our instructor and the agricultural college faculty there was not the\nslightest difficulty in arranging for a co-operative soil-experiment field on the normal-school\ncampus. The ground set apart for a beginning is the S.E. 2J acres of the S.E. 10 of the\nN.E. 40 of the N.W. \\ of Sec. 36, Twp. 6 N., R. 3 W. of the fourth principal meridian.\nThe soil is a gray silt loam, natural timber land, representing quite a large area of land\nin the upper Illinois glaciation. The plans to be used in conducting the field experiment\nwere prepared in detail at the college, under the immediate direction of Dr. C. G. Hopkins, the professor of agronomy, who personally saw to it that the field was properly laid\nout, tiled, and that all other initial steps were rightly taken. The plans are duplicates\nof those used in the experiments in soil fertility at the experiment station at the college.\nThe normal school is responsible for the field operations and the bookkeeping, for both\nof which the most precise directions have been supplied. Samples of the soil have been\ntaken to the agricultural college and stored for comparison with others to be taken from\nthe same plots eight to twenty years hence.\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n.^\n\nEDUCATION\n\no,^,.\n^99\n\nThis experiment field is divided into forty plots, each one rod square, and each surrounded bya protecting border one-fourth of a rod wide. These plots are arranged in two\ndivisions, so mapped and numbered that any plot may readily be located and referred to.\nThere are four series of five plots each in each division, and the plan involves a four-year\nrotation of corn, oats, wheat, and clover hay. The two divisions make it possible to have\neach crop represented in duplicate every year.\nThe treatment proposed in each division is as follows:\nFor the first division —\nPlot No. I. — No treatment.\nPlot No. 2.— Legume treatment (turning back to the soil everything grown upon\nthe land excepting grains and clover seed).\nPlot No. 3. — Legume, lime.\n. Plot No. 4. — Legume, lime, phosphorus.\nPlot No. 5.-— Legume, lime, phosphorus, potassium.\nFor the second division —\nPlot No. I. — No treatment.\nPlot No. 2. — Manure.\nPlot No. 3. — Manure, lime.\nPlot No. 4. — Manure, Ume, phosphorus.\nPlot No. 5. — Manure, lime, phosphorus, potassium.\nThis, it will be seen, provides for (i) a system of grain farming in which the humus\nand the nitrogen are to be maintained by plowing legume crops and the residue of other\ncrops, such as the stalks of the corn crop and possibly the straw of the oats and wheat crops,\nand all of the clover crop except the seed; and (2) a system of live-stock farming in which\nthe crops are all removed from the land, including the corn stalks, straw, and clover hay,\nwhile farm manure is to be returned in proportion to the crops produced.\nFurther detail is unnecessary at this time and place. It should be added, however,\nthat there is not the least doubt that when we get this line of work well in hand, the agricultural college will be equally ready and willing to start and direct us in any other advisable line. Our present thought is that dairy husbandry will be next, and that may be\nfollowed by some lines of plant breeding. Moreover, to the credit of its co-operative\ninstincts be it said, the agricultural college has located at least one of its branch stations\nin juxtaposition to a particularly enterprising and progressive country school, allowing\nthe school certain special privileges in connection therewith, making it hardly less a\nco-operative station than the one just described.\nCo-operation in this spirit is merely the natural articulation of parts of the publicschool system, and would be one means of making such a measure as Senate Bill 3392\nfully efficient.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam M. Stewart, president State Normal School, Salt Lake City, Utah. — The\nprimary need for the successful teaching of agriculture is competent teachers. Neither\nthe agricultural college nor the normal school can alone adequately prepare teachers for\ngiving scientific instruction in agriculture in the common schools.\nThis statement is made in view of two main considerations: (i) The difficulty and\nnewness of agriculture as a subject of school study; (2) The fact that the teaching of\nagriculture requires the services of a better-trained teacher academically, and bettertrained in psychology, pedagogy, and methods, than does the teaching of any of the\nsubjects now included in the school curriculum.\nThe teaching of agriculture embraces the whole of the teacher's art. It is a pervasive\nand exacting subject. It embodies the most important aspects of character building; for\nin teaching the pupils scientifically to plant, cultivate, and harvest farm crops, and as a\ncommunity to be responsible for the proper care of a school garden, we are training them\nin some of the most valuable lessons in Life. Honesty is here not merely inculcated, but\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nis put into actual operation. Industry is not liere explained and commendedj but is\nrealized. There is no doubt, in such case, of the worth and the necessity of industry, regularity, etc., for their effects are apparent in the product. The great lessons of civic righteousness and personal honor stand out in bold relief just as soon as a school engages in\nco-operative work connected with the real activities of life.\nThe special difficulty in teaching agriculture arises from the fact that it is a part of, or\nmay be correlated with, almost every other subject taught in the schools. It implies botany,\nzoology, chemistry, physics, physiology, geology, meteorology; it is reading, language,\ngeography, arithmetic; it is manual training and domestic science; or at least it is so\nclosely related to all these subjects that a pedagogical knowledge of the entire curriculum\nis necessary in order to enable the teacher successfully to teach agriculture in the public\nschools. It is also commerce, business, and transportation. A teacher cannot merely\nlearn agriculture and then teach it. He should leain the pedagogy of all the branches\nupon which it depends and with which it is so vitally connected; and yet he must be\nspecially trained in the science and art of agriculture, or he will fail to realize its practical\nor vocational value. The great masses of the people are and ever will be producers of\ncommodities.\nThe school garden, a nature laboratory necessary to every school, is the most convenient, certain, and attractive form known for the creation of products for sale by school\npupils. Each child coming from the public schools should have acquired something in\nthe way of an occupation that he can do well. Simple branches of horticulture are easily\nwithin his reach, since they require only methodical application and not a high degree of\neither hand skill or mental training and balance. The vocational value of agriculture,\ndomestic science, etc., therefore, gives to the child some preparation of real merit which will\ndo much to prepare him for life.\nBut this work has more than vocational value; even the city teacher should be thus\ntrained. Life in the city is so artificial that to have the city schools do some of the nature\nwork and garden practice will do much toward preventing the city boy or girl from becoming formally bookish and unpractical. Besides, the city needs the school garden and the\nelements of agriculture, for it may happen that the talent of the city child is for agriculture.\nIf so, this kind of training will find out his talents and instincts as well as train them.\nWhy should not the city boy be permitted to go to the country if he so desires, as well as\nthe country boy to the city ? The open-air exercises, the muscular and mental activity,\nand the change from school routine to the varied motor activities of the garden, all conduce to make this form of training one of the best, not only from the educational but from\nthe hygienic standpoint, ever undertaken in the schools.\nOf course the great question remains. Is it practicable ? Can it be done ? Can\nteachers be so trained and every little school have at least a garden for its laboratory ?\nWe believe so. The school garden part is so simple, so easy of realization in some degree\nwhen once understood, that no school, however small or poorly equipped, need fail in\nthe work of doing some agriculture when the teacher is competent. So the vital need is\ncompetent teachers.\nLet us now consider how this work of training teachers can best be done, so as to insure\nthe efficiency of the teacher as well as to maintain economy of expenditure in his preparation for agricultural education. We have no doubt, judging from our own experience,\nand from the very nature of the subject, that the most economical and efficient plan is to\nhave the agricultural college and the normal school departments of the university, and to\nhave them associated in one place and combined on one campus under one administration.\nSuch a combination would furnish expert knowledge and skill needed for the training not\nonly of agricultural teachers but for all others as well; the equipment of all the schools\nwould be available for each, and expensive duplication avoided. Each can help the other\nso much that there would be an enormous gain in efficiency, and saving in expenditure.\nBut the great reason is the advantage which this union affords for the superior training of\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ^\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n^OI\n\nteachers. Expert knowledge in many lines of science, natural history, and business are\nrequired for successful agricultural practices, while the necessary psychological and pedagogical training of teachers cannot, except at great expense, be supplied by any one of these\ninstitutions standing by itself. It is not enough that the public-school teacher shaU know\nagriculture, he must be primarily a teacher; he must know the best normal methods; his\nview-point must be that of the child. While this is true of all the subjects taught in the\npublic schools, it is particularly and in a paramount way true of the science and art of\nagriculture.\nAbove any other subject in the school curriculum, agriculture presents special difficulties inteaching; and more than any other subject, it requires the successful application\nof the principles of sound pedagogy in order to be successful. All the ingenuity, tact, and\neven devices of good teachers must be here employed, or we shall fail. The great problem\nwill be how to sustain the interest of the child in the work, for notwithstanding the beauty\nof the science and the naturalness of the art of agriculture, children will lose interest in it\nsimply thru waiting for its results, unless the subject-matter is made, by pedagogical\nmethods, to conform to the natural interests of the child. The growth of plants is very\nslow. The results in farming are not attained until the end of the season; often not then.\nSoils in and of themselves may be very uninteresting things; fertilizers still more so; and\nthe same may be said of some of the farm processes. The interest of the adult is easily\nsustained, because he can foresee the result. To him the end means money and profit;\nbut the child in the early years of his school life cannot foresee the end. He has little interest in profit or loss; he will not, he cannot, wait for his result until the plant matures\nand the crop is sold. In order to sustain his interest, the results must be immediate, as\nthey appear to him to be in grammar, arithmetic, and any other school subject. It is\nhere that the art of teaching will always be indispensable. The more mere knowledge any\nagricultural expert has, the more dangerous he might become in the schoolroom from this\nvery fact; for if he lack the teacher's art, his superior knowledge of agriculture can but\nserve to carry him and his instruction still farther away from child-interest and thus\ndiscourage and disgust the child with the subject. It is for these reasons that the\nnormal school must train teachers to teach agriculture; for scientific farming is the most\ncomplex of the nature arts and sciences. The adult learns it in some direct and\ncondensed way.\nIf the normal work for training teachers of agriculture should be added to the agricultural college, the latter would need to incorporate into its organization a complete normal\nschool. If agriculture is to be added to the normal school, the latter must have the services\nof agricultural teachers as part of its faculty. The first alternative would require the\nagricultural college to duplicate everything the normal school does. The second alternative would require that the normal school should secure the services of several agricultural\nexperts for at least a part of their time, as is now the case at the Utah State Normal\nSchool. This year we have found it sufficient to receive from the agricultural college\nthe services of an expert on soils and farm crops, of another on economic entomology, of\nanother on horticulture, and of another on birds. We get the services of one professor one\nday each week thru the school year. This is, of course, in addition to the regular\nnature-study instruction, which requires two days more per week, and is given by\nthe regular professor and director of nature-study in the St^te Normal School of\nUtah.\nIn those states in which the three institutions, the university, the agricultural college\nand the normal school, are entirely separate and apart from one another, the agricultural\ncollege should maintain a branch experiment station on the campus of the normal school, so\nthat the specialists in charge of that station would also be available for use by the normal\nschool. This co-operative work between the two schools could be managed as extension\nwork on the part of the agricultural college, just as the farmers' institutes are part of its\nextension work.\nThis normal institute, as a species of extension work, would be a center\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nfor this kind of activity, and would no doubt accomplish more than many or perhaps all\nthe other institutes devoted directly to the interests of farmers. That is, in its final results\nit would train the teachers and they would disseminate what they had learned; and thus\nthe benefits to agriculture would be enormously multiplied.\nThe government in its appropriation to agricultural colleges should set apart a specific\nportion of the appropriation to be used in state normal-school work, as the officers of the\nstate normal school should direct; but the expert work should all be done by the agricultural-college faculty. It would be indispensable that the financial aid devoted to the\npurposes of normal instruction should not be uncertain and must not be left to the discretion of the agricultural college. The management of the normal curriculum must be\nwith the normal school. It knows best just when, and also how much agricultural instruction should be given to the prospective teachers of the community. This is precisely its\nbusiness and function. It vdll prescribe, broadly, the subject; but the details and character of the work to be given must be determined by the agricultural college experts, who\nalone can keep abreast of recent progress in agricultural science.\nThe third alternative is the attempt to train teachers in agriculture without any cooperation between the two schools. This is possible, but expensive and unsatisfactory.\nNo doubt certain recreative garden work could be done; and also some nature work; but\nthis is not sufficient and would result in failure, so far as efficient training of teachers in\nagriculture is concerned, or it would result in a gradual duplication of work and equipment\nof the agricultural college.\nThe Utah State Normal School is on most friendly terms with the State Agricultural\nCollege which has promised all the aid possible. We hope in the immediate future to\nhave an agricultural experiment station located on the normal-school campus.\nOur school garden now comprises six acres under close cultivation. An expert\ngardener gives his entire time to it, with some assistance during the growing season. This\nland is cultivated as a commercial garden. It is expected to pay its own way. Our\ndirector of nature-study maintains that the best lesson in farming will be the concrete\ndemonstration of how a farm, garden, or orchard may be made to pay; and therefore that\nthe garden as a whole and each separate class garden should be cultivated for the sake of\nprofit, as well as for the sake of beauty, recreation, and education.\nWe have found already that we could, if we had the facilities, base most of the school\nwork upon the activities that center round the school garden. Our nature-work in the fall\nbegins with the study of weeds, and each grade is expected to identify its assigned groups.\nCertain cultivated products and also certain wild plants, insects, and birds are assigned to\neach grade. Along with these laboratory studies, the actual harvesting of small farm crops\nis given. The children sell the crops harvested from their special garden, put the money\nin the bank, figure the cost of the product, make out the bills, and carry on all the business\nand banking essential to such work. In this subject, they study a specimen rather than a\nbook. The specimen is their book. What they tell about it is their oral recitation; what\nthey write about it is their writing- work and English composition; their drawing or modeling of it constitutes their art; their estimates of its value and calculations made about it\nform their arithmetic. The raising of it and the preparation of the utensils necessarv in\nits handling make up part of their manual training. The same vegetables cooked in the\ndomestic-science classes furnish part of the material for their work in cooking.\nThe arguments presented aim to sustaih:\n1. The great importance of agricultural education, and the extreme difficulty in successfully teaching it in the common schools, both elementary and secondary; also that\nthe teacher of agriculture, more than the teacher of any other subject in the curriculum,\nshould be professionally trained for his work.\n2. That this training can best be done in a university which combines with it on one\nsite the agricultural and the normal school.\n3. That if the normal school undertakes the work of training agricultural teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n303\n\nby itself on a separate site, it should have, to be most successful, the co-operation of the\nagricultural college.\n4. That for the agricultural college to train competent teachers it would be neces\nsary to duplicate the equipment and faculty of the normal school.\nIn conclusion I will say that the movement for industrial education will make its\nmost rapid and successful advance along the line of agriculture. To give all teachers at\nleast some agricultural training will not only mean a revolution in our educational system\nbut it will give such an impetus to agriculture as our country has never seen. I have great\nfaith in this movement as a wonderful stimulus in socializing school activities, that is,\nin making the school organic with life— the ultimate aim of our democratic system of\neducation.\n\nCO-OPERATION BETWEEN\nAGRICULTURE\nAND\nPROMOTING\nDICK\n\nJ. CROSBY,\n\nTHE\nUNITED STATES DEPARTMENT\nSTATE SCHOOL\nAUTHORITIES IN\nAGRICULTURAL EDUCATION\n\nEXPERT\nIN AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION,\nUNITED\nEXPERIMENT\nSTATIONS, WASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nSTATES\n\nOFFICE\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nIn the promotion of agricultural education there are many problems which will\nrequire the combined efforts of all the educational forces in this country to solve. The\nmovement for agricultural education is so large and withal so new, it has come upon us so\nsuddenly, that we find ourselves unprepared to meet all of the demands it makes upon us.\nIt comes nearer to being a national movement than any other recent movement in education. The combined legislation of the federal Congress and the legislatures of the several\nstates and territories has built up a national system of agricultural education, which\nincludes the following units: (i) The National Bureau of Education, which acts in an\nadvisory capacity with all of the units concerning the expenditure of federal funds for education and serves as a general clearing-house of education; (2) the United States Department of Agriculture which acts in an advisory capacity on matters relating to the expenditure of federal funds for research in agriculture and on matters relating to agricultural\neducation in particular, and is itself engaged in research to increase the fund of knowledge\nin agriculture; (3) state agricultural experiment stations, engaged in adding to the sum\nof knowledge concerning agriculture, and (4) state agricultural colleges engaged in educating some 60,000 of our young men and young women along lines of agriculture, mechanic\narts, and home economics. For the support of these state research and educational\ninstitutions the federal government is now expending about two and one-half million dollars annually and the several states and territories are taxing themselves to the amount of\nover eight millions. The government is also expending over nine milUons annually for\nthe work of its Department of Agriculture and Bureau of Education, so that altogether\nsomething over twenty million dollars are expended annually to increase our fund of\ninformation on industrial subjects, largely agricultural.\nOf late the agricultural-education movement has grown at a rate that is truly astounding. The agricultural colleges, which for some twenty-five years waged a fierce struggle\nfor the right to be — a right questioned not only by the older types of colleges but also to a\nsurprising extent by the farmers themselves — ^have in recent years found themselves and\ngained the loyal support of their constituents. Agricultural education has become so\npopular that it is no longer sufficient for the agricultural colleges to turn out leaders to take\npositions of influence and trust in the colleges, stations, and other educational and research\ninstitutions. They must also train young men in a more practical way for the work of the\nfarm, the dairy, the orchard, and the forest, or else there must be special agricultural\nschools for this work. Several secondary agricultural schools have come into the field\nand struck good, clean furrows; others are following. But this is not all-satisfying.\nThere must also be some instruction regarding this great fundamental industry of our\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\ncountry in the public high schools, and even in the grammar schools where conditions are\nfavorable.\nYou can see at once how, with every added demand along this line, the problems of\nteaching and administration multiply. There are teachers to train — who shall do it, the\ncolleges or the normal schools or both ? What sort of courses are suitable for the training\nof teachers in this new line of instruction ? For it is new, something far different than\ninstruction in language, mathematics, physics, or chemistry. There are courses of study\nto prepare for these grammar schools, public high schools, technical agricultural high\nschools, and agricultural colleges. Who shall do this — each local institution for itself or\nsome central agency or some combination of forces representing both the local and the\ncentral agencies ?\nCO-OPERATION\n\nAS\n\nIT\n\nNOW\n\nEXISTS\n\nFortunately for us who have drifted into the current at nearly flood tide, some of these\nproblems began to appear about twenty years ago and steps were then taken to give them\ncareful consideration. Soon after Congress appropriated funds for agricultural experiment\nstations a national organization known as the Association of American Agricultural\nColleges and Experiment Stations was formed. Membership in this association was\ngranted to each agricultural college and each agricultural experiment station, to the National\nBureau of Education, to the United States Department of Agriculture, and to the Office\nof Experiment Stations which was organized about this time to represent the department\nin its relations with these institutions. This association brought together the leaders in\nagricultural education from all parts of the country and brought about conferences and\ndiscussions which were very helpful in showing these men what they were not doing. The\nneed of some fundamental study of the pedagogics of agriculture became more and more\napparent, and finally, about 1895, the association appointed a standing committee on\nmethods of teaching agriculture, of which the director of the Ofl5ce of Experiment Stations\nhas been a member from the first. This committee made its first report in 1896 and has\nmade ten reports since that time, all of which have been published by the Department of\nAgriculture and are now available. There have been seven reports on college courses in\nagriculture, two on secondary courses in agriculture, and two on elementary courses in\nagriculture. The courses outlined in these reports were not intended to be followed\nimplicitly by all of the colleges and schools in the different states and territories but were\naimed to form the basis of a systematic and progressive treatment of the subject of agriculture, and as such they have been eminently successful. It is doubtful if any institution\nhas followed these courses in their entirety, but their influence is plainly discernible in\nnearly every college and school course where agriculture is taught.\nThis co-operation with the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations has brought the Department of Agriculture more and more into the\nfield of agricultural education as a co-ordinating agency, a sort of clearing-house for\ninformation on the subject. Thru its Office of Experiment Stations the department has\nhelped the association to conduct a graduate school of agriculture where methods of teaching and some of the more fundamental problems in agricultural education are discussed\nby a corps of the most noted experts to be found in this country and Europe. It has also\naided the agricultural experiment stations, colleges, and schools to secure suitable investigators and teachers. The Office of Experiment Stations maintains a card catalogue of\nabout 1,500 names containing a record of the training and experience of teachers and\ninvestigators in agriculture and allied subjects, to which it can refer readily when requests\nfor candidates are received from any of the institutions.\nOne of the important functions of the Office of Experiment Stations is that of collecting and disseminating information on agricultural education and research in this country\nand abroad. It has a staff of twelve experts who are constantly engaged in examining the\nagricultural literature of the world and preparing it for publication in such form as to make\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n305\n\nit widely available in this country. The office pubUshes a technical journal known as the\nExperiment Station Record which contains a record of the results of every experiment conducted byan experiment station in this country as well as the more important investigations\nof some eight hundred experiment stations in foreign countries. In this publication there\nis a department of agricultural education in which textbooks, bulletins, circulars, and\nimportant newspaper articles on this subject are reviewed and some of the more important\nnotes concerning the progress of agricultural education are given. The office also publishes\na series of popular bulletins known as \"Experiment Station Work,\" in which the results of\ninvestigations appear in a form suitable for the use of the non-technical reader— the farmer,\nand his children in school. Then there are various technical bulletins on the investigations\nof the office, circulars embodying the reports of the Committee on Instruction in\nAgriculture and other publications containing information of popular interest.\nThe other bureaus of the Department of Agriculture are also doing many things which\nare of service to the cause of agricultural education. The Bureau of Plant Industry, for\nexample, has efficiently aided the school-garden movement by distributing seeds, by preparing publications, and by supervising the school-garden work of the schools of the District of Columbia, part of which is done on the department grounds. The Bureau of\nSoils has aided in the location of farms connected with agricultural schools. All the bureaus\nare issuing many publications which are of use to teachers and students, and it is the policy\nof the department to furnish them to the schools as freely as existing legislation will permit.\nThe Office of Experiment Stations has the advice and assistance of all the bureaus of the\ndepartment in the preparation of its publications on agricultural education, and it should\nalso be said that the present Secretary and Assistant Secretary of Agriculture have done all\nin their power to advance the interests of agricultural education and make the department\nbroadly useful in this cause.\nAs a natural result of the accumulation of data in the Office of Experiment Stations\nconcerning the teaching of agriculture in this country and abroad, educators in all parts\nof the country have come to look upon the office as a source of information and advice\nwhenever new problems in agricultural education arise. The office is frequently called\nupon to aid the state school authorities in planning new schools of agriculture and courses\nin nature-study and elementary agriculture for the primary and secondary public schools,\nfor normal schools, and even for private and denominational schools and colleges.\nAs an example of this kind of work the office was asked to send a representative to\nCalifornia to meet the teachers and farmers of the state in a large convention at the State\nAgricultural College and confer with them regarding the introduction of agriculture into\nthe school system of that state. The director of the office, Dr. A. C. True, attended this\nmeeting and outlined briefly his views, which were that instruction in nature-study and\nschool gardening should be introduced into the first six years of the primary school, with\nmore formal instruction in agriculture during the remaining two years of the grammar\nschool and thruout a portion at least of the high-school course. He recommended\nalso the establishment of additional agricultural high schools to meet the demand for comprehensive training in agriculture on the part of students who could not take the college\ncourse in agriculture. He was then asked to prepare a plan for introducing agriculture\ninto the public schools, which he did, and as a result of this work a number of county\nsuperintendents have taken steps to introduce agriculture into all of their schools and have\nsucceeded in getting many of their teachers to undertake this work. Provision has also\nbeen made for two state agricultural high schools since Dr. True's visit to California.\nAs another example I might speak of our work in Georgia. The legislature of the state\npassed an act providing for eleven agricultural schools in Georgia. Those who were charged\nwith the duty of organizing these schools had a pretty good notion of what they wanted\nto accomplish but were without experience in arranging the details of courses of study and\noutlining laboratory work and field exercises. The Office of Experiment Stations was\nasked to assist in this work and sent its expert in agricultural education to Georgia to\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nstudy the situation and confer with the governor, the state superintendent of public\ninstruction, the chancellor of the state university, and the president of the State Normal\nSchool at Milledgeville, concerning courses of study. After the conference our expert\nwas asked to outline at considerable length courses in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry,\nwith laboratory work and field exercises, which he did. These courses were submitted\nto the dean of the College of Agriculture, the governor of the state, and the board of trustees\nof the school of agriculture and formally adopted by them.\nJust now we are co-operating with the county school authorities in Cecil County,\nMaryland, in developing a small country high school in which agricultural teaching is a\nprominent feature. The man who is engaged in that work is sent out during June, July,\nand August to aid in training teachers of agriculture in summer schools and teachers'\ninstitutes. Apparently our friends in the different states would like it if we could supply\nthem with four or five such men.\nAnd so we might multiply examples, but these are sufl&cient to show the nature of the\nwork which the Office of Experiment Stations is called upon to do in co-operation with\nstate school authorities. There are a hundred and one other things concerning which the\nadvice of the office is solicited. Our correspondence on agricultural education is very large\narid is growing every day. Scarcely a day passes that we do not send out from loo to i,ooo\nor 1,500 publications to be used in schools.\nLINES\n\nOF\n\nFUTURE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nWith the present interest in agricultural education and the rapid growth of the movement for the introduction of agriculture into secondary and elementary schools and its\nattendant problem of training teachers for this work, it is evident that for many years to\ncome there will be a large demand for just such clearing-house work as the Office of Experiment Stations has been engaged in during the past ten or fifteen years. The work\nof outlining courses of study for different types of schools has only just begun. Thus far\nin our work for secondary and elementary schools we have dealt only with the subject\nof agronomy. There still remain for consideration such subjects as horticulture, forestry,\nanimal industry, dairying, farm machinery, farm mechanics, and agricultural engineering,\nall of which are important and will be taken up as soon as the resources of the office will\npermit. The work of training teachers to take up the agricultural instruction in normal\nschools, agricultural high schools, and public schools, with its many attendant problems,\nhas only -just begun, but the correspondence and the requests for literature on this subject\nare already large. Plans for agricultural high schools and for the organization of courses\nin agriculture in the public high schools and in consolidated rural schools are being made\nin all parts of the country, and everywhere new problems are presented concerning which\nthe advice of this office is sought. This work will continue and will grow until agricultural\ncourses in all of these different schools attended by the sons and daughters of the farmers\nhave been organized on an efficient basis.\nThe department will also be called upon for many years to come to aid the agricultural\ncolleges in bringing the results of the investigations made by this department and the\nexperiment stations into pedagogical form for use in the agricultural colleges and these\ndifferent schools. This work is now proceeding too slowly to keep pace with the accumulation of material and too slowly, as indicated above, to keep pace with the development of\ninstitutions giving instruction in agriculture. It is now generally recognized that no other\nagency than the Department of Agriculture, which maintains an intimate organic relationship with the state institutions for agricultural education and research, is so well equipped\nto perform this important function. As the Commissioner of Education said at the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Michigan Agricultural College, \"The national\nDepartment of Agriculture is undoubtedly to continue its remarkably wide and influential\nwork, its expert investigations, the issuance of manifold and vastly useful publications, and\nits furtherance of all manner of agricultural education and research in the several states.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n^07\n\nFinally, it seems to me that the Department of Agriculture is tailed upon to continue\nindefinitely its work of bringing together and publishing for wide distribution the results\nof successful experiments, successful methods of teaching agriculture, in this country and\nabroad. It can do this more economically than any other agency can do it. It is already\nexamining the agricultural literature of the world, and it is in a position to bring to the\nattention of those school authorities who are just starting out in experiments along this\nline the results of successful efforts elsewhere. It has ready access to much literature\nthat is unavailable to the general public or even to the state agricultural institutions and\nthus is enabled to give wide publicity to many experiments in agricultural education which\nmight otherwise remain buried indefinitely in library alcoves. The department needs the\nassistance of all these other educational agencies. It needs to know their problems, to\nlearn of successful experiments, in order that the results may be published abroad; also\nof failures, so that warning of impending difiiculties may be given. One of the most helpful educational conferences I ever attended was one held recently in Atlanta, where much\ntime was given to reports of failures and their causes. One of the most difficult things\nwhich your committee on industrial education has had to do has been to get definite\ninformation regarding real success and real failure in teaching agriculture. Too many of\nthe records that have been written up have been records of anticipation. What we need,\nwhat the department needs, what the National Education Association needs, is examples\nof things made possible thru successful achievement and of things to be avoided because\nof almost inevitable failure.\nThe department is ready and anxious at all times and in every way possible to assist\nstate and county school officers, teachers' associations, and individual teachers along lines\nof agricultural education. It does not seek to do the things which the dififerent states can\njust as well do for themselves. It recognizes the fact that the education of its youth is\nprimarily a function of the state. It will never knowingly invade the field of the Bureau\nof Education, with which it is co-operating and with which it hopes to co-operate more\nfully and freely in the future. It seeks only to fulfill to the utmost of its ability its function\nas a central agency to co-operate with all local agencies, whatever their type or size or\nofficial standing, which are engaged in the great movement of educating the people of the\ncountry to live happy, contended, and useful lives in the country.\nDISCUSSION\nE. C. Bishop, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Nebraska. —\nI shall make no attempt to discuss as a matter of fact the co-operation now existing\nbetween national and state authorities in promoting agricultural education. I undertake\nto discuss only the need and the possibilities of such co-operation.\nIn line with a custom somewhat general with the individual who discourses on a\nsubject which is larger than himself — tho not necessarily larger than his interest and his\nambition — I shall begin and may continue speaking mostly of something else.\nI may not be orthodox in conclusions; I may be laboring under the disadvantages\nof a lack of a workable knowledge; what appears to me a morning mist may be a Newfoundland fog, and my discrimination of objective points may be dimmed by a wrong\nfocus; but what knowledge and experience has come to me, whatever insight is mine,\nwhatever conclusions I may reach — all is given, cautiously, yet as freely as the occasion\npermits.\nAgriculture is the newest in its application, the most important, and, excepting geography, the most widespread of the sciences which directly concern our people. Not only\nthe student of botany, of physics, of chemistry, of zoology, of geology, of astronomy,\ngeography, and the other allied sciences; but likewise, the student of social, political, and\neconomic science is called to contribute his best thought and effort to the development of\nthe science of agriculture.\nAgriculture has existed as an undeveloped science since the establishment of the first\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNAl'IONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\ngarden. Abel was doubtless the first man to feel seriously the need of the development\nof agriculture as an art. We have too many farmers yet who are farmers after the manner\nof Adam — forced to farm for a livelihood, but too willing to let the seeding, the tilling, the\nharvesting, the storing, and the utilization of products take care of themselves or be left\nin charge of an ambitious son. We yet have too many farmers — rather agriculturalists —\nwho are satisfied with a scientific knowledge of agricultural facts, so far as they may be\nknown. We need more farmers who study the science of agriculture and then practice\nthe art of farming — which art is the applying with skillful hand of the known scientific\nprinciples of agriculture as an art, as an industry, as a business, as a profession, and as a\nsocial factor in the making of the home, the develcrpment of the state, and the control of\nnational activities. The increased attention given in recent years to education in agriculture isonly the natural development of an educational principle which found recognition in the reaction which came from the one-sided effort toward an all-classical education\nwith the early renaissance.\nThe almost exclusive literary idea in education, supplemented by application of the\nprinciple that to give the boy only what he will need and can appreciate when he becomes\na man, constitutes misconception and neglect of the nature of the growing boy, which\nneglect leads to undesirable results. Under stress of the discussion of certain moral and\nethical questions we frequently applaud the general statement that the boy is only a little\nman and is to be treated as such. Were we to apply fully such attitude in the education\nof the boy, the resultant product would be neither the desired man nor a satisfactory\ngrown-up boy. Since recognition of the principle that the child, not the man, must be\nthe object of study and that man comes to his best development from cultivation of the\nvalues on hand at whatever stage his instruction begins, we continue to search for additional avenues of approach.\nNot the child in the school, not the child in the workshop, not the child as he will be\nwhen he becomes a man, not the child of the future; but it is the child of now, in his own\nhome, which concerns us. And we cannot wait until the child enters college or until he\nenters high school; these are the times when ideals have already been formed and when\nhome, ties have been too much broken. Our work must begin with the fireside age, when\na child is a living interrogation point in a body of ceaseless activity. What are the\ninfluences that concern a child ? If rightly directed the concerns that influence a child are :\nthe duties in the home, the tasks that must be performed, the products of toil, the resultant\nenjoyment of effort; the relation of toil, effort, of the complete home life, to life outside\nand beyond the home.\nIn an agricultural community the study of agriculture is necessary, not only for\neconomic reasons, but necessary for safe character formation and for proper civic development. In such a community the science of agriculture includes not only the study of plant\nand animal life and their adaptations, but it also includes the study of cookery, needlework, and all the home economic and manual arts which are directly concerned in the\nmaintenance of a home in the community.\nMay I repeat, then, that the study of agriculture in its application to home and com\nmunity life must reach the child before life-ideals are formed and before home ties are\nbroken. This means that to be most effective, agricultural schools or courses in agriculture must be so conveniently located and so accessible that the many rather than the few\nmay attend. It means that agricultural literature must go into the home; it means that\nagricultural literature which enters the home must go into the hands of the child and into\nthe library rather than into the wastebasket, unread. If one-half of the investigations\nmade by national and state agricultural departments were known to the members of all\nfamilies which should be concerned; if one-half of the good literature issued by our agricultural departments of nation and state were read and read intelligently in families of\nagricultural communities, such an uplift would come that we should not deem it necessary\nto spend so great time in discussions such as these.\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n309\n\nWe heave much good material. We have many forces working for the promotion of\nagricuUural education. The present problem is largely one of utihzing that which we\nnow have. I shall mention seven points which, in my estimation, largely govern present\npossible results.\n1. Agricuhure as a science is not so fully developed, so definitely outUned and so well\napplied as other sciences which are made a part of public-school education.\n2. Agriculture is not properly recognized as a science and as an art by the great body\nof the people whom it should most concern.\n3. The place of agriculture in the curricula of public schools, colleges, and universities\nhas not been so definitely fixed as that of other sciences. Agriculture is now in the pioneer\nstage, fighting its way to recognition as a part of the public-school system.\n4. In many communities where it is most needed, the study of agriculture is opposed\nby the beneficiaries.\n5. Teachers are attempting to teach agriculture without having made sufficient preparation therefor.\n• 6. Textbooks adapted to the needs of the schools and to the needs of those\nto teach are not yet sufficiently in general circulation. Such textbooks will be preparing\nprovided\nwhen we are better settled in our method of procedure.\n7. Agricultural education is yet in the experimental stage. We are asking each of the\nother: \"How can it best be done?\"\nThe afore-mentioned facts are sufficient evidence of the need of co-operation of all\nagencies concerned in the promotion of agricultural education.\nIn those subjects which have won their way to recognition and have become in a\nmeasure adjusted to their places, we can fail in co-operation with less disaster to the cause.\nBut where the movement is new, where the position is not settled, where the conditions\nwere not fully defined, where we know not our own minds and hesitate to believe in the\nminds of others, we need the closest co-operation that may be secured in order successfully\nto establish and promote the work.\nThe great work done by our national and state departments of agriculture, to be\nproperly appreciated and to become effective among the great mass of the people who\nshould be interested and helped thereby, must be not only wisely distributed but well\nread. The question of distribution is much more easily settled than the question of reading. Printed matter, both valuable and worthless, is now so plentiful and so widely and\nfreely distributed that the average home receives more printed Uterature than the members\nthereof have time or inclination to read, let alone study.\nTo be effective our good Uterature must have a proper hearing. Such hearing can be\nsecured thru the agency of two points of approach. First, agricultural Uterature\nmust be popularized, not only in simplicity of language, but in treatment of subjects related to home and community life. Second, the recipient of such literature must be in a\nreceptive mood.\nThe first proposition includes the preparation of literature deaUng with scientific\nagriculture from the standpoint of the scientist, the practical farmer, the child, the school\nteacher, and the home-keeper. Here is where co-operation is necessary in order that\nthe valuable information gained thru departments of agriculture, experiment stations,\nand pedagogic sources may be conveyed in proper forms of expression to the readers concerned.\nThe second proposition^ that of preparing the reader for the reception of available\nliterature and for inducing the beneficiary to take advantage of the opportunities open —\nthis is the greater proposition and the one in which we most need unlimited co-operation\nand extensive supervision and direction.\nYou will pardon me for referring to conditions in our own state, but I must speak of that\nI know best. In the state of Nebraska the forces that contribute most largely to agricultural education are: The State Board of Agriculture, the University of Nebraska, the state\nand county organization of farmers' institutes, the state and county departments of public\ninstruction and various ladies' auxiUaries and women's clubs. In the high school or any\nother school which is properly equipped for teaching agriculture, manual traim'ng, and\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "3IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nhome economics we have no serious problem of co-operation. Proper equipment means\nfull apparatus and other means of carrying on the work, and well-trained teachers. Our\ngreat problem is the teaching of agriculture, home economics, and manual training to the\ngreat mass of the people who do not have access to well-equipped schools. To wait for the\nconsolidated school and for the establishment in town and city schools of properly conducted courses in these three arts means delay beyond the forbearance of those who are\ndemanding that this form of industrial education be given proper emphasis.\nIt is entirely proper for us to look to ideal conditions and to direct our activities in\naccordance with the best ideals, but we shall never reach the ideal by dreaming of the\nfuture and by planning our present action on a basis of the ideal future. Present action\nshould look to the future but must be based on the means of attaining the ideal, rather than\nupon the ideal itself. If this generation is to see agriculture, manual training, and home\neconomics bearing good results in the homes of our people, we must take our schools to\nthe homes of the people. We must reach the present generation thru the medium of\nthe rising generation. The son and the daughter, thru the efforts of the teacher, can\nlead the father and the mother where the father and the mother thru all the agencies\nwithin their power cannot lead the son and daughter. We need the co-operation of all\nthose agencies which have to do with the increasing of our fund of knowledge and with its\ndistribution thru the experiment station, the department of agriculture, state and\ncounty departments of public instruction, the college, university, normal school, high\nschool, the town and rural school, the farmers' institute, the women's club, and other\nwomen's auxiliaries.\nThe extension of this work thru the agency of the public schools in our state has\nbeen effected largely thru the co-operation of the state university, which includes the\nstate organization of farmers' institutes, the state Board of Agriculture, the state Department of Public Instruction and the state normal schools — the Department of Public Instruction exercising largely the function of management, the university providing literature\nand speakers, the State Board of Agriculture providing financial assistance, the state normal\nschools training teachers. This co-operation has been most effective in popularizing the\nscience and art of agriculture and home economics among all classes of people. The\nsecret of successful co-operation lies largely in a definite understanding of the part to be\ncontributed by each co-operative agency. The greatest need is a central medium for learning the needs of each locality and for collecting, harmonizing, popularizing, and distributing the knowledge at hand. This central medium or authority should be provided\nwith the means to gather, popularize, and distribute. This includes financial support,\nwhich financial support should secure supervising authority and sufl&cient force to take to\nevery community the benefits of the combined results of the research, investigations, and\nexperiences of all the agencies instrumental in advancing this form of education.\nEach school district should have, close at hand, the means of knowing what has been\ndone, what may be done, and what may not be done so far as experience may direct;\nwhether such direction comes from the neighboring district, a distant district in the county,\nin the state, or in the nation. State supervision should be sufficient in quaUty and in\nquantity that every inquiring locality may bring to the local field the experiences, successes,\nand failures which have been made under like conditions.\nThe relation of the school district to the county, and of the county to the state, should\ncontinue in the relation of the state to the nation. If every state whose ambitious people\nin one or more localities desire to advance the cause of agricultural education could have\nthe assistance on the home ground of national supervision, or rather national experience\ngained from the experiences of other locaUties in other states, we would avoid in great\nmeasure the repetition of mistakes and would bring early success where now too often\nsuccess must repeatedly win its way thru common errors which are repeated in the pioneer\nstage of any good work. If our national experts in the various lines of agricultural education could be reinforced in number and in the increase of specialization of departments, all\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n-^H\n\nproperly co-ordinated, so that every state could call for this assistance on the many and\nvarious occasions when such assistance is needed, the problems of agricultural education\nwould assume a definite form that would soon become more easily solved.\nI close with these thoughts: First, to secure satisfactory and reasonably early resuhs\nwe must recognize existing conditions and work from these conditions. Second, the\nvarious agencies for promoting agricultural education in state and nation must provide an\nadequate centralizing agency for utilizing co-operative instruments of activity in the\nagricultural field of education.\nGeo. B. Cook, superintendent of schools. Hot Springs, Ark.— The present meeting\nof the Department of Superintendence marks a well-defined forward step in the everbroadening educational field that spreads out from year to year showing continuallv\ngreater possibilities for the public schools. I look upon the organization of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education and the prominence given this extensive phase\nof educational work as one of the most important and far-reaching steps ever taken by the\nNational Education Association, not only because it is important within itself in placing\nthe seal of highest approval upon this branch of practical training, but because this movement isin accord with the spirit of the times.\nThere has been a steadily increasing movement for several years, or rather a series\nof movements, independent one from another arising from different parts of the United\nStates, each with the same great purpose in view yet approaching the problem of better\ntraining in rural schools and practical agricultural education from widely divergent standpoints. This has become almost the paramount economical question, involving in the\nmost direct manner the entire social fabric of the nation. It is a matter of the food supply;\nthe production of the raw material; the development of the nation and the recognition of\nthe most important, valuable, and necessary factor of national life — the producer.\nThis question has become admittedly important from every standpoint. Congress\nhas seriously discussed bills carrying vast appropriations for the purpose of placing agricultural education within reach of the farmer boy. Various states have already not only\nestablished their agricultural colleges but have encouraged practical training along this\nline in the district school. The national government has established its experiment stations\nand the Department of Agriculture has sent its experts over the nation and followed these\nwith tons of literature. The most important commercial organizations have aided in this\nwork, realizing that the development of the country, an increase in the products, means\nwealth for them as well as for the individual and the nation at large. Tables have been\ncarefully prepared showing that improved methods and trained minds have multiplied the\nwealth-producing ratio for the citizens of entire commonwealths. These are some of the\nfactors that have brought about such a wide and active interest among the citizenship of the\nnation, as well as its educational leaders, in the development of rural and agricultural\neducation.\nThe growth of our public -school system has been continual and ever forward. Universities and colleges, schools of special and of general training, dot the entire land. Every\nstate has its great educational institutions. The urban schools have developed with\nwonderful strides. Cities, great and small, point with pride to elegant, modem school\nedifices, splendid equipment and comprehensive courses. Scarcely a town of any pretension but has its high school. The system of urban education is not perfect but it is\nabreast with the times.\nThis condition is not so generally true with the rural schools. In the more thickly\nsettled portions of the nation, many advantages have been given the rural schools in recent\nyears and practical training in husbandry has been taken up with unfailing success. This\nis just the beginning, the dawn of an era that means \"a square deal\" for the country boys\nand girls thruout the nation, in the South and West and North and East.\nThis movement will mean for manv southern and western states just what it may be\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\n312\nmade to mean for Arkansas — that many of the educational advantages enjoyed only in the\ncities and larger towns will be given the children of the rural district schools; that the\ntraining in these schools will become moie and more practical; that the education received\nin school will fit them to live in comfort and in happiness upon the farm; that the honor\ndue peculiarly to the producer will not only be shown in empty sentiment but better methods,\nand better understanding of agriculture in its many branches will bring greater remuneration to the farmer and, at the same time, equip him better to defend his rights and maintain\nthe higher station to which he is so justly entitled.\nI do not intend to convey the idea that there is to be a revolution in our educational\nsystem nor that these conditions will come about in full realization within a given period of\ntime; but I do fully believe that the development toward these conditions will be noticeably rapid when conducted along gradual, rational, constructive lines that will in no way\ndisturb the harmony of our commonwealth or the benefits of our school system which are\nenjoyed so largely at present.\nThe value of our public schools cannot be overestimated and the possibilities for increasing their direct benefits to the nation and to our state are only circumscribed by limitations which the very training given in the public schools will hasten to remove at a compound\nratio. The beginning has already been made and the work can be carried on by careful\nattention to details, accurate business administration of our public -school affairs, and by\nconservation of the school funds, rather than by added expense.\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nCONSTITUTION\nPREAMBLE\n\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\nformulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational\nquestions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its\ndiscussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds\nand reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion,\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever\ngrounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite\nthe freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions.\nAny member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the\ngrounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council.\nIt shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and\nplacing before the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody\nin this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on\nthe part of the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the\nexchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demanded the attention of\nthe profession or of the public.\nARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from\nthe membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after\nthe first election, such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members— four members\nfor six yq^rs, two for four years, and two for two years, and the Council shall elect eight\nmembers — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and\nannually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five\nmembers, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (sec. 5), to serve six\nyears, or until his successor is elected.\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\nthe annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason,\nto fill its quqta of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council.\n4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first\nelection shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\n313\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE\nII— QUALIFICATION\nFOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducational Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as\nthe meeting of the National Educational Association, and at least two days previous to\nthis meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary,\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Educational Association, or any\nof its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT\nOF\nEXPERTS\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— OFFICERS\n\nAt the annual election of ofl&cers in 1904 the president of the Council shall be elected\nfor a term of three years, the vice-president for a term of two years, and the secretary for a\nterm of one year; and thereafter annually the vacancy caused by the outgoing ofl&cers\nshall be filled by the election of one person for a term of three years.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance and\napproval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall\nrealize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and exists .\nARTICLE\n\nVII— STANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report on any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Association or its departments.\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nOFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n315\n\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies\nmay be filled every year, beginning with 1899.\n5. There shall, be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next\nmeeting, a report on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey\nof the important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given.\nThis committee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each\nyear, beginning with 1903. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted ^upon until such proposal\nhas been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational\nAssociation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\"\ncharacter.\nARTICLE\n\nIX— AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council, by\na two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provisions may be waived at any regular\nmeeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the\nCouncil.\n\nOFFICERS, STANDING\nOFFICERS\nJOSEPH\n\nSWAIN\n\nSwarthmore, Pa\n\nJAMES\nM. CARR\nGREEN. . .'.\nJOHN W.\n\nTrenton,\nN. J\nDayton, Ohio\nEXECUTIVE\nThe\n\nThe\nW. T. Harris\nJesse F. Millspaugh\nLivingston C. Lord\nI. C. McNeh^l\nCharles H. Keyes\n\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\nCOMMITTEE ON\n\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nJohn H. Philips\nNicholas Murray Butler\nWilliam H. Maxwell\nWn^LiAM O. Thompson\n\n1908-9\nPresident\n\nTerra expires in 1910\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTerm expires\nexpires in\nin 1909\nTerm\n1911\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nWashington, D. C\nWashington, D. C\nKansas City, Mo\nCOMMITTEE\n\nchairman\n\nFOR\n\nMEMBERS\n\nPresident, ex officio, chairman\n\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nW. T. Harris\nJames M. Greenwood\n\nJames M. Greenwood,\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\n\nCOMMITTEES,\n\nON\n\nTerm expires in 1909\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in 1911\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nPresident, ex officio\nWashington, D. C\nLos Angeles, Cal\nCharleston, 111\nMemphis, Tenn\nHartford, Conn\nKansas City, Mo\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nAND\n\nKansas City, Mo\nBoston, Mass\nWashington, D. C\nAlbany, N. Y\nMenomonie, Wis\nBirmingham, Ala\nNew York, N. Y\nNew York, N. Y\nColumbus, Ohio\n\nTerm expires in 1909\nTerms expires in 1909\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in 1911\nTerm expires in 191 1\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1909\nexpires in 1909\nexpires in 1909\nexpires in 1910\nexpires in 1910\nexpires in 1910\nexpires in 1911\nexpires in 1911\nexpires in 1911\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nElected by the Association\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMEMBERS\nElected by the Council\nterms expire in 1909\n\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D, C.\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, Berkeley, Cal.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nEdwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111.\nHoward J, Rogers, Albany, N. Y.\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kans.\nAlma L. Binzel, Menomonie, Wis.\nMorris Elmer Dailey, San Jos€, Cal.\nSilvanus L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\nCharles McKenny, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nMiss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nLewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, Washington, D. C\nWilliam H. Black, Marshall, Mo.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.\nLuther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich.\nGeorge M. Philips, West Chester, Pa.\nEdmund A. Jones, Columbus, Ohio\nJohn G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.\nErnest E. Balcomb, Stillwater, Okla.\nterms expire in ioio\n\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, lU.\nDavid R. Boyd, Norman, Okla.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.\nEdwin B. Craighead, New Orleans, La.\nCarrol G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\nHenry Snyder, Jersey City, N. J.\nKatharine E. Dopp, Chicago, 111.\nEdwin E, Sparks, State College, Pa.\nHenry Suzzallo, New York, N. Y.\nHenry C. Morrison, Concord, N. H.\n\nAnna Tolman Smith, Washington, D. C.\nWiLLLAW S, Sutton, Austin, Tex.\nJames H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md.\nJames B. Aswell, Natchitoches, La.\nBrown Ayers, Knoxville, Term.\nRobert J. Aley, Bloomington, Ind.\nCharles E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\nP. P. Claxton, Knoxville, Tenn.\nterms expire in 191 1\n\nWilliam H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\nI. C. McNeill, Memphis, Tenn.\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nEsTELLE Reel, Washington, D. C.\nTheo. B. Noss, California, Pa.\nJulius I. Foust, Greensboro, N. C.\nW. T. Carrington, Springfield, Mo.\nJohn J. Doyne, Little Rock, Ark.\n\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle. Wash.\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nBen Blewett, St. Louis, Mo.\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nJohn W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.\nB. W. Torreyson, Little Rock, Ark.\nFrederick E. Bolton, Iowa City, Iowa\nJane Addams, Chicago, 111.\nWilliam C. Bates, Cambridge, Mass.\n\nterms expire in 1912\nThomas A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.\nJohn H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nLivingston C. Lord, Charleston, III.\nJames H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\nCharles C. Van Liew, Chico, Cal.\nSarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass.\nJames A. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho\nEdward T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans.\nAlfred Bayliss, Macomb, 111.\nErnest C. Moore, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\nElla Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.\nJasper N. Wilkinson, Muskogee, Okla.\nWilliam O. Thompson, Columbus, Ohio\nJohn W. Carr, Dayton, Ohio\nAlbert Salisbury, Whitewater, Wis.\nGrace C. Strachan, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Wabash, Ind.\nCa\"rleton B. Gibson, Columbus, Ga.\nJohn W. Olsen, St. Paul, Minn.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio\nterms expire in 1913\n\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J.\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y.\nGeorge B. Cook, Little Rock, Ark.\nStratton D. Brooks, Boston, Mass.\nEdgar H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.\nIda C. Bender, Buffalo, N. Y.\nHenry B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\nWnxiAM O. RiDDELL, Des Moines, Iowa\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah\nReed B. Tfttrick, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\nWilliam E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass.\nBettie a. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio\nCharles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn.\nAndrew S. Draper, Albany, N. Y,\nClifford W. Barnes, Lake Forest, 111.\nMrs. Ellor Carlisle Ripley, Boston, Mass\nMrs. Edwin C. Grice, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJohn W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo.\nThomas C. Miller, Charleston, W. Va.\nFrank B. Dyer, Cincinnati, Ohio\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Count\n\nHONORARY\n\nMEMBERS\n\n317\n\nMEMBERS—Continued\nElected by the Council\n\nElected by the Association\nTERMS\n\nEXPIKK\n\nOscar J. Craig, Missoula, Mont.\nDavid Felmley, Normal, 111.\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C.\nWales C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich.\nMrs. Ellen H. Richards, Boston, Mass.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nM. Bates Stephens, Annapolis, Md.\nJacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio\nJames W. Crabtree, Peru, Nebr.\n\nHONORARY\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va.\nEarl Barnes, Montclair, N. J.\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C.\nD. Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nRichard G. Boone, Yonkers, N. Y.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\n.\\nna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nGeorge P. Brown, Bloomington, 111.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nJames H. Canfield, New York, N. Y.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Maine.\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y.\nRobert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn.\nJohn Dewey, New York, N. Y.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr.\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.\nR. B. Fulton, Miller School P. O., Va.\nCharles B. Gilbert, Englewood, N. J.\nDaniel C. Oilman, Baltimore, Md.\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo.\nLewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nW. N. Hailmann, Chicago, 111.\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nJames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorge H. Howison, Berkeley, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Champaign, 111.\nCharles M.Jordan, Minm-ajKilis, Minn.\n\nIN\n\n1914\n\nWilliam M. Davidson, Omaha, Nebr.\nMartin G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa,\nLloyd E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex.\nJames E. Russell, New York, N. Y.\nOliver S. Wescott, Chicago, 111.\nJulia Richman, New York, N. Y.\nMrs. Josephine Heermans, Kansas City, Mo.\nFrank Strong, Lawrence, Kans.\nEdward C. Elliott, Madison, Wis.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\n\nMEMBERS\nE. S. JoYNES, Columbia, S. C.\nCalvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind.\nDavid L. Kiehle, Preston , Minn.\nWilliam F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass.\nCharles A. McMurray, DeKalb, 111.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls, Wis.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio\nJoslah L. Pickard, Brunswick, Maine\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Danville, Ky.\nWilliam D. Ruffner, Lexington, \\'ii.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nH. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nEdgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nCharles R. Skinner, New York, .\\'. V\nEuLER B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\nJ. Lancaster Spalding, Peoria, III.\nHomer D. Sprague, Newton, Mass.\nJ. W. Stearns, San Diego, Cal.\nLucia Stickney, Cleveland, Ohio\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, .NJeh\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nA. R. Taylor, Decatur, III.\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio\nJulia S. Tutwh^er, Livingstone, Ala.\nDelia L. Willlams, Delaware, Ohio\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nHarry K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb.\nCalvin M. Woodward. St. Louis. Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n3i8\n\nDECEASED\nRobert Allen\nIsrael W. Andrews\n\n1894\n1888\n\nJoseph Baldwin\nHenry Barnard\nWilliam N. Barringer\nNewton Bateman\nReuben S. Bingham\nJohn T. Buchanan\nNorman A. Calkins\nAaron L. Chapin\nClara Conway\nJ. L. M. Curry\nN. R. H. Dawson\nJohn W. Dickinson\nLarkin Dunton\nJohn Eaton\nW. R. Garrett\nSamuel S. Greene\nJohn M, Gregory\nGeorge T. Fairchild\nDaniel B. Hagar\nR. H. Halsey\nJohn Hancock\nWilliam R. Harper\n\n1899\n1900\n1907\n1897\n1902\n1908\n1895\n1892\n1904\n1902\n1895\n1901\n1899\n1906\n1903\n1883\n1898\n1901\n1896\n1907\n1891\n1906\n\n—\n\nMEMBERS\n\nWilliam D. Henkle\nEdwin C. Hewitt\nElnathan E. Higbee\nFrank A. Hill\nBurke A. Hinsdale\nIra G. Hoitt\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N. James\nH. S. Jones\nThomas Kirkland\nAlbert Lane\nMerrick Lyon\nAlbert P. Marble\nJames McCosh\nCharles D. McIver\nThomas J. Morgan\nLemuel Moss\nM. A. Newell\nBirdsey G. Northrop\nEdward Olney\n\n1882\n1905\n1889\n1903\n1900\n1905\n1892\n1901\n1901\n1900\n1898\n1906\n1888\n1906\n1894\n1906\n1902\n1905\n1893\n1898\n1886\n\nGustavus J. Orr\nFrancis W. Parker\nW. H. Payne,\n\n1888\n1902\n1907\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n[National\n\nS. S. Parr\nSelim H. Peabody\nWilliam F. Phelps\n\n1900\n1902\n1907\n\nJohn D. Philbrick\nM. S. Cooper Poucher\nWilliam B. Powell\nZalmon Richards\nAndrew J. Rickoff\nCharles C. Rounds\nEdward R. Shaw\n\n1885\n. . . 1900\n1904\n1899\n1899\n1901\n1903\n\nWilliam E. Sheldon\nJames A. Smart\nF. Louis Soldan\nR. W. Stevenson\nThomas B. Stockwell\nEli T. Tappan\nHorace S. Tarbell\n\n1900\n1900\n1908\n1893\n1906\n1888\n1904\n\nCharles O. Thompson\nH. S. Thompson\nArnold Tompkins\n\n1885\n1904\n1906\n\nJames P. Wickersham\nS. G. Williams\nEmerson E. White\n\n1891\n1900\n1902\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Monday\nForenoon, June 29, 1908\nThe Council met in the Old Stone Church, Cleveland, Ohio, at 9:30 a.m. and was\ncalled to order by President Joseph Swain.\nThe minutes of the Los Angeles meeting were approved as printed in the annual report\nof the general association.\nThe introductory address of the president of the Council was then presented by Joseph\nSwain.\nOn motion the address of the president was referred to a special committee consisting\nof Charles H. Keyes, James M. Greenwood, and Elmer Ellsworth Brown.\n\"The Preliminary Report of the Committee on the Scarcity of Teachers\" was presented bythe chairman of the committee, I. C. McNeill.\nThe leader of the discussion of this report was David Felmley, Normal, III., who had\nprepared the report submitted by the committee.\nThe discussion of this report was continued by the following members: James M.\nGreen, Charles H. Keyes, James E. Russell, Ella Flagg Young, William O. Thompson,\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, and Z. X. Snyder.\nThe discussion was closed by David Felmley and I. C. McNeill.\n\"The Preliminary Report of the Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children\nin the Public Schools\" was presented by the chairman of the committee, James H. Van\nSickle.\nDiscussion by the following members of the committee: Frank A. Fitzpatrick and\nL. E. Wolfe.\nGeneral discussion by O. P. Cornman, district superintendent of schools, Philadelphia,\nPa.; M. P. E. Groszmann, of Plainfield, N. J.; E. R. Johnstone, superintendent of training\nschool for feeble-minded children, Vineland, N. J.; Paul Kreuzpointer, Altoona, Pa.;\nGeorge M. Elmendorf; Ella Flagg Young, of Chicago; Walter S. Cornell, medical inspector\nof schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Couucill\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n3x0\n\nSECOND SESSION.— Monday Afternoon, June 29, 1908\nThe Council met in joint session with the general association at the Hippodrome at\n2:30 P.M. After the welcome addresses and responses to the general association, the\npresident of the Council, Joseph Swain, introduced Charles F. Thwing, president of\nWestern Reserve University, who presented the address on the \"Educational Progress of\nthe Year \"\nTHIRD\nSESSION.— Tuesday Morning, June 30, 1908\nThe Third Session of the Council met in the Old Stone Church at 9:30 a.m.. President\nSwain presiding.\nThe president announced that the Committee on Membership would also act as\na committee on nominations.\nThe first topic of the morning, \"The Preliminary Report of the Committee on Moral\nTraining in the Public Schools,\" was presented by different members of the committee as\nfollows:\na) The Problem Stated, by Martin G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa.\nMo.\n111.\n\nb) \"The Treatment of the Pupil,\" by John W. Carr, Dayton, Ohio.\nc) \"Influence of the Home and School Life,\" by James M. Greenwood, Kansas City,\nd) \"Relation of Moral to Religious Training,\" by Clifford W. Barnes, Lake Forest,\n\nGeneral discussion followed by: Miss Nebraska Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.;\nLivingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111.; W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.; Henry\nNeumann, New York City, and John W. Cook, DeKalb, 111.\nThe second topic, \"Distinctive Functions of University, College, and Normal Schools\nin the Preparation of Teachers,\" was presented by Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United\nStates Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C.\nGeneral discussion by the following persons: John W. Cook, DeKalb, III.; James E.\nRussell, New York City, John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nThe third topic, \"The Culture Element in Education,\" was presented by James H.\nBaker, Boulder, Colo., chairman of the committee appointed to consider this subject.\nThe discussion was opened by Dr. William T. Harris, Washington, D. C.\nThe discussion was continued by T. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.; W. H. Black, Marshall,\nMo.; G. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.; W. T. Harris, and James H. Baker.\nThe president appointed the following persons to act at the current session as members of the Committee on Membership: C. H. Keyes in place of E. O. Lyte and J. W.\nCarr instead of J. F. Millspaugh.\nFOURTH SESSION.— 9:30 a.m. July i, 190S\nThe fourth session of the Council met in the Sunday-school room of the Old Stone\nChurch at 9:30 a.m., President Swain presiding.\nThe chairman of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, J. M. Greenwood, presented the report of the committee which had been presented to the Board of\nDirectors. The committee recommended that all appropriations for investigations be\nheld in abeyance.\nOn motion these recommendations were approved.\nA resolution was adopted requesting the publication of the preliminary reports of\nspecial committees appointed by the Council. A special committee, consisting of J. H.\nBaker, W. O. Thompson, and A. S. Downing, was appointed to present this request to the\nboard of directors of the National Education Association.\nThe President of the Council was authorized to appoint four additional members of\n\nthe committee on the \"Culture Element in Education.\"\nThe Report of the Committee on \"Co-operation with Educational Organizations in\nOther Countries \"was presented by William T. Harris, Ex-commissioner of Education of\nthe United States, Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Commissioner of Education of the United States.\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe discussion was opened by Miss Anna Tolman Smith, Washington, D. C, Other\npersons taking part in the discussion were: Basanta K. Roy, Calcutta, India, Clifford W.\nBarnes, Lake Forest, 111. The discussion was closed by W. T. Harris.\n■ A memorial address on the life of F. Louis Soldan by Superintendent Ben Blewett. St.\nLouis, Mo., was then presented.\nBy consent of the Council, the memorial address on Rufus H. Halsey was deferred\nin order that the members of the Council might attend the meeting of the active members ,\nof the Association.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nForenoon, July 2, 1908\n\nThe Council met promptly at 9:30 o'clock a.m. in the Auditorium of Old Stone Church,\nPresident Swain presiding.\nThe memorial address on Rufus H. Halsey was given by J. A. H. Keith, president of\nthe State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.\nThe report of the \"Committee on Industrial Education for Rural Schools\" was submitted bythe chairman, L. D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.\nThe discussion was participated in by the following persons: D. B. Johnson, of South\nCarolina, J. M. Green, of New Jersey, L. E.Wolfe, of Texas, Charles A. McMurry,of Illinois,\nBrown Ayres, of Tennessee, George B. McLean of Iowa, Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United\nStates Commissioner of Education.\nThe discussion was closed by L. D. Harvey of Wisconsin.\nThe subject, \"Household Science in Elementary and Secondary Schools,\" was presented by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, instructor in sanitary chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.\nThe discussion of the above subject was participated in by the following persons:\nA. S. Downing, Albany, N. Y., W. H, Maxwell, New York City. The discussion was\nclosed by Mrs. Richards.\nThe committee on membership submitted the following report:\nTo the National Council:\nYour Committee on Nominations of new members of the Council recommend the\nappointment of the following persons to succeed themselves:\nWilliam M. Davidson, Omaha, Nebr., term to expire 1914.\nMartin G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa., term to expire 1914.\nLloyd E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex., term to expire 1914.\nJames E. Russell, New York City, term to expire 1914.\nOliver S. Westcott, Chicago, III., term to expire 1914.\nThe following persons were recommended to fill vacancies for the unexpired terms\nof the following named persons who have been by the provisions of the Constitution transferred to the list of honorary members by reason of their absence from two consecutive\nmeetings of the Council:\nJames B. Aswell, Baton Rouge, La., to fill the place of Albert Ross Hill, term\nexpiring in 1910.\nBen Blewett, St. Louis, Mo., to fill the place of L. C. Greenlee, term expiring 191 1.\nAlbert Salisbury, Whitewater, Wis., to fill the place of G. H. Martin, term expiring in\n1912.\n\nW. S. Sutton, Texas, to fill the place of Mrs. Josephine Heermans, term expiring in 1910.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nC. H. Keyes\nW. T. Harris\nI.\nC. McNeill\nJ. W.\nCarr\nJoseph\nSwain\nL.\nC. Lord\nCommittee on Membership\n\nOn motion the above report of the Committee on Membership was adopted and the\npersons named therein duly elected members of the Council.\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRET\n\nCouncil]\n\nA RY'^i\n\nMINU\n\nTES\n\nOwing to the change in the Constitution of the General Association the Committee\non Membership submitted an additional report as follows:\nSPECIAL\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nTo the National Council of Education:\nBy order of the general association the membership of the National Council was\nchanged from sixty active members to one hundred and twenty and the Council was 321\nauthorized to elect thirty new members — five whose term should expire in one year; five,\nin twocommittee\nyears; fiverecommends\nin three years;\nfive in four\nyears;\nfive in five years; and five in six years'.\nThe\nthe election\nof the\nfollowing:\nFOR ONE year; TERM ENDING I909\nLuther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich.\nEdmund A. Jones, Columbus, Ohio\nGeorge M. Philips, West Chester Pa.\nJohn G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.\nErnest E. Balcomb, Stillwater, Okla.\nFOR\n\nTWO\n\nyears;\n\nterm\n\nENDING\n\nI910\n\nRobert J. Aley, Bloomington, Ind.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nCharles E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, III.\nP. P. Claxton, Knoxville, Tenn.\nFOR\n\nTHREE\n\nYEARS;\n\nTERM\n\nENDING\n\nI91I\n\nJohn W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.\nFrederick E. Bolton, Iowa City, Iowa\nB. W. Torreyson, Little Rock, Ark.\nJane Addams, Chicago, III.\nWilliam C. Bates, Cambridge, Mass.\nFOR\n\nFOUR\n\nyears;\n\nTERM\n\nENDING\n\nI912\n\nGrace C. Strachan, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nCarleton B. Gibson, Columbus, Ga.\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Wabash, Ind.\nJohn W. Olsen, St. Paiil, Minn.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio\nFOR\n\nFIVE\n\nyears;\n\nTERM\n\nENDING\n\n1913\n\nMrs. EUor Carlisle Ripley, Boston, Mass. John W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo.\nMrs. Edwin C. Grice, Philadelphia, Pa.\nThomas C. Miller, Charleston, W. Va.\nFrank B. Dyer, Cincinnati, Ohio\nFOR\n\nSIX years;\n\nTERM\n\nENDING\n\n1914\n\nJulia\nRichman, Heermans,\nNew York, Kansas\nN. Y.\nFrank Strong,\nLawrence,\nKans.\nMrs. Josephine\nCity, Mo. 'Edward\nC. Elliott,\nMadison,\nWis.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\n(Signed) J. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nC. H. Keyes\nW. T. Harris\nI.\nC. McNeill]\nJ. W.\nCarr\nJoseph Swain j\nL. C. Lord\nCommittee on Membership\n\nOn motion the above-named persons were unanimously elected members of the\nCouncil.\n\nThe Committee on Membership which was also appointed the Nominating Committee\nsubmitted the following report:\nTo the National Council:\n. .\nwhich was also appointed the Nommatmg\nMembership,\non\nCommittee\nYour\nmittee, recommend the election of the following:\n\nCom-\n\nofficers of the council\nJohn W. Carr, to succeed himself as secretary of the Council, for a term of three years,\n' . „\nterm ending 191 1.\nJames M. Greenwood, to succeed himself as a member of the Executive Committee\n_\nof the Council for a term of three years, term ending 1911.\nH. Keyes, to succeed E. O. Lyte as a member of the Nominating Committee\nfor a Charies\nterm of three years, term ending 191 1.\nas a member of the Committee on Memberhimself\nsucceed\nto term\nM. Greenwood,\nJames\nship for a term\nof three years,\nending\n191 1.\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\nMEMBERS\n\nNATIONAL\nor COMMITTEE\n\nEDUCATION\nON\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nAND\n\n[National\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nNicholas Murray Butler to succeed himself for a term of three years, term expiring in\n1911.\n\nWilliam O. Thompson to succeed F. Louis Soldan for a term of three years, term\nexpiring in 191 1.\nWilliam H. Maxwell for a term of three years, term expiring in 191 1.\nRespectfully submitted\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nW. T. Harris\nI. C. McNeill\nJoseph\nSwain on Membership\nCommittee\nThe following resolutions offered by Elmer Ellsworth Brown were adopted:\nResolved, That this Council urges upon Congress the importance of a careful investigation of the needs and conditions of education in all parts of the country as a preliminary\nto any new grant of national aid for education, to the end that the established educational\nsystems of the several states may be fostered and encouraged.\nResolved, That this Council recommends to the Board of Directors of the National\nEducation Asociation that a committee, consisting of the president and secretary of the\nAssociation and the president of this Council, be empowered to appoint from time to time\nsuitable representatives of the Association to the meetings of important educational societies\nin foreign countries, such appointment to involve no expenditure of the funds of the Association.\nThe special committee appointed to consider the address of the president submitted\nthe following report:\nYour committee to which was referred the president's address have given the same\ncareful consideration, and beg to submit the following recommendations:\n1. We advise that the general plan of the program for this year be followed for next\nyear. 2. We approve the recommendation for the establishment of one or more traveling\nfellowships but realize that the present is an inopportune year to take steps toward the\nimmediate inauguration of this work.\n3. We advise that immediate steps be taken to amend the constitution on the two points\nsuggested by the President — namely: (a) EUminate the requirements that the president of\nthe Council shall make an annual report to the National Education Association, and\n(&) Strike out the phrase in Art. 3, sec. 3, requiring this Council to meet at least two\ndays before the meeting of the National Educational Association.\n4. We recommend the adoption of a rule providing that no paper or report from this\nCouncil shall hereafter be printed in the Volume of Proceedings unless at least three copies\nof a synopsis of the same be in the hands of the president of the Council at least thirty days\nbefore its annual meeting.\nCharles H. Keyes, Chairman\nJ. M. Greenwood\nElmer\nEllsworth Brown\nOn motion the above report was unanimously adopted.\nAfter full discussion the members of the Council agreed on the following, relative to\nmeetings in the future:\n1. That seats for one hundred persons be reserved for members of the Council and\nthat no persons other than members of Council be permitted to occupy them at any time.\n2. That a room with a seating capacity not to exceed five hundred be provided for the\nmeetings of the Council.\nAfter thanking the members of the Council for their kindness and courtesy, the president declared the Council adjourned.\nJ. W. Carr, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n323\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRELIMINARY\nTHE\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE\nSWARTHMORE\n\nCOUNCIL,\nCOLLEGE,\n\nSTATEMENT\nJOSEPH\nSWAIN,\nSWARTHMORE,\n\nPRESIDENT\nPA.\n\nOF\n\nAs long as the president of the National Council of Education served but\none year, he could not be expected to formulate a policy for the consideration\nof the Council concerning its work. He of necessity followed precedent. In\n1904 at St. Louis the term of the president of the Council was changed to\nthree years and our present honored commissioner of education, Dr. Elmer\nEllsworth Brown, was chosen the first president to serve the longer term.\nIn his opening statement at the last meeting of this body in Los Angeles,\nCommissioner Brown, after three years' experience as president, formulated a\npolicy which was approved by the Council. The program for this year has\nbeen made as nearly as possible in accordance with that policy. It is important\nin order that the program may be in harmony with the best thought of the\nCouncil, that there should be an opportunity for suggestions by the members\neach year which may be followed so far as possible the following year. It is\nalso important that the Council shall have clearly before it what its working\npolicy is, and for this reason I shall briefly restate this policy with any suggestions and inquiries which may occur to me and I will ask that the whole matter,\nin accordance with the precedent of last year, be referred for consideration\nto a committee who shall report at an early meeting of the Council. In this\nway the Executive Committee may have the benefits of the best judgment of\nthe whole Council in making the program for the next meeting.\nThe By-Laws of the National Education Association provide that —\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of public and professional interest; the proposal to the\nBoard of Directors, from time to time, of suitable subjects for investigation and research,\nand the recommendation of the amount of appropriations that should be made for such\npurposes; the appointment and general supervision of such special committees of investigation and research as may be provided for and authorized by the Board of Directors of\nthe Association; the consideration, discussion, and recommendation to the Board of\nDirectors for disposition of all reports by such special committees of research as may have\nbeen appointed on its recommendation or by its authority; the annual preparation and\npresentation to the Association at its annual convention of the report on \"Educational\nProgress during the Past Year; \" and in other ways shall use its best efforts to further the\nobjects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general.\n\nThis statement is certainly broad enough to leave the Council free to undertake any educational work which it has the time, the means, and the energy\nto carry out. As was said last year:\nThe National Council of Education .... is in a peculiarly favorable situation as\nregards the gathering up and digesting of current educational opinion. By collating the\njudgments of the most successful teachers and school administrators it can render that\nmost important service— the determination of widely approved standards of educational\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\npractice. It can, moreover, exercise a great influence on the development of educational\ndoctrine, out of which the standards of educational practice are to proceed, by bringing\ntogether into direct and suggestive comparison the best formulations of educational doctrine which can be had.\n\nThe National Council of Education is at present concentrating its work\non investigations which have been conducted or may be undertaken. It is\nbelieved equally important to follow up, year after year, any good report which\nhas been made in order that salient points may be thoroughly assimilated,\nand to keep on the alert for promising subjects for further investigation in\norder that those of greatest promise shall be selected for well and widely considered inquiry.\nIt cannot be too often nor too forcibly said that this association must not\nlet its investigations be less accurate, less painstaking, or less comprehensive\nthan those of our universities, the scientific departments of the government,\nor the Bureau of Education. We must leave to others things that can be\nbetter done by others. In the investigation of facts as in contrast with the\ninvestigation of administrative policy or of educational opinion the Council\nor the committee appointed by the Council would do well to select one expert\nto investigate and report on a given topic. We cannot hope to have the contributions ofthis council given the same standing among scholars as the better\ncontributions from other sources unless we have at least one man on every\ncommittee of investigation who is a recognized scholar and expert in the line\nof the subject of investigation.\nIt has been suggested that the work of investigation by this council might\nbe well supplemented by the appointment of one or more traveling fellows or\nscholars. It would seem unwise for this council in any way to undertake to\nduplicate work done by the universities. But it would be entirely in harmony\nwith the purpose of this body if funds can be provided to give a scholarship\nor fellowship to an expert in some line in which the Council desires some subject investigated, provided such expert could make investigation at home or\nabroad as the representative of the National Education Association or this\nCouncil to study definite problems and make a definite report to the Council.\nSuch a representative might secure good results and broaden the work of this\nbody.\nThere are two minor and obvious suggestions that occur to one in reading\nthe constitution of the Council. The preamble to this document says that the\nCouncil shall prepare through its president an annual report to the National\nEducation Association setting forth the questions considered by the Council\nduring the previous year, placing before the association in succinct form the\nwork accomplished. This appears to be a dead letter. Should it not therefore be eliminated from the preamble of the constitution by due process of\namendment or ordered that it shall hereafter be fulfilled? In the second\nplace. Art. 3 says in part: ''There shall be a regular annual meeting of the\nCouncil held at the same place as the meeting of the National Education\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n325\n\nAssociation at least two days previous to the meeting.\" It has been impracticable inrecent years for the Council to meet two days before the general session\nof the National Education Association on account of the unwillingness of the\nrailroads to grant rates long enough before the general session of the National\nEducation Association for members of the Council to receive the benefits of\nthe rates and arrive at the place of meeting two days previous t6 the meeting\nof the general association. Should not the constitution be changed by eliminating the phrase, \"and at least two days previous to the meeting,\" found in\nlines 2 and 3, sec. 3 ?\nAt the meeting in Asbury Park, in 1905, there were six sessions and at Los\nAngeles in 1907 there were four sessions of this body. This year five sessions\nhave been planned. The program for these sessions may be arranged under\nthree heads:\nFirst, The Report on the Educational Progress during the past year, which is made\na part of our program by the constitution of the Council and is this year presented at the\nopening session of the National Education Association this afternoon.\nSecond, Reports of committees appointed for special investigation and a general discussion ofthe same. The Council asked its president to appoint six committees to make\nspecial investigation, A committee was appointed to continue the investigation of industrial education in rural schools. This committee has ready a printed report to submit to\nthis Council for consideration and discussion. Four other committees are ready to present\npreliminary reports. They are as follows: (i) Committee on a System of Teaching\nMorals in the Public Schools of the United States; (2) Committee on the Scarcity of\nTeachers; (3) Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children in Public Schools; (4)\nCommittee on the Culture Element in Education. The committees on Shortage of\nTeachers and Provision for Exceptional Children have printed preliminary reports. The\nsixth committee, on Co-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries,\nis presenting, instead of a report, three suggestive questions within the field of the work\nof the committee, which are open for discussion. The field of work open to this committee\nis very broad and may take years of thought and labor before the entire scope of its work\nshall appear. The work of several of the committees will necessarily continue beyond the\npresent year. How many and what ones will continue their work will be for the Council\nto determine.\nThird, the remaining topics are selected from a list of about fifty questions kindly\nfurnished by members of the Council. The questions were real ones and worthy of a place\non the program, did time permit. Some of these topics have been used by the general\nsession and others by departments. My obligation to the members of the Council for their\nassistance is gratefully acknowledged. All the members of the Council not on the program for a longer paper or discussion have been asked to speak three minutes on a topic\nof their own choosing. Of the fifty-eight members, forty-five are on the program of this\nmeeting. Five have written that unavoidable circumstances will prevent their presence\nat this time.\nOthers are present who preferred not to have their names on the program.\n\nI wish to ask the Council to help devise some plan by which at least abstracts\nof the papers and reports presented to the Council will be iij the hands of\nthose asked to lead in the discussion at least thirty days before the meeting\nof the Council. It is impossible to have thoro and adequate discussion\nwithout an opportunity on the part of the speakers to digest the subject-matter\npresented.\nI must confess to have failed to secure the copies desired thirty\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ndays in advance. Though the request was'made six months ago in most, cases,\nthey were furnished not more than a week in advance. The feeling is widespread that the discussions are less valuable in recent years than formerly\nbecause those asked to discuss papers have no adequate opportunity to prepare\nthemselves. I would suggest that no papers or reports be printed in the\nProceedings after the present year unless at least three copies of the synopsis\nof the same are in the hands of the president of the Council at least thirty days\nbefore its annual meeting. If this should not be found effective then some\nmore dra^ic action should be taken. The Council should take any action\nnecessary to make the discussion a most vital and stimulating part of its work.\nWe are again saddened by the death of two of our friends and colleagues\nin this Council, Dr. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction, public\nschools, St. Louis, Mo., and Rufus H. Halsey, president of the State Normal\nSchool at Oshkosh, Wis. A suitable memorial for each of these will be presented. Each of these men has been an honor to the Council, to the profession of teaching, and to American education. Their faithful and fruitful\nservice in the cause of public education should be a new inspiration and a\nnew incentive to each of us to do what we can while it is yet day, for the night\nCometh when no man can work.\nIn closing I propose for consideration at the business meeting of the\nCouncil the following:\nQUERIES\n1. Shall the general plan of the program of this year be followed for next year? If\nnot, with what modification ?\n2. Shall the Council recommend the establishment of one or more traveling fellowships ? If so, under what conditions ?\n3. Does the Council favor an increase in membership ? If so, to what number?\n4. Should the Council take any action that will make more efficient its discussions ?\n5. Should the constitution of the Council be changed in either or both of the particulars suggested ?\n\nTHE\nCHARLES\n\nr.\n\nPROGRESS\nTHWING,\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF WESTERN\nRESERVE\nADELBERT COLLEGE,\nCLEVELAND,\nO.\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nI wish to interpret the progress of education for the year now closing\nunder six relations:\nFirst, in relation to the subject to be educated, the people; second, the\neducating force; third, the educating content or material; fourth, the educating tools or instruments; fifth, the educational conditions; and sixth, in\nrespect to personality.\nFirst, in relation to the subject to be educated, the people. The year\noffers intimation of a continuance of the increasing appreciation on the part\nof the people of education. Several bases for the betterment of humanity\nare worthily used; the financial, which Lord Cromer's career in Egypt\nembodies ; the social, which French civilization illustrates ; the economic and\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nTHE\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n327\n\nthe educational, which England embodies. The American people have consciously or unconsciously adopted the educational basis as a special means\nand method of betterment. The people are coming to see with increasing\nclearness that the religious basis is in peril of narrowness of interpretation\nand of application, that the social is in peril of superficiality, that the economic\nis in danger of becoming sensualistic without imagination, and the financial\nmaterialistic without spiritual vision. The educational basis, it is seen, is\nbroad— as broad as humanity without superficiality; deep— as deep as thought\nwithout narrowness, moving and inspiring without visionariness. All this\nthe people are coming to see, to feel, to appreciate. The formal clauses of\nthe constitutions of the different states commending education are becoming\nan integral part of the unconscious thinking, feeling, and conduct of the whole\nbody of the people.\nThis increasing appreciation is made evident by laws passed by the legislatures of the several states in these last months. Among such laws and\namong movements growing out of such laws may be noted the progress of the\nstudy of agriculture in rural high schools. States as remote as Pennsylvania\nand Kansas, Arkansas and New Jersey are leading in such a movement.\nMichigan has established a chair of agricultural education in its school at\nLansing. The endeavor, too, to put libraries into every public-school building\nprogresses. The movement is a general one, taking on diverse forms in\ndifferent states and in different schools of the same state. Several commonwealths, also, have established commissions either to study educational conditions or to codify school laws. Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Washington, and\nPennsylvania are acting in this important relation. As a part of such improvement also, several states are proposing to make the supervision of educational\ninterest more expert. In this endeavor Vermont has a large place. The enforcement of compulsory laws regarding attendance is receiving attention. With\nthis enforcement is joined a more rigid inspection of factories which employ\nchildren, to insure that those under legal age are not employed. Minnesota,\nWisconsin, and Vermont especially represent this movement. Minimum\nsalary acts still continue to be passed, as in Pennsylvania and West Virginia.\nThe movement or the transfer of the basis of taxation from the local district\nto the larger area, as the township, the county, the state, continues to gain\nforce. As a financial movement and also a human one, the endeavor for the\nestablishment of pension funds progresses. Intimations are that every state,\nas a state, and every large city in it, will presently have pension funds in\nworking order. Among the cities Harrisburg has in this last year made\nrapid progress and among the states the movements in Massachusetts should\nbe noted.\nIn this time the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching\nhas entered into the third year of its service. This organization has already\nestablished for itself under wise leadership a great place in the American higher\neducation.\nIt has based itself upon the assurance that grants made by it\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nare not a largess, not a favor, but an attempt to give proper compensation to the\ncollege teacher. It has helped to make colleges less denominational without\nmaking them less Christian, as also it has helped to standardize conditions\nof admission and of graduation of the American college* That this Foundation has a great place is proved; that it will have a much greater one is also\nevident.\nThe movement for industrial and technical education continues with\nincreasing emphasis and incentive. The world is becoming interpreted more\nand more as a material potency which it is the duty of men to develop.\nWith the exception of the present small demand, caused by depressed industrial\nconditions, engineers of all types are in urgent demand. In America the call\nis akin to. the call which is found in India and Egypt for irrigation engineers\nand in China for civil and for mining engineers. The demand for engineers\nof the highest intellectual type increases with greater force than for those of\nthe clerical or imitative type. Engineers of the power of large thinking, of\ninitiative, of general executive force are specially required. This increase\nin the demand and in the supply to meet the demand emerges in impressive\ncontrast to the diminishing number of men entering schools of theology. This\ndecline, however, seems to be characteristic of all nations.\nDespite these principles, laws, and movements which represent the increasing force and volume of education, it cannot be denied that the number\nof pupils who persevere in following an educational course to its conclusion\nstill remains small. A career of a class from the primary through the high\nschool or the coUege is like the march of an army in retreat. It is distinguished\nby its losses.\nThe enhancement of the worth attributed to the higher education for\nwomen still continues. The desire of girls to go to college is quite as general\nas the desire of boys to become engineers. But the sentiment is rising —\nrather a feeling than a conviction — that the higher education of women should\nbe differentiated from the education of men. Women have proved that they\ncan do the work of men. They are now, having made their calling and\nelection sure, asking this question: \"Is it worth while to try to do the work of\nmen?\" The question is raised in some minds: ** Should not the higher education ofwomen still have for its primary intellectual interest and for its content\nstudies which may specially relate to the calling to which at least one-half of\nthe college graduates will devote themselves?\" Such questioning, rather\nthan questions, comes to move in the heart and mind of those who have\nespecially to do with the higher education of girls.\nSecond, The educational force may be interpreted as administrative,\npersonal, pedagogic, material. In administration the year emphasizes the\ncontinuance of the policy of centralization. In the higher education the\nenlarging place of the College Entrance Examination Board illustrates the\ngeneral movement. In the middle education the progress made in abolishing the district system and establishing the town system, and also the progress\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nTHE\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n329\n\nmade in uniting two or more townships for purpose of supervision, bears evidences ofthe same tendency. This tendency is also emphasized in the selection of the educational council, or board of education, of the individual city,\nfrom all citizens, and not on the basis of wards or mere districts.\nThe personal and pedagogic elements of the educational forces represent\nthe teacher. The central place occupied by the teacher apart from tools and\ninstruments was never so thoroly recognized and appreciated as this very\nday. The work of the teacher is coming to be received as a profession and as\nthe profession of the utmost value to humanity. Its qualifications, as well\nas its beneficence, receive a higher valuation with each passing year. But\ntho the professional value of the teacher has been enhanced, it is also\nseen with increasing clearness that the worth of the personal character of the\nteacher is the primary worth of the schools.\nBut also with this recognition is emerging an intimation that the work of\nthe faithful woman in the schoolroom is made too hard. To lessen its exhaustiveness without diminishing its efficiency is seen to be the eminent problem.\nIt is not usually true that the work of the men who teach in school and college\nis too severe. The impression is growing that a larger number of men\nshould be employed. The percentage of women teaching in American schools\nis the highest of any country. In America four-fifths of all teachers are\nwomen and one-fifth men; in Japan the proportions are reversed: one-fifth\nare women and four-fifths men.\nThird, In respect to what I have called educational content certain tendencies inopinion are becoming more and more emphasized. The judgment\nis maintained that all truth has educational value; and that, therefore, the\ncurriculum should be broad. The curriculum should be made to include\nwhatever can minister to the increase of the power of thinking, or to the appreciation of life's beauty, or to the efficiency of life's service. The curriculum\nshould embrace all those studies which are of the highest worth. It may also\ninclude those which are of other worth than the highest. The efficiency which\nis sought for is the efficiency to earn a living. That is primary. But also the\nefficiency which is sought for is the efficiency which can make a life.\nMechanical high schools are increasing and industrial training is receiving\ngreater emphasis. Whether mechanical high schools should be a part of the\nordinary high school or created on distinct foundations and under separate\nfaculties is a subject under general discussion and under special discussion in\nMassachusetts. But that the efficiency of the so-called manual training is\ndependent more upon the brain than upon the hand is becoming recognized.\nWith this emphasis runs a disposition to cut out what is called \"fads and frills,\"\nthough, be it said, these eccentricities are far less numerous than those who\ninveigh against them seem to believe.\nAmong the teachers of the two classical languages of antiquity taught in\nthe high schools and the colleges, is growing the feeling that both, if either,\nshould be taught, and neither if not both. Latin without Greek came to have\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\na place of its own thirty years ago in American schools and colleges. The\nenlargement of the physical and natural sciences caused a decline of interest\ntaken in Greek. Greek seemed more remote than Latin and it especially\nsuffered in the competition for a place in the curriculum. But recently scholars\nhave come to recognize the intimate relationship of the two. Latin literature\nfinds its springs and origins in the Greek. A student seldom studies Greek\nwithout knowing Latin. He does study Latin without knowing Greek. It\nis declared that such a study gives a false knowledge of the proportional\nvalues of the life and literature of the Greek and Roman people. Therefore\nwhile the classical teachers do not lessen their claims of the worth of the\ntype of education they represent, they are inclined to eliminate it if it cannot be\noffered in justice and proportion. They, of course, are perceiving that the\ncontinued teaching of modern languages is rendering these languages more\nadequate tools of modern training than they were when introduced into the\ncourse of study.\nFourth, The educational content has close relationship to what may be\ncalled educational tools or instruments. Such implements are of primary\nservice in education. The improvement of education is well measured by the\nimprovement in educational tools. Among these implements the textbook\nhas the first place. The improvement in textbooks still continues. The\nmodern textbook differs from the early one in respect to the method of presentation of the subject. The earlier one sought to explain and to interpret the\nsubject in a logical order. The author's point of view was scholastic. The\ntextbook was the expression and exposition of truth and of truths. The recent\ntextbook seeks to explain and to interpret the subject primarily for the benefit\nof the]mind of the student. The point of view of the author is the point\nof view of the pupil. This point of view has for its chief characteristic simplicity. Itrepresents the discarding of the irrelevant. It also stands for the\nsense of porportion in making principal principal and subordinate subordinate.\nIts fundamental element of the student's point of view continues to be emphasized in textbooks of the current year's publication.\nAkin to the textbook should be noted the educational journals and reviews.\nThese publications show a constant improvement. This improvement is made\ndespite the condition under which they labor, conditions arising from the fact\nthat the daily journals, weekly papers, monthly and quarterly reviews regard\neducation as one of the great human interests which they should and which\nthey do consider. The opportunity seems ripe, it may be added, for still\nfurther enrichment of periodical literature. The conditions are hard, but the\nideal is one which we can worthily set before ourselves.\nIn relation to educational tools, it is to be added that the community with\neach passing year appreciates at a higher value the service wrought by good\narchitecture, both as a means of improving material conditions, as a way\nof promoting the health and securing lives of pupils, and also as a method of\n»>iinistering to the sense of the beautiful.\nThe need of security for the personal\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nCouncil]\n\nTHE\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nsafety of teachers and students has been emphasized by the burning of a schoolhouse in the neighborhood of this city in the month of March. The harrowing\ndeath of one hundred and sixty-four pupils and teachers gave a shock to the\nwhole civilized world. It also prompted the educational authorities in both\nAmerica and Europe to look well to the risks to which every student and 331\nteacher is subjected.\nFifth, Educational conditions represent elements as important as educational forces or tools. Among these conditions athletics are still occupying a\nchief place. This occupancy relates to every grade of education except possibly the kindergarten. It is still a reflex of the interest of the whole community in athletic concerns. The community is coming to realize that to seek to\nsupport athletics in school or college is to seek to support certain of the great\nhuman and lasting interests of man. The college and school are seeking to\nregulate these sports. Teachers are playing more with their boys, or if not\nplaying with them, at least are coming to sympathize more with them in their\nplay. Many students, too, in some colleges and schools are seeking with\nwiser wisdom and with more genuine sympathy to give to sports a proper\nplace in their educational career. The keen excitement regarding fraternities\nin the high schools has in many instances subsided. Those organizations are\nin some schools allowed to exist; in a few they are forbidden. But taking\nall of the ten thousand high schools of the United States together these organizations are relatively few.\nWhat I have said of educational policies and conditions in North America\nis also true of policies and conditions on American territory over the seas.\nGovernor-general Smith, of the Philippines, concluding a long conversation\nupon the worthiness and efficiency of the Americans who have come to the\nislands, said, \"But after all the best of them all is the American teacher.\"\nThe American teachers, both men and women, are doing more for the permanent elevation and improvement of the Filipinos than all other forces and\npersonalities. These teachers are of good origin. They are the children of\nthe great body of American homes. Many of them are graduates of the colleges\nof the Middle West and of the Pacific Coast. They are possessed of high\nideals. They have an instinct for efficiency. They are willing to endure\nhardships as good soldiers. They unite intellectual insight and comprehension with the moral virtues. They are forceful without officiousness, and,\nwhile conscious of their power, and watchful for opportunity, are yet not arrogant. Eight hundred men and women of this noble type have for seven and\nmore years been working as teachers in the Philippines, are still working,\nand are to continue.\nSixth, Behind the whole educational system stand great personalities.\nThe American system has been rich in this supreme wealth. The year has\ntaken away not a few such men. Foremost among them is Thomas Day\nSeymour, for almost a generation professor in Greek in Yale. Of him it may\nbe said, as he said of one of his colleagues in the college of which he was a\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ngraduate and where he taught before gomg to Yale, ''a Christian gentleman and\nscholar, honored for his character as much as for his scholarly attainments.\"\nA younger colleague, Edward Gaylord Bourne, has also, after a lingering\nillness, ended his career. In his death the cause of American history loses\nan investigator of great frankness and candor, a writer of wide and increasing\nrecognition, and a teacher of inspiration, especially for minds like his own,\neager and inquisitive. Harvard and the cause of classical scholarship suffered\na great loss, also, in the sudden death of Minton Warren, and Columbia and\nthe cause of science mourns the untimely end of Underwood. St. Louis and\nthe nation mourn Soldan — an inspiring soul, a chevalier, and standing for a\nnoble type of the executive. The whole northwest, and especially the state\nof Washington, mourns the death of Bryan, the first state superintendent of\nschools. It may also be added that American education lost a wise supporter\nand American teachers a genial friend in the death of D. CoUamore Heath,\npublisher of good books, a man noble in purpose, wise, prudent, and strong in\nevery undertaking.\nChanges other than mortal have also occurred. Hopkins has retired from\nthe headship of the New England College after giving six years of service\nnot unworthy of the fame of his great father. Following upon his resignation,\nHarry A. Garfield was chosen president. The oflfice was offered and accepted\na year in advance of undertaking the same. This method is to be commended.\nFor the work of the teacher is a vital process, and changes in vital processes\nsuffer less by reason of being made deliberately. In this year, too. Dean\nLaura Drake Gill has retired from the deanship of Barnard College after a\nservice of seven years. The ofl&ce of dean of a woman's college is one of the\nmost difficult, as it is one of the most important, in the whole educational\nhierachy. Miss Gill brought to the deanship of Barnard a high appreciation\nof the wealth of helpfulness which it offers to the student and to the community.\nIn another college of Columbia, Dean Russell has completed ten years of service. Teachers College could have existed without Dean Russell, but if he\nhad not served it in this decade, it would have been a very different college.\nHe has excelled in two of the most delicate and difficult problems belonging\nto the college executive: In the selection of teachers and also in the endeavor\nto persuade and to quicken a body of trustees to the realization of the great\nduties resting upon them and of the rich opportunities open to them.\nAs one compares the history of the year with the history of education in\nother great nations, American education represents the annals of a nation at\npeace. England has been in a state of serious excitement, in church, both\nestablished and unestablished, in Parliament and without, regarding public\nand ecclesiastical education. The excitement still continues. No satisfactory solution has been reached. Curzon has tried and, even with his great\npower, so far failed, to raise two hundred and fifty thousand pounds for Oxford.\nIn the British Empire of India, advancement has been made in dealing with\nignorance, in a community, complex and ancient, where only 5 per cent.\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\n3ZZ\nON\n\nSCARCITY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\ncan read. Egypt has established technical and trade schools. Turkey still\nlingers in educational darkness. China's revival has been hurt because of\nthe lack of a proper number of teachers and also by a great doubt of the sincerity of the Chinese government in promoting education. Japan still\ncontinues to educate and to educate with that efficiency which she puts into\nher military and naval service. America has, with her companion nations,\nsought to labor on in this supreme cause, keeping the river of her education\nfull of the water of life, determined that to each child shall be given fitting\neducational opportunity for making his work efficient, and his character large,\nrich, and fine.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE OF INVESTIGATIONS\nTHE SCARCITY OF TEACHERS\n\nON\n\nLetter of Transmittal\n\nTo the President and Members of the Council of Education, National Education Association:\nFellow-Members: Herewith is submitted the report of the Committee on Scarcity\nof Teachers, by President David Felmley, the secretary of the committee, who sent out a\nseries of questions agreed upon by the committee at a meeting held at the Teachers College,\nColumbia University, New York City, January 2 and 3, 1908. At a subsequent meeting\nof the committee, held in Washington in February, it was decided to ask President Felmley,\nwho had previously made an intensive study of some phases of this subject, to compile\nthe statistics and draft the report.\nThe report is based upon a systematic questionnaire which brought replies from four\nhundred eighty-three correspondents who represent every state and territory except Delaware. The material used came from state superintendents, county superintendents,\ncity superintendents, presidents of normal schools, professors of education in colleges\nand universities, editors of school journals, and managers of teachers* agencies. These\npeople, because of their large experience and careful reflection upon the subjects regarding\nwhich they gave facts or expressed views, represent, in our opinion, a safe intelligence\non the matters herein considered.\nThis investigation brings together the facts of wide experience and a consensus of\nopinion of people whose business puts them into active contact with the vital elements\nconsidered. It, therefore, appears that the conclusions reached rest upon rational knowledge which must always seek the causal relation of things.\nSupported by evidence that seems to sustain the construction placed upon it, your\nCommittee submits this Report, not as the final word but as the basis for further study\nshould the National Education Association desire to secure greater detail of information\nand attempt to develop a new phase of sociology in accordance with the methods of\nexclusive and technical science.\nRespectfully submitted,\nI. C. McNeill, Chairman\nDavid Felmley\nJames M. Green\nCharles H. Keyes\nJames E. Russell\nCommittee\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nREPORT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF THE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCOMMITTEE ON\nTEACHERS\n\nTHE\n\nSCARCITY\n\n[National\n\nOF\n\nYour committee appointed to investigate the scarcity of teachers mailed\nnearly one thousand copies of a series of questions touching the extent of\nthe shortage among different classes of teachers, the probable contributing\ncauses, and the availability of certain suggested remedies. Full replies were\nreceived from 483 correspondents, representing every state and territory\nexcept Delaware. The replies came from state superintendents of public\ninstruction, from county and city superintendents, from presidents of normal\nschools and professors of education in colleges and universities, from editors\nof school journals and managers of teachers' agencies — nearly all testifying to\nthe prevailing scarcity of qualified teachers. Indeed, Southern California,\nColorado, and New Mexico are the only regions where any sort of a surplus\nexists. Only fifty replies reported no shortage in the immediate locality of\nthe writer. In one state three hundred schools had not opened a month\nafter the date of opening because no teachers were available. In another\nthe plan had been largely adopted of having a teacher serve two schools six\nmonths in each. On January i four hundred additional teachers were needed\nin the city of New York, and fully half that number in Chicago. In fact in\nmany states thruout the Union, schoolhouses still stood empty late in\nthe fall because of the dearth of teachers. Everywhere there is complaint of\nthe poorer quality of the teachers available especially for rural schools. In all\nthe states these are largely taught by mere boys and girls lacking in scholarship, in professional training, and especially in self-control. As a consequence they embroil themselves with pupils and parents and wreck their\nschools for want of discipline.\nCounty superintendents and examining boards have been obliged to lower\ntheir standard of requirements for admission to the profession, to reject fewer\napplicants for certificates. The upper classes in the state normal schools\nare depleted by the constant calls for teachers. They have not been able to\nmeet one-fourth of the demands made upon them during the school year. Fewer\nstudents enter the state normal schools, except in those states where normal\ntraining secures a life certificate. Why need they? The schools must be\nprovided with teachers. All who can pass muster with the certificating\nofficial are reasonably sure of employment, while he in turn must level\nhis requirements to the ability of the available candidates.\nAn examination of the roll in any particular county will show that many\nof the best teachers are leaving the work: the men to farm, to study law or\nmedicine, to become insurance agents and traveling salesmen, or to enter\nthe government service; the women to become trained nurses, secretaries,\nstenographers, responsible bookkeepers, and saleswomen. There has always\nbeen this outflow from the profession, but just now it is greater than before;\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSCARCITY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n335\n\nand now to an alarming degree it is the best teachers that are leaving. Out\nof forty-six Illinois county superintendents who have written on this point\nthirty-seven state that it is distinctly the most forceful and promising that we\nare losing. All must agree that in view of the needs and responsibilities of\nmodem education, too few are looking seriously to a career in this profession\nand making adequate preparation for it.\nNor is the scarcity confined to any particular class or kind of teachers.\nWhile plenty of persons can be found ready to accept the better-paid positions,\nthe number of teachers able to meet the standard of qualifications set by employers isin few states equal to the demand. This fact was best illustrated\nin the replies to the question, Is there a shortage of competent teachers for\nnormal schools? City and county superintendents generally answered no.\nBut normal school presidents, the men charged with the selection of such\nteachers, with two exceptions answered yes.\nThe dearth of teachers is naturally most pronounced in the ungraded rural\nschools. These schools thruout the country are usually taught by women.\nIn many cases good boarding-places cannot be had. The teacher frequently\nmust discharge the duties of a janitor. The isolation of country life is so distasteful, that most rural teachers sfeem willing to accept a larger school at\nlower salary in town or village. Consequently the least desirable rural schools\nare the last to be taken. Of the school ofiicers replying to our questions on\nthis point, 92 per cent, report a shortage of rural teachers; 60 per cent, of the\nreplies state that the scarcity is not limited to fairly competent candidates, that\nit is hard to find any sort of person to undertake some of their rural schools.\nIn graded schools it is a question of the competency of candidates. Many\nwealthy suburban communities, proud of their schools, put their superintendents on the road with instructions to get good teachers at any cost. So\nlong as public education is regarded largely as a local or neighborhood affair\nrather than a duty that the state owes alike to all its children, this practice will\nprevail and the favored communities experience no shortage of qualified\nteachers.\nCity superintendents who maintain a city training-school, or whose cities\nare the location of state normal schools or other institutions for the preparation\nof teachers, usually report a good supply of qualified teachers. Along with the\ntwo classes of communities just described, and the localities favored by an\nattractive climate or other special advantages of residence, we must place the\nbooming cities of the newer states where good schools are an asset of the promoter or the real estate dealer. Yet in spite of these special conditions that\naffect certain cities we find that 72 per cent, of the city superintendents reporting\nfrom the North Atlantic states, 84 per cent, from the South, 82 per cent, from\nthe Middle West and 48 per cent, from the Mountain and Pacific states declare\nthat they find it difficult to secure well-qualified teachers for their graded\nschools. The difficulty is not confined to candidates properly prepared in\ndrawing, singing, nature-study, handwork, or physical training, branches\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nrecently introduced into the curriculum of progressive schools. It is not easy\nto find persons of personal power and disciplinary ability with sufficient\nknowledge and professional training to teach well the traditional branches of\nthe elementary-school curriculum according to the standards of present-day\nschool boards. This condition prevails in all sections tho with less intensity\nin the East and in the Newer West. Of the replies received 36 per cent, report\nthat the scarcity of competent teachers obtains in all grades alike; 21 per\ncent., that it is most pronounced in the upper grammar grades; 11 per cent., in\nthe primary grades ; while 3 per cent, of the superintendents report that it is\nmost difficult to find teachers equal to the problems of the formative period in\nthe fourth and fifth school years.\nSecondary schools experience less difficulty in finding satisfactory teachers.\nThe higher salaries paid, the greater social distinction enjoyed, the shorter\nhours, the narrower field of study, the lessened responsibilities of the highschool teacher all tend to attract young women to this field. Only 13 per cent,\nof the replies from the East, 27 per cent, from the South, 20 per cent, from the\nMiddle West, and 17 per cent, from the Pacific states indicate any notable\nshortage of women teachers qualified for high-school positions. More than\nhalf of them in all sections report a scarcity of men. Men to teach science and\nmanual training are hardest to get, probably because lucrative openings in\nengineering, manufacturing, and medicine constantly invite such men. Next\nto these stand good teachers of English. Plenty of people professing to teach\nEnglish can be found, but the subject is still so poorly organized in our highschool programs that success is only for the exceptional teacher. Satisfactory\nteachers of the commercial branches are not plentiful because the quality of\nthe students electing these branches demands the highest personal power in\nthe instructor to incite them to vigorous effort. Teachers of mathematics,\nmodern language, history, and Latin are usually abundant. Only in the\nSouth is there reported a scarcity of Latin teachers.\nA marked scarcity of well-equipped principals is reported from the South;\nin other sections only of competent men principals. The low salaries paid have\nresulted in a survival of the unfit in this sex.\nAbout one-third of the reports from the East and Newer West and fully\ntwo-thirds of the replies from the South and Middle West indicate a dearth\nof competent instructors in drawing, singing, manual training, domestic\nscience, and physical training. The teachers' agencies are usually well\nstocked with candidates in all these lines; but many of them are people who\nhave turned to teaching as an afterthought. They are frequently poorly\neducated outside of their special lines, and quite unskilled in teaching classes\nof children.\nCAUSES\n\nWhy are teachers scarce? The economic law is that labor drifts from\none occupation to another according to the relative inducements offered in\neach. At all times teachers have been drawn to their vocation by a variety\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\n337\nON\n\nSCARCITY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nof considerations. The social position and public respect accorded to worthy\nteachers is no mean inducement. People who love knowledge for its own\nsake, not merely for the uses to which it can be put, usually find delight in\nsharing their treasures with others. Many, too, are attracted to the schoolroom by a genuine love of children. To most of them, I take it, teaching is\nmore than an occupation; it is a veritable caUing; there has been something\nof a spiritual summons, an ideal of bettering the world thru the administration ofthe school, an ideal whose urgency has brought them to the teacher's\ndesk. Along with these inducements has been the salary, which has been\nvalued nearly as much for the evidence of public respect accorded as for the\nmaterial comforts that it commands.\nNow as compared with other occupations it seems that the moral or spiritual inducements to become a teacher are as potent as ever. But the question of\nsalary is becoming in every sphere of activity a larger consideration than it\nhas been in the past.\nThe cause is fundamentally in the industrial changes that have removed\nthe domestic industries from home and farm to factory and shop. Our pioneer\nforefathers produced with their own hands nearly everything in or about their\nhomes. They saw little of the wares of the. merchant. Their luxuries and\npersonal adornments were largely the product of their own taste and skill.\nNow the world buys and sells relatively five times as much as a century ago.\nWe serve others and are served by them. The measure of comforts that we\nshall enjoy depends very largely upon our command of the market. The\nstandard of living is determined by these changed conditions. In spite of\nall the moralists may say in praise of the simple life, teachers know that to\nretain a due measure of respect in the eyes of the public if not in their own,\nthey must in dress, and in style of living, pay some regard to the prevailing standards. The teacher, therefore, is not to be upbraided because he sometimes\nturns from his work to consider the question of pay. It is true that whether\nhis salary be great or small he owes all that he can give to the children under\nhis care; but when the day for signing a contract has arrived it is his privilege\nto make the best possible bargain.\nSalaries of teachers have risen in all sections of the country during the\npast ten years but not uniformly. In states side by side under the same\neconomic conditions the increase has differed widely because of legislation\nthat has directly affected salaries, the supply of teachers, or revenues available\nfor the schools. Measured by percentages of former salaries the gain has\nbeen least in New England, rural Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, and California.\nYet the last-named state is today paying the highest salaries in the country.\nThe increase in the decade the country over has averaged nearly 25 per cent.,\nbeing lowest, as a rule, in the rural districts least affected by the recent industrial prosperity.\nIn our wealthy urban communities women teachers are comparatively\nwell paid. In fact, only exceptional women can earn a better living in other\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Natfonal\n\npursuits. The high standard of qualifications demanded, the security of\ntenure, the social position accorded teachers, alike because of the value of\ntheir work and the high character of the personnel of the teaching profession,\nno less than the salary, make the work attractive to superior women. But\nthere are hundreds of smaller cities in which these conditions do not exist,\nand in which low standards of qualifications and political influence in the\nappointments combine to keep salaries low, and the calling in little esteem.\nOf rural teachers there are thousands -in the South, in New England, even\namong the prosperous farmers of the Middle West, whose pay is less than\nthirty dollars per month, often for a school year of six months or less. It is\nnot strange that men everywhere are abandoning the rural schools and even\nthe positions in the towns and villages paying less than $800 per year. If they\nwish to build a home and rear a family the outlook is far better in the skilled\ntrades, not to mention the professions and responsible positions in the commercial world.\nFrom an official of the National Federation of Labor I have the following\ntable of wages of skilled labor for the past five years thruout the Middle\nWest, except in the largest cities, all enforced by the union scale.\nActual earnings\nabout\n\nBricklayers\nPlasterers\nCarpenters\nPlumbers\nPainters\nJourneymen tailors\nCoal miners\nLocomotive engineers\nFiremen'\nBrakemen\nMachinists\n\n....\n\n$750.00\n600 . 00\n600 . 00\n7SO-oo\n500.00\n600 . 00\n700.00\n1,200.00\n800 . 00\n700.00\n800.00\n\nWith full time\ncould earn\n\n$1,200.00\n900 . 00\n900 . 00\n1,000.00\n750.00\n900 . 00\n1,000.00\n1,800.00\n1,000 . 00\n900.00\n900.00\n\nIn all these lines of skilled labor there has been a notable advance in wages\nduring the past ten years.\nCoal miners' wages have practically doubled.\nIt is not necessary to multiply evidence on this point. It is a matter of\ncommon knowledge that the country schoolmaster is fortunate whose net\nearnings are better than those of a good farmhand. Many good women\nteachers earn less than stenographers, factory-girls, seamstresses, and cooks.\nIn the Northwest the land booms, the reservations thrown open to settlement.,\nin all sections the inviting business opportunities, the sudden fortunes made\nby lucky investors, have sowed the seeds of unrest among teachers.\nIn few cases has the advance of wages in the past twenty years kept pace\nwith the increase in the cost of living. Moreover, the demands upon teachers\nhave multiplied. Institutes, books, periodicals, and summer schools have\nbrought home to them the need of professional preparation. When this need\nis realized the conscientious teacher feels that he must obtain the preparation\nor quit the ranks.\nThe demand for such preparation is often stronger among\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSCARCITY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n339\n\nteachers than among employers. Promising teachers frequently leave the\nranks because they keenly feel the need but cannot see in present salaries\njustification for making the necessary expenditure.\nThe inadequate compensation is not because our people do not believe in\neducation. They intend to spend most generously for its support. During\nthe past thirty years the per capita cost of public education has almost doubled,\nbut the enlarged expenditures have been for fine buildings, for equipment,\napparatus, libraries, and especially for developing our somewhat expensive\nhigh-school system which has increased its enrolment twenty-fold. A fine\nschool building especially appeals to the American spirit. It is the pride of the\ntown to be exhibited to the prospective investor. It is regarded as a wise\ninvestment for advertising purposes. But teachers' wages are largely determined bycustom. No organization or trades-union methods have been operative to force them up. Competition has been unrestricted. With unrestricted\ncompetition wages are bound to sink to the lowest level at which workers will\nconsent to live. This level is reached in that large class of young women, fresh\ngraduates of the public school, who while living with their parents are willing\nto accept any small salary sufficient for their personal expenses. Wherever\nschool boards are willing to employ teachers with this standard of preparation,\nself-supporting men and women must seek a field where intelligence, skill,\nenergy, and fidelity bring a decent reward.\nWhile the inadequate salary, as compared with other employments requiring equal preparation, ability, and responsibility, is undoubtedly the chief cause\nof the scarcity of teachers, there are various other factors.\nIn nearly all the states the examinations for teachers' licenses have\nincreased in extent and rigor as compared with twenty years ago. To the seven\ncommon branches which were the universal requirement of a former generation\nhave been added, in various states, physiology and the laws of health, the history\nof the state, pedagogy, civil government, physics, zoology, botany, the elements\nof agriculture, vocal music, and drawing. In a few states loosely administered\ncounty examinations have been replaced by state examinations, which, without\nadding ^to the nominal requirements, have been so impartially enforced as to\neliminate many of the weaker teachers and to discourage others from undertaking the work.\nThe higher standard of qualifications demanded by employers in progressive communities has been a still more influential cause. In fact the raising\nof this standard without a corresponding rise in salaries is the root of the\npresent situation. School boards and superintendents have steadily increased\ntheir demands for professional preparation.\nReading circles, teachers' meetings, institutes, summer schools — all devour\nthe teacher's leisure, and her purse. It is not claimed that these demands\nshould be abated. These means of professional growth add zest and even joy\nto her work that otherwise might sink into drudgery. But this demand for\ngrowing teachers proceeds from school boards rather than from taxpayers.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe insecure tenure of position has been a large factor in driving men out\nof the profession. With women teachers in our larger cities the tenure is\nprobably too secure, for the good of the children. But men usually desire to\nmarry and own a home. A physician or lawyer may settle in a town and continue even if he now and then offend a client. So long as a portion of the\ncommunity believe in him, he can make a living, but if a teacher, especially if\nthe responsible head of the schools, offends a few of his patrons, he must sell\nout and move. The expense of securing a new position, the uncertainty and\nsuspense wear out the most buoyant and hopeful of men. Men of narrow\nhorizon sometimes get on school boards. They do not look far into the consequences oftheir deeds. They do not see the effect upon the quality of teaching that must result from a policy that drives self-respecting men out of\nthe profession. Until public sentiment demands more consideration for\nthe teacher as a man and a citizen the best talent will desert the schoolroom.\nIn the country schools the conditions are even worse. According to the\nreports received, Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Indiana are the only states in\nwhich most rural teachers remain a second year in the same school. The\npeculiar organization of the Indiana schools in part accounts for this. In\nall the other states about 80 per cent, of the rural schools open each fall with a\nnew teacher. The practice dates from the day of the itinerant teacher who\nsojourned for a term among his patrons, and is today more prevalent in the\nlocalities that are nearest pioneer conditions. The untrained and untried\nteacher now begins in some weak district where wages are low and moves along\nthe scale of better-paying districts until she lands in the ''home school\" or in\nthe neighboring city. Without continuous interest in the children and the\ncommunity which she serves no teacher can do her best work or develop her\nbest qualities. She may be a teacher of subjects but not a teacher of children.\nIn the country all sorts of experimental work in agriculture must bridge across\nthe summer vacation. School libraries are bought and cared for, school\nmuseums filled, schoolrooms decorated with pictures and casts where teachers\nremain year after year. Furthermore the prevailing practice originated in the\ndays when teaching was regarded as a makeshift or a stepping-stone, rarely as a\nserious or permanent occupation. The continuance of the practice keeps alive\nthe old opinion of the worth of the teachers' work.\nAnother factor in the growing scarcity of men teachers is the feminization\nof the schools. Boys reared in a city rarely look to teaching. They think it\nwomen's work. The few young men who plan to teach are country bred,\ntaught by men teachers from whom they caught their inspiration. The\ntruth is that the American people have starved their schools, have sneered at\nand belittled the pedagog and professor until even university presidents find\nit exceedingly difficult to secure young men of personality and scholarship to\nfill college positions. If the masculine influence is wanted in the schools,\nand few question the need of it in the upper grades and high school, a more\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSCARCITY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nliberal scale of salaries must be provided for men than is necessary to secure\ncompetent women.\nOn the other hand in many schools the work has grown until it has become\ntoo great a burden for women; they are denied reasonable opportunity for\nsocial life. Women ought not to be worn out in the work nor find their 341\nmatrimonial prospects impaired. Stenography and clerkships throw one\nwith adults. The teacher's day is spent with children, her evening too often\nin correcting and grading written work.\nREMEDIES\n\nThe remedies for the present situation have been in part suggested in the\nstatement of the causes of the scarcity of teachers. They are all answers to\nthis question, How can teaching be made more attractive to young men and\nwomen of character and ability? To begin with, salaries must be made\nadequate.\nWhat wages should teachers receive ? What wages should be paid for any\nservice? The answer is, society should provide for all its servants charged\nwith any vital function the conditions and means essential to effective service.\nTeachers should be free to teach. The citizen teacher of the early days\ncould teach in winter and farm in summer. Few teachers are content with\nthe standard of excellence then possible. Excellence in the caUing now\ninvolves professional training, books and magazines, summer schools and\ninstitutes, travel, lectures, and concerts. . A vacation outing is no extravagance if it buys vigor and inspiration for the schoolroom. The teacher's\nsalary should be sufficient to reimburse him for his outlay for professional\ntraining, to maintain his professional growth, to enable him to live in the part\nof the town and dress in the style that the community demands, to bring up and\neducate his family and lay by something for old age.\nIn brief, his salary should provide as good living as other men of equal\ncharacter, ability, training, and skill receive.\nIn the Indiana report on Taxation and Teacher's Salaries these recommendations are made:\nFor the rural schools, $420 to $600 per year.\nFor grade teachers in towns and villages, $480 to $650.\nFor grade teachers in smaller cities, $600 to $800.\nFor grade teachers in larger cities, $750 to $1,000.\nFor ward principals and high-school teachers in smaller cities, $900 to $1,000.\n\niB\n\nThe salaries of high-school principals should be about 50 per cent, greater.\nCounty superintendents should be put on a par with the other county officers.\nThe city superintendents should be paid as well as the postmaster. In New York\nand Chicago and a few wealthy suburbs, the superintendent is better paid than\nthat official. But in 90 per cent, of the cities paying their superintendents\n$1,000 or more the postmaster's salary averages one-third larger. His responsibilities are surely no greater. The required standard of character, ability,\nkn\nknowledge, and culture no higher.\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSuch improvement of salaries cannot come without vigorous effort. There\nmust be developed a public sentiment that will recognize the difficulties and\nworth of the teacher's work. We need an educational revival, a campaign\nof education in behalf of education. Most of our educational discussion is\nshort circuited; it does not reach the people who decide things. We must\nget hold of the leaders of public opinion and thru them our legislators, for in\nsocial reform legislation must often direct and determine public opinion.\nThe most feasible solution of the salary question is a minimum salary law.\nSeven states have recently enacted such laws. Pennsylvania and Ohio make\nthe minimum salary $40 for at least seven months; North Carolina, $35;\nMaryland makes it $300 for the year. West Virginia provides minimum\nmonthly salaries of $40, $35, $28, respectively for the three grades of teachers'\nlicenses. South Dakota provides a minimum of $45. The Indiana law\nenacted in 1903 provided that in case of beginning teachers the daily wages shall\nnot be less than 2 J cents multiplied by the scholarship grade on his license.\nAfter the first term of teaching the multiplicand is increased to 2^ cents; after\nthree years 2f cents. The multiplier is increased for attendance upon the\nannual institute and for professional ability or schoolroom success.\nThe examinations for teachers' licenses are uniform thruout the state;\n85 per cent, is the minimum grade upon which a license can be issued. Under\nthe provision of this law, the poorest teacher in Indiana cannot be paid so little\nas $40 per month. In five years the law has effected an average rise in teachers'\nwages of 36 per cent. The increase has been all along the line, but greatest in\nthe salaries of women teachers in rural schools, who now receive in Indiana\nan average monthly salary of $49 .77, while in 47 counties in Illinois the average\nmonthly salary of all women teachers is less than $40 per month of twenty-one\ndays teaching.\nBy a recent enactment to go into effect next year, salaries in Indiana are\nstill further increased by raising the multiplicands to 24 cents, 3 cents, and\n3^ cents. A high-school education is made the minimum of academic qualifications, while teachers of all grades must complete a course of professional\npreparation in some professional school. A special appropriation is made\nfrom the state's treasury for townships or districts which, while levying the\nmaximum, are unable to pay the minimum salary for the required number of\nmonths.\nThere can be, we think, no valid objection to such legislation. Teachers\nare public employees. The salaries and fees of many public officers in minor\npolitical divisions are prescribed by statute. In most of the states the legislature has made only general provision for schools, leaving to the discretion\nof the various districts the amount of money to be raised, the salaries paid, the\nlength of the term, the branches to be taught, and the selection of the teacher.\nIn experience it has been found that the intelligence and spirit of some communities are not sufficient adequately to execute the educational purpose of the\nstate. The legislature has been obliged to play the schoolmaster by requiring\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councai\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSCARCITY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n343\n\na certain length of school year and prescribing the qualifications of teachers.\nA minimum salary law is only another step in the same direction. It recognizes that the education of the children of the state is the concern of the entire\nstate, and not merely of families and neighborhoods. It brings the intelligence and the authority of the commonwealth to the support and assistance\nof localities where educational sentiment is weak.\nThe fear is sometimes expressed that the passage of such a law tends to create\nthe sentiment that the prescribed minimum salary is sufficient. I have yet to\nlearn of any such law's working that way. I have received letters from state\nsuperintendents of the states mentioned that declare that no such tendency has\nappeared. The wealthy districts have increased their salaries proportionately.\nOf the replies received 85 per cent, favor a minimum salary law, 9 per cent,\nare opposed, 6 per cent, in doubt.\nOn the question of pensions for veteran teachers there is a pronounced\ndivergence of opinion — only 58 per cent, favoring pensions. On the one\nhand, it is urged that most teachers are poor investors ; that they are the prey\nof the promoters ; that the small amount annually withheld from their salaries\nwill be more productive if left in the hands of the business world ; that the\npractice is growing among large private employers, and, above all, that a pension\nsystem enables us in a kind and graceful way to relieve teachers who have\noutlived their usefulness. On the other hand, it is argued that the teacher\nought to receive his full salary at the time he earns it; that many teachers\nleave the work before they are entitled to a pension ; that teachers ought not\nto be relieved of necessary forethought in providing for old age ; that a pension\nsystem in effect is an inducement only to the weak, improvident, and indolent,\nthat both civil and military pensions weaken and demoralize. The results of\nan inquiry among young teachers and normal-school students support the\ncontention that a pension system would not attract many young people to the\nprofession.\nAfter an initial probationary period teachers should be appointed for a\nterm lasting thru good behavior. Removal from position during such term\nshould be thru public hearing after formal presentation of charges. In this\nbranch of the public service there should be as secure tenure as is afforded to\nUnited States judges or to letter carriers. Teachers should have just as much\nfreedom of political action as is accorded to other men in public service\nwithout endangering their employment.\nThe scarcity of good teachers will not disappear until there are extensive\nchanges in the organization and administration of our schools. There must\nbe fewer school boards. Only men of the highest character and intelligence\nshould be eligible. Those who license teachers should be readily recognized\nas men of superior educational ability and scholarship. There should be\nfewer examinations of teachers. After one fair and thoro test of scholarship,\nthe teacher in continuous service should be subjected to no other. Graduates of professional schools of recognized standing should receive license\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwithout further examination. Teachers should be given larger freedom in\ntheir choice of methods for accomplishing the results required. Their payshould run for the entire year with such arrangements for vacation activities\nas may be agreed upon.\nThe rural schools should be organized in large units, either township or\ncounty. The revenue system should furnish a large state school fund, thus\nequalizing the burdens of the public education and at the same time give large\nopportunity for local pride and local initiative to provide superior schools thru\nlocal taxation. Districts should be made large enough to secure a school of\nrespectable size. The rural teachers should be provided with a suitable boarding-place, with a private heated room, convenient to her school. Prosperous\nfarmers want good schools but are not willing to be bothered with the boarding\nof the teacher. With the coming consolidated school will come the teacher's\ndwelling-house hard by the school house; his kitchen garden, flower garden,\nand little farm, the experimental garden of the school.\nBut while the fundamental remedy is to be found in improved salaries,\nboarding-places, and other material conditions of the teacher's life, it must\nbe remembered that men and women do not work primarily for the\nsatisfaction of material wants, but of social needs. Esteem, homage,\nadmiration — these are the great satisfactions. If teaching becomes\neverywhere an honored calling it will attract and hold choice young\npeople. The advent of this day of universal honor depends in part\nupon new legislation that may remove some barriers, in changes of organization\nthat will give freer play to. social forces, but it depends chiefly upon the quality\nof the teachers themselves, their scholarship, their professional skill, their\nspirit, their devotion, and their common sense.\nDISCUSSION\nElla Flagg Young, Chicago, 111. — The report is disappointing. The data have\nnot been carefully analyzed and interpreted. The report conveys the impression that the\ncommittee had an explanation for which data had been found, ready at hand.\nThe statement that Chicago had a shortage of 200 teachers, January i^ 1908, is misleading. Stated in that bald manner, the condition seems to be one in which 200 vacancies\ncould not be filled. There were not vacancies — about 100 teachers were on the list waiting for appointment as vacancies might occur. There were, probably, many teachers\nabsent from one to ten days because of an epidemic of colds.\nThe greatest scarcity of teachers is in the rural school, and this, the report explains,\nis caused by the movement of women teachers toward the social life of the city or town.\nLater, a tear is dropped over those unhappy women teachers in the upper grammar grades\nand high schools in the cities, because the duties of the advanced grades deprive the women\nof their leisure in the evening, a time when they should be free to look after their matrimonial affairs! Does courtship take any more of the woman's time than of the man's\n— one cannot court alone. Think of this Council spending its time on such a report as an\ninvestigation of the cause of the scarcity of teachers. This is an attempt to show how to\nmake conditions that will reduce the number of teachers.\nConcerning the method of gathering data, I should like to call attention to the fact that\nthe day has passed when social questions are studied in one group only. The committee\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUJ\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n345\n\nwould do well next year to adopt the method of the social settlement and the university —\nto investigate both groups concerned; to make inquiries of not only presidents and superintendents but also of the young men and women who would be valuable additions to the\nteaching force, and to learn from them the reasons why they are entering upon occupations\nremoved from study and work with mind. The committee could learn at least two things\nthat have escaped it in preparing this report: First, the organization of our school system\nneeds overhauling in the interest of the individuality of the teacher. The excessive supervision and requirements of principal, district superintendent, supervisor of drawing, supervisor of music, supervisor of gymnastics, and the criticisms and suggestions of parents and\nschool trustees are all too prominent to make the life of the teacher attractive — contrariwise, they make it petty. No business house is organized so that an employee may pass\nunder the criticisms of suggestions, even the kindly, of five or six superior oflScers, and fifty\nnon-commissioned officers; Second, There is slowly, but surely, a desirable part of America's\ndaughters turning to other vocations than that of public-school teaching. It is not her\nsons alone that are failing to respond to her call.\nFinally, I wish to say that it is impossible for me to believe the committee is right in the\nstigma it casts upon the quality of men now engaged in teaching. This foolish attempt\nof the committee to stir up sex warfare is to be deprecated. Let us work from the standpoint of co-operation, not depreciation, one of another.\n\nPRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PROVISION\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN IN THE\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nAt the Los Angeles meeting of the National Council in 1907 it was ordered\nthat a committee be appointed by the President of the Council to consider and\nmake a preliminary report on provision for exceptional children in the public\nschools, and that the sum of five hundred dollars ($500), or so much thereof\nas may be necessary, be appropriated to defray the expenses of this committee.\nThe President of the Council appointed as such committee:\nJames H. Van Sickle, superintendent of city schools, Baltimore, Md., Chairman.\nAndrew W. Edson, associate superintendent of city schools. New York.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of city schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nLloyd E. Wolfe, superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Tex.\n\nThe committee has held three meetings: one in New York City on January\n13-14; one in Washington, D. C, February 25; and one in Cleveland, Ohio,\nMay 11-12. While in New York the members visited types of all classes\nfor exceptional children maintained at public expense in that city and\nmatured plans for further study of the problem through correspondence,\npersonal visits to special schools, and conferences with experts upon various\nphases of the investigation.\nIndividual members of the committee visited the Training Schools for\nFeeble Minded Children at Vineland, N. J— Dr. E. R. Johnstone, superintendent; at O wings Mills, Md.— Dr. F. W. Keating, superintendent; and at\nMt. Airy, Pa.— Dr. A. L. Crouter, superintendent; the Clinical School of the\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nUniversity of Pennsylvania, under the direction of Dr. Lightner Witmer;\nand Dr. Maximilian P. E. Groszmann's School for Nervous and Atypical\nChildren, at Plainfield, N. J. They visited day schools for the deaf at Chicago,\nMilwaukee, Cleveland, and Boston; day schools for the blind in Chicago and\nMilwaukee; day schools for mentally defective children in New York, Rochester, Baltimore, Providence, Milwaukee, Cleveland, Chicago, Boston, and\nPhiladelphia; parental schools in Chicago, Toronto, New York, Baltimore,\nand Boston; as well as many state and private institutions.\nWe have been aided in our work by the co-operation of Mr. W. A. Baldwin,\nprincipal of the Hyannis (Mass.) Normal School, and Dr. F. E. Farrington,\nprofessor of education in the University of California, from studies made in\nEuropean schools; and by the advice of Dr. Lightner Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, who by invitation attended the Washington meeting of\nthe committee.\nNearly all provision now in existence for exceptional children in American\ncities has been made in very recent years. The problem is, therefore, a comparatively new one. Before compulsory-attendance laws began to be strictly\nenforced, public-school authorities had no adequate idea of its magnitude.\nChildren who could not get along fairly well in the ordinary classes, either by\nreason of their low mentality or their refractory bearing, or both, often ceased\nto attend and were absent or truant without the knowledge of the authorities.\nDoubtless there were as many of these special cases in any community then\nas there are now; few of them, however, remained long enough in school\nto allow a correct opinion to be formed as to the cause of their difl&culty.\nThey are now in our schools, however, clogging the various grades, chiefly\nthe lower, and we are forced to recognize the existence of a serious problem\nin connection with their education.\nIt is a generally accepted principle that every child — normal or subnormal —\n— is entitled to all the education which he is capable of receiving. This\nprinciple implies that the state is in duty bound to provide an education for\nall children capable of intellectual improvement. As a question of good policy\nthe state should see that all children are trained as far as possible to be rightminded, self-respecting, and self-supporting. Many cities at home and\nabroad are now providing instruction for backward children in the public\nschools in special classes and under the guidance of specially trained teachers.\nIn 1867 Germany began the education and training of mentally deficient\nchildren in special day classes. The other leading countries of Europe soon\nfollowed, developing the work in various ways. The first school of this\nkind in America was established in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1875. In 1896 the\ncity of Providence entered upon the work of grouping into special classes\nchildren who were backward and mentally deficient. Other American cities\nsoon followed, though in a tentative and experimental way. The real movement in this country is only twelve years old.\nA discrimination must be made between backward and mentally defective\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n347\n\nchildren who may properly be taught in the public day schools, and children\nso feeble minded that they should be consigned to residential institutions.\nIn the former class are the dull and the backward whose mental processes\nare slow, who perhaps can never take a high place in the social and industrial\nlife of a community, and yet who under proper instruction are capable of\ngreat improvement, and possibly may be trained to self-support. These\nchildren require special environment and special training to prevent deterioration. With those incapable of improvement — the imbecile and the idiot —\nthe public schools have nothing to do.\nThe causes of retarded or impaired brain development are many. In\nsome children this is due to hereditary causes; in others to some physiological\ndisorder, as impaired hearing or vision (often the result of scarlet fever or\nother diseases); to chronic catarrh, enlarged tonsils, or adenoid growths; in\nothers to an accident, to a blow upon the head or back, to a sudden shock\nor fright; and in others to malnutrition, a lack of proper nourishment, or\nto fatigue from overwork. In many cases a careful study of causes will\nreveal clearly the present condition and the remedy needed. Much of the\nwork is experimental in character and must necessarily continue to be so\nfor some years to come.\nYour committee has undertaken in the following pages to set forth in a\ntentative way its review of American practice so far as it has developed in the\ntreatment of exceptional children, and to suggest certain classifications, and\nto recommend a few of the plans of work which it finds in successful operation.\nFor the plan of organization of special classes recently formed in St. Louis\nand for the details of management of a collection of disciplinary classes in\nNew York City in one building, conducted as a Disciplinary Day School,\nreaders are referred to the Appendix.\nFor the latest developments in the education of exceptional children in\nsome European school systems reference is made to Bulletin No. j (1907)\nof the United States Bureau of Education, and to the Appendix.\nTo print all of the material which we have gathered would be impracticable at this time. It is the opinion of the present committee that work in\nthis comparatively new field is of such vast importance as to warrant the\ncontinued interest and support of the Council, and we recommend that a\ncommittee be appointed with instructions to continue this tentative study,\nmaking such use as it may see fit of the materials which this committee has\naccumulated, and that an appropriation of $2,000 be made for the purpose\nof meeting the necessary expenses of a more thoro and exhaustive investigation. Respectfully submitted,\nJames H. Van Sickle\nAndrew W. Edson\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nCarroll G. Pearse\nLloyd E. Wolfe\nCommittee\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\n348\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nIN THE\n\nOne of the fundamental purposes of a public educational system is to\nprepare all educable children of school age for a maximum of social service.\nThe recognized educational instrumentalities employed are teachers, courses\nof study, buildings, and equipment. Children to whom these educational\ninstrumentalities as ordinarily provided do not effectively or sufficiently appeal\nmay properly be denominated \"exceptional.\"\nPhysically exceptional\n\nIntellectually exceptional\nMorally exceptional\n\nThey include the following:\n\n( Sight defective\n•< Hearing defective\n( Crippled\n( Mentally defective\n•j Backward\n( Exceptionally capable\n{ Truant\nI Refractory\n\nWe do not know how many exceptional children of any type, or of all\ntypes together, there are in the United States, or in any single city in the\nUnited States. Accurate statistics are wanting. To secure them is an immediate\nand pressing need. In London the medical officer reported in 1904 that\n\"At any time at least 10 per cent, of all the children whose names are on the\nrolls in London are such that, for reasons either of a permanent, or of a temporary but somewhat chronic nature, it may be considered that the ordinary\nelementary school work is almost wasted on them, and in many cases is actually harmful.\" It is probable that careful and competent inspection would\nyield similar results in American cities.\nIn so far as educational instrumentalities lack adaptation to all children of\nschool age, the number of persons poorly prepared for the duties of life is\nmultiplied, and society suffers through failure to receive from all its members a maximum of social service. Then our problem is— ^what changes\nshould be made in our educational instrumentalities that these exceptional\nchildren may acquire the power of adaptation, to the end that they may\nrender to society as great a social service as possible ?\nCare should be taken that any proposed changes in educational instrumentalities for the purpose of making provision for exceptional children shall\nnot be so extensive as to work injury to the whole body of children. Communities must also endeavor to solve the problem of provision for exceptional\nchildren with the least possible segregation, because the school as a whole\ncomposed of exceptional and non-exceptional children is, in miniature, the\nsociety for whose service the exceptional pupil is being prepared. Therefore,\nto keep in view this fundamental principle of a maximum of service to society,\nany changes in educational instrumentalities that are beneficial to both the\nexceptional and the non-exceptional child in their coeducation should be\nwelcomed.\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n349\n\nWe now come to inquire what further principle should control in the\nmodification of educational instrumentalities as above contemplated. It is\nbelieved that a fundamental principle will be found in a stronger appeal to\nthe motor side of the child. This appeal should be made not alone through\nactual doing, as in manual training and trade instruction, physical culture,\ngames, natural science, and industrial excursions; but through pictures on\ncanvas, on screen, and in books; through a reading of lifelike, detailed narration of representative achievement in all the fields that make strongly for\nhuman well-being; and through greater emphasis upon oral composition,\ndiscussion, and debate.\nAssuming that any modification of the course of study to make it better\nadapted to the needs of all children would reduce the number who would be\nclassed as exceptional, the importance of suitable revision of the traditional\ncourse of study can hardly be overestimated.\nScarcely second in importance to readjusting the course of study is a\nproper classification of pupils. In deaHng with large numbers of children\nabsolute perfection in grading is obviously out of the question, but a close\napproximation is attainable. The grouping of children into classes should\nbe made with reference to their working power, each class working ahead\nwithout reference to the rate of movement of slower or faster groups, no\nchildren unduly hurried over the courses and none held back on account of\nslow-moving schoolmates. Annual, semiannual, or even more frequent\nreclassifications, if general for a school or school system, result in more or less\nrepetition or retracing of steps for a large number of pupils, a few in each\nclass. Very soon after children enter the first grade it is possible to make a\ntentative grouping in classes according to maturity and ability. The division\nof a class into sections for recitation and seat work facilitates early readjustments as individuals are discovered from day to day who belong in a stronger\nor weaker class of the grade. Such changes should be made without delay.\nIn the course of the first few weeks the classes of beginners, if there are several,\nor the sections, if there is but one class of the grade, are properly organized\nfor steady forward movement. The movement of a given class should be\nlike that of a river which keeps its identity throughout its course, although it\nreceives reinforcement from tributary streams and sustains great losses by\nseepage and evaporation. Our t)^ical class, as it moves through the eight\ngrades, will from time to time part with a pupil to a slower or faster moving\nclass or division, or will become depleted by the permanent withdrawal of\nchildren who, having reached the age limit set by the school-attendance law,\nseek employment; but these and other losses are made up by the reinforcements from other sections or classes of individuals who find the rate of movement of this particular stream better suited to their powers than the too swift\nor too slow current in which they have been. A period of illness may be\nthe cause that brings one pupil over from an advanced class into our typical\nclass; a sudden accession of mental strength due to natural physical growth\n\nL\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "350\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmay bring in another pupil from a lower class. Whatever the cause, whenever the need arises it should be discovered or recognized by the teacher and\nthe adjustment made. There should be no time of the year when this cannot\nbe done.\nCorresponding in importance to classification according to working power\nin the grades is provision for choice of studies in the high school, and an\narrangement whereby the number of studies carried by different pupils at one\ntime may vary according to their differing mental and physical strength.\nTo care properly for the child of average or somewhat more than average\ncapacity, a plan which permits of ready and easy ascent from a lower to a\nhigher class will suffice if wisely administered.\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONALLY\n\nCAPABLE\n\nBut the gifted child, with his insight bridging great gulfs whose mazes he\ndoes not know and needs not know, must not be stopped in his flight to trace\nthe steps necessary to the child of average powers. The real test of ability\nto go on with his studies is an affirmative answer to the question: Does he\nknow enough of what he has gone over to pursue with profit what is yet to\ncome?\nThe educability of a child depends upon the nature and quality of his\nmental reactions and on his physique and his moral qualities. If the qualitative question is superseded by a quantitative question by his teacher, who does\nnot appreciate the situation, a usual result is retardation in his progress. Since\nthe question is chiefly one of quality rather than of quantity, the complete\nisolation of the gifted pupil, either by leaving him in a class of pupils of far\nless ability or by dealing with him individually, would have a tendency to\ndiminish, or rather deteriorate, the quality of his own reactions.\nMuch of the retardation now noticeable in the first, second, and third\ngrades arises from the teacher's desire to enforce a quantitative accomplishment of certain tasks. She can measure only quantitative progress; therefore\nshe is too often heedless of flashes of brilHancy, which should suggest to her\nthe calibre of the pupil, and she brings him back again to earth by the demand\nfor the doing of a specific task — one that perhaps has little relation to bis\npowers and activities. So the course of study which deals with the conventional studies, probably necessary for most children, may become a hindrance\nalike to the backward and the gifted child.\nThere is measurable agreement so far as the training of the backward\nchild is concerned. With the specially gifted child, however, questions of\ntemperament, of quality of mind, of trend of mind, crowd themselves forward\nto such an extent as to make any general solution extremely difficult. Here\nconsultations with parents, with competent authorities in psychology and\npedagogy, the grouping of such pupils in a class under a teacher gifted with\ntemperament and personality, are necessary conditions.\nIn our conception of what the gifted child should do we are inclined to\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n351\n\nlook too exclusively upon the shorter time in which he can accomplish the\ntasks of the conventional course of study. Until we comprehend that for\nthe gifted child a somewhat different atmosphere should be provided; that\ntoo, a different curriculum should be developed, we shall accomplish little.\nWhile the saving of time is not unimportant, the really important consideration is the ideal of effort and accomplishment which the child is forming.\nIt is essential, therefore, that these gifted children have the stimulus that will\nreact upon them in such a way as to cause them to become as vigorous in\nwill as they are acute in intellect; for there is reason to believe that great\nachievements in leadership are due more to strength of will than to mere\nintelligence.\nThis is a very difficult problem. It has not yet received the attention\nwhich its supreme importance warrants. In Worcester, Mass., Indianapolis,\nInd., and Baltimore, Md., special provision has been made for pupils of\nability in the last two years of the elementary school course. In Germany,\nnotably in Mannheim, some progress has been made in the study of this\nquestion, but as yet no wholly adequate solution has been put forward.\nTHE\n\nABNORMAL\n\nIn making provision for the public -school education of exceptional children attention must .be given to those who are more or less handicapped by\nsome physical defect, to those who depart only temporarily from normality,\nto those commonly known as slow or backward, and to educable children of\ndefective mentality. Among the instrumentalities which are of great use in\ndealing with such children, three are so generally useful and usable that they\ndeserve special mention. They form a sequence considered with reference\nto the cases to which they apply and are (i) the Special Help Period, (2) the\nSpecial Class, and (3) the Parental School.\nI. The Special Help Period\nIn almost every class of thirty or forty pupils some members of the class\nwill each day need special attention and help from the teacher.\nIt may be that a pupil has been absent and thus missed some lessons; or\nhe has failed to comprehend some instruction given to the class; or some\nsubject may offer special difficulty to him and this help and encouragement\nare needed to keep him abreast of his schoolmates. It may be that the pupil\nneeds some counsel or admonition concerning his manners, or his behavior,\nor his attitude toward his classmates or toward the school work in general.\nThe best teachers always find time for this work in some way. If a special\ntime in the daily order is set apart for it, no teacher has any excuse for neglecting it. The regular time suggests the duty, and this important phase of school\nwork is not likely to be omitted.\nIn the four or five upper grades this object may be accomplished either by\nsetting apart a special period to be devoted to special help as above, or by\nreleasing from a given recitation, from time to time, those pupils who are well\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNAl^lONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLNationai\n\nprepared on the special phase of a subject under consideration, the teacher\nmeanwhile devoting her attention to the pupils who are less strong in that topic.\nThe pupils excused from the recitation may devote their time to a subject on\nwhich they are not so well prepared, or to suitable reading, or to assisting\nfellow-pupils. They are gaining power of self-direction and self-reliance by\ndoing independent work while the teacher secures needed opportunity to give\nindividual or group assistance to those who need it.\nChildren who are unable by means of these forms of special help to complete the work of a grade in the time required by the majority of the children\nin the slowest division may be out of place in any regular class, but they should\nbe carefully studied by the school physician as well as by the teacher and\nprincipal before a transfer to a special class is determined upon. Perhaps a\nchange of teacher is the proper remedy.\n2. The Special Class\nThe special class may include five types:\na) The Ungraded Class, for misfit children of normal powers and dispositions — sometimes called the \"helping class.\"\nh) The Disciplinary Class (or School), for truant and refractory pupils.\nc) The Special Class, for children of defective mentality.\nd) The class for the deaf.\ne) The class for the blind.\n\nCrippled children, if not hospital cases or too seriously crippled to occupy an\nordinary school seat, may be taught in any regular or special class for which\ntheir mental powers fit them. Transportation is here the chief problem.\nSome cities make this a charge on the public purse. In 1904 Berlin started\nan open-air or pavilion school for children with heart or lung symptoms.\nProvidence, Rhode Island, began a similar educational enterprise in January\nof the present year. (See Appendix.)\nIn small cities the special cases falling under (&) and {c) might form a\nsingle class. There is good authority for saying that it is not necessary to\nseparate the epileptic feeble-minded from other feeble-minded and backward\nchildren nor even from the disciplinary cases. The refractory boy is made\nmore gentle and sympathetic by being allowed to help the teacher care for an\nafflicted classmate. In large cities only is it possible to follow strictly the\nabove classification, and there only where the population is densest; nor is it\nnecessary to do so. The refractory are often to some extent mentally defective.\nNo hard and fast line can be drawn between the mentally defective and the\nbackward, nor can a final classification of cases be made quickly. The\nspecial class must at first be a sort of clearing-house to relieve the regular\nclasses of misfit material. There, gradually and carefully, each case is to be\nstudied at leisure and ultimately placed where it belongs.\na) The ungraded class, for misfit children of normal powers and dispositions.— In most large schools children will be found for whose needs the\nspecial-help period does not sufl&ciently provide.\nThese may be young\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n353\n\nforeigners who do not know the language; they may have had good educational\nadvantages or very scanty ones in the country from which they came. Some\nchildren entering the school may not have had any good schooling. Sometimes aboy of fourteen enters who has had no teaching of any kind, or who\nhas been entirely neglected in certain studies; such a boy must enter a first or\nsecond or third grade if placed where he can do the work the class is doing.\nYet a boy of this age will be humiliated if so placed, and is Hkely to embrace\nthe first opportunity for leaving school. It may be that a pupil has been\nbadly taught or for some reason has failed to make progress in some one or\ntwo studies, these studies being such as to make it impracticable for him to go\non with the class.\nAll these cases and others require the ungraded class. Such a class must\nnot contain more than twenty or twenty-five pupils — ^few enough to permit\nmuch individual work. Pupils of this kind placed in charge of a teacher\nchosen because of special fitness for this service can, by special adaptation,\ngain what they need in order to enter classes with pupils of corresponding age\nand general ability. Not infrequently this ungraded or \"helping class\" can\nbe made to serve the need of pupils who are especially strong, and capable of\ndoing more work.\nUngraded classes of this type are not for disciplinary cases nor for children\nof weak or deficient mentality; they should be reserved for those children\nwhose powers and inclinations are normal, but who, from lack of proper\nadvantages, have not been able to make the progress which children of their\nages should show.\nh) The disciplinary class {or school), for truant and refractory pupils. —\nNot uncommonly teachers find in the class one or more pupils not amenable\nto ordinary means of control. These children in various ways take the time\nof well-disposed pupils and interfere with their studies and their comfort.\nThey take up a great deal of the time of the teacher, and demand attention\nand nervous energy which belong of right to the whole class. What is quite\nas important, not all teachers understand these troublesome pupils, and therefore they do not receive the management and instruction which they need.\nFor such children the disciplinary class is a necessity. It is, at least for a\ntime, the proper place for them, whether they are habitual truants, or turbulent\nand rebellious, or obstinate, sulky, and contrary, or whether they are abusive\nand cruel to other pupils, or vile in habits of speech and corrupting to their\nschoolmates. They are disqualified for association with well-disposed pupils\nand for receiving instruction in the usual classes and under the usual school\nconditions.\nSuch schools, placed in easily accessible localities, may occupy one or two\nor several rooms, as the number of pupils tributary to them may require.\nThese schools must first of all be put in charge of teachers who understand\nsuch children, who know how to control and teach them, and who have a\nreal interest in their progre.^s and welfare.\nThe course of studies should be\n\nIl:\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\narranged with more flexibility than is necessary in the usual schools. Special\nequipment should be provided for manual training and gymnastics. Special\narrangements between these schools and the attendance department will\nmake it possible to deal with truancy in a more effective manner than is\npracticable under usual conditions. The number of pupils to the teacher in\nthese schools, as in ungraded classes, must be smaller than in regular classes.\nSuch variations from the usual conditions permit great progress in bringing these troublesome children into conformity. Not all members of these\nschools acquire enough self-control to permit them to leave the disciplinary\nschool; but many who, when sent there, are more or less refractory, overcome\ntheir faults to such an extent that they may be returned to the regular classes\nin their home schools. In new surroundings the refractory boy is likely to be\nregarded as less of a leader than perhaps he was in his former school. He\nfinds his supremacy disputed by earlier comers who resent any attempt at\ndomination on his part, and who, though without definite intention to aid the\nteacher, nevertheless help to give the newcomer a more modest bearing.^\nc) The special class, for children of defective mentality. — If it were not for\nthe fact that the presence of mentally defective children in a schoolroom interferes with the proper training of the capable children, their education would\nappeal less powerfully to boards of education and to the tax-paying public. It\nis manifestly more expensive to maintain small classes for slow and backward\nchildren who will profit relatively little by the instruction they receive than\nto maintain large classes for children of normal powers But the presence of\none or two mentally defective children in a class so absorbs the energies of the\nteacher and makes so imperative a claim upon her attention that she cannot\nunder these circumstances properly instruct the number commonly enrolled\nin a class. School authorities must therefore greatly reduce this number,\nemploy many more teachers, and build many more schoolrooms to accommodate agiven number of pupils, or else they must withdraw into small classes\nthese unfortunates who impede the progress of normal children. Of the two\nexpedients the latter is the less expensive. The practice of teaching these\nchildren in separate classes is now fairly well established in large cities, and\nsuperintendents and teachers are working on the problem of their proper\nclassification, so that the school may make the best of this imperfect material.\nThe reasons which require normal children in the grades to be clasi^ified\nas far as possible according to working power apply with even greater force to\nthe backward and the defective. Against this view we occasionally hear of the\nhelpful influence of the more gifted upon their weaker or slower or more indolent classmates. If, however, their scanty power of attention, their mental\nindolence, or their lack of moral balance are due to physical causes, either\ntemporary or constitutional, the more brilliant response of mentally capable\nI Miss Olive Jones, principal of public school No. 120, special, for refractory children, Broome Street, New York, whose school the committee visited, has at our request\nfurnished an account of the origin and progress of her work.\nSee Appendix.\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n355\n\nchildren, far from tending to spur these children on to better accomplishment,\nwill tend to discourage them and to produce all kinds of moral defects. An environment that stimulates growth is one in which each individual gets a chance\nto show that he can do as well as others in the group. If he can do some one\nthing especially well in comparison with others, his success has the effect of\nmaking him courageous and hopeful. In intellectual work a child gets along\nbest in that group whose members are nearest to his own mental condition,\njust as in athletics he is more energetic and makes more improvement when\ncompeting with others of^ somewhat similar strength. To compete with one\nwho is sure to win despite our best efforts is disheartening, and the will fails\nto act energetically.\nThe main purposes in providing special training for children of defective\nmentality are to arouse dormant energies, to strengthen muscular and nerve\npowers, to cultivate and strengthen the mtellectual, moral, and aesthetic\nfaculties, to develop the power to obey directions, to cultivate self-control, and\nto train to self-dependence and to a mastery of some useful occupation.\nIn the education and training of mental defectives there are certain advantages inoccupying one of the classrooms of a public-school building; they\nare in this way led to feel that they are \"a part and parcel\" of the school\ncommunity. In their association with normal children on their journeys to\nand from school, on the street and on the playgrounds, and in some of the\ngeneral exercises of the school, the defective children receive a valuable training. Opportunity may be offered a child from the special class to go to a\nregular class at a certain hour of each day and participate in work in the subject\nin which he shows the most interest and greatest aptitude. This limited\nassociation of children of all mental grades, if under proper du*ection, will\nlead normal children to be kind and considerate to those in special need of\nguidance and help.\nThe advantages attending the location of the special class in one of the\nrooms of a public-school building are thought by some to be outweighed by\nthe disadvantages. In St. Louis small dwelling-houses are rented for the\npurpose. In Christiana, Norway, and in some other cities abroad separate\nbuildings are used. (See Appendix.)\nThe room selected for the special class should be large, sunny, and well\nequipped, located if possible on the ground floor, and accessible to the street,\ntoilet-room, gymnasium, and playgrounds. The following equipment is\nprovided in the city of New York: Fifteen movable and adjustable seats and\ndesks; a number table three feet square; six work benches with equipment;\nphysical training equipment— wands, dumb-bells, Indian clubs, ladder; display cabinet ; a piano ; running water, and a porcelain sink.\nIn the selection of teachers for defective children special care is needed.\nAmong the chief requisites are the following: An even and sunny temperament; infinite patience; unbounded tact; firmness that leads one to hold\nsteadily to a course in spite of all obstacles; great resourcefulness in providing\n\nlb\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[isational\n\nways and means for carrying on the work to the best advantage, even when\nready resources are Hmited; an intense human sympathy with and love for\nthese children so much in need of a helping hand; unbounded faith in the\nwork; and an appreciation of effort that gives to the children constant hope\nand encouragement. The management of these children must be kind and\nsympathetic. In most cases they are unusually affectionate and will respond\nquickly to any reasonable demands of the teacher. Praise and encouragement at every effort are the indispensable means of arousing dormant energies.\nThese teachers should have the spirit of a student; they should be familiar\nwith the best literature on the subject; and they should visit schools and institutions for the training of exceptional children in order to become familiar with\nthe best work of the kind.\nAs has been well said, the great need of such schools is \"Forward teachers\nfor backward pupils.\" Such teachers can be found in any corps, teachers\nwho have the natural qualifications and who are willing to undertake the necessary preparation. There are always some who are willing to engage in work\nsomewhat out of the usual order, or to undertake the work from a missionary\nspirit.\nThe education and training offered subnormal children should be adapted\nto meet their individual needs. The course should be flexible and of direct\npractical value. In the line of physical education the effort should be to\ndevelop a good physical organism. This can be done by giving emphasis to\npersonal hygiene, to the value of frequent baths, of pure air, of well-directed\nexercise, of rest and relaxation. These children always respond readily to\ninteresting exercises and games, as in marching in step to music ; calisthenics,\nmilitary drill, and folk-dancing; kindergarten games, hop, skip, jump, running, and May pole; in exercises with dumb-bells, wands, and hoops; and in\nall common games that require vigorous exercise. In all of this work the\nco-operation of skilled physicians is essential to the highest success.\nIn manual and industrial lines the attempt should be to develop dexterity,\nskill, and motor control. All children can be trained effectively through\nwell-organized manual work, as in cutting, folding, and weaving, and in constructive work in cardboard, wood, leather, and iron. Elementary work with\ncord and rafl5a, sewing and garment-making, cooking, table-serving and housekeeping, shop-work in various forms, are pre-eminently practical and educative.\nIn any appeal to the intellectual the attempt should be to cultivate mental\nalertness, to awaken and quicken the special senses, to strengthen the powers\nof attention, memory, and judgment, and to develop well-balanced will-power.\nOne of the earliest and surest symptoms of mental defect is the inability\nto concentrate the mind for any time upon one line of thought. Interest must\nbe the keynote to continued application. Humorous and interesting stories\ntold or read, short memory selections, language lessons in which distinct\narticulation and connected thought are made prominent, will tend to strengthen\nthe intellectual powers.\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n357\n\nIn the games in which the pupils may be encouraged to participate, in the\nsinging exercises, in the lessons on cleanliness, orderliness, obedience, helpfulness, and conduct, the elements of good morals and gentle manners should\nbe implanted.\nIn order to have the work well systematized, to note changes and evidences\nof growth, and to be sure that each pupil is receiving individual attention, a\nsimple form of pedagogical record should be kept by the teacher.*\nd) Day schools for the deaf. — For many years practically all the deaf children,\nor those whose hearing was seriously impaired, were taught, if taught at all,\nin state or private institutions. In these schools the students formed a class\napart from the community. They received intellectual education, often industrial education also, but they did not have the opportunity to retain knowledge\nof or connection with the community. 'They were separated from their homes\nand from the members of then: families. They grew, under these circumstances, more and more apart from their families, and more and more apart\nfrom the members of the communities in which their homes were. They\nbecame more and more dependent each year on the special means of communication which they practiced among themselves, and were very little able\nto communicate with or be comfortable in the society of the other people of the\ncommunity. A tendency developed among them to associate with one another\nto the exclusion of other persons. This tendency led to intermarriage of deaf\npersons, to their settlement in neighborhoods, and showed a tendency, noted\nnearly a generation ago, toward the development of a deaf variety of the human\nrace.\nThe most powerful deterrent to this tendency has been the establishment\nof day schools for the deaf. To these schools children come each day, returning to their homes at night. They remain members of the family; they mingle\non the playgrounds and in the street with hearing children and with other\npersons of the community. They are taught exclusively by the '* oral \" method,\nthat is, they are taught to read the lips of those who speak to them, and are\ntaught, step by step, to use their organs of speech, to develop their voices, and to\nspeak as other people do. They use the same textbooks that other children\nuse. By the time that they have passed through the grades of the schools\nbelow the high school, they are able to go about, speak, and understand much\nas other children of similar age do. In a number of cases they go on into the\nhigh school, taking their places and carrying on their work successfully in\nclasses with hearing pupils. They are able to take their places as members of\nthe community, to engage comfortably in many occupations pursued by hearing people, and, in general, have ceased to be members of a class apart.\nThese schools are much more costly per pupil than the usual day schools.\nThe number of pupils to a teacher is necessarily small, ranging from five to\nI A suitable form for such record and a description of the method in use in the city of\nNew York for determining which children may with advantage be transferred to the\nspecial class are given in the Appendix.\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nten, and education in such schools therefore costs four or five times as much\nas for normal pupils. But the cost is only about half as great as where the children are cared for in institutions for the deaf, while the results are of far greater\nvalue.\nDeaf children do not usually begin to learn language or speech until they\ngo to school at the age of five or six or more years. Hearing children at\nthis age have a considerable vocabulary and speak freely. A new departure\nhas recently been made in which deaf children are taught language and\nspeech at the age when hearing children acquire these arts. When farther\ndeveloped, this is likely to prove a great aid to these children and should make\nit possible for them to be farther advanced at the time of entering regular school\nclasses than they can be under arrangements heretofore existing.\ne) Day schools jor the blind. — Of the blind, as of the deaf, it is true that\nuntil recently their chief reliance for education has been upon institutional\nschools. Within a decade day schools for the blind have begun to be established indifferent cities. In these schools, as in those for the deaf, the number\nof pupils to the teacher must be small, ranging from five to ten. A special\nroom must be set aside in which they may study under the guidance of the\nspecial teacher.\nThe pupils use the same books as the seeing pupils in the regular classes.\nThese books are printed for the blind pupils in \"point\" letters. The pupils\nwrite out their exercises in. point letters by using little \"slates\" and typewriters\nwhich have been invented for their use. After the pupils have prepared their\nlessons in their study-rooms they go to the regular schoolrooms and recite with\nthe seeing children, taking their regular turn in the reading, the spelling, the\ngeography, and the other lessons.\nThese schools have advantages for blind children similar to those that the\nday schools for deaf children have for the deaf. The blind do not seem to be\nquite so much cut off from their normal fellow-men as the deaf, nor is there\nso strong a tendency for them to shut themselves up in the society of those\nsimilarly afflicted and for that reason famihar with the special means of communication among themselves. \" But the day schools will make it possible for\nblind children also to remain members of the home, and will make it unnecessary for them to lose in institutions that touch with the community and with\ntheir fellow-men which it is so desirable that they should retain.'\n3. The Parental School\nEvery large community has a number of children who are homeless or\nwhose home conditions are bad, perhaps so bad as to be worse than if they were\nhomeless. For homeless children who are likely to fall into bad ways, and\nfor those whose home conditions are bad, a parental school should be maintained. Such a school is not a \"reform school/' to which young criminals\nare to be sent. These belong usually in reformatory institutions maintained by\n'For an instance illustrating the value of day-school associations see Appendix.\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouucilJ\n\nFKOVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n359\n\nthe state. But to such a school ought to go those homeless children and those\nfrom unfortunate homes who are about to become or are in danger of becoming criminals if they are not properly cared for. These children are generally\ntruants. They are wayward, and they may have bad, even criminal, associates,\nthough they themselves have not yet taken the plunge into criminal ways. It\nis infinitely better and far less expensive for the public to provide for these\nchildren a parental or home school, where they may be regulated and educated\nfor useful and industrious lives, than to allow them to go on into lives of crime\nand pauperism.\nSuch a parental school should be situated in the country where land may\nbe cultivated in garden and fields. The buildings should be arranged on the\n*' cottage system\" and should provide for the sanitary housing of the boys and\ngirls sent there, under conditions as little different from wholesome family\nlife as possible. Here regular habits of sleeping, rising, work, study, and\nrecreation may be taught by precept and confirmed by steady practice. Not\nonly lessons from books but lessons from life may be inculcated, and a good\ndisposition toward the authorities of the school and toward the fellow-pupils\nwho are the fellow-citizens of this school community may be made the forerunner of a good disposition toward the authorities of the state and toward\nthe fellow-citizens of that state, which will later take the place of the school.\nIn this parental school these children should remain until they may safely\nreturn to their homes, until new and satisfactory homes are opened to them,\nor until they arrive at years of discretion and develop stable characters.\n\nAPPENDIX\nFollowing is a brief list of some of the best books and articles available on the subject\nunder consideration :\nAnagnos.\nEducation of the Blind.\nRand-Avery.\nx\\rnold.\nMethod of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb.\nMacmillan.\nBerr.\nMental Defectives.\nBlackiston,\nBell.\nVisible Speech.\nVolta Bureau.\nButler.\nHistory of Education in the United States.\nLyon.\nDonaldson.\nGrowth of the Brain.\nScribner.\nDown.\nEthnic Classification.\nLondon Hospital Reports.\nDuBois.\nThe Psychic Treatment of Nervous Disorders.\nFunk and Wagnalls.\nFernald.\nReports and Addresses.\nWaverly, Mass.\nHenderson.\nDependent, Defective, and Delinquent Classes.\nHeath.\nIreland.\nMental Affections of Children.\nBlackiston.\nIreland.\nThe Blot on the Brain.\nBlackiston.\nJohnstone.\nReports and Addresses.\nVineland, N. J.\nLoMBROSO.\nMan o} Genius.\nScribner.\nMacDonald.\nAbnormal Man.\nBureau of Education.\nMackenzie.\nMedical Inspection of Schools.\nHodge.\nMaennel.\nThe Auxiliary Schools of Germany, Bulletin No. 3, 1907, United States\n'\n'\nBureau of Education.\nNORDAU.\nDegeneration.\nAppleton.\nNoRSWORTHY.\nThe Psychology of Deficient Children.\nScience Press,\nOppenheim.\nThe Development of the Child.\nMacmillan.\nPrince.\nSchool Administration.\nBardeen.\nRachford.\nNeurotic Disorders of Childhood.\nTreat.\nRiBOT.\nDiseases of Memory.\nWatts & Co.\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nShuttleworth.\nMentally Deficient Children.\nLewis.\nSeguin.\nIdiocy and Its Treatment.\nWood.\nStory.\nSpeech for the Deaf.\nHughes and Harber.\nTalbot.\nDegeneracy; Causes, Signs, and Results.\nScribnei .\nWarner.\nThe Nervous System of the Child.\nMacmillan.\nWarner.\nThe Study of Children.\nMacmillan.\nEducation, Vol. XIX, p. 195, December, 1907.\nEducational Review, Vol. VII, p. 423; Vol. IX, p. 105; Vol. XX, pp. 296-302; Vol. XXVI,\np. 362; Vol. XXXI, p. 484; Vol. XXXIII. p. 374.\nPedagogical Seminary, Vol. Ill, p. 246; Vol. IV, p. 221; Vol. V, p. 386.\nNational Educational Association, 1898, p. 270; 1900, p. 677; 1901, pp. 500, 820, 876;\n1903, pp. 986, 1013; 1904, pp. 744, 754.\nEd. Record, November, 1903.\nReport of United States Commissioner of Education, 1898-99, Vol. I, pp. 303-56; 1891, p. 775.\nCharities, September 3, 1904.\nNew York.\nJournal of Psycho- Asthenics.\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nPsychological Clinic.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nThe Training School.\nVineland, N. J.\nSchool Work, November, 1905.\nNew York.\nReports: Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Providence, and London, England, School\nBoards.\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\nIN\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS\n\nIn November, 1907, the superintendent of instruction reported to the Board of Education of St. Louis that there were at that time in the various public schools of the city 181\nchildren so mentally defective as to be incapable of doing the regular school work provided\nfor normal children. These were not merely slow or backward children. They were\nunable to do either the amount or kind of work which even a slow child can do; yet those\nchildren were considered capable of education with educational facilities adjusted to their\nneeds, and with constant supervision of their physical condition. Nine children cited by\nSuperintendent Soldan as typical of the entire list ranged from nine to fourteen and a half\nyears of age. They had attended school from three to six years. Four had not advanced\nbeyond the first grade; and only two had advanced beyond the second grade. \"Nature,\"\nsays the report, \"puts the defective child in a class by himself and Education should take\nNature's hint.\" It was recommended that twelve schoolrooms be selected and equipped,\nnot as makeshifts, but in the best possible manner with a view to meeting a permanent\ndemand. As to location, the report discusses the advantages and disadvantages of a\ncentral school; of vacant rooms in existing schools; and of small houses to be rented for\nthe purpose; and recommends that ordinary two-story, six-room houses conveniently\nlocated with reference to the homes of the children be rented. Each house is to accommodate two classes of fifteen children each and leave room enough for work and free movement and some yard room for recreation. Transportation is to be furnished to those\nchildren whose homes are not within walking-distance. There are to be two teachers in\neach center, and a woman attendant who will Live in the building and take care of the\nheating and cleaning and at times assist in taking some of the children to school. The\ninstruction given will not follow any fixed course but will be adapted to individual needs.\nThe teachers must be exceptionally capable and sympathetic and will be among the bestpaid teachers in the service. Some strong teacher is to give her whole time to the supervision of these classes and medical attendance is to be furnished. Imbecile or demented\nchildren are not to be admitted, nor are merely slow or backward children to be taken from\nschools near their homes and put into these classes. Attendance is not to be made compulsory. Ifthe new institutions are made so excellent that it is a clear advantage to each\ndefective child to attend, it is argued that no compulsion will be necessary. Should a\nparent prefer to send his child to one of the regular schools, no objection is to be made\nprovided the child does not disturb the rest of the school by his presence.\nTo meet the present needs of the city of St. Louis for the education of defective\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nchildren, the Board ordered that three houses be provided and they appropriated $13,000\nto cover the expense of the special schools for the remainder of the present school year. A\nlater report shows that three special school centers of two classes each organized on the\nabove-described plan are now in operation and that each center has a waiting list of applicants for admission.\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNO. 120, SPECIAL,\n\nBROOME\n\nST.,\n\nNEW\n\n361\n\nYORK\n\nIn New York, when a case of truancy or incorrigibility develops, the usual method\noi procedure is as follows : The boy is suspended by the principal, after giving him many\nwarnings and trials under different teachers. Ofl&cial notice is sent to the parent and to\nthe district superintendent. Parent and child are summoned to appear before the district\nsuperintendent. If upon investigation it is evident that the parent is to blame, warning\nis given the parent that the next offense will result in a summons to a magistrate's court\nand consequent fine. Whether parent or boy be in fault the boy is, if possible, transferred\nto another school, the principal of which is informed of all the circumstances in order that\nhe may place the young offender where he will receive proper watching and care. The\nboy is also required to present, at the district superintendent's ofl&ce every Saturday, a\nparole card giving a record of his daily attendance and conduct.\nIn the vast majority of cases this procedure is effective. If it fails, parent and child are\nagain summoned to the district superintendent's office and previous threats are carried out.\nRight here is the point at which the system breaks. For often it happens that magistrates\nwill not fine the parents and the schools suffer from lack of their co-operation, although, to be\nsure, conditions have slightly improved in this respect during the last year. It is, however,\none first cause for failure. The second is that the accommodations of the two parental\nschools are not at all proportionate to the school population. Consequently we have threats\nof confinement and signed commitment papers, but the waiting list is so long that, as the\nboys phrase it, \"Nothing happens if you play hookey\" — and they try it yet again.\nSometimes vacancies are created by returning the best-behaved boys to their homes\nand the regular schools before their term has really been completed. Most of these relapse.\nSometimes the worst behaved are sent from the parental school to reformatory institutions.\nNothing could be worse for reasons connected with such institutions to be noted later.\nThe superintendent of my district wished to commit no more boys to reformatory schools,\nbut to seek some other mode of reform, and finally succeeded in inducing the School Board,\nafter long consideration, to establish a special school.\nThe reasons for the need of constant individual care are :\n1. Absolute lack of parental control.\n2. Lack of any influence for good outside of the school.\n3. Low, poor, degrading home surroundings.\n4. Street influences, gangs, \"Fagins,\" crap-shooting, the small candy stores with\ntheir slot machines, indecent postal cards, back rooms where boys are allowed to smoke and\ngamble, the \"call of the street,\" \"Wanderlust.\"\n5. Exaggerated personal peculiarities, physical or mental, which expose them to the\nridicule of their mates.\n6. Lack of religious teaching.\n7. Physical defects.\n8. Defective mentality.\nIn addition to these causes for incorrigibility and truancy, there are certain special\ncauses which operate, directly or indirectly, to produce truancy. The first of these is the\nemployment certificate system under the New York Child Labor Law.\nThe second of these special causes is in consequence of the fact that school authorities\nin New York have no power to enforce attendance upon school by the truant under eight.\nThe third is a psychological influence tending to truancy and incorrigibility, arising\nin the third, fourth, and fifth school years.\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nRecognizing these influences tending to corrupt character and produce delinquency,\nthe work of the special school was planned.\nThe register at the date of opening, October 18, 1905, was 36; by the end of November, 109. A list of 200 names was given me. Recognizing the dangers attendant upon\ngathering in large numbers of boys of such character, especially in such an entirely new,\nexperimental manner, the number was increased very gradually, beginning with the very\nworst cases. The highest register possible at any one time is 135. Usually the register\nis not allowed to run over 125, so that there may always be room for emergency cases.\nAt this date, June 30, 1907, the whole number of pupils admitted since the school opened\nis 304, coming from public schools and parochial schools within a radius of one mile from\nthe school building, which is situated in the heart of the worst section of the lower east side.\nSixty- five have been returned to public schools, forty-five of whom went with our\nrecommendation as reformed. All but three have been reported as giving complete satisfaction bythe principals of the schools they have since attended. About forty have been\nsent to pubhc institutions. Of these five were arrested and committed on my complaint;\nfour by my recommendation, although arrested on outside charges; three were committed\non charges of the parents; one was a hopeless defective taken from an immoral home;\nthe rest were arrested and committed on charges by the police, mostly for larceny.\nAbout seventy have gone to work. Some important facts in relation to these boys\nare worthy of note. About twenty-five left at 16, having been compelled to remain until\nthat age because of their inability to fulfill the requirements of the New York Child Labor\nLaw. Our most severe diflSculties are always encountered with these boys who resent the\nlaw and, aided and abetted by their parents, visit their resentment on the teacher in the\nclassroom. Twelve were allowed to go to work before 16 without an employment certificate. It was a manifest injustice to retain them, since their only lack was legal proof of\nage, hopelessly unattainable in the case of a Russian Jew. Seven boys have been lost, one\nof whom ran away, a most distressing case of moral and mental degeneracy.\nIt is impossible to make an accurate general estimate of how long it is necessary to\nkeep boys in the school before returning them, for two reasons :\nIn order to make a careful study of all the conditions which have tended to make these\nboys truants and incorrigibles, and in order to test the thoroness of their reform, many\nof these were kept for longer terms than was really necessary.\nThere are some boys who can. never be returned to a regular school. These boys are\nnot, however, institution cases. To place them in an institution would be a great wrong.\nThey are peculiar in many ways; sometimes having tempers which no one has taught\nthem to control; sometimes lacking in moral sense, but capable of learning; sometimes\nsuffering from injustices which have made them morose and sullen. They do not get\nalong well in the ordinary graded class, because the teacher must consider the good of the\nmajority, and, having large numbers to care for, she cannot spare time to give such children\nindividual attention even if she is capable of dealing with the problem. But in all cases\nthey need the active, positive help of a good teacher and surroundings that are as nearly\nnormal as possible.\nThese they get in such a school as ours, because :\nIn the first place, they receive careful teaching, planned to meet their individual\nneeds and to help them overcome their peculiar difficulties and temptations. At the same\ntime they are made self-dependent because they are not shut out of the life of the home,\nand must meet the buffets of the world as evidenced in miniature in the life of the street.\nIn the second place, as already hinted at, it is with sadness recognized that boys committed to reformatory institutions have too frequent opportunities to learn evil from one\nanother. In this school they cannot engage in evil plans to any such extent, for during\nthe day they have no free time together, except for half an hour at noon, and even then they\nare under the constant supervision of at least two men teachers, who play with them in\nmore or less organized games.\nAt dismissal they go to their homes, often widely separated.\nIn the thirdfplace, they are given a fair chance to become respectable and self-sup\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n363\n\nporting, when they do go to work, since they leave us with none of the stigma attached to\nan institution.\n\nThe fact that in organization, methods of teaching, course of study, and employment\nof teachers, we diflfer in no sense from any other elementary school, has an incalculably\nbeneficial influence on the success of our work. Both teachers and boys are in the closest\npossible touch with all the schools around and never have any occasion to feel that there is\nany discrimination against them in ranking and opportunity, or stigma of any kind.\nParents who would always absolutely refuse to sign commitment papers and who would,\nif coerced into it, evade the law and secretly abet the boy's escape, welcome the opportunity.\nAny suspicion of its being \"an institution\" has to be carefully removed from their minds\nbefore their co-operation can be secured.\nWe try to keep track of the subsequent career of pupils who have left the school.\nOur knowledge is obtained by:\nCorrespondence with principals of schools to which they have returned; correspondence with the boys themselves; visits from the boys; stories of classmates; visits to the\nhomes; investigation by the attendance ofl&cer and neighborhood work.\nThe method of instruction employed is class instruction, except that the gymnasium\nand shop are worked on a departmental schedule. In the class instruction we use the\nGroup System, since it is naturally impossible to grade the classes evenly. The pupils are\nclassified, now, by grade of mental attainment; originally, by ages, regardless of grade, in\norder to reduce discipline and moral problems to a minimum. I determined at the outset\nthat each boy should begin his work where he actually belonged, as inability to keep up\nwith the grade he was supposed to be in was the beginning of his troubles. For this reason\nwe dropped the use of grade names and named each class after some great leader or writer;\neach class under the guidance of its teacher chose its own name and the boys have vied\nwith one another in learning and reciting in the assembly room facts connected with their\nclass hero. This has fostered a spirit of hero worship, the ethical influence of which has\nbeen very great and something we did not anticipate.\nIn the ordinary school subjects we adhere to the same course of study as the regular\nschools, with the exception that we place greater emphasis upon physical training and\nmanual training. The value of the shop as an incentive to useful, obedient, and trained\noccupation cannot be exaggerated, and we hope eventually to work it out along the lines\nof industrial training, and lead the boys to seek some other occupation than the sweat-shop\nor the oflSce.\nConsiderable attention is given to physical training and athletic development. One\nof the most astonishing phases of this work is that these boys, although they live their lives\non the street, are unable to do regular physical exercises and know nothing of the games\nand plays of the normal boy of happier homes. They are awkward, unwieldy, and\nheavy-footed, with the shuffling gait and hanging head which mark the loafer and criminal\nas well as the mental defective, and the simplest physical tasks are beyond their strength.\nIn a few weeks' time the change in this direction is very great. Careful drill in marching, in\nsteps, in posture, and exercises, calculated to remedy individual defects, form part of the\nscheme of work; teams for basket-ball, base-ball, running, etc., have been organized and\nthe boys have learned to do creditable team-work. Here, again, we found an unexpected\nethical good resulting from something begun for other purposes. The team spirit, thus\ninduced, has led to personal pride as the member of a team; this personal pride has finally\nengendered self-respect.\nIt would do no good to enlarge upon what we had to endure first, then to subdue, and\nfinally to purge by inculcating a better spirit and nobler ideals. Sufiice it to say that any\none who undertakes this work must be prepared to put all personal feeling aside and to\naccept vile language, violence, impudence, and insubordination as manifestations of\ndisease, mental and moral disease, to be cured as the physician must cure loathsome physical\ndisease. Parental and neighborhood opposition, from whatever cause arising, must.be\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nations\n\novercome — best by a series of parents' meetings, visits to the homes, and frequent communication with the parents by mail or by required calls at the school office.\nThe means by which our task has been accomplished indicate the only method\nof dealing with the bad boy. A child may be led into crime, but the germ of good is in\neveryone and it's our business as teachers to quicken and develop it. Punishment does\nnot do it. It takes sympathetic understanding, patience, and power to forgive until\nseventy times seven and then begin all over again, and skillful teaching planned to meet\nnot only the individual needs but the individual interest. Use every possible incentive to\nmake the school attractive, keep academic requirements in the background, or only\nincidental, until you have given the boy respect for the teacher, for himself, and for authority. The boys who come to us are pariahs, hunted by the police, beaten by their parents,\ndriven out from the schools, meeting only everywhere harsh treatment and dislike. Take\nsuch a boy and make him believe that you care when he tries, that your interest in him is\nsincerely friendly, and above all, that he cannot make you angry by any misdoing, but\nthat instead you are grieved because he is dishonoring himself. Neither preaching nor\nscolding will accomplish anything.\nAs all this indicates, teachers must put themselves into intimate social touch with the\nboy, make him feel his personal responsibility and the value of pride in himself, help him\nto help himself. The secret lies in tact, resourcefulness, a sympathy which is a sympathy\nthat never for an instant tolerates familiarity, a calm and indifferent manner, which cannot\nbe roused to irritation, alertness to foresee and prevent crises, and readiness to meet an\nemergency if it comes. Corporal punishment is not used as a form or mode of punishment although there have been a few instances where its use was unavoidable because the\npreceding incident precipitated a choice between surrender to the boy with defeat\nacknowledged to the whole school, or a blow on the spot to inspire wholesome fear and\nproper respect.\nThe worst fault of the delinquent boy is lying. If the bad boy is to be helped, he\nmust get at the truth, and be made to see that it is to his best interest to tell the truth.\nIt should be kept in mind, however, that it is not wise through sympathy and friendly\ninterest for the boy to lose sight of justice and law. There is no possibility to doubt that\nwhat our boys need most to-day in our country is a training in respect for law. There\nmust be well-established rules, every infraction of which meets an appropriate punishment,\nthe justice of which is clearly felt and acknowledged. By putting the administering of these\nrules into the hands of the boys themselves you can succeed in obtaining: first, more\neffective administration; second, self-reliance; third, respect for the law; and fourth, the\nbeginnings of a thoro training for exercising the privileges of citizenship.\nThe question of incorrigibility is in a way much harder to handle than that of truancy,\nbecause, once remove the causes that tend toward incorrigibility, and the boy ceases to be\na truant of his own volition.\nA great many people who visit the school ask what methods are employed to secure\neither attendance or good conduct, and therefore it is worth while to note the following:\n1. A system of privileges, based upon the idea expressed in the motto of the George\nJunior Republic: \"Nothing without labor.\"\n2. Commendation, not blame. This is now worked out into several systematically\narranged schemes of star cards, commendation cards, honor rolls, special mention, etc.\nIn addition to all these, which are open to the whole school and are managed from the office,\neach teacher has other schemes. None has any intrinsic value. The worth lies merely\nin the fact that they express appreciation of results achieved.\n3. Trifling rewards: a much-desired book, game, excursion, etc. No prizes except\nonce a term from an outside source.\n4. Truant guard, modeled somewhat along the lines of School City.\n5. Pride in class record. This has been very strongly developed and is our chief\nreliance.\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROVISION\n\nCouncil)\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n365\n\n6. Visits to the homes.\n7. Investigation of the particular influences tending to truancy, etc., in each case\nwith a view to removing the cause.\n8. Personal letters to the truant himself, instead of notice to his parents. He comes,\neven if only to exhibit the letter to his mates. You've got him then, if you work\nwisely.\n9. Individual teaching and care, which make the boys feel the touch of personal\nsympathy, the nearest approach to affection that comes into many of their lives.\n10. Interest in gymnasium and shop.\n11. Getting into a boy's confidence, until his haunts become so well known that it is\neasy to trace him if absent.\n12. Ingenuity and quick- wittedness in taking advantage of individual peculiarities.\nMiss Dunbar \"borrows\" daily from Isaac Nadler a cent to buy a paper, and promises to\nreturn it to him when she sees him in Une next morning. Every morning an important\nmessage is delivered to the individual (frequently a blank paper in a sealed envelope) by\nmessenger always chosen the previous day.\nIn short, the methods consist in using every device tending toward the establishment\nof the habit of regularity.\nOlive Jones, Principal\nFORM\n\nOF PEDAGOGICAL RECORD USED IN CLASSES\nIN THE CITY OF NEW YORK\n19\n\nName\nSept. 20\nSense Training\nTaste\nSmell\nTouch\n\nOF DEFECTIVES\n\nDec. 20 Mar. 20\n\n19\nDec. 20 Mar. 20\n\nJune 20 Sept. 20\n\nJune 20\n\nHearing\nPhys. Train, (imitation)\nPhys. Train, (command)\nWriting\nIndustrial Train.\nLanguage (oral)\nLanguage (written)\nReading\nArithmetic\nNature Study\nPersonal Habits\nSelf Control\nEffort\nGen'l Information\nPower of Attention\nPower of Memory\nPower of Judgment\nGen'l Health\nFatigue\nAttendance\n\n•\n\nTeacher\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n366\n\n[National\n\nThe symptoms disclosed by even a superficial examination of a defective child are\nmental, neural, and physical. His abiKty to understand, his ability to inhibit and coordinate, his alertness, his sense of humor, his response to questions and directions, his\npower of application and his ability to imitate closely, his temperament, disposition,\nbehavior, degree of refinement, habits, special tastes, and peculiarities, all reflect the mental\nstatus of the child.\nHis motor control; the general balance of his body Mobile standing, sitting, or walking;\nhis facial expression and eye-movement; the position and control of his head, hands, and\nlimbs, if far from normal; his tendency to restlessness, irritability, nervousness, or hysteria;\nany evidences of epilepsy or chorea, are nerve signs that evidence the degree of impaired\nmentality.\nAnd his general bodily development and posture; the peculiarities of his head, its\nshape, size, and movement; the condition and appearance of the eyes; the size, shape,\nand appearance of the mouth, together with the throat, palate, tonsils, gums, teeth, tongue;\nthe size and appearance of the nose; the size, location, and symmetry of the ears; the size\nand appearance of forehead and chin; the shape, size, and control of hands, the condition\nof flesh, joints, and nails; the shape, size, and control of feet, and position in standing and\nwalking, all serve to assist in determining the mental development of the child.\nA preliminary blank filled out by the principal of a school will direct the attention of\nthe medical inspector and assist him in making an examination. The following forms\nare used in the city of New York:\nOBSERVATIONS\nPROPOSED\n\nFOR\n\nON\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD\nCLASS\n\n(c)\n\nName\n\nAddress\nM\nNationality F\nAge\nGrade\nHome Conditions\nYrs. in U. S.\nL.\nEnl.\nBone Dis.\nHEALTH\nRECORD: Nutrition\nTeeth\nThroat\nNose\nVision R.\nGl.\nNervous Disease\nHearing R.\nL.\nterms lA\nterms iB\nterms\nSCHOOL RECORD: K'nd'g.\n2A\nterms 2B\nterms 3A\nterms 3B\nterms\nCause of Irreg.\nSp'c'l\nterms.\nSchool Att.\nAbsence in last two terms\nAttention\nMemory\nNumber\nOral Exp.\nHand Work\nPhys. Tr.\nReading\nWriting\nSp. Tastes\nBehavior\nHabits\nDisposition\nPeculiarities\n1\n9\n\nOther information\n\n'\nPrincipal\nSPECIAL\n\nName\nI. General Condition\nA. Anatomical\nCranium\nFacial Asymmetry\nPalate\n\nMEDICAL EXAMINATION\nDate\n\n19\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\n367\n\nLips\n\nTeeth\nTongue\nEyes\nEars\nLimbs\nbkin\nBody in General\nJ3. Physiological\nI. Motor Function\nTics\nEpilepsy\nPromptness\nPrehension R.\nSpeech\n2. bensory l\" unction\nEyes R.\n3. Condition of Heart\nC. Psychical\nBalance\nAttention\nPeculiarities\n\nCHILDREN\n\nTremors\nNystagmus\nCo-ordination\nL.\nL.\n\nD. Development — Att. Diseases\nE. Family History: Births\nCauses of\n\nGait\n\nFatigue\nEars R.\nPulse\nProportion\n\nMemory\n\nMiscar.\nDiseases F.\n\nL.\n\nMoral Sense\nWill\n\nDeaths\nM.\nMedical Examiner\n\nRecommendation\n\nInspector Special Classes\nThe following account of the progress of a blind girl through the grades of one of the\npubhc schools of Baltimore was written, at the request of the committee, by the mother of\nthe child, formerly a teacher.\nThe child is now in the seventh grade and is doing work\nthat measures fully up to the average for the class.\n\np\n\n\" This blind child learned her first play from children of normal vision in a publicschool kindergarten and, on being sent to a residential school for the bhnd at six years of\nage, was then able to distinguish the differences in actions and to miss the kind of play\nto which she was accustomed. After about twelve months of attendance at the residential\nschool we found that she was developing into a very different child from the one we sent\naway. Then we were thankful that she was so young; but it took several years of home\ninfluence, which means so much to a blind child, to eradicate the evils of association with\nchildren from the worst parts of a city.\n\" Upon the advice of the Superintendent of the Institution for the Blind she was sent\nto a school among children who could see. He had noticed the change in her and said that\na child who has a good home ought to have the benefit of home training. In most of the\nschools for the blind the number of attendants is insuflScient to give the care to young\nchildren necessary to train them to be clean both in body and in inind.\n\"The first year in the public school was an experiment, the lack of books and appliances of all kinds being the greatest difiiculty. By using the Braille writer we copied the\nlessons from day to day and found on every hand someone to suggest ways and means of\ndoing everything. The inability of the teachers to understand that a. bhnd child could\ncomprehend as easily as a seeing child was another diflBculty. But after a few weeks that\nwas overcome in every case where a change was necessary. Each year the work of the\nparents grew easier as they were able to procure more books as the child advanced in her\nstudies.\nStU(\n\nIL\nI\n\n\" She has become so much like the children with whom she associates that they often\nforget her affliction and treat her as any other playmate.\nShe is independent of them in\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nevery way possible for a blind child. From the children she has learned to sew, darn,\nknit, crochet, cook, and do many other things. She is happy excepting when she comes\nin contact with another bhnd person who speaks of his affliction. We have found that\namong themselves blind children dwell too often on this topic.\n\"As the writer spent nine years in the schoolroom as a teacher, she feels justified in\nbeUeving that the child is getting all, and more than all, it would be possible for her to get\nin a school where she would be among the bhnd and away from the outside world for the\ngreater part of the year. She has now been in the public schools for four years with no\nspecial help excepting from home; but she has not had one complete year of school work\non account of her health. She is thirteen years old, is well informed on the general news\nof the day, is a good musician, and is interested in everything about her. She reads all\nsystems for the blind. On consulting her present teacher in the seventh grade we find her\ngetting as much or more than any child in the class without any partiality being shown\nher or any extra work being given her by the teacher. It seems to me possible that any\nparent with a fair education would be able to take a blind child to the high school.\n\"We have let each year take care of itself, and feel that we are doing the best possible\nthing for her. We do not find her an exceptionally bright child, but normal in all things.\"\nNote. — In a special class for the deaf or blind the special teacher would serve the\npurpose of this mother to a group of five or six afflicted children, and she would secure the\nco-operation of other teachers in the building in the ordinary classwork.\nStenographic report of a statement made by Miss Paulsen, a teacher of a special\nclass in Christiania, Norway.\n\"In Christiania we have schools for backward and for feeble-minded children, with the\nnumber Umited to sixteen in a class. We have separate schools for feeble-minded children.\nThese are home schools or boarding schools, the entire expense being paid by the city.\nThe schools for the bhnd, deaf, and dumb are supported by the state, and not by the city.\nThe schools for backward children are day schools. We have two of them in different\nsections of the city. It has been found by experience that the backward children do better\nwhen taught in a building by themselves, and, therefore, even though the building is quite\ndistant from their homes, they are required to go to this separate school so they shall not\nbe annoyed by the brighter pupils. About eight years ago these classes were taken out of\nthe various schools of the city and brought together into these two schools. It takes some\nof the children three-quarters of an hour to get to school from their homes.\n\"Attendance is secured in these schools for backward children in the following manner: If a child is absent one day, a school watchman is sent to his home. If the child is\nabsent a second day, then the teacher writes a letter to the parent. If he is absent a third\nday, the teacher goes to see the parent. If the child is absent any more, there is one more\nresource — we get parents who are interested in the welfare of children to visit the parents\nof the absentee and prod them up about sending the children to school. In other words,\nthe teacher has a mission in educating the parents who fail to send their children to school.\nIf all these measures fail, the principal makes complaint and the parents are brought into\ncourt and fined ten crowns.\n\"The curriculum is greatly reduced for these backward children. All studies are\npursued, but in a more elementary way. There is a great deal of hand work, two hours\nbeing given to it every second day. This includes cooking, sewing, and knitting for the\ngirls; for the boys pasteboard work and woodwork in a practical way. The large boys\nand girls learn to cook. Boys and girls are taught together in al) schools. We make\nmuch of special days. Then these schools march through the streets in procession under\ntheir own flag.\n\"If a teacher in an ordinary school thinks a child in her room is backward, she reports\nit to her principal who examines the child to see if he is really backward. If he agrees with\nthe teacher, he reports the case to the school for backward children. After that the principal of the backward children's school examines the child. If he agrees the transfer is\nmade. If he disagrees with the teacher, the child must stay where he is. They sometimes give the child to another teacher to see if he will do better.\n\"The regular school hours for normal children are from nine to one for one set of\nchildren; and for another set from one to five, with five, ten, and fifteen minute recesses.\nFor backward children the session is divided into five periods of three-fourths of an hour\neach. A teacher teaches from nine to one. There is no study in the afternoon. The\nteacher visits the homes in the afternoon when she has occasion to do so. She visits the\nhome of every child when there is need. When the people are very poor they get clothes,\nshoes, etc., from the Charity Organization Society. The teacher communicates with the\nCharity Organization by 'phone.\"\nSelected and adapted from Reports of the Medical Officer of the London County\nCouncil, secured for the Committee by Mr. W. A. Baldwin, of Hyannis, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n369\n\n[From the Report of IQ04]\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nTREATMENT\n\nOF\n\nBACKWARD\n\nCHILDREN\n\n\"It must be evident to anyone who visits many schools that much educational effort\nis wasted; If the elementary school is to attain its full usefulness it should be made such\nthat a healthy child could attend without being hindered or kept down in level by others\nwhose intelligence is below the average, or whose misfortunes have kept them back. On\nthe other hand, the backward children should have some extra advantages in being taught\nwith much care and trouble some of the conventional abstractions which lie at the basis\nof ordinary school work, and the realization of which to many forms a step of great\ndifl&culty.\n\"At any time at least 10 per cent, of all the children whose names are on the rolls in\nLondon are such that, for reasons either of a permanent, or of a temporary but somewhat\nchronic nature, it may be considered that the ordinary elementary school work is almost\nwasted on them, and in many cases is actually harmful.\n\"To start with, the oculist's examinations have shown to per cent, in the standards\nto have visual acuity, only one-third the normal or worse (V = j% or less.) They frequently refer cases here, which are not to be considered blind, yet scarcely fit for the\nordinary school. In the last Report a table was given comparing the percentage with poor\nvision among those who were older than the average age in their standards with the others\n—and showing the relation between retardation in education progress and visual defects.\nAt almost every examination for admission to special schools candidates are presented and\nreturned to the ordinary schools who have visual defects of such nature that some modified\neducation is desirable, apart from being treated as blind.\n\"A considerable number of children are also somewhat deaf. From examinations by\nothers, and from my own experience in school testing of hearing, it may be taken that from\n3 to 5 per cent, are so deaf that they are retarded through their whole school life by this\ndefect.\n\"Another very considerable number which it is at present quite impossible to estimate\nare debilitated children. This debility has many causes. It may be congenital; more\ngenerally it is acquired early in life; bad nursing and later improper feeding, and the\neffects of whooping cough and measles play a far greater part in causing backwardness and\ndebility than most people would suppose. In the densely populated parts of any great town\nmany already poorly nourished children, deprived of sufficient exercise, sunshine, and fresh\nair, have further to contend with illness after illness. Not only does one zymotic succeed\nanother, but tuberculosis is frequently grafted on them, and by the age of seven or eight a\nconsiderable number of children have fallen eighteen months or more behind the average\nof their fellows as regards abilities and school attendance. Even now a small part of this\nnumber comes under special instruction owing to the crippling effects of hip or spinal\ndiseases.\n\"In addition to the children already separated into special classes are others who\ncannot be certified as fit for these classes, yet who are not fit for the ordinary school work.\nThere are many such dubious cases presented. No doubt a good many in special schools\nnow would do very much better in other schools, if such could be provided without involving\nthe whole course of the ordinary school work — children whose mental constitution is such\nthat abstractions are almost impossibilities to them.\n\"Some of these seem sharp enough but cannot learn to spell simple words; to some\nothers facile reading of ordinary English will always be impossible. Some of these children are put into special classes, probably in many cases to their harm; others merely\nremain stationary in the ordinary school.\n\nI^K\n\n\"Some of this heterogeneous mass of children who, in the progress through school,\ndrop behind are of a mentally lower level, some are handicapped by nervousness and\neasily\novertaxed, others by diseased or damaged hearing, sight, or speech.\nFor these\nea\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbackward children who now are crowded in the lower standards, some intermediate schools\nor departments of schools are required. The children should be classified according to\ntheir capability. Such schools should be organized with smaller classes, and greater\nelasticity allowing of more attention to individual development by hand and eye training,\nand work on a modified and simpler curriculum than that desirable in the ordinary school.\nSuch children might also have some extra feeding, more play, and learn almost entirely by\ndoing and saying, instead of reading and writing. Many semi-convalescents in a school\nof this type would soon recover a sufficient degree of health to regain their ordinary school\nplace. On the other hand, some would remain thru their school days, whilst others\nwould be found wanting even here, and pass to the special class for deaf, blind, physically\nor mentally defective.\n\" Children could be transferred from the ordinary school to such schools on the report\nof the teacher and school inspector. Transfer from these intermediate schools other than\nback to the ordinary school after six or twelve months interval should only be on a medical\ncertificate. The possibility of a child having to be transferred to such a school if defects\nremained unrelieved might often be an indirect means of bringing pressure to bear to obtain\nsuch relief.\n\"These ideas have been obvious since first beginning work among the Bradford\nschool children in 1893; but their practical fulfilment was shelved by the establishment\nof special classes on the London and Leicester model, which is the one that was finally\napproved by legislation half a dozen years later.\n\"The experiment of intermediate schools graduated between the ordinary school\nand the special class has now been tried for some time at Mannheim, and Mrs. F. M. D.\nBerry, M.D., has drawn up the following account as given at the recent Congress on School\nHygiene at Nuremberg, by Dr. Sickinger, member of the Educational Board, and Dr.\nMoses, the medical officer.\n\" 'The main novelty of this system lies in the fact that, besides the classes of the\nordinary schools and the classes for the mentally defective now found in all large educational centers, there is a third system of classes — the Forderklassen system. These are for\nchildren who, from various causes, are unable to keep up with the ordinary school\nwork. The reasons which caused the Mannheim authorities to found this class system\nwere:\n\" * (i) The capabilities of children of the same age are very various owing to physiological, psychological, pathological, and social reasons. It is impossible that all children\nin the elementary schools should follow the same course of instruction, and reach the same\ngoal. A considerable number of pupils never reach the highest classes.\n\" * (2) The old system by which backward children were left behind in a class when\ntheir classmates passed up, and had to go over the same ground again with younger companions, isfound to have a discouraging and depressing effect. Such children, too, were\nliable to be neglected by the teachers. It was considered that children who, from permanent or temporary causes, are below the average in their capacity for work, need special\npedagogic and hygienic treatment in order that they might be developed as far as their\npowers admit, and may not suffer from school attendance.\n\" * (3) The children of better capabilities benefit by the withdrawal of backward\nclassmates, who act as a drag upon the rest of the class.\n\" 'These auxiliary classes, the F order schule system, are run on similar lines to those of\nthe ordinary school — they differ rather in the quantity than in the kind of work demanded.\nInstead of the seven or eight standards of the ordinary German school the curriculum consists of only five or six. The number of children in a class is smaller, thirty-five being the\nmaximum number allowed, hence greater individuahty in the teaching is possible. Special\nfacilities are afforded the children for participating in any hygienic adjuncts to the school,\nas baths, dinners, or holiday homes.\n\"'These classes are found specially beneficial to the following groups of children —\nchildren who are of slow understanding, but who often are not without intellectual power;\nnervous, anaemic and debilitated children; children in a low physical and nervous\ncondition owing to unsatisfactory home surroundings ; and children with defective sight or\nhearing, not severe enough to necessitate their being placed in schools for the blind or\ndeaf.\n\" 'The children are usually differentiated at the end of their first year, the backward\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councilj\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nones being passed out into the second or third system of classes, according as they arc\nmerely backward or actually mentally deficient. One result of the formation of the auxiliary school is that only cases of definite mental deficiency are admitted to centers for instruction of the mentally defective, and once admitted it is rarely considered desirable to pass\nthem out. It will be seen by reference to the accompanying diagram that, whereas each\nyear children are passing from B to A, there is no such passage from C to B.' \"\nNote. — The Mannheim plan is discussed at length in Bulletin No. j, 1907, United States 371\nBureau of Education.\nThe accompanying diagram is reprinted from that Bulletin, p. 122.\nColumn\n\n-Regular grades containing more than\n90 per cent, of the pupils\n\nColumn B.— Grades for temporary aid.\nColumn\nC. — Auxiliary grades or special schools.\nColumn D. — Preparatory classes of high schools.\n\nRegularly promoted.\nPlaced temporarily in separate\nclasses for individual attention\nand returned to regular grades.\nPlaced in separate classes owing\nto defective mentality.\n\nId. — Institution for idiots.\nG. — Gymnasium.\nRg. — Real Gymnasium.\nO.—Oberrealschule.\nR.— Reform Gymnasium.\n\n[From the Report of igo5\\\nSPECIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n'' Examinations.— B^v^ten i and 2 per cent, of the children are so defective in some\nthe ordinary\nrespect that they may be classed as unfit to benefit properly by instruction in\nschool.\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n\"When such a child becomes known, the head teacher, or divisional superintendent\nif the child is not in school, gives particulars of the case on a form provided for the purpose.\nThis form is then forwarded to the Medical OflQcer, and medical examinations are arranged\nat various centers, at each of which not more than twenty cases are presented. The\nMedical Officer makes a report on each case so examined, and the children are educated\nin accordance with this report.\n\"The blind or deaf child is defined as one who is too blind or too deaf to benefit\nproperly by instruction in the ordinary elementary school.\n\"Blind. — There are nine schools for the instruction of children classed as blind. Of\nthese seven are ordinary day classes and two are residential institutions.\n\"Deaf. — There are ten day schools and three residential schools for the deaf. Great\nharm is undoubtedly done by voluntary institutions for the care and help of the deaf, collecting them together, and separating them from their fellows by encouraging the use of sign\nlanguage, and, what is worse, in many cases leading to the marriage of congenital deaf\nmutes.\n\"Mentally defective. — These children are provided for under the Elementary Education (Defective and Epileptic) Act, 1899. There are seventy-nine centers; of these seventythree are ordinary special schools for day scholars, and four, classes for older boys. There\nis also one residential school. The mentally defective children are defined as those who,\nnot being imbecile, are yet, by reason of mental (or physical) defect, unfit to benefit properly\nin the elementary school.\n\"The Education Acts make no provision for the small class now termed \"moral\nimbeciles, \"\n\"Morally defective. — Most of these have hitherto passed through the schools unnoticed. They are really not provided for by the Education Acts, as they are quite capable\nof learning most things in school. Many in later life undoubtedly will become a danger\nto the community, and where this is associated with other defects which bring them into\nnotice, should not be permitted to be in ordinary schools. Residential institutions or a\ncolony or ship where they can be under constant observation will be the best treatment\nduring school life. They should be registered by the finger-print method, so that in later\nlife on once coming into the hands of the pohce their dangerous qualities will be known.\n\"Epileptics. — ^A scheme is under consideration for dealing with epileptics. As yet\nepileptics are considered first with respect to their mental qualities. Are they fit for the\nordinary school, or feeble-minded ? Then they are considered with regard to the epilepsy.\nCan this child attend school, or are the epileptic attacks too frequent for it to be advisable\nto attend ? If so the child is excluded as invalid. The absence of provision for this class\nis the greatest gap in our educational system. \"\n{From the Report of igo6]\n\"The day schools, both for the blind and deaf, are scattered widely apart all over\nLondon, and the distance some of the children from five to thirteen years of age travel is\ngreat, yet the attendance is very good. The parents seldom demur; they are generally anxious\nthat the little ones should be under special instruction. The lack of accidents speaks well for\nthe care with which the children are taken to school. The guides, who are often either\nbrothers or sisters, attend the normal school near the school for the bhnd. The conductors\nof trams, etc., are found to be kind, and give particular attention to children traveling to\nspecial schools. This method of getting about is in itself an education for the children,\naccustoming them to the habit of crossing the streets, getting in and out of trams, trains,\netc., and giving them a wider experience of the ordinary routine of life. Before the children leave the day for the residential schools they have usually reached Standard IV or V\nin addition to acquiring practice in various forms of manual occupations. Some, however,\nare .very backward on entering the special schools, and it is extremely difficult to classify\nthese cases.\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n373\n\n\"Arrangements now exist in all the day schools for the blind and deaf whereby the\nchildren may have a hot dinner consisting of meat, vegetables, and pudding, for 2d. each.\nUsually this amount is forthcoming from the parents, but assistance is given from the\n\"Referee\" Fund where the parents are foimd to be unable to pay. The provision of a\nmid-day meal has filled a long-felt want, and a marked difference is already noticeable in\nthe children. Ladies who are interested in the project attend at mid-day and help in the\nsupervision of dinners generally. Thus it has also been the means of bringing new friends\nto the blind and deaf.\n\"The removal of the mentally and physically defective blind boys to a residential\nschool has helped to the classification of the day schools.\n\"Organization of the Deaf Schools of London:\n\" I. Mixed day schools for children up to thirteen years of age.\n\" 2. Boarding-out facilities for those children whose homes are a considerable distance\nfrom the schools.\n\"3. Semi-residential schools for children between the ages of thirteen and sixteen.\n\" 4. A school for children with combined defects.\nTraining\nin the\nrudiments\nthose \"5.\nbetween\n13 and\n16 years\nof age.of trades in addition to ordinary school subjects for\n\" 6. Evening schools after school age.\n\"7. After-Care Committee to deal with employment, etc., when they leave school.\n\" The proper classification of the mentally deficient is, through lack of suitable accommodation, still far from ideal, and this must be so until some authority makes provision\nfor the lower class, which is hardly capable of benefiting by instruction in a day school, and\nrequires permanent custodial treatment. They are often retained in the schools, because to\nexclude throws them upon the streets where they are a constant source of danger to all\naround them.\n^'Mid-day meals. — On accoimt of the comparatively long distances which children\noften have to travel to attend a special school for the blind and the deaf, and of the delicate\nstate of health of many of the children, the provision of a mid-day meal is a necessary\nadjunct of the work of the school. It is generally found that there is a considerable\nimprovement in the physique of those children for whom a suitable dinner is provided.\nThe dinners in the day schools for the blind and the deaf, like those in the schools for the\nphysically defective, are under the supervision of a committee of representative managers,\nand the Council provides all the facilities, the parents, when able, paying 2d. per meal to\ncover the cost of food.\n29\n\nNo. OF Teachers\n\nAverage\n\nAverage No. of\nChildren on Roll to\nEach Teacher\n190S\n\n273\nNo. on Roll\n\nSpecial School for\n1905\n\niQOS\n\nBlind\nDeaf\nMentally defective . . .\nPhysically defective. . .\n\n28\n\n1906\n226\n81\n\nAll schools\n71\n3S6\n\n4,746\n1.56s\n\n1\n\n9-7\n8.1\n19-3\n20. 5\n\n7,203\n\n1\n\n16. S\n\n271\n\n47\n210\n66\n\n619\n1906\n\n4,050\n5,850\n576\n\n1906\n0.6\n7.6\n21\n23.5\n17-9\n\n962\n\n402\n\"In addition to teachers there were\n169 helpers, bathers, etc., engaged in the special\nschools in 1906, as compared with 103 in 1905.\"\n\n[From the Report of iQoy]\n\n'^Special school.— There is no fresh departure to chronicle in connection with the\nspecial schools.\n''Physically defective children. — There are now 23 invalid schools with approximately\n1,802 children on the roll; 35 ambulance carriages and 11 omnibuses take these children\ndaily to and from school, and 24 nurses attend to their conveyance and care in school.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBERLIN'S NEW\nAN OPEN-AIR\n\nPAVILION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIDEA\n\nIN A SPLENDID\nGROVE — THERE CHILDREN\nWITH\nHEART\nCOMBINE\nINSTRUCTION\nWITH\nHEALTH-SEEKING\n\n[From the Nuova Antologia.\n\n[National\n\nOR\n\nLUNG\n\nSYMPTOUS\n\nReprinted in the Boston Transcript, March 28, 1008]\n\nCharlottenburg, in the neighborhood of Berlin, was the first city in Germany, perhaps\nthe first in Europe, to take definite action in behalf of physically deficient children. This\naction resulted about three years ago in the establishment of an open-air school in a magnificent suburban forest known as the Griinewald. The medical supervision of the pupils\nis in the hands of the regular inspectors of the public schools, and to their superintendent,\nDr. H. Neufert, the credit of the idea is due.\nThe approach to the school is through a wooded path, which branches off from the\nhighroad to Spandau opposite Ruhwald Castle, near the terminus of the electric railway.\nA few minutes' walk brings the visitor out into a clearing in the midst of a thick grove of\ntall firs\nA wide gateway hung with festoons of ivy, over which float the colors of\nCharlottenburg, admits the visitor to the precincts of the school.\nThe school was first opened in the summer of nineteen hundred and four. The New\nWest End Society, to whom this part of the forest belonged, gave the city the use of it, rent\nfree, for a term of years, and the Women's Patriotic Alliance, an admirable charitable\nassociation of Berlin, promptly offered to assume the domestic management of the enterprise, the running expenses being met by the city. The Alliance also put at the disposal of\nthe city a good-sized barrack of the Docker type, furnished with everything needed for the\nkitchen. This made it possible, with comparatively limited means, to enroll ninety-five\nchildren of both sexes.\nAt the end of six weeks the number had increased to 120. The children who attend\nthe school are chosen by the medical examiners of the city schools. The preference is\ngenerally given to those showing signs of heart or lung affections, to anaemic and debilitated\nchildren; to children who, although not ill enough to be confined to their beds, are not able\nto bear the strain of study under ordinary conditions; and to convalescents. On the\ngrounds of the school, which comprise about two and a half acres enclosed by a high fence\nof wire netting, are a large school-barrack, built of wood and tarred pasteboard, another\nbarrack serving as kitchen, a roomy lavatory, a bathhouse with showers, and a big wooden\nshed open on one side and covered by a wide overhanging roof, under which the children\ntake shelter when it rains. Everything is planned in accordance with the most modern\ntheories of pedagogy and medicine.\nThe food is of the best and is very inexpensive. In the morning, about a quarter after\nseven, when the pupils arrive at the school from the electric cars, breakfast is served. This\nmeal consists of a glass of milk with bread and butter. At noon, for their dinner, they are\ngiven plenty of vegetables and about a quarter of a pound of meat apiece. At four they\nhave another glass of milk with bread and marmalade, and at seven in the evening, before\nthey leave for home, they are served with hot soup and bread and butter. The cost of all\nthis does not exceed twelve cents a day for each child. As has been said, the expense is\nmet by the city.\nDr. Neufert reports that it is hard to realize what a great change takes place in the\nhealth of the children after a few weeks' attendance at the Forest School. The results are\nextraordinary, though obtained by the simplest and most natural hygienic and pedagogical\nmethods. A continued sojourn in the fresh, pure air in all kinds of weather, the sunshine,\nthe baths, the abundant and substantial food, the limited hours of study, rationally\narranged, put new life into the little invalids. The visitor is filled with wonder upon hearing that during three months of out-door life in the forest, even in October and November,\nthe children keep well, not so much as taking cold. Their increase in weight also is remarkable, the average gain being about seven pounds. Some gain as much as ten or twelve;\nsome even sixteen or eighteen. The little pupils enter the school sickly and inattentive\nin their classes. They leave it well and strong, and so far advanced in their lessons as to be\nable at once to enter the ordinary grades of the Charlottenburg schools. A further benefit\nresulting from an institution of this sort is the affectionate intimacy which springs up between teacher and pupil. In the year 1905 the expense to the city of the Forest School\namounted to about $5,576.\nWithin a few weeks London will also have its Forest School, patterned after the\nCharlottenburg example. The municipal authorities, during their recent tour of investigation in Germany, had occasion to visit the Charlottenburg institution and came back\nso enthusiastic that they at once resolved to establish a similar one in their own city. The\nRoyal Arsenal Co-operative Society, which owns a magnificent forest southwest of London,\nforthwith offered a part of it for the open-air school. The generous offer was accepted, and\nit is now only a question of days until the metropolis can provide accommodations for a\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n375\n\nhundred children chosen from among the most sickly and debilitated of the wretched\nsouthwest section. These children will receive not only food and tuition, but clothing, too,\n'\nfree of expense.\n\nABNORMAL\n\nFREDERIC\n\nE. FARRINGTON,\n\nCHILDREN\n\nPROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF CALIFORNIA\n\n\"In submitting the following brief notes in answer to your letter of January 7th last,\nand the accompanying outline, (i) I have taken the liberty of including also some information as to the state of affairs in Belgium. Some weeks ago, I was in Lille on a tour of\ninspection connected with my own investigations on the secondary school system of France\nand inasmuch as Brussels is only a couple of hours' ride and I had understood that they\nwere doing a good deal in that city in the care of some of the classes of children covered by\nyour investigations, I thought it worth while to run up there. I felt amply repaid for my\ntrouble, as I trust you will see later. Furthermore, I am adding some material on the\nsituation in Holland, obtained from Rouma, VEtat de V enseignement special pour enjants\narrUres aux Pays-Bas (1906).\n\"2) Permit me to call your attention to the extensive bibliography of books and\npamphlets exhibited at the Kongress der Hilfschulen at Bremen in 1905. These are\nchiefly in German, and at that time, I believe, covered the ground very completely so far as\nGermany was concerned.\n\"3) In France, where education is under state control and largely at state expense,\nnothing of a general nature has been undertaken. It is worth noting, too, that in the\nLow Countries, where so much has been done, it has all been undertaken at local initiative.\nConsequently all these various situations hereinafter described are only limited movements\nsupported rather at municipal or private expense or sometimes with the co-operation of\nboth.\nThey are naturally confined to the important towns and cities.\n\"4) For your own convenience I have attempted to follow the outline you sent out\nalthough the classification abroad does not correspond with your own. The greater part\nof these notes will bear upon the intellectually exceptional, and under this head upon the\nexceptionally dull, for I have thus far failed to find any provision or even mention in this\nconnection of the exceptionally capable.\nA.\n\nMORALLY\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\n\" I. Truants. — Since 1882 there has been a compulsory school law in France, requiring school attendance from six to thirteen years of age unless the child is otherwise educated.\nTo satisfy themselves of the efficacy of this instruction outside the school, the authorities\nmay require an annual examination. In case of deficiency here, the parent may be required\nto send his child to a public or a private school. This upper hmit of thirteen years of age\nmay be cut down one and sometimes two years, for a child that has gained the leaving\ncertificate is exempt from the operation of the attendance law. This certificate is granted\non passing an examination based upon the work of the second third of the primary school\ncourse. (For further details as to the organization of this primary system, see my Public\nPrimary School System of France.) The efforts made to raise the level of this examination\nhave thus far proved unavailing.\n\"Every fall just before the opening of the school year, the mayor of the commune\nsends to the principals of all public and private schools a list of all the pupils that ought to\nbe at the various schools. In accordance with this information, the principals send to the\nmayor of the commune and to the school inspector a list of all absences for the month with\nthe causes therefor. The mayor, as president of the local school commission, is then\nresponsible for instituting proceedings against the parents of children that are not at school.\nIf a child is absent for four or more half days in one month without satisfactory excuse\n(the only ones ordinarily valid are (i) sickness of the child; (2) death in the family; (3)\nsuddenly interrupted means of communication), the mayor summons the parent to appear\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\n376\n\nbefore the school commission and explains to him his duty. Upon a repetition of the\noffense within the year, the school commission orders the parent's name posted on the\nbulletin board of the town hall. If this still has no effect the commission brings the\nmatter before the district judge, and the latter has power to punish the offender. This is\nordinarily done by inflicting a merely nominal fine of a few francs. Inasmuch as the mayor\nis a political ofl&ce holder (elected by the members of the municipal council who are in\nturn elected by popular vote), it may readily be inferred that he often hesitates to incur\nthe enmity of the electors and that these processes are less frequent than they should be.\nThese school commissions are reasonably eflQcient in the larger cities, though even there\noccasionally one finds in the report that the commission is \"not acting. \" There is a growing feeling that the complaint in truancy cases should originate with the primary inspector,\nan official outside the pale of political influence, but as yet no great progress has been made\ntoward effecting this change. Nevertheless, the school attendance is undoubtedly better\nthan it is with us. Unfortunately the French school statistics do not give average attendance. The nearest approximation we can get, therefore, is the enrollment for December\nand June, the months of the highest and the lowest respectively, together with the actual\nattendance on the second day of each of these months. Barring unusual conditions this\nwill give a general notion of average attendance. The figures for December, 1901, and\nJune, 1902, the date of the last quinquennial report, give us 3,656,561 and 3,578,586 as the\nenrollment for the month, and the number present on the second day of those months as\n3,311,826 and 3,128,047 respectively. This gives us an attendance of 90 per cent, and 87\n84\nper cent, on the enrollment for these months.\nSCHOOL KITCHEN\n\nIN THE CHIEF CITIES OF FRANCE'\n\nAmount\nexpended\n\nNumber of\nmeals\nserved\n\nNumber of\nfree meals\n\n2,657,335\n\n1901-02\n1,469,018\n\n9,108,463\n\n5.561,903\n\nMarseiUes.*.\nLyon\nBordeaux . . .\nLille\n\n491,161\n4S9.099\n256,638\n210,696\n\n84,000\n\nToulouse\nSaint-Etienne\nRoubaix\nNantes\n\n149,841\n146,599\n142,36s\n132,990\n\nCities\nParis\n\nPopulation\n1901\n\nNumber of\nschools\n27\n14\ni served\n\n27\n\n1,201,349\n\n45.782\n\n60\n\nservedren daily.\n6,200 chilFree to poor.\n\n70\n\nNo regular city organization. Private\nsociety spends 10,000 francs per year.\n\n28\n\n903 out of 1,587 are\n\n136,000\nSS.ooo\n\nLe Havre —\n\n130.196\n\nRouen\nReims\nNice\nNancy\nToulon\n\n116,316\n108,385\n105,109\n102,559\n\nTotal except\nParis....\n\n101,602\n\n128,879\n\npaying pupils.\n\n169.198\n27,700\n\nIn dissements.\n19 of the 20 arronAU free.\nFree to poor.\nAll quarters of city\n\n206,000\n\n118,90s\n\nRemarks\n\n4\nNo school kitchen.\nEvery school served.\n\n2,653.516\n\n» SUUistique de Penseignement primaire, 1Q01-IQ02. I have compiled this table from the various individual\nreports. The lack of uniformity in the returns of the reporting officers is responsible for the fragmentary\nappearance.\n\"Poverty is a large factor in truancy. The encouragement of school attendance is\nput into the hands of a kind of local board (commission scolaire). This body, partly\n30\nelective and partly appointive, however, exercises no control over the school\nor its work;\nits influence outside the above-mentioned duty is purely moral. Its most effective agents\nare the school fund (drawn upon for the purchase of shoes, clothing, and school supplies)\nand the school kitchen, both provided by municipal or private subscriptions.\nThere are\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouDcUl\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n377\n\nno general statistics available for showing the importance of this work, but table on\np. 36 will indicate the prevalence of the school kitchen in Paris and in the fourteen other\ncities of 100,000 inhabitants and over. Every one of these cities except Nancy has its\nschool kitchen where a good, wholesome repast may be obtained at a merely nominal cost.\nThe poor are provided gratuitously,\n\n\"These school kitchens are open chiefly during the winter months. The meals (the\nregular mid-day meal) consist of soup, meat, vegetable, bread, and wine, though in most\nplaces the pupils bring their own bread and wine. The cost per meal per pupil in the\nprimary schools varies from 10 to 20 centimes, about two to four cents. (In Saint-Etienne .\nit reaches as much as 40 centimes for the higher primary, and the commercial and industrial schools.)\n\"So far as my information goes, there are no so-called truant schools. Truants are\nreached either through the parents by the ordinary legal methods or not at all.\n\n\"2. Exceptionally dull. — This whole question is being discussed very seriously in\nFrance just now, but it is not very widespread and little has been actually accomplished in\nor in connection with the public schools. These mentally or intellectually abnormal\nchildren have been very carefully classified by Dr. Philippe and Dr. Boncour in Les\nanomalies meniales chez les ecoliers (1907), ranging from absolute idiots through imbeciles\nand feeble-minded to the intellectually or mentally normal.\n\"The greater part of these, it goes without saying, are quite apart from the point in\nquestion. But somewhere above the feeble-minded we begin to find classes of children\nthat we are likely to encounter in our schools; in other words, children that can profit to\na greater or less extent by the instruction that is given them.\n\"a) These begin with the intellectually or mentally backward children 'whose intellectual powers, taken as a whole, are all present, but which are manifestly inferior to those\nof an ordinary child of the same age. '\n\"6) The mentally unstable is one who cannot be depended upon to give any sustained\nattention for listening, for answering, or for understanding. He is often blamed for inattention orfor poor work, when the difl&culty is something beyond his ordinary control.\n\"c) The asthenic children who are suffering from a lack of vital energy are often\naccused of laziness when the real cause is due to inactivity of psychic function which they\nare not able to overcome. Such present all the signs of nervous fatigue, but it is not due\nso much to effort actually exerted as to congenital incapacity quite anterior to this effort.\n''d) The epileptic.\n\"«) The hysterical child.\n\"/) The subnormal child. The preceding types are relatively easy to distinguish, but\nhere we come across a type that is intermediate between the abnormal and the normal.\nThese are the children that may easily be turned one way or the other; the 'bundle of\nnerves ' children whom care can restore to health or neglect can easily render permanently\n'unstable;' those in whom hysterical tendencies are. but just appearing; in whom the\nasthenia is superficial rather than deep-rooted. Here, too, belong the children afflicted\nwith adenoids.\n\"The pedagogically backward child is an entirely different type. He is in no sense\nof the word mentally abnormal; his backwardness is purely a question of grading and not\nof the intellect; his position is due perhaps to lateness in entering school, perhaps to\nirregular attendance on account of illness, or truancy, perhaps to chronic and consistent\nlaziness from which his teachers have failed to arouse him, perhaps to inability in knowing\nhow to study or to apply himself.\nThe reasons for this backwardness are well-nigh legion.\n\"In Paris the idiots and imbeciles, properly speaking, are confined in hospitals or\nasylums supported by the state, the department, or the city, at Bic^tre, Salpgtrifere,\nVaucluse, etc.\n\"For the feeble-minded and the mentally abnormal children there are special classes\nin private institutions, notably those of Dr. Bourneville, Dr. Langlois, and Dr. Berillon,\nall in the suburbs of the city. On account of the private character of these schools and\nconsequent expense connected therewith, they are available only for children whose parents\nare at least comfortably well-to-do.\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[l^ational\n\n\" For these latter types of children, there are a few classes in public schools, but the\nmovement has as yet made little progress.\n\"The financial question seems to present the chief obstacle. According to M.\nBMorez, director of primary education for the Department of the Seine (i. e., practically\nParis), 'If we establish schools of this class we cannot multiply them so as to have them in\nevery quarter. At the most we can have only one per arrondissement (there are twenty\narrondissements in Paris), and then who would bring the children? Would you require\nthe parents to bring them and come for them ? Would you leave them to find their way\nalone ? In either case would you not increase the repugnance which the parents always\nhave at seeing their children segregated ?'i\n\"At Lyon and Bordeaux special classes have been organized, but I have been able to\nobtain no details of their results.\n\"At Lille, M. Minet, the primary inspector in charge of the city schools, is making\nan effort to do something with the so-called abnormals. When I saw him last month\nhe had only little more than begun. Out of 15,000 pupils in the public primary schools\nof that city, he had only seventeen boys and twenty-one girls that came in that category.\nHe had asked the teachers to ascertain whether or not the parents would consent to have\ntheir children put in special classes. The 'replies that he read me were all favorable.\nThe difficulty here as at Paris is chiefly a question of money.\n\"These isolated examples, however, tend to indicate that there is no very general\ndiscussion of this question except among the specialists nor any very widespread movement to establish such schools.\nOTHER\n\nABNORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIN\n\nPARIS\n\n\"i. The blind are sent to a special institution — Ecole Braille. There is no provision\nfor ordinary weak-sighted children. The theory of eye-strain is still looked upon as an\noculists' fad. So far as my experience in French schoolrooms is concerned (I have probably visited more than two hundred), I have never found a teacher that appeared to give\nthe question a thought, and the light supply is almost invariably inadequate.\n\" 2. The deaf and dumb are received in a special institution at Ansieres.\n\" 3. The idiots, paralytics, and epileptics are cared for in the hospitals at Bicetre and\nVaucluse for the boys, at Bicetre and* Salpgtriere for the girls.\n\"4. The crippled, lame, hump-backed, etc., are found in the ordinary public primary\nschools. Their infirmity is certainly an inconvenience, but if they are endowed with\nnormal intelligence, they can probably follow the regular class work.\nBRUSSELS\n\n\" In order to show you the conditions at Brussels and the way of handling the situation\nthere I am going to give you the result of an interview that I had with Mr. Arthur Nyns,\nthe principal of one of the public primary schools of that city.\n\"About ten years ago the city established a school for backward children. At the\npresent time it has 210 children in eleven classes. Not long after its foundation the\nFlemish part of the population began calling it *L'ecole des fous' (lunatic school), and\nas most parents objected to sending heir children to an institution that bore this stigma,\nthe school has never been very successful from the public point of view. Nevertheless\nprofessionally speaking, its principal, Dr. Demoor, has accomplished a great work for\nthese unfortunate children.\n\"Profiting by this experience (and it seems to me we can also learn wisdom from the\nexperiment), Mr. Nyns in his own school started out on a different tack. Every child\nwho comes to his school is assumed to be normal. Whatever opinion Mr. Nyns may have,\nhe says nothing to his teacher. Before long, the teacher begins to notice things for himself.\nAfter three months the teacher reports that a certain child cannot learn.\n' Laurent, La criminaliti infantile, pp. 147, 148.\n\nSee the way this last objection is met in Brussels.\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n37Q\n\" 'Try again,* says the principal.\n\"After three months more the teacher reports again that the child cannot learn\nThere is then a medical examination conducted by the principal and Dr. Decroly (a\nmedical speciaUst for such diseases; he is paid by the city and has the same duties at one\nother public school). This examination is exhaustive, concerning sight, hearing, smell,\nnervous system, throat (for adenoids), heart, lungs, etc.\n\n\" The principal examines th^ child from the intellectual point of view, using Binet's\ntests (a series of tests specially compiled by M. Binet, professor of psychology at the\nUniversity of Paris). These give remarkably accurate information. Incidentally the\nprincipal sends for the parents and inquires exhaustively into the heredity of the child.\nThe child is then put into one of the classes for backward children. These backward\nchildren fall into two general categories:\n\" I. The pedagogically backward, i. e., those that for one reason or another are three\nyears behind their normal grade for children of their age.\n\n\" 2. The mentally backward, i. e., those that are really mentally deficient.\n\"There are two classes for the former and four for the latter. The equipment of\nthe school does not allow more. If the pedagogically deficient have\nnot been able to catch\nup (they are rarely able to do so) during these two years, they are put in with the mentally\nbackward. The ordinary pedagogically backward children, i. e., those less than three\nyears behind the normal grade, are carried along at the regular rate. The Brussels schools\nare organized in four degrees with two classes or grades in each. The fourth degree corresponds roughly with the first two years of our EngUsh high schools, so that the primary\n(or according to our nomenclature, the primary and grammar) work is covered in a six-year\ncourse.\n\"The pedagogically backward classes are confined to the first and second grades;\nthe mentally backward to the first four grades, in other words covering two-thirds of the\nregular elementary-school course. These mentally backward children, then, can never\ngo beyond the fourth grade, and not all of them can get even to that point.\n27\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNO 7, BRUSSELS\nTotal in\nSchool\n\nNumber classes\n\nHOC\n\nPedagogically\nBackward\n2\n\nMentally\nBackward\n4\n\n\"This gives 45 children in each of the pedagogically backward classes, and 30 in each\nof the mentally backward classes. The latter number is at least twice too large, but they\nare doing the best they can.\n\"This gives a very large proportion of 'backward' — nearly 20 per cent. Other fig90 the children who do not\nures for Belgium run from 12^ per cent, to 18 per cent. Among\ncome to school, the proportion would probably be still greater.\n\nI\n\n\" In Antwerp and Ghent, the only other cities in Belgium where these special classes\nare found, they are likewise supported at municipal expense. In Brussels the program\nin the backward classes is exactly the same as in the regular classes, the teacher accomplishing as much of it as possible. A very important point about the administration of\nthese classes is that there is no special designation for the class; the parents do not know\nthat their children are in such classes. The principal and teachers are the only ones that\nknow which are, the classes in question, and they are under strict instructions not to make\nit known. The result is that the opprobrium connected with the 'Ecole des fous' above\nreferred to has been entirely avoided. This is practically necessary, for the educational\nauthorities are afraid to have the question openly discussed\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n38o\n\n[National\n67\n\n\"The following table gives the figures up to March 27, 1908, for the schools of Brussels,\nAntwerp, and Ghent:\nSchool\n\nBoysSchool\n—\nSchool\nSchool\nSchool\n\nNo.\nNo.\nNo.\nNo.\n\nPupils\n\nClasses\n6\n3\n\n7 (Mr. Nyns's, above)\n10\n14 (so-called Ecole des fous)\n18\n\n13\n\n210\n\n2\nII\n\nTotal.\n\n23\n213\n\n5\n3\nS\n\nSchool No. 3\nGirls—\nSchool No. 8\nSchool No. 16\n\n66\n\nTotal\n\n578\nQi\n\nAntwerp Schools\nGhent Schools\n\n126\n797\n\n3\n\n60\n\n\"I have thought it worthwhile to add an adaptation from Rouma, UEtat de I'enseignement special pour enfarUs arrieres aux Pays-Bas, on the situation in The Hague.\nSPECIAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nFOR\n\nBACKWARD\n\nCHILDREN\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nHAGXTEi\n\n52\n\nA. — Historical\n\"In 1902 the municipal authorities established an experimental class in connection\nwith an ordinary school. It was placed imder the direction of Mr. Schreuder, a man who\nhad already had some experience of a similar nature.\n\"The results were so satisfactory that in 1903 the authorities established a second\nclass, and in 1904 two new classes were added to those already in existence. A special\nbuilding was fitted up, and the four classes were transferred there, thus forming a separate\nschool.\n\" Each year another class will be added until there are six graded classes and an observation class.\n\"At Scheveningen there is also a class which forms a part of the school at The Hague.\nA second class will shortly be established there.\nB. — Pupils.\n\nRecruitment\n\n\"Every year the municipal authorities send the directors of the primary schools a\nnotice inviting them to send the abnormal children enrolled with them up for a medicopedagogical examination.\n\"The school directors that have any such abnormal children first send for the parents\nin order to explain the situation and to show them the advantages to be gained by transferring their children to the special school. After the parents have authorized the medical\nexamination of their children, the school director fills out the accompanying blank and\nsends it with the child to the director of the school for the backward children.\nCOMMUNE\n\nOF THE\n\nHAGUE\n\nInstruction of backward children — Questionnaire\nInformation about\nAddress\nSchool\n\n, bom the\n,\n\nat\n\n» Chiefly a translation from George? Rouma, VEtat de Venseignement spicial pour enfants arrUris aux\nPays-Bas (1006).\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nName of father:\nBusiness of father:\nin the\nRanked the\nclass (\ndegree,\nclass.\nin the\nSince\nFormer schools attended :\nIs the child troublesome or well behaved ?\nIs it difficult to attract and to hold his attention ?\nIs he passionate or impulsive ?\nWhat is the general character ?\nHas he any moral defects ?\nHow much does he know of arithmetic ?\nWhat reading book is he using ?\nCan he learn to recite from memory a four line stanza ?\nCan he learn a tune by hearing it ?\nHow does he behave himself during free hand drawing ?\nDoes he recognize common objects from drawings ?\nHas he any difficulty of speech ?\nHow is his personal cleanUness ?\nHow are his bowels ?\nIs he compelled to urinate frequently ?\nHas he any vicious habits ?\nIs he regular in attendance ?\nHave you any particular information concerning his family?\nFurther information that might throw light upon the child:\n\nyear)\n\n(Signature of the school principal)\nThe examination is conducted by a physician (a specialist) and by the director of the\nspecial school.\nThey follow the accompanying blank:\nCOMMUNE\n\nName\nBorn the\nAddress\nReligion\n\nOF THE\n\nHAGUE\n\nInstrtiction of backward children — Examination\nat\n\nI. Heredity and antecedents:\n1. Father (name, age, birth-place, occupation)\n2. Mother (name, age, birth-place, occupation)\n3. Information about the parents (sickness, use of alcohol, poverty, misdeeds)\n4. Similar information about the relations in direct line.\n5. Similar information about the relations in collateral line.\n6. Number of brothers and sisters living ?\nCause of death in each case ?\n7. Number of brothers and sisters dead ?\n8. What is the place of this child in the family ?\n9. State of the mother's health during pregnancy ?\nI o. Birth\nII. First years:\na) Teeth\nb) Walking\nc) Talking\nb) At what age did he begin to be clean about his person ?\ne) Sicknesses.\n\n381\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nII. Present conditions:\n12. General impression\n13. Physical condition:\n\n~\nt\nHeigh\nEyes\nMovements of the eyes\nPosition of the ears\nHead\nFace\nNose\nMouth, and lips\nPalate\nTeeth\n14. Mental condition:\na) Sight (colors)\nli) Hearing (music)\nc) Muscular sensations:\nCan he stretch his hands out in front of him and hold them still ?\nCan he stand still with his feet together ?\nCan he keep his eyes closed ?\nCan he walk forward and backward with his eyes closed ?\nCan he put a key in the lock ?\nCan he cut along a line ?\nIII. Representations and ideas:\n15. Representations of form\n16. Representations of volume\n17. Representations of number\n18. Representations of time\n19. Ideas of the value of money\n20. Ideas of family relations\nAssociation and reproduction\n21. Illusion of weight\n22. Tell something that happened\n23. Arithmetic\n24. Reading\n25. Copying\n26. Dictation\n27. Draw a given figure from memory\n28. Memory (visual, auditory, motor)\n29. Association of ideas\n30. Imagination\nIV. Sentimental life:\n31. Does he have fits of temper?\n32. Disposition\nIs he easily aroused ?\nIs he stubborn ?\nIs he timid ?\n33. Does he love his family and his comrades ?\n34. Does he like animals and little children ?\n35. What is his idea of duty ?\n36. What is his idea of repentance?\n\n[National\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouqlUJ'\n\nFKOVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n383\n\n37. Sexual sensations ?\nHow is he during sleep ?\n38. Can he dress and undress himself ?\n39- Can he go on an errand ?\n.\n\n40\n41.\nHas he any difficulty of speech?\n42. What is the opinion of the parents about their child ?\n\n\"Not all the children thus examined are admitted to the school. Idiots and serious\ncases that give little promise of being benefited by the school are rejected and sent away\nto an institution for idiots.\n\n\"From those that are left, those are selected who are most likely to profit by the\nspecial education enough to take care of themselves when forced to make their own way\nin the world. The choice is made without any regard to sex. At the most, sixteen children are selected to form the new class. If vacancies occur during the course of the year\nnew applicants may be admitted, but the maximum number, sixteen per class, is never\nexceeded. The children that are admitted to the special school are kept under careful\nobservation for the first six months. During this period, the teacher may propose that the\nchildren return to the ordinary schools if he judges them too little aflBicted to be restricted\nto the special instruction found in his school.\n\"No children are admitted to the special school unless they have spent at least one\nyear in an ordinary school. The number of abnormal children in the schools of The\nHague is estimated at about 200.\n/\nC . — Instruction.\n\"General considerations. — The special school at The Hague at the present time (i.e.,\n1906) is composed of four classes, each one of sixteen children (a dozen boys and five or\nsix girls).\n\"The two lowest classes, formed in 1904, are parallel. The class la is composed of\napathetic and lazy children, slow of mind, who must be constantly spurred on to work.\nThe class lb is composed of excitable, unruly children, those who must be constantly\nrestrained and whose surplus activity must be allowed to flow off in other channels than\nare ordinarily afforded by school work.\n\"The program of work is arranged by the director in co-operation with the teachers.\nIt is essentially variable, and it depends upon the needs of the children. Much attention\nis given to the gifts and occupations of Froebel and to manual work in general, to drawing,\npractical arithmetic, language work, and to physical training. (See the program for the\nnumerous lessons of gymnastics and the three recreations per day with a relatively small\nnumber of hours of class work.)\n\"The time table, which is reproduced below, is arranged so as to permit a free interchange of pupils in certain subjects, especially in arithmetic and reading. It helps those\nchildren who are very much behind or those who are very much ahead. This latter case\nis the more rare, although the director cited the instance of a child in class II who had\nhis reading with the pupils in Class III. The opportunity of having part work in the\nhigher class seemed to spur him on to greater efforts and two months later he also had his\narithmetic with the pupils of Class III. He was finally promoted in every subject, and he\nwas able to keep up with the work. This system has the further advantage of avoiding all\n\"doubling.\" All the pupils must be promoted. They are never kept back except for\nthose subjects in which they are behind. In general they are stimulated by pride, and\nthey accomplish wonders.\n\" Each teacher keeps his pupils thruout the entire course of their instruction, which\nlasts for eight years. It is easy to see what a wonderful influence the teacher can have\nover his pupils under these conditions, and the question of discipline is thus easily solved.\n\"His perfect knowledge of the character of his children gives the teacher a great\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNAl^IONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmoral influence over them. On the other hand, he is able to come into very close relations\nwith the parents of his pupils and to exercise over them also a good influence which continues thruout the school life of their children.\n\" (From the text, it is evident that all the work is very closely correlated.)\n\" Each class has a class notebook. A certain number of pages are reserved for each\nchild, and here is also transcribed the information furnished by the two questionnaires\nabove referred to. The teacher enters daily notes on the character, the moral tendencies,\nand the intellectual condition of each pupil.\n\"Baths. — On the authorization of their parents, the children are taken for a shower\nbath once a week. These baths are paid for by a charitable society. Six or seven of the\nupper class children take advantage of these free\nbaths.\nD.—\n\"School kitchen. — Every day in winter, the poor children receive a mid-day meal consisting ofsoup, vegetables, potatoes, and meat. About 25 per cent, of the children share in\nthis, a work supported by a private organization.\n\"Shoes and clothing are likewise distributed by charitable societies.\n\"Fresh-air society (Colonie scolaire). — A society has been formed to collect money\nin order to send the backward children to the sea shore for from three to five weeks. In\n1904, the first group of eight children was sent to a children's boarding-house on the\nZuyder Zee for three weeks. The results of this first colony were so satisfactory that an\nactive propaganda has since been carried on in order to permit a still greater number of\nchildren to enjoy the benefits of the school colony and to spend a longer time at the sea shore,\n\" This same society is also interested in the distribution of milk to poorly nourished\nchildren.\n\"Placing children when they leave school. — ^When the first group of children finishes\nthe course (this will occur in 1908), it is proposed to give each child a godfather, who will\nfollow him and guide him through life. The godfathers are to be chosen from the members\nof the Fresh-Air Society.\nE. — Teaching Force\n\"The personnel of this special school is chosen -from the regular teaching force. In\norder to be eligible for this appointment, the teacher (it is evidently a man) must hold the\nprincipal's certificate, awarded on examination after two years of actual teaching. He\nmust know how to draw, and sing, and be competent to give instruction in manual\ntraining.\n\"The preference is furthermore given to those that know the foreign languages. The\nteachers are first appointed on trial for five months. If successful, they receive an additional salary of 200 gulden (about $80.00) per year. There is a definite attempt being\nmade to establish a special course for the training of these teachers.\n\"Every two weeks the director holds a teachers' meeting to discuss modifications in\nthe school program.\n\" The teachers also form a Study Club in two sections of three members each. Their\nobject is the study and discussion of books, pamphlets, etc., in regard to special education\nof this kind.\n\"Doctor. — The duty of the physician does not go beyond the medical examination of\nthe children.\nHe takes no part in the instruction, and he receives no salary.\n\"Saturday afternoon and Wednesday afternoon are half holidays.\"\nDISCUSSION\nE. R. Johnstone, Vineland, N. J.— The most encouraging thing to us who are\nengaged in the work of training mentally deficient children, is the report of this committee.\nTeachers and superintendents do not realize the extent of the problem involved in the\ndiscovery, treatment and training of the \"Special\" Child.\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n385\n\nIt has been suggested that there are a large number of children in the public schools\nwho really should be in institutions. The reason they are not there is largely because of\nthis lack of knowledge on the part of public school men and women. We who have studied\nthe problem have agreed to the statement that one in every five hundred of the population\nis actually feeble-minded, and know that we are making a conservative statement. This\nreport states that one in ten of the school children needs a specialist's attention. The\nchairman has stated that 2 per cent, are feeble-minded. It has been my good fortune to\nvisit a great many of the special classes in this country, and, without exception, I have\nfound a large number of feeble-minded children who were supposed to be merely backward, but the full extent of their defect is not recognized. The advisable thing is for this\ncommittee to go right on with its investigations with a larger appropriation. I would suggest that special inquiry as to the number of these children be made first of all.\nCo-operation on the part of the physician and teacher is greatly needed. Altho\nspecial classes have been in existence in Europe for many years, they are accomplishing\nbut little and working at cross-purposes because the physician and teacher do not work in\nharmony. The outlook in our own country is better, but close co-operation of these two,\nwhich will lead to study and work by the physchologist, is necessary. Up until the present,\nthe medical inspector, excepting those who are doing unusually good work, has confined\nhimself to looking for contagious diseases, filth, etc. And many are not sufficiently versed\nto recognize mental deficiency and remediable defects.\nThe need of teachers in this \"special\" work is great indeed, and I would urge upon\nthose of you who are in charge of Normal schools to have lectures given touching upon the\ncause, diagnosis, and prognosis of mental deficiency. The public institution must be a\nlaboratory for public-school classes, for careful studies of abnormal children will undoubtedly lead to radical changes in the course of study, at least for primary children. The\nNational Association for the Study of the Feeble-minded, which met last week, passed\nan almost unanimous resolution to the effect that superintendents would receive public\nschool teachers into their institutions for a period of one year and give them the best training possible with the idea of fitting them for work in the special classes.\nThe one important thing in all of this discussion however is that the normal child is\nsuffering. Whenever a subnormal child is found in the regular classes there is no doubt\nwhatever that the teacher of a class of forty children gives much more than one-fortieth of\nher time to the backward child, to the great disadvantage of the other thirty-nine, and\nwithout particularly helping the one. If the parents of the normal children realized the\ngreat loss to their children, due to the presence of the backward child, they would be\nthe first to object.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\nIN SCHOOLS FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES\n\nTo the National Council 0} Education oj the National Education Association:\nThe undersigned Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural\nCommunities, appointed by the President of the National Council of Education, by direction of the Council, July 11, 1907, has the honor to submit the\nfollowing report on the subject assigned for its consideration.\n\nr\n\nHISTORICAL\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nThis committee, as originally constituted by action of the Council in 1903,\nconsisted of five members. The first report was submitted in 1905. This\nreport was published in pamphlet form as one of the special committee reports\nA second report was submitted at\nof the National Educational Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe Los Angeles meeting in 1907, and was published in the volume of Proceedings of the Association for that year.\nIn presenting this report of progress of the committee in its investigations,\nthe chairman recommended that a new committee be appointed to continue\ninvestigations on this subject and report to the Council from time to time.\nThe Council Committee on Investigations and Appropriations reported\nthe following recommendation to the Council, July 11, 1907:\nThat the sum of five hundred dollars ($500.00), or so much thereof as may be necessary, be appropriated for the use of the Committee on Industrial Education for Rural\nSchools, and that the present committee of five be reducefl to three, to be appointed by\nthe President of the Council.\n\nThe recommendation was adopted by the Council and the appropriation\nwas made by action of the Board of Directors of the National Education\nAssociation, July 12, 1907. The present committee was subsequently appointed bythe President of the Council.\nThe first report, made by the committee in 1905, presented an argument for industrial education as a distinct feature of work in schools adapted\nto the needs of rural communities, and set forth the scope and character of the\nwork adapted to the needs of these communities. It considered two types of\nelementary schools: First, the one-teacher district school; second, the consolidated district school carrying no high-school work.\nOf the secondary schools adapted to rural communities, four types were\nconsidered: First, the consolidated school offering one or more years of highschool work; second, the rural high school of the county, township, or smaller\ndistrict type; third, the village high school with a large percentage of attendance from the country; fourth, the agricultural high school, distinctively\nindustrial in type, but not eliminating entirely the academic phases of instruction.\nThe report set forth the conditions under which these classes of schools\nwere then being administered, and undertook to indicate the possibilities in the\nway of industrial education in each of them and the conditions under which\nthese possibilities might be realized. A scheme of nature-study for the first\nfive years of school work, and an outline of a course in agriculture for the\nsixth, seventh, and eighth years were given, and the problem of how to make\na place for industrial education in existing rural schools was discussed. An\nargument was presented, designed to show the importance of secondary schools\nof agriculture and domestic economy, in presenting more advanced lines of\nwork than can be given in the elementary schools, in setting standards for the\naid of the elementary schools, and in organizing the requisite body of knowledge\nfor instructional purposes.\nThe most important agencies co-operating with the rural schools in the\nfield of industrial education were named, and the character of their activities\nwas outlined. The preparation of teachers of industrial subjects in the various\ntypes of rural schools was considered, showing the present lack of preparation\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n387\n\nfor this work on the part of the great body of teachers in these schools, the lack\nof means for giving the needed special preparation, and the agencies through\nwhich it might be secured.\nFour courses of study were given:\n1. That of the Dunn County School of Agriculture and Domestic Economy in Wisconsin, setting forth what may be regarded as a typical course of study for the county\nschool of agriculture, secondary in type.\n2. The course of study as administered in the agricuhural high school connected\nwith the Minnesota College of Agriculture and representing a type of state schools of\nagriculture of the secondary class.\n3. An articulated industrial course arranged for consolidated rural schools, agricultural high schools, and agricultural colleges.\n4. The syllabus of the elementary course in agriculture issued by the United States\nDepartment of Agriculture.\n\nTwelve conclusions of the committee were incorporated in the report.\nThese conclusions are here given.\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe general conclusions reached by the committee may be summed up as follows:\nFirst, that in existing one-room district schools a limited amount of nature-study and\nwork in the elements of agriculture, and handwork for both boys and girls may be undertaken; that in view of the quality of the teaching force available for these schools, the\nimmaturity of the greater number of the pupils, the crowded condition of the program, and\nthe lack of adequate supervision, but httle can be expected in the way of industrial education in this class of schools; but where enthusiastic teachers qualified for the work, and\npupils of sufficient maturity are brought together in the same school, something worth\nwhile may be accomplished, and that the effort for such accomplishment should certainly\nbe made.\nSecond, that in the consolidated school having at least four teachers, one of whom\nis prepared to teach the elements of agriculture and manual training, and another domestic\nscience, very much more in the field of industrial education may be attempted than in the\none-room school, and with far better results. The committee beUeves this to be true,\nbecause in such schools teachers may be secured with far better qualifications than are\npossessed by most of the teachers in the one-room schools, and because in many cases\npupils will remain for one or more years after completing the elementary school course,\nduring which time the work in industrial education may be continued. In the consolidated school district, in most cases, new buildings must be erected. At small expense\nrooms may be provided for manual training and domestic science work, and a plot of\nland as a part of the school grounds set apart for illustrative and experimental work in\nagriculture. While the committee does not wish to enter into any argument in favor of\nconsolidated schools for other reasons than for the faciUties they may afford for industrial\neducation, it wishes to indorse most heartily that portion of the report of the Committee\nof Twelve on Rural Schools concerning the advantages of the consolidated school.\nThird, that in the township or other distinctively rural high school, and in the village\nhigh school attended by a considerable number of pupils from the country, a modification\nof courses of study should be made which shall provide for the introduction of work,\nespecially in the elements of agriculture and domestic science, and such further hnes of\nindustrial education as local conditions may make feasible. To make this work a success,\nteachers must be secured who have made special preparation for it. For such schools a\ntextbook treating botany from an agricultural and economic standpoint is greatly needed.\nFourth, that while the agricultural or industrial high school is found in but few local-\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nities, the character of the work already done in the existing schools of this class, the interest\nthey awaken, and the hearty support they receive from the agricultural communities maintaining them, the history of these schools in foreign countries, the value of their work\nboth for disciplinary and practical purposes, all combine to present the strongest reasons\nfor the organization of schools of this type in large numbers, in agricultural communities. So thoroly is the committee convinced of the importance of industrial education\nin rural communities and what is essential for making this education effective, that in\ntheir opinion the establishment of secondary schools, distinctively industrial in their character and of the type mentioned, is an absolute necessity for the proper development and\norganization of the rural school system.\nFifth, that the agricultural colleges and experiment stations have already done much\nin the formulation of a body of knowledge essential in the field of industrial education, but\nmore yet remains to be done in putting this body of knowledge into available form for\nuse in elementary and secondary schools; and that effort in this direction should be made\na prominent feature in the work of the agricultural colleges of the country.\nSixth, that the mastery of such parts of this rapidly developing body of knowledge\nas is within the capabilities of elementary and secondary school pupils furnishes a mental\ntraining unsurpassed in extent and quality by the mastery of any other body of knowledge\nnow regarded as essential in our common school courses and requiring an equal amount\nof time; and that for utility value it is not equalled by any other body of knowledge at\npresent acquired thru the expenditure of the same amount of time and effort.\nSeventh, that for the improvement of educational conditions in rural communities, the\npeople in those communities must be educated to see and appreciate the possibilities\nand value of industrial education; that the value of this kind of education in increasing the\nproductive capacity of those being educated is the argument which appeals most strongly\nto the rural population. Therefore, in the beginnings of industrial education in any\ncommunity, immediate, practical results that will appeal directly to the interests of the\npeople who support and maintain the schools must be made prominent by those concerned\nwith its development.\nEighth, that the courses of study in rural schools should be framed with reference to\nmeeting the needs of the children in those communities, and not with reference to\npreparing a small percentage of these children to enter higher schools whose courses of\nstudy are formulated, not to meet the needs of the great majority of those who attend\nthem, but to prepare the remaining small minority to enter some still higher school.\nNinth, that it is possible and desirable so to organize the rural school system as to\npresent an articulated series of schools from the elementary school to and including the\nagricultural college, in which the work at every stage shall be planned and administered\nwith reference to the needs of the pupils at that stage without the elimination of any valuable\nfeature in the present school system, and without abridging in any way the opportunities\nfor advancement of such pupils as wish to enter other schools of secondary or higher grades.\nTenth, that in industrial education, as in every other form, the success of the work\ndepends upon the quality of the teaching; and that therefore, since effort for industrial\neducation in elementary and secondary schools is comparatively recent and teachers have\nnot prepared themselves in this field, special opportunities and inducements must be\noffered to the teaching force to make the necessary preparation.\nEleventh, that the organization of boys' and girls' clubs for definite industrial work\noutside the school, of clubs of farmers and of farmers' wives for the purpose of carrying\non systematic reading courses in agriculture and household affairs, should be undertaken\nthru the co-operative effort of county and state superintendents and agricultural high\nschools and colleges, for the purpose of arousing a general interest in rural communities\nin the subject of industrial education. That the Patrons of Husbandry and farmers'\ninstitutes are potent forces in creating a demand for the introduction of the industrial phase\nof t'ducation into the rural school system, and that their influence can be made still more\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n389\n\neffective by the establishment of working relations between their ofl&cers and workers and\nthe school authorities.\nTwelfth, that when teachers are unprepared to give instruction in the elements of\nagriculture and other phases of industrial effort, the work is Ukely to result in failure; that,\nunder existing conditions and under conditions Ukely to exist for a long time to come,\ncomparatively few teachers in the country schools will be prepared for this work. Therefore, any law making mandatory the teaching of the elements of agriculture, manual\ntraining, or domestic science in the entire body of rural schools within a state is unwise,\nin that the lack of correct information and consequent faulty teaching on the part of the\ngreat mass of country school teachers will tend to bring the whole subject into disrepute\nand cause a reaction which will postpone the proper development of industrial education.\nBut while the committee advises against making mandatory the teaching of these subjects,\nit advises just as strongly that every effort be made for the proper preparation of country\nschool teachers to begin this instruction, and that every encouragement and inducement be\noffered those prepared to undertake it, to introduce and carry it on in the schools under\ntheir charge.\n\nThe second report, made in 1907, was an individual report made by two\nmembers of the committee rather than a committee report. This was due to\nthe fact that during the year 1906, in which year no meeting of the Association\nwas held, three members of the committee were called to new fields of work,\ndemanding their full time and energy, and making it impossible for them to\ndevote needed time to the work of the committee.\nIn this report there was presented a discussion of the general problem of\nindustrial education in rural schools, setting forth the views of Dr. L. H.\nBailey, a member of the committee. He also presented a summary of what is\nbeing attempted in the way of industrial education in rural communities in\nvarious parts of the country, especially in New England, New Jersey, and\nNew York; and the experiences of individual teachers in different parts of the\ncountry in different types of schools. The chairman of the committee discussed the problem of the preparation of teachers of industrial work in rural\nschools.\nIn 1905 the committee was unable to find that in any of the consolidated\nrural schools there was anything being accomplished in the way of industrial\neducation worthy of the name. In a few of the lairal high schools a limited\namount of textbook work in the elements of agriculture had been introduced, as\n\nI\n\nan optional study in most cases, and covering but a few weeks* work. The\ntypical college preparatory course, or a cross-section of it, was the prevailing\ntype in these schools ; the teachers were selected with reference to their ability\nto handle the traditional history, mathematics, language, and science work,\nrather than for any knowledge of, or interest in, the industrial phases of education appropriate for this class of schools. Such work as was done in agriculture was given as an incidental, permitted because of the growing demand\nfor industrial education, and as interfering least with the traditional courses,\nwhile furnishing an excuse for the claim that this new demand was recognized\nand\nand being met by the school authorities. In those cases where the school\nauthorities recognized the importance of industrial education for the country\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "39©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nboy and girl, and were really anxious to make provision for it, they found it\nimpossible to organize and carry on the work with any high degree of efficiency\nbecause of the lack of teachers having the proper preparation for it.\nSince that report was made, there has been a continued and growing\nagitation in all parts of the country for the development of industrial education.\nThis agitation and discussion deepened the interest in this subject among the\nfarming population and among the school officials and teachers in rural communities. More schools in these communities are introducing instruction in\nagriculture. Improvement in the methods and scope of the instruction is\nslowly being made. Normal schools and other agencies for the training of\nteachers for carr)dng on this work are extending and strengthening their\ncourses of instruction in this field, and courses of study in the rural high\nschools are receiving such modifications as to give a larger place and more\ntime for this work. The gain has been in an extension of interest in, and a\ngrowing realization of the importance of this phase of educational effort, rather\nthan in concrete, effective results in many schools. These results will come\nlater.\nAt the present time there are more than six hundred consolidated rural\nschools in the United States. From correspondence with state superintendents\nand many other school officials, the committee has been forced to the conclusion\nthat in practically all of these schools the condition is the same as in the rural\nhigh schools ; as yet little has been done to modify the ideals or the teaching in\nthese schools for effectiveness on the industrial side of education. The\nenvironment of these schools and the homogeneous character of the student\nbody, coming as it does from the country, seem to make the demand imperative for this work, and to furnish conditions favorable for it within somewhat\nnarrow limits. The lack of initiative on the part of teachers and school\nboards, the force of established custom in school work, the lack of enthusiastic teachers competent to give the proper instruction, and of funds to employ\nthem when available, and the lack of equipment, have been the deterring\ncauses in this, as in other fields of educational uplift.\nThe Bureau of Education early this year published a bulletin entitled,\nAgricultural Education, Including Nature-Study and School Gardens. This\nbulletin was prepared by Ralph Jewell, fellow of Clark University, and presents an exhaustive summary of what is being attempted in this and other\ncountries in the organization of agricultural education. It is probably the\nmost complete study of the subject yet published. Its statements are based\non a careful investigation of published reports, and on reports from individuals\ninterested in agricultural education, and secured through an extensive correspondence. The completeness with which the subject is treated in this bulletin makes it entirely unnecessary for your committee to attempt to cover this\nfield.\nIn view of the timely appearance of this bulletin and of the field covered in\nthe two reports already made by your committee, and of the numerous calls\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nmade upon the committee for information of what is actually being done in\nschools where this work has been undertaken, it was thought best to limit the\nscope of the present report to a presentation of what is being done in schools\nrepresenting four different types of organization, as showing the possibilities\nin other schools of these types, and the conditions under which these possi- 391\nbilities may become actualities.\nThe schools selected upon which to report were the Waterford High School,\nat Waterford, Pennsylvania, the Cecil County High School, at Calvert, Maryland, the John Swaney Consolidated School, in Magnolia Township, Putnam\nCounty, Illinois, and the congressional district agricultural schools located\nat Americus, and Monroe, Georgia.\nThese particular schools were chosen after an extended correspondence for\nthe purpose of determining what schools of a given type would furnish the most\nprofitable field for study. It is probable that there are other schools in each\nclass which might have been studied with equal advantage, and it is not the\nintention of the committee to claim that any one of these schools is the best of\nits class.\nD. J. Crosby, expert in agricultural education in the United States Department of Agriculture, was invited by the committee to investigate the work of\nthe Waterford and Calvert schools and to prepare a report of his investigations\nfor the use of the committee.\nThis special report set forth so fully the conditions under which the agricultural work in the two schools is being carried on, and the character of the\nwork, that it is submitted without material modification.\n\nf\nI\n\nYour committee desires to express its appreciation of Mr. Crosby's interest\nin its work, of the value of his report, and of his kindness in preparing it,\nespecially as he declined to accept payment for his services.\nAt the request of the other members of the committee, Mr. O. J. Kern\npersonally investigated the consolidated schools and the congressional district\nschools, and the result of his investigations is submitted as a special report.\nThe Waterford school was chosen for investigation because it was one of\nthe first high schools in the country to try the experiment of introducing instruction in agriculture and employing an agricultural-college graduate to give this\ninstruction, and was typical of the ordinary village high school, and of the\ntownship high school found in some states. The agricultural course, as at\npresent administered, carries the study of field, orchard, and garden crops\nthrough one year; plant life one year; agricultural chemistry one year;\nsoil physics one term, and animal husbandry two terms; the entire work in\nagriculture requiring a trifle more than one-fifth of the whole time devoted\nto recitations.\nThe agricultural course is a modification of the scientific course offered in\nthe school. This modification consists in the omission of one term's work in\neach of the following subjects: English history. United States history, physical\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n392\n\nbranches; one term's elective work in physical geography, bookkeeping,\ncommercial law, and commercial geography; and the addition of the agricultural subjects named above. The modification of the course as shown in\nthis school is doubtless the same in nature as is likely to be made in most\nhigh schools at the outset of this experiment in introducing industrial education.\nHere and there will be found a school board and principal radical enough to\nmake more marked modification in the high-school course, especially in reducing\nthe total amount of work required. The county and state secondary schools\ndistinctively devoted to industrial education will furnish the suggestions for the\nmodification of courses in the high schools, and in this respect they play a very\nimportant part in the development of the movement for industrial education\nthrough the rural high schools.\nThe supervision of the outlying district schools of the township by the\nprincipal of this high school is a feature unknown in many states, and impossible in most of them without special legislation. It is a very suggestive\narrangement, however, and where feasible would seem to be a desirable one,\nespecially if the principal of the high school had the proper training for giving\nthe instruction in agriculture in the high school and for guiding and directing\nthe work of the teachers in the rural schools in their nature-study exercises and\ninstruction in the elements of agriculture.\nThe fact that during the four years the course has been organized six different teachers have been employed to give the instruction in agriculture brings\nout one of the serious problems connected with the carrying on of this work in\nthe small high school. The special report shows that these teachers were required to teach not only agriculture but a number of other high-school subjects.\nTo do both lines of work well they must be persons who have had a breadth\nof training not found in the case of the ordinary high-school teacher, and with\nthis preparation they can command a salary very much in excess of what has\nbeen paid these teachers in the Waterford school.\nAs the principal of a school is always the best-paid teacher in it, it would\nseem that the solution suggested in connection with this school is the wise one ;\nviz., that the man selected as principal shall be one who has had special training fitting him to give instruction in agriculture in a satisfactory manner. It is\nequally evident that he must have had such instruction and training as will fit\nhim for teaching other subjects he must carry in the school.\nThere is another decided advantage in this arrangement. The principal\nof a high school who has had good training in scientific agriculture and its\napplications is one likely to realize the value of this work and to be in sympathy\nwith it and able to make the most of it. He will see that, if introduced into the\nschool, it is given the time and attention necessary to do it in a satisfactory\nmanner, and he will be more likely to find a place for it without overcrowding\nthe students, than the principal who has never had such training and who does\nnot appreciate the importance of this phase of education.\nThe Calvert school in Cecil County, Maryland, is a type somewhat unusual\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n393\n\nas yet, in that it was organized as a county high school with the avowed purpose\nof making instruction in agriculture a distinct feature of the school. The\ncourse of study indicates that nearly two-fifths of the school time for both boys\nand girls is devoted to agricultural subjects and related laboratory and fieldwork, while the remaining portion of the time is given to the regular academic\nwork found in most high schools.\nThis school in its purpose and plan of organization stands between the\nordinary high school with the college preparatory courses and the Wisconsin\nand Michigan county schools of agriculture and domestic economy. In the\nlatter, more than one-half of the class work for the boys is given to agriculture\nand handwork in wood and iron, and the same amount of time is given the\ngirls for work in the domestic arts; the remaining time being devoted to such\nof the ordinary high-school subjects as seem best suited to the needs of the\nstudents.\nWisdom was shown by the organizers of this school in giving a preparatory\ncourse, thus offering the opportunities of the school to a larger number of pupils,\ninviting their attendance, and arousing their interest in completing the full\ncourse.\nIt is probable that in the development of the work in this school provision\nwill be made for substituting instruction in the household arts for the girls, in\nplace of a considerable portion of the work in agriculture they are now required\nto take, and that for the boys some instruction and training may be offered in\nthe use of farm tools and machines.\nThe suggestion, that by consolidating a number of schools immediately\ncontiguous to Calvert into a central school in connection with the high school,\nthe per capita cost of instruction for pupils in the high school could be lowered,\nmay be true because of peculiar conditions now existing in these outlying\nschools and in the county school. In most cases it is doubtful if such a lowering of cost of high-school instruction would result from consolidation unless\nthe per capita rate were made to include all the pupils in the high-school and\nelementary grades. A comparison of the cost of the elementary grades in the\nconsolidated school with the cost of the several outlying schools before\nconsolidation will, in most cases, show an increase in the total expenditure\natfer consolidation has been effected. Consolidation under ordinary\nconditions will in no way lessen the cost of instruction in the existing high\nschool, unless it serves to increase the attendance in the high school when\nit is too small to occupy fully the time of all the teachers who must be\nemployed.\nThere seems to be no way of escaping the conclusion that practical and\neffective industrial education in any type of school adapted to -the needs of\nrural communities will make such school more expensive than those now found\nin these communities and which do not offer opportunity for any kind of\nindustrial education.\nThe John Swaney Consolidated School is a type of the consolidated country\n\nb\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nschool comprising an area less than an entire township. It was selected for\nthe purpose of this report as affording the best illustration of splendid public\nsentiment, private liberality, and wise organization combined, that the\ncommittee was able to find in any consolidated district in the United\nStates.\nIn the opinion of the committee the work being done at this school is very\nsuggestive: first, as to the conditions and sentiment which must exist in a\ncommunity in order to secure the necessary funds for the establishment and\nmaintenance of such a school; and second, that the success of the work in any\nschool of this kind, no matter how adequate its equipment, must depend upon\nthe quality of the teaching force. In any community where these conditions\nand sentiment can be developed, the consolidated school odfers great opportunities for the development of industrial education in rural communities.\nBut it is evident that this work cannot be carried on on a scale commensurate\nwith the needs of the pupils, without a much larger expenditure of money for\nthe maintenance of the school than is now common.\nThe congressional-district agricultural schools of Georgia are a new type\nof schools, presenting many new and interesting problems not heretofore considered in this country. For this reason it seemed important to present the\nplan of organization, purposes, and scope of work contemplated in them, as\nwell as some account of what they are now doing. They have been established\nso recently and under such new and unusual conditions that the report of what\nis being done > necessarily deals with the preliminary work required in the\norganization of a school of this -type, where so much of the outside work,\nusually done before a school is opened, is done by students after entering the\nv:hool.\nThe suggestions made in the report as to the character of the instruction\nand the amount of work required upon the farm in connection with the schools\nare not intended in any way as criticisms, but are designed to call attention to\nthe difficulties presented in the organization of such schools under conditions\nwhich exist. It is already apparent that further provision in the way of funds\nmust be made for carrying on these schools successfully. The same problem\nof adequate equipment and competent and sufficient teaching force is presented\nhere as in the other schools considered. The spirit of the New South is\nwarrant for the belief that the legislature of Georgia will realize the necessities\nof the schools and will as rapidly as possible increase the fund for their maintenance. The surest way for these schools to command the support of the\npeople and of their representatives in the legislature is. to give such practical\ninstruction and training to the young people attending them as will soonest\nshow results upon the farms in the districts where the schools are located.\nNo report is made of the work being done in the one-room rural schools.\nCorrespondence with school officials indicates a great interest in this subject,\nand an increase in the agencies offered for giving some preparation to the ^\nteachers of these schools for intelligent work in the industrial field. Work in\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n395\n\nthis type of schools, of one sort or another, is being undertaken in most of the\nagricultural states. Wherever success is being secured, it is due to the preparation and personality of the teacher. It must not be forgotten that experiments\ncarried on here and there in school gardening, nature-study, and elementary\nagriculture are awakening a general interest in this subject, but at the same\ntime are demonstrating the total inadequacy of this work in the district school\nwith one teacher, to meet the needs of the children in rural communities. The\ncommittee cannot escape the conviction that adequate facilities for meeting\nthe increasing demand for industrial education must come through schools of\nsecondary type, and that it is far easier at the present time to secure this instruction inadequate form in schools which are distinctively organized for this special\nwork. As has already been set forth in the first report, such schools will show\nthe possibilities of work in the industrial field. They will call into the fieM\nteachers who are prepared to carry it on intelligently. They will encourage\nthose who have already begun this work in existing schools, and incite other\nschools to introduce it. They will in time organize matter for instruction in\nfar better form than it exists today, and they will serve materially to aid the\nordinary high school in adjusting its work, through the experience of the\nspecial school, to meet the needs of the community it serves. In most states\nlegislation is needed for the organization of this type of school, but the demand\nfor it is coming from the farming population backed by arguments so strong\nthat legislatures are likely to heed. For such schools, not numerous at first,\nit is possible to secure appropriations far in excess of what can be secured for\nthe ordinary high school or the consolidated school. This will make it possible\nto command the services of better trained teachers and secure better equipment for work. It will dignify the whole subject of industrial education in\nthe estimation of the farming population, and will open up possibilities of\nutilizing such schools for carrying on this work still further than is done at\npresent.\nWATERFORD\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\nD.\n\nWATERFORD,\n\nPENNSYLVANIA\n\nJ. CROSBY\n\nAbout fourteen miles south of Erie, Pennsylvania, surrounded by rich\nundulating farming lands, is the thriving little village of Waterford, the English\nsuccessor of old Fort Le Bceuf, which was established in 1753 as one of the line\nof French forts between Quebec and New Orleans. After the English had\ncome into possession of this territory the name of the place was changed in\n1794 to Waterford and four years later the first school in Erie County was\nestablished there. In 181 1 Waterford Academy was incorporated, in 1822\nthe substantial stone academy building now occupied by the high school was\nerected, and in 1826 the academy was opened. In 1899 the Waterford High\nSchool was established and the property of the academy was formally turned\nover to it. The high-school building as it now stands consists of the old stone\n\nK\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nacademy building, a brick extension which served for many years as a dormitory\nfor pupils in the academy but is now occupied as a residence by the principal\nof the high school, and a one-story ell containing two rooms about sixteen\nfeet square, one used as a laboratory and the other as a recitation room. The\nmain stone structure contains a large classroom on the first floor and an\nassembly and study-room and a library on the second floor.\nThe free public-school system of Waterford boro and township, as now\norganized, consists of the Waterford High School, conducted jointly by the\nboro and township, the Waterford boro primary and grammar schools of eight\ngrades employing three teachers, and fifteen graded district schools in Waterford township. The principal of the high school has general supervision over\nall of the schools of the two districts, the same course of study has been adopted\nfor all, and largely the same textbooks are used.\nThe population of Waterford boro is about 800, that of Waterford township,\nexclusive of the boro, about 1,500. During 1907-8 the enrollment of pupils in\ntownship schools was 227, in boro grades 93, and in the high school 89, a total\nof 409.\nREVENUE\n\nAND\n\nEXPENDITURES\n\nWaterford High School is supported entirely by local (boro and township)\ntaxation. There is a law providing state aid for township high schools, but\nsince this is supported jointly by the township and boro the state superintendent\nof public instruction holds that it cannot receive state aid. The funds raised\nby taxation amount to about $2,400 a year and of this amount $2,025 is\nexpended for teacher's salaries and the remaining $375, for janitor work,\ntextbooks, supplies, and repairs. Entertainments given by the school bring in\nsmall sums which are used in purchasing books, pictures, apparatus, etc.\nTEACHERS\n\nThere are three teachers in the high school and they are hired for nine\nmonths. The principal receives $900 and house, teaches science, and supervises the primary and grammar schools of the boro and township. The\nfirst assistant receives $675 and teaches agriculture and several other subjects.\nThe second assistant receives $450 and teaches language, mathematics, and\nhistory. There is so much work for three teachers that it is difl&cult to arrange\na daily program with a satisfactory division of subjects. Below is given a\ntypical daily program.\nDAILY PROGRAM\nSPRING\n\n9-9:20.\n9:20-9:50.\n9:50-10:20.\n10:20-10:50.\n10:50-11:20.\n11: 20-11:50.\n\nTERM,\n\n1908\n\nMorning Exercises.\nMiss Wheeler\nMr. Mixer\nGeometry.\nArithmetic.\n3d German.\nGeology.\nLatin.\nPhysics.\nLatin.\nist Literature.\n3d Chemistry.\n\nMr. Button\nEnglish.\nPhysiology.\nCereals of America.\n4th Literature.\nPlant Life.\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nNoon Intermission.\n1-1:35.\n1:35-2:10.\n2: 10-2:45.\n2:45-3: 25.\n3 : 25-4 : 00.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRhetoricals.\nLatin.\nGeneral History.\nLatin.\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n397\n\nBotany.\nist Algebra.\nPhysical Geography. Rhetoric.\n2d Literature.\nPoultry.\nPoultry.\n\nThe principal is supposed to have his afternoons free for supervision but it\nis usually necessary, as in the above program, for him to conduct one or two\nrecitations in the afternoon. The first assistant has every period taken up\nwith class work and thus has very little time to prepare practicums or other\nspecial work in agriculture. The second assistant has two vacant periods,\nbut these are devoted to rehearsals in rhetoricals.\nThe first assistant and teacher of agriculture is a graduate of a high school\nand of the New York State Agricultural College at Cornell University. He\nspent two years after graduation in the nature-study bureau at Cornell and one\nyear in field-work testing cattle for the state. He is a practical farmer and has\nbeen for several years a successful exhibitor of live stock at agricultural fairs.\nThis is his first year as a high-school teacher, and he has gone into this work\nbecause he believes that the important developments of the near future in\n15\nagricultural education will be in its secondary phases.\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\nThe enrollment of pupils is shown in the following table:\nENROLLMENT IN WATERFORD HIGH SCHOOL\n1907-8\nQth Grade\n\nTotal enrollment\nNumber Studying Agr\n\n44\n\nloth Grade\n18\n\nnth Grade\n\nZ2th Grade\n\nTotal\n\n5\n\n16\n\n4\n\n20\n\n79\nApparently agriculture is popular at Waterford. The agricultural course\n6\nis elective and over 88 per cent, of4 the pupils are taking work in agriculture.\nIt should be explained, however, that not all of these are taking the regular\nagricultural course. Quite a number of students in other courses, girls as well\nas boys, are taking special work in poultry culture.\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nThree courses are open to pupils in the Waterford High School, a language\nor college-preparatory course, a scientific course intended to prepare for business pursuits, and an agricultural course. About tliree-fourths of the work is\nalike in all courses; the remainder consists mainly of Latin and German in\nthe language course, history, the physical and biological sciences, bookkeeping\nand commercial law in the scientific course, and the physical'and biological\nsciences and agriculture in the agricultural course. All of the courses appear\nto be rather top-heavy with literature studies. On p. 398 is a program showing\nthe three courses arranged in parallel columns for comparison.\n\n89\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\n398\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nAgriculture was first offered at the Waterford High School in the fall of\n1904 and since that time, in spite of frequent changes of teachers of agriculture,\nthe work has been kept up and has grown in popularity. All of the teachers\nthus fg-r, with one exception, have been agricultural-college graduates, and the\nexception was a college graduate, a teacher of considerable experience, and had\nbeen for two years connected with the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.\nAgriculture is taught by means of textbooks, lectures, demonstrations,\nlaboratory exercises, and outdoor practicums. Students in the agricultural\ncourse have one 30-minute period in agriculture daily for four years. This is\nthe regular work of the classroom, the laboratory, or the field. They are also\nPROGRAM\n\nTerms\nFall\n\nWinter\n\nSpring\n\nOF THE\n\nWATERFORD\nFirst Year\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLanguage Course\n\nScientific Course\n\nAgricultural Course\n\nEnglish\n— Grammar.\nLiterature.\n\nEnglish Grammar.\nLiterature.\n\nEnglish Grammar.\nLiterature.\n\nAlgebra.\nPhysical Geography.\nLatin.\n\nAlgebra.\nPhysical Geography.\nEnglish History.\n\nEnglish Grammar.\nLiterature.\nArithmetic.\nAlgebra.\nPhysical Geography\n(Elective).\nLatin\n\nEnghsh Grammar.\nLiterature.\nArithmetic.\n\nEnglish — Grammar.\nLiterature.\nArithmetic.\n\nAlgebra.\nPhysical Geography\n(Elective).\n\nAlgebra.\nAgr.— Plant Life.\n\nEnglish\n— Grammar.\nLiterature.\nArithmetic.\nAlgebra.\nPhysical Geography.\nLatin.\n\nEnglish\n— Grammar.\nLiterature.\nArithmetic.\n\nEnglish — G rammar .\nLiterature.\nArithmetic.\n\nAlgebra.\nPhysical Geography.\n\nAlgebra.\nAgr.— Plant Life.\n\nAlgebra.\nPhysical Geography.\nAgr.— Plant Life.\n\nSecond Year\nFall\n\nWinter\n\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\nAlgebra.\nLatin.\n\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\nZoology (Elective).\nAlgebra.\nBookkeeping. (Elect.)\n\nZoology.\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\n\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\nLatin.\n\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\nPhysiology (Elective).\nCom'l Law (Elective).\nAlgebra.\n\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\n\nAlgebra.\nSpring\n\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\nCivics.\nLatin.\n\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\nCivics.\nCom'l Geog. (Elect.)\nPhysiology (Elective).\n\nAlgebra.\nAgr.— Field, Orchard,\nand Garden Crops.\n\nAlgebra.\nAgr.— Field, Orchard,\nand Garden Crops.\nEnglish.\nLiterature.\nCivics.\nPhysiology.\nAgr. — Field, Orchard,\nand Garden CroDS.\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nPROGRAM\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nWATERFORD HIGH\nThird Year\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nSCHOOL— Con/m««4\n\nFall\n\nEnglish — Rhetoric .\nLiterature.\nPhysics.\nLatin.\nGerman,\n\nWinter\n\nEnglish — Rhetoric.\nLiterature.\nPhysics.\nLatin.\nGerman,\n\nEnglish — Rhetoric.\nLiterature.\n\nEnglish — Rhetoric.\nLiterature.\n\nPhysics.\nAstronomy.\nChemistry.\n\nPhysics.\nChemistry.\n\nEnglish — Rhetoric .\nLiterature.\nPhysics.\nLatin.\nGerman.\n\nEngUsh\n— Rhetoric.\nLiterature.\nPhysics.\nBotany.\nChemistry.\n\nSpring\n\n399\n\nEnglish — Rhetoric.\nLiterature,\n\nI English— Rhetoric.\nPhysics,\nj Chemistry,\nLiterature.\nChemistry.\n; Physics.\nUnited States History.\nAgr. — Domestic\nmal Studies, Ani-\n\nAgr. — Domestic\nmal Studies. AniEngUsh — Rhetoric.\nBotany.\nPhysics.\nChemistry.\nAgr. — Soil Physics.\n\nFourth Year\nFall\n\nWinter\n\nSpring\n\nLiterature.\nGeneral History.\nGeometry.\n\nLiterature.\nGeneral History.\nGeometry.\nLatin.\nGerman.\n\nLiterature.\nGeneral History.\nGeometry.\nPsychology.\nChemistry,\n\nGeneral History.\nGeometry.\nLatin.\nGerman.\n\nLiterature,\nGeneral History,\nGeometry.\nChemistry.\n\nGeneral History.\nGeometry.\nLatin.\nGerman.\n\nLiterature.\nGeneral History.\nGeometry.\nGeology.\n\nLiterature.\nGeneral History.\nGeometry.\nGeology.\n\nCommon\n\nAgr. — Chemistry of\nPlant and Animal\nLife.\n\nBranches.\n\nAgr. — Chemistry of\nSoils.\nEnglish Literature.\nGeneral History.\nGeometry.\nAgr. — Chemistry of\nPlant and Animal\nLife.\n\ngiven special assignments which increase considerably the time devoted to\nagriculture. Thus, at the present time one group of pupils is caring for\nincubators, another for brooders containing about 175 chicks, another is testing\na lot of seed corn, and another is testing milk. No special periods are assigned\nin the school program for work of this kind; the assignments are arranged\npersonally with the different groups.\nThe uniform arrangement of recitation periods and the fact that the\nteacher of agriculture has every period in the day taken up with class work\nmake it difficult to arrange outside trips or to keep close oversight of the\nlaboratory work and special assignments of the pupils. With all the disadvantages ofsuch an arrangement there appears to be one compensating\nadvantage — ^pupils are thrown very largely on their own responsibility and\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmust trust to the textbook, the notebook, and their own resources to carry\nthem through.\nSPECIAL\n\nAPPARATUS\n\nOR\n\nOTHER\n\nEQUIPMENTS\n\nFOR\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nThe school has very little equipment designed especially for agriculture.\nIt has a fairly good line of apparatus for physics and botany which is used to\nsome extent in the class in plant life and soils; and a laboratory about i6 feet\nsquare, with chemical glassware, reagents, an ordinary kitchen sink, and tables\nwhich serve for laboratory exercises in the chemistry of soils and plant and\nanimal life. This laboratory room is at present used as an incubator room\nfor the special course in poultry culture. It contains five incubators ranging\nin capacity from 380 eggs to 50 eggs. One of these was loaned by the manufacturer and four by farmers. The laboratory room also contains an 8-bottle\nBabcock milk tester belonging to the school, two oil stoves, and considerable\nhome-made apparatus set up by the pupils, including seed testers in which\ncorn and clover seed, etc. , are now being tested. In the agricultural classrooms,\nadjoining the laboratory, are a number of seed testers, a hand milk separator,\nthe agricultural library of the school consisting of reports, bulletins, textbooks,\nand reference books, and twenty-eight agricultural journals. One of the\nseniors in the agricultural course has charge of the agricultural library and\nkeeps the latest papers in the room for the use of the pupils.\nOutside of the school building there are two borrowed brooders containing\nchicks and one brooder designed and made by one of the pupils, which is\nproving quite satisfactory.\nHeretofore the school has labored under the difficulty of not having land\nfor field-work, although it is doubtful whether much could be done in the way\nof raising farm crops or attempting any experiments which need to be looked\nafter during the summer months, owing to the fact that the teacher of agriculture ispaid such a small salary that he cannot afford to spend his summer\nlooking after the work of this school. This year one of the residents of the\nvillage has donated to the school for an indefinite period the use of three and onehalf acres of land, a part of which is occupied by twenty old apple trees. Some\nwork has been done in this orchard, and plans have been made for completely\nrenovating it, grafting some of the trees and spraying all of them. This will be\nthe horticultural laboratory of the school. The school has already done some\norchard work in the way of spraying, pruning, and grafting other orchards.\nIt is proposed also, if possible, to put out a patch of potatoes and conduct\nsome spraying experiments to prevent potato blight.\nWORK\n\nIN NATURE-STUDY\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCE\n\nTO\n\nPREPARE\n\nFOR\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nComparatively little attention is given to nature-study exercises in any of\nthe township or boro schools. Bird study is required by law and this with\nelementary lessons in physiology and hygiene constitutes about the only work\nrelating to science before the pupils reach the high school. In the high-school\nagricultural course instruction in physical geography precedes the study of\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n401\n\nsoils and instruction in zoology precedes the study of domestic animals. The\ninstruction in botany, which comes in the last term of the third year, proceeds\nlargely along the line of analytical and herbarium work; that in general chemistry, which prepares the way for agricultural chemistry, is textbook work\nsupplemented by laboratory demonstrations and practice that in zoology is\ntextbook study with a little laboratory work with crustaceans.\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nBY THE\n\nVISITOR\n\nI reached the school in the morning in time for the opening exercises which\noccupy about twenty minutes daily throughout the year, and usually consist\nof a chapter from the Bible, one or two recitations, and one or two essays by the\npupils. Each pupil is required to give four recitations and read four essays\nof his own composition during the course of the year and this, instead of being\ngiven in a number of special programs, is distributed over the morning exercises\nof the year. On the first morning of my visit there were two recitations and\ntwo essays. One of the essays was on the subject of corn breeding and is\ngiven below. On the second morning one of the essays was on the subject of\nwood and included a discussion of the uses of wood, protection of forests, and\nother matters concerned with practical farm foi^estry.\n\nEARL\n\nBARNS,\n\nCORN\n\nBREEDING\n\nSECOND\n\nYEAR,\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nAs corn has developed in yield and composition high above its wild prototypes, it\nhas a constant tendency to revert back to its original form. This is commonly known\nas \"running-out.\" To keep corn up to its present standard and to improve it if possible,\nwe practice corn breeding.\nSo much progress has been made in corn breeding that it is hard to tell what was its\nancestor. It has been bred in many different directions. This is marked by the great\nnumber of types and varieties of corn.\nThe principle of selection is the method employed in breeding maize as well as in\nbreeding all other things. Seed corn is usually selected in one of three ways: Selecting\nears of corn from crib; selecting at the time of husking; or selecting while the corn is\ngrowing in the field. The advantage of the second over the first is that one can select\nwith some regard to the stock. The last though is best, because it enables one to determine whether the good quality is the result of environment or whether it is the result of\nhereditary force.\nCorn is usually bred with one or more of the following objects in view— namely, composition, proportion of grain to cob, and yield per acre.\nThe general run of corn is high in carbohydrate material and low in both protein and\nash. As farmers of the northern states have to buy much protein, it might seem desirable\nthat maize should contain more protein. To do this we must breed up a strain of com\nwith a large proportion of corneous endosperm, because that part contains the most\nprotein of any part of the grain. If the breeder wishes to increase the fat percentage\nhe should select those ears the kernels of which have large embryos.\n\nThe selection of ears of the right proportion of com to cob is also of 'great importance\nand is closely connected with high yield. A small cob is usually desirable as the grain\ncures and keeps much longer if the cob is small. About i part of cob to 4 or 4i of corn is\nproportion. Very little can be told as to the proportion of cob to grain without\nathedesirable\nuse of accurate scales.\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn breeding corn one, to begin with, should select loo ears having the qualities desired.\nThese should be tested and the 40 which germinate best selected out. Number the best\near 13, the two next best 1 2 and 14, etc., until the two poorest are numbered i and 25. Then\nchoose a plot 50 hills square and number the rows from i to 50. Plant ear No. i in rows\nnumber i and 26, etc., until ear number 25 is planted on rows 25 and 50. Other corn\nof the same variety should be planted around the breeding plat so as to insure thorough\npollination. When the corn ripens, select 20 ears from each of the five best rows and\nproceed as the year before.\n\nAs another special feature in English, two seniors are selected each week\nto report \" School Notes \" to the local weekly paper.\nThese notes consist of\npersonals, mention of examinations, new work, and other special features,\nincluding frequent mention of agricultural work in progress.\nThe following'\nitems were clipped from the Water jord Leader of March 5, 1908:\nFarmers who wish to find out the best cows in their herds may do so by sending in a\nsample of milk to the agricultural department of the school, which will be glad to test\nthe milk. As cows vary widely from milking to milking in the per cent, of fat, the sample\nshould be of equal parts from four consecutive milkings, each being carefully mixed by\npouring from pail to pail before the sample is taken. A two-ounce bottle is sufficient.\nIf it is desired to make a test for a longer time. Professor Button will be glad to furnish\npreservative for the sample of milk.\nAs a result of the enthusiasm and interest shown by the scholars who attended Mrs.\nAllen's lectures on poultry at the institute, a class in poultry husbandry is to be started\nin the high school for the spring term. Professor Button has already been promised the\nuse of three incubators. It is proposed to run the incubators with marked eggs brought\nin by the students and it is hoped that each breed will be represented if possible. After\nhatching, the chicks will be kept for several weeks in the brooder and instruction given in\nthe feeding of them and in the management of the brooder. There is every indication that\nthis will prove highly interesting and profitable work, both for the students and their\nparents.\nThe amqunt of food which an animal consumes above the life-sustaining point brings\nthe profit to the owner.\nNow is a good time to trim up the orchard and take a\" trip around the fences with a\npocketful of nails and staples.\nCLASSES IN AGRICULTURE\n\nThe first class visited was studying Hunt's Cereals of North America, and\nconsisted of fifteen pupils mostly belonging to the second-year class, although\nthere were a few fourth-year pupils who were not taking the regular agricultural course. This class was considering corn production — the different ways\nin which weeds injure corn, such as reducing the available supply of moisture,\nusing up plant food, and shading the ground and keeping it cool, which is\ninjurious in regions lying in the northern limits of corn production; deep and\nshallow cultivation, and early and late cultivation and their uses. When discussing the importance of early cultivation and the fact that it allows air to\nreach the germinating kernels the teacher illustrated the necessity of air in this\nconnection by displaying two samples of corn which had been put in water at the\nsame time, one sample being partly covered with water, while the other was\ncompletely immersed in water which had been boiled to drive out air. The\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n403\n\nsample which had access to air was sprouting nicely while the other had not\nstarted. The two were set aside to be observed from time to time until the\npupils were satisfied whether the sample excluded from air would germinate\nor rot.\n\nThe plant-life class on the first day discussed the selecting and breeding of\ncorn and gave some attention to the history of its development and the causes\nof variation. They were frequently called upon to verify their statements by\nillustrations taken from their own experiences or from their study of publications other than the textbook. On the second day this class took up the\nselection of potatoes for seed and discussed the relative value of bin selection\nand hill selection, the points to be observed in making the selection, and the\nmethods to be used in fixing types. Potatoes were passed around the class\nillustrating characteristics discussed by the instructor and thin sections were\ncut to show the structure of the potato.\nThe class in poultry culture was so large that it recited in two sections, each\ncontaining about thirty-five pupils. This class was organized for one term of\nspecial work at the beginning of the spring term and the four third-year pupils\nwere allowed to take this instead of the regular work assigned for this term\nwhich was soil physics. The third-year class is so small this year that there\nhas been .considerable difficulty in arranging its work. The instruction\nin poultry culture is given by lectures and the study of bulletins from the\nUnited States Department of Agriculture and the Experiment Stations. On\nthe day of my visit the discussion was on the fattening of poultry and\nmarketing of eggs, with some attention to the most desirable breeds for early\nbroilers, for roasters, and for egg production.\nAs indicated above, the pupils in the poultry courses are given assignments\nin caring for the incubators and brooders. In the incubator work two pupils\nare assigned to look after each tray of eggs for one week, at the end of which\ntime the assignments are shifted. I spent considerable time in the incubator\nroom, looking over the incubators, talking with the boys, and listening to their\ntalk with each other. I found them very much interested and thoroly\nimpressed with the responsibility thrown upon them. None of them, however,\nwas anxious to get rid of this responsibility; on the other hand, they would\nhave liked to have their assignments extended to cover the three weeks of\nincubation.\nThe work with the brooders outside seemed also to be very attractive. The\npupils who had charge of these would tun out every littie while to see that\neverything was all right, and during intermissions the brooders were surrounded bya crowd of pupils.\nThere is a large poultry establishment in the outskirts of the village which\nthe students in poultry culture have visited for the purpose of studying different\ntypes of incubators and brooders and the construction of poultry buildings.\nToward the close of the year students will be given some practice in judging\npoultry with the score card.\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIt is seldom practicable to take a whole class in agriculture into the laboratory for practice work. Instead of doing this the pupils are given assignments\nsimilar to the assignments in poultry culture. Thus three of the boys were\ngiven three samples of milk which had been sent in for testing and told to go\ninto the laboratory and conduct the test. This they did without aid from the\nteacher except to find the sulphuric acid which had been misplaced, and about\nas readily as college students go through their exercises for the first time.\nEach of the three boys took one sample and made two tests of it, one as a check\nupon the other, and only one apparent error was made in carrying out the\nexercise.\nThe work of the school in testing milk has aroused considerable interest in\nthe vicinity owing to the fact that some milk tested for the cheese factory was\nfound to contain entirely too much water. Of course the name of the man\nwhose cow got too near the pump was not made public but the people of the\nvillage tell an amusing story of the excuse made by this man when the superintendent ofthe cheese factory confronted him with the evidence furnished by the\nschool. He admitted that his milk had been \"watered\" that morning but\nstated it was a mistake of his. He had picked up a small can which he had\nsupposed contained milk and emptied it hurriedly into a larger milk can.\nJust as the last of the contents was dripping into the large can he discovered\nit was water. He did not explain how water got into the milk on other mornings, although the adulteration had been going on for some time.\nThe school is testing seed corn this spring for a half-dozen or more farmers\nand is now making some tests of clover seed. It has also made some microscopic tests of cattle feeds and in one case discovered that a considerable\nconsignment of bran which had been purchased by a local dealer was badly\nadulterated with ground corn cobs. This discovery was made just before the\nfarmers' 'institute was held at Waterford this year and it caused a good deal\nof discussion. In this connection it may be stated that one indication of the\nhold that the instruction in agriculture has taken upon the pupils is found in\nthe increasing attendance not only of farmers, but of their sons and daughters,\nat the farmers' institutes. This year practically the whole school attended the •\nsessions of the farmers' institutes and they did this, not because they were\nrequired or urged to do so, but because they were interested in the discussions.\nThe members of the last institute force who took part in the institute at Waterford were astonished at the number of young people in attendance, and spoke\nin high praise of the work of the school as indicated by the knowledge of\nagricultural subjects displayed by the pupils.\nOPINIONS\n\nOF\n\nPATRONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEight patrons of the school were visited. Four of these were members of\nthe high-school board and two were residents of an adjoining township, who\nwere paying tuition for their sons. The question of abandoning the teaching\nof agriculture was not once hinted at, although the members of the board\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFORJRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n405\n\nwere considerably worried over the problem of keeping a good teacher of\nagriculture.\nIn the four years that agriculture has been taught at Waterford six different\nteachers of agriculture have been employed. Four of those who have left\nhave gone to more lucrative positions and one resigned to assume charge of\nthe home farm after his father's death.\nThe members of the board are convinced that they cannot retain a good\nteacher of agriculture on a salary of $75 .00 a month for nine months, but they\ndo not feel able to pay more. Any increase in the expense of conducting the\nschool is quickly felt owing to the fact that the funds for the school are raised\nentirely by local taxation. The annual cost of running the school is only about\n$27.00 a pupil, and yet the question of high salaries was raised three or four\ntimes, while in the case of the Cecil County Agricultural School in Maryland,\nwhere the cost is over $50. 00 a pupil annually, salaries aggregating 19 per cent,\nmore for the same number of teachers in a much smaller school were not once\nmentioned.\n\nI\n\nThe only solution of the salary problem at Waterford seems to' be the\nelection of an agricultural-college graduate as principal of the school. This\nplan was suggested by each of the four members of the board interviewed, but\nwill not be put in operation until the present principal retires to accept a better\nposition, which he is likely to do in the near future. One of the older members\nof the board, the member who first suggested the introduction of agriculture,\nbelieves not only in this program but also in the employment of one assistant\nwho can teach domestic science subjects for the girls.\nThe president of the board believes in the teaching of agriculture because\nso many of the high-school graduates return to the farm and so few go on to\ncollege. He and several others called attention to the fact that nearly every\nhouseholder in the boro is a farmer, a merchant who also owns one or more\nfarms, or a retired farmer. There is no manufacturing in the village except\nthat which depends directly upon the surrounding farms; a cheese factory,\na creamery, a flouring mill, and the usual repair shops are about the only industrial plants. It is not strange therefore that many patrons of the school should\nlook with favor upon the teaching of agriculture.\nOne of the farmers visited, father of two boys in the first-year class, was a\nrenter who had moved into the township for the express purpose of educating\nhis children in a school where they could study agriculture. He had carefully\nconsidered the relative advantages of moving to a farm near one of the state\nnormal schools or to one near the Waterford High School and had decided in\nfavor of the latter. His boys had been in the high school seven months and he\nhad no reason to regret the choice he had made.\nFollowing are brief statements gleaned from opinions expressed by some of\nthe farmers interviewed:\n\n\"The teaching of agriculture has increased the respect of our farmers for\nIt has awakened an interest in farming and in farmers*\n*book farming.'\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ninstitutes. A few years ago we couldn't get anybody to attend the institutes;\nthis year there wasn't standing-room. It has encouraged several boys to go to\nagricultural colleges. It is turning the minds of the boys toward farming as a\ndesirable occupation. My boy talks of nothing else and constantly surprises\nme with the knowledge of agriculture he has gained. It is a good deal better\nfor boys than going to the state normal school (this from a graduate of both\nschools). I believe it will help keep the boys on the farm; my boy is more\ninterested in agriculture than in any other subject. It should be taught in\nall village and township high schools in the state. \"\nA mother who had taught for years thinks agriculture the best thing in the\nschool and is especially pleased with the written work in agriculture. Her\nboy chooses agricultural subjects for his compositions.\nA father would rather see any other study thrown out of the course. His\nboy takes much interest in the poultry work and is becoming a much closer\nobserver on the farm.\nDIFFICULTIES AND\n\nTHEIR REMEDY\n\nThe chief difficulty in carrying on the instruction in agriculture at Waterford — that of retaining the services of a good teacher — ^has already been .alluded\nto in the opinions of patrons of the school. And the members of the board are\nabout right in their conclusion that when it becomes necessary to select a new\nprincipal, it will be advisable to get a man who can teach agriculture. This\nwould be an ideal arrangement. The principal of the high school, as supervisor of the boro and township schools, would be able to do much to encourage\nand direct nature-study work leading directly and effectively up to the agricultural work of the high school. By arranging his work so as to keep his\nafternoons entirely free from instruction in the classroom he could also devote\nmore time than can the present teacher of agriculture to the outdoor features\nof instruction in this subject.\nIn this connection I believe it would serve a very useful purpose if the\nboard would hire the new principal by the year, pay him a salary larger in\nproportion, and arrange to have him give his whole time,* for eleven months\nat least, to the school and its patrons. With such an arrangement, demonstration experiments could be conducted throughout the summer to illustrate\nthe value of different fertilizers and different methods of cultivation, the^effect\nof spraying orchards and vegetables, and numerous other features of agricultural practice which are now well established in the more highly specialized\nagricultural districts but are coming too slowly into general practice.\nDuring the school vacations the principal could also render effective aid to\nthe farmers of the township by visiting their orchards, gardens, and fields and\nadvising them on matters of practice which are as yet new and unfamiliar to\nthem. He could show them how to mix their own fertilizers, how to prepare\nand apply various liquid and dust insecticides and fungicides, how to breed up\ntheir field crops, how to renovate the many neglected orchards, etc. Of course\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n407\n\nthere are many good farmers who are able to get and are now getting just such\ninformation from books and bulletins and agricultural journals, but there are\nalso many who are not so fortunate and will go on doing things \"in the good\nold way\" until they fall hopelessly behind their neighbors in the struggle for\nSuch men need to be shown.\nexistence.\nThe Waterford High School is a small school and an inexpensive school. It\nis one of the oldest schools in western Pennsylvania and is located in a community which is almost purely agricultural and inclined to be conservative.\nAnd yet it has broken away from old ideals more completely than any other\nschool in the state and for four years has offered its pupils the opportunity to\npursue a vocational course of study. That this opportunity has been appreciated isfully demonstrated by the fact that during these four years at least 45\nper cent, of the pupils have elected the vocational course and at the present\ntime over 88 per cent, of them are taking this course.\nThe agricultural course at Waterford embraces practically all of the educational features of the other courses, gives valuable manual training in the\nmaking and manipulation of apparatus and materials which the other courses\ndo not afford, arouses interest and gives considerable information concerning the\nfundamental industry of the community, and in several ways renders effective\naid to the members of the community outside of the school. Thus it is making\nreal progress in bringing the interests of the school and the home closer together.\nCECIL\n\nCOUNTY\n\nAGRICULTURAL\nMARYLAND\nD.\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCALVERT,\n\nJ. CROSBY\n\nPrior to the autumn of 1906 the northwestern part of Cecil County, Maryland, was without high-school facilities of any kind. There were numerous\nsmall country schools but none of these carried the pupils beyond the seventh\ngrade and several of them failed to carry them much beyond the sixth grade.\nUpon the request of the patrons of Calvert and vicinity the Cecil County\nSchool Board decided in the summer of 1906 to establish at Calvert a high\nschool, and to give the course of study an agricultural trend.\nCalvert is a small hamlet consisting of two stores, a church, a Quaker\nmeeting-house, a blacksmith shop, a primary-school building, and a few scattered dwellings. It is surrounded by rich farm land which is occupied by a\nthriving rural population engaged in general farming and the production of\nmilk.\n'Having decided upon a school at this point, the school board appealed to\nthe Maryland Agricultural College and the United States Department of\nAgriculture for aid in securing a competent teacher and outlining a suitable\ncourse of study. The Department of Agriculture, through its Office of\nExperiment Stations, responded to this appeal by furloughing Mr. H. O.\nSampson, a graduate of the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic\nArts, who had had experience in teaching agriculture in an elementary high\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nschool in Pennsylvania, to take charge of the school as principal and teacher\nof agriculture.\nThe school was opened November 5, 1906, in a small two-room school\nbuilding rented for a nominal sum from the Society of Friends. This building, which is still occupied by the school, is 45 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 16\nfeet high to the eaves. It contains a schoolroom 31 feet long by 28^ feet\nwide. In the rear of thio is a recitation room 28 J feet by 11 feet. In the large\nroom there are seats for 52 pupils. Two teachers were employed the first\nyear, the principal and one assistant, and the salary roll was $1,100. Thirtyeight pupils were enrolled on the first day and fifty-eight during the year. The\nsmall recitation room was supplied with a case for supplies and apparatus,\nand a laboratory table, and became the agricultural laboratory of the school.\nAll pupils were required to study agriculture which was taught by means of\ntextbooks, lectures, laboratory exercises, and field trips. The following\nstatement from the Annual Report of the Director of the OflSce of Experiment\nStations for 1907 gives an indication of the success of the school during this\nfirst year and the estimation placed upon it by the patrons of the school.\nThe principal, in addition to his regular work, visited the elementary schools within\na radius of four or five miles from Calvert, giving talks on nature-study and elementary\nagriculture, and helping the teachers to start work along these lines, and in the spring\nmonths conducted night school for the large boys who were compelled to drop out of\nday school to assist in farm work. Practically all of the boys attended night school\nregularly, and at the close of the year passed the examinations given to the other\nstudents.\nThe school won the approval of the community almost immediately. Within four\nmonths after it opened plans for a permanent school were set in motion, with the result\nthat the county school board appropriated $5,000 for a high-school building at Calvert.\nPlans for this building were drawn and submitted for bids and a site was donated, but it\nwas found that the appropriation would not cover the cost of the structure planned.\nBuilding operations have therefore been postponed until more money can be raised.\nREVENUE\n\nAND\n\nEXPENDITURES\n\nThe school is supported by state and county taxes. The budget for\n1907-8 includes nearly $3,000 from the county fund. A bill was before the\nlegislature providing for the appropriation of $2,000 annually by the state in\nsupport of this school. At the time of my visit it was supposed that the bill\nhad become a law. It was discovered later that in the confusion incident to\nthe closing work of the session it had been overlooked and consequently\nthe school will not secure state aid this year. The expenditures for the current school year will be approximately as follows : equipment, $300, repairing\nbuildings, $200.\nTEACHERS\nThe principal receives $1,600 for 9 months, and teaches agriculture, science,\nand mathematics. The first assistant receives $400 and teaches literature,\nrhetoric, geography, and grammar. The second assistant receives $400 and\nteaches literature, history, and mathematics: total expenditure, $2,900.\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "409\n\nCouncJU\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nPUPILS\n\nThe enrollment of pupils during the present year has been 17 in the preparatory class, 15 in the first-year class, and 25 in the second-year class.\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nHistory\nGrade\nPrep. year.\n\nMathematics\n\nLanguage\nmg,\n\nScience\n\nArithmetic\n\nhistoryStates\nElementary ag- United\nography riculture, ge- and Maryland\n\nArithmetic,\n\nAgriculture,\nplants physical\nand\nsoils,\ngeography\n\nmar,r. hterature\nUl\n\nUnited States\nand Maryland\nhistory; civics\n\nExercises\nGeneral*\nAgricultural\npractice\nAgricultural\n\nFirst year.\n\nSpelling, grammar, composi-\n\nSecond y6ar\n\nGrammar, liter- Farm and business arithmesition ature, compotic, algebra\n\nThird vear.\n\npractice\nAncient history\nAgriculture,\nLiterature, rhe- Farm bookFarm mechankeeping, plane domestic anitoric, compoometry\nsition, Latin\nmals, physics\nand solid geal practice\nics; agricultvu-ing\nMediaeval\nand\nAgriculture,\nLiterature, rhe- Geometry, trigonometry, and farm manageFarm mechantoric, compohistory hismodem\nsition, Latin\nfarm surveyof mappmg;\nics; field surUnited tory; review\nStates\nment; chemisveying and\ntry, general\nand\nagricultural\nagricultural\n\ngebra\n\nFourth year.\n\nAgriculture,\nfarm\nbotanycrops,\n\npractice\nEnglish history;\ncivics\nAgricultural\n\n* Including special agricxiltural programs every three or four weeks on Friday afternoon.\n\npractice\n\nAGRICULTURE\nI.\n\nClass-Room Exercises\nPreparatory Year\n\nStudy of a textbook covering in a very elementary way the subject of agriculture.\nHatch and Haselwood's Elementary Agriculture.\nFirst Year\nThe structure and physiology of plants. — How plants feed, grow, and reproduce, and\ntheir relation to light, heat) moisture, air, and soil. Goff's Principles 0} Plant Culture.\nSoils. — Their nature, functions, origin, properties, classes; relation to temperature,\nair, and moisture, and their management, including tillage, drainage, the use of manures,\nand the effect of cropping.\nLectures and laboratory work.\nSecond Year\nFarm crops. — Study of the principal field, orchard, and garden crops of the region\nwith reference to culture, protection from insect pests and diseases, and methods of harvesting and marketing.\nHunt's Cereals.\nBailey's Principles of Fruit Culture.\nThird Year\nDomestic animals. — Classes, types, breeds, care, and management of horses, cattle,\nsheep, swine, and poultry.\nScore card and judging practice.\nStudy of dairy animals —\ntheir feeding, care, and management. Milk — its composition, handling, and uses. Brooks's\nAnimal Husbandry.\nFourth Year\nFarm management. — Comparison of dififerent systems of cropping and tillage; different\ntypes of farming — such as grain farming, stock farming, and dairy farming. Farm plans\nincluding size and location of fields, location of buildings, fences, drains, and roads. Study\nof buildings, water and sewage systems, and roads. Use, care, and management of\nfarm machinery.\nFarm accounts, including feed, milk, crop, and breeding records.\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nII.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa.\n\nPractice Work\n\nPreparatory Year\nLaboratory exercises. — Demonstrations by the teacher and simple experiments with\nsoils and plants by pupils.\nFirst Year\nLaboratory exercises. — Seed testing, experiments with plants and soils.\nField exercises. — Studies of plants and soils and farm operations.\nPlat work.\nSecond Year\nLaboratory exercises. — Selecting and scoring farm crops, study of injurious insects.\nField exercises. — Plat work, spraying and pruning, field excursions, and corn and\ngrain judging.\nThird Year\nLaboratory exercises. — Studies of milk, butter, and other dairy products.\nField exercises. — Plat work and stock judging.\nFourth Year\nLaboratory exercises. — Chemistry of soils and plant and animal life.\nField exercises. — Plat work, stock judging, study of farm machinery, buildings, roads,\ndrainage systems, etc.\n\nOriginally it was intended to begin the work of the school with the eighth\ngrade as is done in the standard high schools of Maryland, but owing to the\npoor preparation of many of the pupils it was found advisable to admit some\nwho really belonged in the seventh grade and to introduce a preparatory or\nseventh-grade year.\nAgriculture is taught in the three grades now represented in the school and\nwill be taught in the two remaining grades as soon as the pupils reach these.\nFive recitation periods of thirty minutes each are devoted to class work in\nagriculture during the thirty-six weeks that the school is in session, and from\nthree to five thirty-minute laboratory periods during each week are devoted\nto experiments and demonstrations. Field trips and studies are usually\ntaken on Friday afternoons between the afternoon recess and the closing hour.\nSometimes on the longer trips the students are held until five o'clock. About\nonce a month the last half of Friday afternoon is devoted to an agricultural\nprogram consisting of music, recitations, essays on agricultural subjects, and\ndebates.\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nThe school has very little special equipment for laboratory work in agriculture. Ithas a few test tubes, an evaporating dish, one or two beakers, a\nFlorence flask, a kitchen scale, a laboratory table, a lot of tin tomato cans, a\nnumber of sieves, seed testing boxes, and other simple contrivances made by\nthe boys. Some land is available which might be used for school gardens but\nno gardens have been started at the school except flower gardens for decorative\npurposes. During the past year, however, the pupils had gardens at their\nhomes which were planted with seeds furnished by the principal and some of\nwhich were inspected by the principal.\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councilj\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nBY THE\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n411\n\nVISITOR\n\nGeneral Condition oj the School\nMy arrival at the school was entirely unexpected. I reached the building\nabout eleven o'clock and found the pupils industriously but quietly going about\ntheir work. The large room which I enteied first was not unlike an ordinary\ncountry schoolroom with a stove in the center and rows of seats running from\nfront to rear. In the rear of the room was a raised platform with a piano\npurchased with the proceeds of entertainments held by the pupils. In the\nmiddle of the platform was the principal's table and at the left a long laboratory\ntable. The latter held fourteen tomato cans containing soil experiments by\nseven boys and girls in the preparatory class who were endeavoring to learn\nwhether surface tillage would conserve moisture in the soil. Each pupil had\nfilled two cans with soil which was packed and saturated with moisture and then\nallowed to stand on the table while the moisture gradually evaporated. The\nsurface in one can was stirred daily while that in the other was allowed to\nbake. Near at hand was a kitchen scale upon which the pupils weighed their\ncans, and found clear indication of the value of tillage as a moisture conservator.\nOn one edge of the table was a piece of apparatus consisting of three lamp\nchimneys which the principal had arranged to demonstrate the difference\nbetween capillary and free moisture or drainage water in soils. The remainder\nof the table was occupied by three boxes about two feet wide and two and onehalf feet long and four inches deep, containing samples of corn which were\nbeing tested for farmers by the second-year pupils.\nThe principal had charge of the large room and conducted most of his\nclasses and demonstrations there. One of his assistants occupied the recitation\nroom in the rear; the other assistant was ill at the time of my visit and her work\nwas being carried on by the principal and first assistant. I was told that her\nwork was carried on largely in a small room in a building across the way.\nCondticting a Recitation in Agriculture\nI listened to recitations in agriculture by pupils of the preparatory class,\nthe first-year class, and the second-year class. As yet there has been no\nthird- or fourth-year class. The preparatory students were using Hatch and\nHaselwood's Elementary Agriculture, and the recitation I heard was on ** Feeding the Stock.\" The pupils in this class were only about thirteen to fifteen\nyears old, but they seemed to have a pretty good comprehension of the different\npurposes for which we feed farm animals and the kinds of feed. The teacher\ndid not confine himself to the textbook but asked questions which would bring\nout expressions of opinion from the pupils concerning their own experiences\nor observations concerning the feeding of animals. Such terms as fats, carbohydrates, and protein were understood as well apparently as pupils could\nunderstand them without a previous knowledge of chemistry.\nThe first-year class, with Goff's Principles oj Plant Culture as a textbook,\nThey distinguished clearly and\nwere studying ''Insect Enemies of Plants.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nintelligently between insects with biting mouth-parts and insects with sucking\nmouth-parts and explained the kind of spraying material or other remedies\nwhich must be used to combat these different classes of insects. It was apparent that they had studied a textbook and yet there was a notable absence of\nimplicit and unquestioning reliance upon the textbook which is often painfully\napparent among pupils studying more or less abstract subjects. They had\napplied the information in the textbook to their own conditions and drawn\nupon their own experiences for examples to confirm or combat the theories\nadvanced in the textbook.\nThe pupils of the second-year class were studying Bailey's Principles of\nFruit Culture. Their recitation on the first day of my visit was in the nature of\na written review discussing the relative value of tillage and commercial fertilizers in orchard management. The papers had been written on the previous\nday and were read in class and criticized on the day of my visit. Some of the\npapers were excellent, and some were full of the ordinary crudities of expression\nof the high-school pupil, but nearly all showed originality in content. The\ntwo papers given below, one by a boy of sixteen, and the other by a girl of\nseventeen, are among the best of those which were read.\nTHE\n\nUSE OF TILLAGE\nVICTOR\n\nAND\n\nFERTILIZER\n\nWILSON,\n\nAGED\n\nIN GROWING\n\nCROPS\n\n1 6 YEARS\n\nTo obtain the best results in growing crops it is often necessary to till the land well\nand also to use fertilizers in a judicious manner.\nThe benefits derived from tillage are very numerous, and show that tillage is of very\ngreat importance. Tillage improves the physical condition of the land. It makes the\nsoil finer and gives greater feeding surface to the roots. It increases the depth of the soil\nand gives the roots more room. It also improves the physical condition by warming and\ndrying the soil in spring, and reducing the extremes of temperature and moisture. That\nthe soil is in good physical condition is of great importance. The texture of the soil influences its physical condition, and is really of more importance than the amount of plant\nfood which the soil contains. If the texture is very coarse or the land becomes hard or\nlumpy, plants will not thrive because they cannot use the plant food that is in the soil.\nTillage tends to remedy this. By breaking up the soil it makes the plant food available\nas the roots can then penetrate the soil better, and get the food.\nIt is said that \"the chemist cannot tell what a soil will produce, he can only tell what\nit contains.\" This is because tillage has such a great influence. The rich soil may yield\na poor crop if not well tilled and allowed to become poor in physical condition. So we see\nthat tillage is of great importance, and it may well be said that tillage is manure.\nTillage, besides improving the physical condition of the land, does a great deal toward\nsaving moisture. It increases the water-holding capacity of the soil, as in breaking up the\nsoil particles there is a greater surface of soil particles surrounded with water. Tillage\nchecks evaporation from the surface, by stopping the water from rising so rapidly by capillary attraction. In this way tillage may save a great deal of soil moisture, and is said to\nbe next to irrigation in power to hold water. In dry regions tillage in this way may be\nvery useful.\nTillage also augments chemical activities in the soil by aiding in setting free plant\nfood, by promoting nitrification, and by hastening the decomposition of organic matter.\nSo we see that tillage may do a great deal for the soil, and this is the reason why lands\nwhich are well tilled always grow better crops.\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n413\n\nAs plants use up a certain amount of the plant food, lands which are farmed a long\ntime may become deficient in the food elements used by the plant. It then becomes necessary to return this plant food in the form of fertilizers. What kind and the amount of\nfertilizers to use is a question which the farmer himself must answer, as all lands are not\nthe same. He himself, by working with his soil and observing things about it, may discover the treatment which it needs. If his orchard or other crop is doing well, it probably\nis receiving the right treatment, but if it is not doing well some change is needed. If there\nis an excessive growth of wood in the orchard at the expense of fruit, there is probably too\nmuch nitrogen in the soil, but if there is not enough of wood growth and the leaves turn\nyellow and drop off early, this is a sign that the soil is deficient in nitrogen. This nitrogen\nmay be obtained in sufl5cient amount by good tillage, by the use of leguminous cover crops,\nand by stable manures. Quick results are obtained by using nitrogenous materials such as\nnitrate of soda.\nThe farmer should remember that plants need all of the plant food-elements instead\nof just some of them. For instance, if the soil is deficient in phosphoric acid and potash,\nit would be useless to apply nitrogen. Heavy clay soils mostly contain phosphoric acid\nand potash in a sufficient amount, and this may be made available by tillage and applying\nhumus. However, it is advisable to add these elements to the soil if it is cropped a great\ndeal. The farmer should not rely on chemical fertilizers altogether, as they contain no\nhumus. If there is no humus present, the soil will become lifeless in spite of plant food\nIt is better to use commercial fertilizers in rotation with stable manures, or other things\nsupplying humus. It is not always well to mix the fertilizers, but apply the different ones\nseparately, as some parts of the land may need more of a certain element than in other\nplaces.\nFarmers sometimes do not appreciate the importance of humus in the soil. A clay\nsoil which has become hard and lumpy has gotten that way on account of having no humus.\nIf the farmer has much of this kind of soil he should take measures to improve it. The\nfirst step is to improve the physical condition of this soil by adding humus. Stable manure\nis useful in doing this. He may plow under a crop of some kind, and after a while may\nget a catch of clover. This when turned under will supply humus. After the physical\ncondition of the soil is improved fertilizers may then be applied with benefit. This may\ntake a long time and hard work, but can be done if it is carried out wisely.\nIn the use of fertilizers the farmer should experiment and learn what his soil seems to\nneed. In the case of fruit growing, the only general statement which can be made is\nthat liberal applications of phosphoric acid and potash should be made if the best results\nare expected and he may be able to supply his nitrogen more cheaply by cover crops and\ntillage than by buying chemicals.\nSo we see that the subject of tillage and the use of fertilizers is very important, and if\nthe farmer uses good judgment about these things he will be successful.\nTHE\n\nUSE OF TILLAGE\nANNA\n\nAND\nK.\n\nFERTILIZER\nRITTENHOUSE,\n\nIN THE\nAGED\n\nGROWING\n\nOF CROPS\n\n1 7 YEARS\n\nThis should be a very important question to every farmer in the community. Some\nfarmers may say that commercial fertilizer which has been applied to the soil will produce\nthe best crops while others will hold that thoro tillage will be better, thus causing a\ngreat difference of opinion.\nWe are told that some farmers who are not over fond of the farm will ask needless\nquestions regarding the kind and quantity of fertilizers to apply to his land. No person\ncan answer the questions for him but by careful study of his plantation day after day he will\nsoon discover the kind of treatment which the soil needs. If his plantation is giving satisfactory results we may be sure that a certain amount of fertilizer, which is needful, has\nIbeen applied.\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nOne should be very careful in using these commercial fertilizers, as all the land does\nnot require the same kind of plant food. For example, a large application of nitrogen\nupon the soil which is deficient in potash and phosphorus cannot be expected to give the\nbest results.\nIn regard to tilling an orchard some very satisfactory results have been obtained.\nAn orchard which is in sod and not doing well should certainly be plowed and tilled.\nSufficient nitrogen which is necessary for the welfare of the plant may be gotten\ninto the soil by thoro tillage, by the use of leguminous cover crops, and by using stable\nmanure.\nSome farmers do not appreciate the importance of the presence of humus in their\nsoils. If humus is not present in the sandy soils they become loose and leachy while clay\nsoils bake and become lumpy. If a farmer has much of this kind of soil it would be of\nlittle benefit to apply commercial fertilizers. He should first put it in the right kind of a\ncondition to grow crops, after which a crop of clover should be plowed under. If this\ndoes not give immediate satisfactory results stable manure should then be applied. In\ntime the land which has undergone thorough tillage will grow a good crop of crimson\nclover.\nThere is no other way to find out which will produce the better crops, commercial\nfertilizer or thorough tillage, than to try for oneself, as farming cannot be done by recipe.\nThus we see there is much to be learned about the important question of tilling and\nfertilizing a crop of any kind.\n\nThis class on the second day of my visit recited on principles governing\nthe selection of varieties and the selection of varieties of apples for Cecil\nCounty. In this they depended upon the textbook for the principles of selection but were compelled to draw upon their own information and judgment\nin making selections for Cecil County. At the close of the recitation they\nwere referred to a Farmers' Bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture on Varieties of Fruit Recommended for Planting which contains lists\nof apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits which are \"highly recommended,\"\n''recommended,\" and \"recommended for trial\" in the different fruit districts\nof the United States. In this they were to study the fruits recommended for\nthe. district in which Maryland is located and check up or make additions to\ntheir lists.\nLABORATORY\n\nWORK\n\nThe preparatory class and the second-year class had laboratory exercises\nor laboratory work in progress at the time of my visit. The laboratory work\nof. the preparatory class was concerned with the conservation of moisture in\nsoils, a subject which they had studied a few days before. This has been\ndescribed above. On the first day of my visit the teacher performed a demonstration to show the difference between capillary moisture and free moisture\nin soils. He filled three lamp chimneys, mentioned above, with finely pulverized soil which was supported below by pieces of cheesecloth tied over the\nlower ends of the chimneys. One of the chimneys was suspended with its\nlower end dipping into a tumbler of water, another was given a small amount\nof moisture at the top, and the third was saturated. The first two were to\nshow that small amounts of moisture move up and down readily in the soil, the\nthird was to show that wherever there is an excess of moisture in the soil it\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Coundll\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n41;;\n\nreadily passes off below. While the water was permeating the dry soil in\nthese chimneys the teacher held the attention of the class by performing a\nlittle demonstration to show the presence of moisture in soil which seems *'as\ndry as powder. \" He put a teaspoonful of \"dust\" in a test-tube and held the\nlatter in the flame of an alcohol lamp, at the same time telling the children ]Lo\nwatch closely for any indications of moisture. In just a moment there were\nexcited exclamations from a half-dozen of the boys and girls ; an abundance of\nmoisture was seen distinctly in the inside of the test-tube. This the teacher\nexplained was the hydroscopic moisture or film moisture which surrounds\neach individual particle in the soil and can only be driven off by the application\nof considerable heat.\nI was told that demonstrations and laboratory exercises by the pupils\nsimilar to those described above have been in progress practically all of the\ntime since the school began, and there was abundant evidence in a number of\npieces of home-made apparatus in the back room of the schoolhouse to show\nthat much attention is given to the laboratory features of instruction. Practically all of the apparatus except a few articles mentioned previously is made\nby the boys, either at home or at the schoolhouse.\nThe second-year class had no new laboratory exercises in progress at the\ntime of my visit. The members of this class were making practical application\nof the laboratory work which they performed last year at about this time.\nThey were testing seed corn for farmers.\nA few weeks ago the principal of the school announced through the different\ncounty papers that farmers who desired to have their seed corn tested could\nnumber the ears they had selected for seed and send six kernels taken from\ndifferent parts of each ear to the school in packets numbered to correspond\nwith the numbers on the ears and the pupils would test the vitality of the corn\nand send reports to the farmers. Up to the time of my visit eighteen farmers\nhad sent in seed corn to be tested and one set of samples from fifty ears was\nreceived while I was there. The following letter accompanied the samples:\nRising Sun, Maryland\nApril 7, 1908\nMr. H. O. Sampson, Calvert, Maryland.\nDear Sir:\nI mailed you yesterday samples from 50 ears, seed corn that I have kept\nin the kitchen during the winter.\nWill you please test the growing qualities of same and\nreport and oblige,\nVery truly yours,\n\nA stamped addressed envelope accompanied the letter for the return of the\nreport.\nThese samples were turned over to two boys in the second-year class who\narranged the seed tester according to the Holden method and assumed entire\ncharge of the testing. They will closely observe the progress of germination\nof the corn, set the boxes by the stove on cold nights, carry them home on\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nFriday nights in case there is danger of cold weather and in six or seven days\nprepare a report showing the percentage of kernels that germinated from each ear.\nThis service on the part of the school is of considerable assistance this year\nowing to the fact that so much of the seed corn thruout the country is low\ntn vitality. The work of the school has also resulted in several farmers\nundertaking to test their own seed corn. Some of these, it was related, were\nfarmers who have opposed the school and are not yet willing to come to it for\nassistance but are not so short-sighted as to refuse to make the most of valuable\nsuggestions reaching them indirectly from the school. I inquired diligently\nbut failed to hear of anyone who had ever tested seed corn in this vicinity\nbefore the work was taken up with the pupils in the Cecil County School.\nFIELD\n\nTRIPS\n\nThe field trip is employed as another means of illustrating the work of\nthe textbook, or perhaps it would be better to speak of it as a means of vitalizing\nthe work of the textbook. The pupils go out into the stone quarries or highway\ncuts to study the formation of soils, into the fields to study corn, alfalfa, and\nother field crops, into home yards and cemeteries to study shrubbery and ornamental trees, and to different nearby farms to study the farm animals, the\nconstruction of buildings, methods of farming, etc.\nSPECIAL\n\nEXERCISES\n\nAbout once a month a. special agricultural program is given on Friday\nafternoon between 2 130 and 4 o'clock. I had the pleasure of listening to one\nof these. The following is the program:\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nPROGRAM\n\nSong, School.\nRecitation, Esther White.\nEssay — \"Windbreaks for Fruit Orchards,\" Lucy Yerkes.\nEssay — \"How to Protect Plants from Unfavorable Environment,\" Ruth Murray.\nEssay — \"Selecting a Seed Corn Sample,\" Margaret Cameron.\nEssay — \"Plant Foods,\" Leonard Wilson.\nDebate:\n\"Resolved, That Tillage Is of More Importance Than Fertilizers.\"\nVictor Wilson,\nMaris Touchton,\nAffirmative.\nEarl Anderson,\nRobert Caruthers,\nNegative.\nEssay — \"Why Girls Should Study Agriculture,\" Mabel Barber.\nEssay — \"Some Interesting Facts We Have Learned About Agriculture,\" Norman\nland.\nRecitation, Edna Mayberry.\nSong, School.\n\nEng-\n\nI was much surprised at the facility of expression aind the originality displayed not only in the written exercises but also in the debate. I have taught\ncollege rhetoric and examined thousands of written exercises and I think I fully\nappreciate the difficulties confronting the teacher who has essay subjects to\nassign or the pupil who has a subject to select. I am also painfully aware of\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n417\n\nthe prevailing stiffness, woodenness, and lack of personality and originality\nin the average written exercises. I was happily surprised at the almost entire\nlack of such symptoms in the written exercises making up this agricultural\nprogram. The pupils had written about subjects which they had made their\nown, subjects upon which they had personal knowledge, and they had drawn\nupon their personal knowledge fully as much as upon books. The debate\nwas especially good. The debaters referred to the publications of the Maryland, the New York, and other experiment stations as authorities for their\nstatements and also drew upon their personal observations and knowledge\nfor illustrations. For young boys they were skillful in presentation and quick\nto take advantage of any weakness of the argument of their opponents.\nHOViT\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIS HELPING\n\nTHE\n\nFARMERS\n\nThe service of the school in testing seed corn for farmers has already been\nmentioned. A corn show was held at the schoolhouse recently and seventy\nsamples of corn were exhibited. There were a farmers' exhibit, a boys' exhibit,\nand a girls' exhibit. Some of the best-appearing samples at the corn show were\nsubsequently tested and found to be surprisingly low in vitality. This, according to a statement made to me by one of the patrons of the school, was a great\nsurprise to the farmers and led several of them directly to make application\nto the school to have their seed corn tested.\nThe school is aiding the farmers in a number of other ways. About a year\nago the principal of the school made arrangements with a farmer not far from\nthe schoolhouse to conduct a spraying demonstration to rid the farmer's\norchard of San Jose scale. The farmer pruned his orchard according to suggestions made by the principal and authorized the latter to procure for him a\nspraying outfit. The principal arranged with the state entomologist to order\nthe spraying outfit and later to come to Calvert and conduct a spraying demonstration. The state entomologist came to Calvert on Friday afternoon and\ngave the pupils a talk on insect friends and enemies. In the evening a public\nmeeting was held in the local church and farmers and their families from six to\neight miles around drove in to hear the lecture on spraying to combat the San\nJose scale and other harmful insects. On Saturday morning a meeting was\nheld in the orchard which had been prepared for the demonstration, and\npractically all of those who had attended the meeting on the previous evening\nwere on hand to see the demonstration. The state entomologist prepared the\nlime-sulphur-salt solution, explaining carefully each step in the process and\ncalling upon different farmers to describe what had been done. In this way he\nmade sure that everyone present comprehended each step in the operation.\nWhen everything was ready the tank of the spraying apparatus was filled and\nthe orchard was sprayed. It was far simpler and less laborious than many\nof the farmers had anticipated and as a result of this demonstration at least\nfour orchards have been sprayed this year which had never before been treated\nto an application of insecticide or fungicide.\n\nu\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "4l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nFarmers are coming to look upon the school as a sort of clearing-house for\ninformation. They call upon the principal to speak or get speakers at the\nfarmers' club. They apply to him for pupils to take part in their institute\nprograms. The newspapers of the county are anxious to have the pupils\nreport news items from the school each week and a number of them print at\nfrequent intervals essays on agricultural subjects written by the pupils. The\nschool has tested one sample of clover seed which was found to contain dodder\nand trefoil, and has sent ten samples of clover seed to the United States Department ofAgriculture to be tested. At the request of farmers it has forwarded samples of fertilizers to the state experiment stations for analysis.\nThe principal is frequently asked to get seeds for teachers in the surrounding\nschools, to identify varieties of apples, to tell the age of horses, and to perform\nother little services not only for the immediate patrons of the school but for\nfarmers living several miles beyond the home of the most distant pupil.\nAll of this indicates to me, not only that the Cecil County Agricultural\nSchool is fortunate in having a principal who commands the respect and confidence of the patrons of the school, but also that the most unpretentious\ncounty high school if given the right kind of teachers, teachers with the right\npoint of view toward country life, can be of immense service, not only to the\npupils who are enrolled in the school, but also to all of the patrons of the school.\nThe home and the school can be brought together to their mutual advantage.\nOPINIONS\n\nOF PATRONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nI talked with one or more of the parents in ten of the homes represented at\nthe Cecil County Agricultural School. Only three of these had any unfavorable criticisms to offer and only one of the three criticized the teaching of\nagriculture. Nearly all commended the work of the school in unqualified\nterms. I will give below substantially all the opinions expressed, designating\nthe different patrons by number.\nNo. I. — The father of two girls in the school who are glad to have an opportunity\nto study agriculture because they expect to teach in rural districts and think that the\nstudy of agriculture will help to make their work more successful.\nNo. 2. — Is one of the three trustees of the local county school. Is sure that the patrons\nlike the school better on account of agriculture being taught. Called attention to the\nvaluable work the school is doing for the farmers by testing their seed corn.\nNo. 3. — Mother of a boy in the preparatory class and a girl in the second-year class.\nIs well pleased with the school. Her children Uke agriculture better than most of the other\nsubjects taught.\nNo. 4. — Father of a boy in the preparatory class and a boy in the second-year class.\nThinks his boys are much interested in the study of agriculture. Is sure that the school\nis of great value to boys who have fallen behind and would not be able to carry the full\ncourse of study. (It seems that several such boys were allowed by the principal to take\nagriculture and such other work as they could handle.) The school is also reaching a\nnumber of boys of limited means whose parents would not be able to send them away to\nschool.\nNo. 5. — Father of a boy in the preparatory class. His boy \"just loves agriculture\nand that is the only thing he does like.\"\nThe boy could not be kept in school were it not\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Couucin\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n419\n\nfor his interest in agriculture. The mother of this boy agreed that the school was well\nsuited to the needs of the boys but thought that a local normal school would be better for\nthe girls, many of whom expect to teach.\nNo. 6. — Father of a boy in the preparatory class and a boy in the second-year class.\nHas taken both boys out of school because he needs them on the farm. Criticizes the\nteachers for leaving the schoolhouse at the noon recess, but had nothing to say against the\nteaching of agriculture. Thinks it would be of great service to the boys if they could\ncontinue in school and to him if his boys could stay with him.\nNo. 7. — Father of a boy in the preparatory class. Is well pleased with the school.\nHas no criticism to ofifer. Is in favor of the teaching of agriculture. The only unfavorable\ncriticisms he has heard came from people who have no children in school.\n\nI\n\nNo. 8. — Father of two boys in the preparatory class. Is well satisfied. Does not\nknow much about the school, but knows that his bojrs are interested in agriculture.\nNo. 9. — Father of a girl in the second-year class. Is dissatisfied. Was one of the\noriginal petitioners for the school but thinks it is not the right kind of school. He would\n\nprefer \"an ordinary graded high school. \"^ Thinks the pupils are pushed ahead too\nrapidly. Does not believe in teaching agriculture in the school. Thinks that the boys\nwho want to learn how to farm should spend several years as apprentices to such farmers\nas he is.\n\nNo. 10. — ^A country physician and father of two girls in the school. Gives unqualified\nindorsement to the school and believes it enables many boys and girls whose parents could\nnot afford to send them away to continue their education beyond the common schools.\nHe goes into practically every home represented in the school and finds very little\nunfavorable criticism.\nDIFFICULTIES\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nREMEDY\n\nOnly two serious difficulties have arisen in this school and these are by no\nmeans insurmountable. The first and most obvious difficulty is one common to\nall rural schools, that of keeping the large boys in school thruout the year.\nThese boys are needed on the farms and it seems impossible to get them\nstarted with the opening of school in September or to keep them after the\nrush of farm work begins in the spring.\nThe other difficulty is a financial one. The school is expensive. It will\ncost this year over $50 . 00 for each pupil. The question of expense was not\nraised by any of the patrons of the school with whom I talked, and it is not\nlikely that the patrons have felt the expense. With all of the funds coming\nfrom state and county taxes, the expense of conducting a new school is not felt\nin any one locality.\nI asked one man if his taxes had been much higher since the school had\nbeen running.\n\"Not a cent,\" was his immediate reply.\nBut the school board and other county and state officers charged with the\nadministration of public funds will discover sooner or later that this school is\ncosting more per pupil than some other larger high schools are costing and will\nthen demand a reason, and the reason given must be pretty direct and tangible\nor the funds will be cut down.\nBoth difficulties could be easily removed by consolidating three or four of\n« The course of study of the Calvert Agricultural High School follows closely the course laid down by\nthe: state superintendent for high schools in Maryland.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationai\n\nthe small schools near Calvert with the primary school and the high school at\nCalvert. Seven public roads converge at Calvert and on these roads there are\nat least two schools within easy walking-distance of Calvert and several others\nwithin a radius of three miles. For the pupils living outside of a radius of\none and a half miles school-wagon routes could be arranged with the greatest\nof ease.\nWith a strong consolidated school at Calvert the cost per pupil in the high\nschool could be considerably reduced. At the same time provision for the\nboys who have to work on the farms could be made by offering a six-months\ncourse opening October 15 and closing April 15. A plan similar to this has\nbeen followed with gratifying success in agricultural high schools in Minnesota,\nand Nebraska, where none of the courses are continued longer than six months\nin a year. The problem at Calvert would not be quite so simple because it\nwould be necessary to provide not only the six-months special courses for boys\nbut also the regular nine-months courses in the high school and the lower grades.\nIt is probable that some separate classes for the special pupils would have to\nbe organized in the fall and spring terms and th*is could be done by making the\nwork of the teacher of agriculture light in the regular classes in these two terms.\nBut whether changes are made or not the Cecil County Agricultural School\nis doing good work, unusually good for the size of the school and the resources\nat its command. There is nothing phenomenal about it. The school has\nmet with popular approval simply because a good teacher, trained in agriculture\nand familiar with the needs of the rural community, is making the most of the\nmeans at his command to train his pupils to know, use, and enjoy the common\nthings around them on the farm.\nTHE JOHN SWANEY CONSOLIDATED\nMAGNOLIA\nTOWNSHIP, PUTNAM\n\nCOUNTRY\nCOUNTY,\n\nSCHOOL IN\nILLINOIS\n\nO. J. KERN\n\nThe John Swaney Consolidated Country School is located in Magnolia\nTownship, Putnam County, Illinois, beside a country road, two miles from\nthe small village of McNabb. The building stands near the north side of a\nbeautiful campus consisting of twenty-four acres of timber pasture. This\ncampus was donated by Mr. John Swaney, a farmer of moderate circumstances,\na man who believes in better things for country children. His was a worthy\ndeed in behalf of a worthy cause and should prove a suggestion and an inspiration to public-spirited farmers in other communities.\nThis consolidated school is an illustration of the fundamental fact that if the\ncountry people want better schools in the country for country children they\nmust spend more money for education and spend it in a better way. There is\nno other way. It is comparatively easy for a speaker before a farmers' institute meeting to gain the intellectual assent of the average farming community\nto the above monetary proposition. But to go to the farmers on the morning\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n421\n\nafter, and get their financial consent to vote bonds for a better equipment and\nmake an increased tax levy for a better teaching force is quite a different matter.\nAnd yet this is actually what must be done, and is what has been done in Magnolia township.\nSOME\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nDATA\n\nUnit of organization. — ^The consolidated district comprises three ordinary\ncountry-school districts that were consolidated by due process under the\nIllinois school law.\nLand area and valuation. — ^The consolidated district comprises fourteen\nsections of land and the assessed valuation under the Illinois revenue law is\none hundred seventy-nine thousand dollars ($179,000). By the Illinois\nrevenue law the assessed valuation is supposed to represent one-fifth of the\nfair cash value. It is upon the assessed valuation that all taxes are levied.\nThe selling price of improved farms which comprise three-fourths of the\ndistrict is $150 per acre. The selling price of the timber land which comprises\nthe remaining one-fourth is $75 per acre.\nSchool levy. — ^The school levy for the school year of 1907-8 was $2,900 for\nthe building fund to pay bonds issued for the erection of the new building, and\n$3,900 for general educational purposes: securing better teachers, janitor\nservice, etc. Twenty pupils are paying tuition at present, bringing in an annual\nrevenue of $375. Practically all the money raised for school purposes in Illinois is raised by local taxation.\nTHE BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT\nThe school is housed in a $12,000 two and a half-story brick building,\ncontaining four recitation rooms, two laboratories, a large auditorium, two\nlibrary and office-rooms, a boys' manual-training room, a girls' playroom,\nfurnace-room and cloakrooms. All are lighted with gasoline gas generated by\na plant, the reservoir of which is stored outside of the building. The laboratories are also furnished with gas from this plant. The building is heated with\nsteam and furnished with running water supplied by an air-pressure system.\nThe building and equipment cost $16,000.\nDonations. — There are people living in this consolidated district and\ncommunity who are unselfish enough and who have sufficient faith in the\nconsolidation of schools to aid the movement by material gifts. As a consequence the beautiful campus of twenty-four acres was donated by Mr. John\nSwaney. County Superintendent G. W. Hunt gave a set of manual-training\ntools. Besides these, the John A. Kay's estate, W. G. Griffith, F. E. Smith,\nJohn Wilson, Perry Mills, W. L. Mills, and Louis Priebe gave neat sums of\nmoney.\nIn all about $2,000, besides the grounds, were donated to the school.\nTRANSPORTATION\n\nWagons and cost. — Two teams are employed in bringing in the children\nfrom two of the old districts. The wagons cost $175 each and are owned by\nthe district. Distance, round trip for one wagon, is nine miles, and nine and\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\none-half miles for the other. Drivers of the wagons are farmer boys living in\nthe community who are in the high-school room. The horses are put in the\nschool barn located on the campus. Each team costs $40 per month for\ntwenty-two round trips, thus making an outlay of $1.82 per day for each wagon.\nAs each wagon carries twenty children the cost per pupil daily is nine cents,\nabout the price of two street car fares in a city.\nGrounds. — No finer environment, perhaps, can be found for a country\nschool. The grounds, twenty-four acres in extent, are dotted with groups of\nthe native forest trees. It is the purpose of the district to beautify the grounds\nstill further according to a plan prepared by the Horticultural Department of\nthe Illinois College of Agriculture.\nThe teachers^ home. — Four or five farmers at their own expense fitted up\none of the abandoned schoolhouses for a teachers' home, thus solving the problem of a boarding-place for the teachers. The cost to the farmers was $500.\nThe teachers pay nine dollars a month rent and hire an elderly woman for\nhousekeeper. The teachers club together for the living expenses of the home.\nJanitor^s home. — An old tenant building located on the school grounds\nwas fitted up for a janitor's home. The janitor has charge of the grounds,\nschool building, and stables. He receives a salary of $30 per month and pays\n$5 dollars per month rent for his home.\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nHigh school. — The course of study for the high school is given here in full.\nThe reader will note that agriculture, manual training, and domestic art\nhave a very important place along with the \"culture\" studies of the ordinary\nhigh-school course. The high-school course in the John Swaney Consolidated School is being flavored with country life and its interests.\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nFirst Semester\nSecond Semester\nEnglish I.\nEnglish I.\nAlgebra.\nAlgebra.\nPhysiology.\nPhysical Geography.\nAgronomy I, or Latin.\nHorticulture or Latin.\nHousehold Science or Manual Training. Household Science or Manual Training.\nSECOND\n\nEngUsh II.\nAlgebra 10 weeks.\nGeometry 10 weeks.\nZoology.\nAncient History.\nDrawing.\nTHIRD\n\nEnglish III.\nChemistry.\nAgronomy II, or Latin or Household\nScience.\nEnglish History.\n\nYEAR\n\nEngUsh II.\nGeometry.\nBotany.\nAncient History 10 weeks.\nAnimal Husbandry or Household Science 10\nweeks.\nMusic.\nYEAR\n\nEnglish III.\nChemistry.\nAnimal\nHusbandry\n'Science.\nEnglish,,History.\n\nor Latin or Household\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nFOURTH\n\nEnglish IV.\nPhysics.\nHousehold Science or Agronomy III.\nAmerican History.\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n423\n\nYEAR\n\nEnglish IV.\nPhysics.\nBookkeeping 10 weeks.\nArithmetic 10 weeks.\nCivics.\n\nA brief outline of the work in manual training, household science, and\nagriculture is here given.\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nSCIENCE\n\nTwo and one-half years' work is offered in household science. The course runs\nparallel with that of the manual training and a part of the agriculture, and is elective.\nIt includes an elementary study of:\nI. The composition and nutritive value of our common foods.\nII. Their relation to the needs of the body.\n•\nIII. The principles of cooking of different foods.\nBesides this some work will be done in sewing and raflSa weaving.\nThe first year only two hours a week are devoted to the work.\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTwo hours a week during both semesters of the first year will be devoted to manual\ntraining. The course will be made up of a study of the construction of our common tools\nand of the structure of different kinds of woods. Bench work will be done; this work\nwill occupy most of the time.\nAGRICULTURE — AGRONOMY\n\nI\n\nThis course consists of a study of the seeds of our common grasses, grains, and garden\nvegetables. Some of the subjects noted are: the separation, identification, germination,\nand vitality of these seeds. The corn score card is also studied, and practical work in\nscoring is done. Along with this is a study of our most harmful weeds, and modes of\neradicating them. Shaw's Weeds and How to Eradicate Them is used as a text. Bulletins from experiment stations are made use of.\nAGRONOMY\n\nII — SOIL PHYSICS\n\nIn this course a study is made of the physical features of the soil. The origin of soils;\ndifferent types of soils, and their characteristics; the composition of these soils and their\nbehavior under different treatments are some of the subjects which will be considered.\nThe work from the text will be supplemented by laboratory exercises which will occupy\nhalf the time given to the course.\nLaboratory work will be recorded in notebooks.\n,\n\nAGRONOMY\n\nIII — SOIL FERTILITY\n\nIn this course the chemical constituents of the soil will be considered. The effects of\nthe rotation of crops and the different systems of farming will be noted. Laboratory\nwork will accompany the recitation work. Bulletins from the experiment stations will be\nmade use of. Notebooks will be kept.\nANIMAL\n\nHUSBANDRY— ANIMAL\n\nHUSBANDRY\n\nI\n\nThis course occupies the second half of the semester and takes up the study of swine;\nmarket classes and their grades, the breeding and care of swine, and judging will be studied.\nANIMAL\n\nHUSBANDRY\n\nII\n\nThis includes a semester's work, the first half of which will include a study of the\nprinciples of feeding.\nThe second half will be given to the judging of horses and cattle.\nHORTICULTURE\n\nThis course takes up the principles of fruit growing. The following subjects\nrespecting fruit lands are considered: Location and climate, tillage, fertilizing, planting,\nand incidental care. Diseases of fruits, insects which injure fruits, and spraying are also\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n424\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nStudied, Pruning receives much\nattention.\nField trips and laboratory work supplement\nthe texts, which are The Principles of Fruit Growing,\nand The Pruning Book, both by L.\nH. Bailey\nEXPERIMENT STATION\nSERIES I\n\n1\n\n2\n\n3\n\nIn order that the state may learn the\nneeds and methods of improvement of\nthe different large soil areas, experiment\nstations are established in these areas;\nin all there are now twenty-three. One\nof these stations is now being installed\nadjoining the campus on the east. This\nstation contains a plat of ground consisting of six acres, and is divided into four\nseries with five breeding plats in each\nseries. This is to be conducted by the\nstate, but the school will have the privilege of observing the work of the station,\nand will have access to the records of\nresults.\nA plan of the grounds is given here :\nSeries I will be planted to corn;\nseries II to oats and clover; series III\nto oats; series IV to cow peas, in 1907.\nPlats 2 and 4 have been fertilized with\nrock phosphate.\nThe others were not.\n\n4\n\n5\n\n4\n\n5\n\n4\n\n5\n\n4\n\n5\n\nTHE\n\nGRADES\n\nSERIES II\n\n2\n\n3\n\nSERIES III\n\n1\n\n2\n\n3\n\nSERIES\n\n2\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nIV\n\n3\n\nSTUDY\n\nFOR\n\nBELOW\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nROOM\n\nThe pupils below the high school are grouped in two rooms in the same\nbuilding and are taught by two normal graduates. The teachers are experienced and trained for their work. They are paid a salary of $60 per month\neach for a school year of nine months. The principal is also a normal-school\ngraduate with one year and a half additional training in the Illinois College\nof Agriculture and receives $100 per month. His assistant in the high school\nis also teacher of domestic science with special training for this work, and\nreceives the same salary as the grade teachers.\nThe course of study for the first eight grades is that adopted for the country\nschools of lUinois, known as the State Course of Study for the Common\nSchools of Illinois. A copy may be obtained from C. M. Parker, publisher,\nTaylorville, Illinois. As far as the industrial features of this course are concerned itincludes the following lines of work:\n1. Construction work for the first and second grades.\n2. Bench work for the eighth grade.\n3. Household arts in connection with the physiology for seventh and eighth grades.\n4. Course in argiculture for the seventh and eighth grades.\n\nIt is not thought necessary to give the outlines in full in this report.\nTHE WORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe first room visited was the primary room. The room was attractive\nin every respect, showing that a person of taste had charge of the instruction\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n425\n\nof the little ones. This is in strong contrast to the interior of many country\nschoolrooms. Here was a trained teacher with but four grades, instead of the\nentire eight with perhaps only four or five primary pupils. These four or five\nbeginners, in so many country schools as now organized and taught, are the\nvery ones that are neglected.\nOne objection to consolidation is that country people fear the evils of a\ncrowded graded school. This must be guarded against of course, and the\nunit must be small enough so that the school shall not be crowded, but remain\na local school and near the people. This can be done when only three country\ndistricts are grouped together. The mistake in consolidation is bringing the\nchildren to the town school. The country school then has disappeared. To\nbe sure, a village of three or four hundred is essentially rural, but to consolidate\nwith a center much above five hundred in population in general will weaken\nthe country interest and take away the effect of the school as a force in the\nsocial life of the country community.\nIn this primary room there were flowers on the teacher's desk and the organ.\nThe presence of the organ showed that the teacher knew something about\nmusic and that the children were being taught it as a part of their education.\nThe teacher could find time for it in the organization of the school with only\nfour grades to teach instead of eight. There were not so many different recitations as in the ungraded country school, and consequently longer time for the\nclass exercises. A beginner's class in reading was listened to with delight.\nThis trained teacher had good methods and the primary pupils were learning\nto read in the right way. If the average patron of the country school could\nlisten to this class exercise in reading and then listen to the alleged reading\nin many country schools as now taught, surely he would have a more open\nmind toward better teachers and better organized schools. A work table was\nat one end of the room and while one class was on the floor reciting, the smaller\nones, especially, were grouped about this table seated on small kindergarten\nchairs and engaged in some occupation work of an educational character.\nThis is in strong contrast to the occupations of primary children in the average\ncountry school. Too often they do nothing most of the day, either because\nthe teacher does not know what to do with them, or cannot find time for what\nshe would like to do.\nThis teacher found time to give the children instruction in form and color;\nhence the work in clay-modeling and water color. It is not deemed necessary\nhere to enlarge upon this in the education of country children. It is valuable,\nand this teacher was securing some good results. When these pupils finish\nthe primary grades under training of the character they were receiving, even\nif they never pass through the high schools, they will have a finer insight into\ncountry life, for this teacher was utilizing the material surrounding this school.\nThe room was glorified with the autumn beauty. Many variously colored\nleaves from the beautiful trees on the campus were used in the schoolroom\ndecoration for the week. Contrast this with what actually obtains in thousands\nof country schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nThe outlines for construction work for the month of November for the first\ngrade, as given in the course of study referred to above, are as follows:\nContinue cutting and tearing to illustrate stories. Cut wigwams, bow and arrows,\ntomahawk, etc. Continue to use an occasional lesson in cutting from memory and objects. Use shoe pegs and tooth picks in arranging design on desk. Fold pyramid,\nThanksgiving basket. Combine house, ' square prism, and pyramid in making church.\nFold Mayflower, cradle, and lanterns.\n\nThe November outline for construction work in the second grade is as\nfollows:\nLet the cutting and constructive work relate directly to the Thanksgiving work.\nFree cutting of turkey, pumpkin, Indian, Puritan, etc. Arrange these to form a complete\npicture. Make Puritan cradle, bonnet, canoe, wigwam, quiver, bow and arrow, moccasins, candle stick, lantern. Thanksgiving basket. Present a completed exercise and have\npupils construct one like it without direction from the teacher. Teach pupils to understand the drawing of a pattern when drawn on the board. This will lead to the translation\nof a working drawing. Discriminate between a pattern and a working drawing. Plan\nsuitable decorations by cutting from the paper desired units to be repeated in borders\nor surface designs.\n\nThe exhibition of the work the pupils had done, as shown on the walls,\nreveals what the country children can do if they have wise educational leadership. The children in this room were having their training related to their\nenvironment. To do this there must be a trained teacher with a s)niipathetic\ninsight into country life. This teacher seemed to have the insight and also the\noutlook. Such work is possible in the one-room country school, of course, if the\nright kind of a teacher is there; but with the consolidation of three small\nschools, or four at most, there are decided advantages. There is more likelihood of getting better teachers; somewhat larger classes can be formed, thus\ngetting the enthusiasm that usually comes with numbers; better equipment\nis assured; larger school grounds are a certainty and a necessity; the social\nlife of the child is enriched; and best of all, the school of three or four districts\nconsolidated into one, out in the country, is still a local country school, and\nwith telephones and transportation is nearer to the activities of all the people\nof the larger unit than was the one -room country school of twenty-five years\nago to the people of the then smaller unit. There is danger in making the consolidated unit too large. The writer pleads guilty to the fact of only a limited\nexperience in consolidation. But it is his judgment that for the average\ntownship of six miles square with ten one-room country schools, instead of\ncombining all ten near the geographical center, or with a town school of two or\nthree thousand population not at the center, the farm would be better served,\ncountry life preserved, and agriculture spritualized, if the ten country schools\nwere consolidated into three groups according to conditions, with the highschool work attempted in but one, and that school located as near as possible\nto the center of the township, the central school doing high-school work,\nhaving an additional force of instructors. To this central school all the older\npupils could go who have finished the eighth grade of the three consolidated\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "427\nCouncfll\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nschools. Consolidation must come, but it must come in response to natural\nneeds to suit local conditions. This is true at the John Swaney Consolidated\nSchool in Magnolia township. It will cost more than the ordinary one-room\nschool. It should cost more for it gives better service.\nThe grammar-room was visited where are the fifth, sixth, seventh, and\neighth grades under the direction of a teacher, a graduate of a state normal, a\nperson trained for the specific work of the teacher. A recitation in United\nStates history was listened to. The Impression produced on the listener was\nthat the academic work was being well done. Here was a class in history\ntaught by a person who knew history and its methods of presentation. There\nwas time for a recitation. The pupils, under the questioning of the teacher,\nrevealed whether they had mastered the lesson or not, and in the character\nof these statements revealed the method of work. There was clean-cut, clear,\ndefinite work in the ordinary academic subjects of the country-school course.\nThere was an objective point and the pupils were shown how to arrive. Contrast this with the average country school taught by the average teacher with\nfrom twenty-five to thirty-two daily recitations, and consider how much definite\nwork could be expected from a recitation period of seven minutes in history\nor geography ? That there are one-room country schools in which good work\nis being done under such conditions only emphasizes what better results could\nbe obtained under more favorable conditions. And the favorable conditions\nare here in this consolidated school, viz., a trained teacher; better organization;\nbetter equipment. These are fundamental in making better country schools.\nThe agricultural work done in this grade was according to the outlines\ngiven in the state course. The visitor was shown some drawing work of the\npupils where an ear of corn was the subject. There was a collection of short\npapers on thoroughbred stock, written by pupils, both as the result of observation and reading. The history of course would come from reading, while\neconomic facts, etc., would come from talks with fathers and those owning\nsuch breeds as were under discussion. Thus two school studies, language and\ndrawing, at least, were being vitalized by the farm. The pupils were studying\nthe score card for judging live stock and com. This in an elementary way,\nof course, leaving a more scientific study for the high school. Pupils had made\na collection of leaves which were studied at the proper time. There was good\nwater-color work being done by pupils of this room.\nThus these country boys\nand girls were getting fundamental ideas of harmony of color and symmetry\nof form based on the life around them.\nWhy ? Because this is a necessary\npart of their education and there was a trained teacher here who could give the\nnecessary instruction.\nThe outlines in agriculture as given for the month of November for the\nseventh, and also for the eighth grade, here follow :\nMONTH\n\nOF NOVEMBER— SEVENTH\n\nGRADE\n\nI. What insects have damaged the crops of the year in your district?\nthe damage and the extent of the loss.\n\nDescribe\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n2. Stick a pin into a rotten apple and then into a sound one. Put the sound apple\naway and look at it every few days. Record what you find. Place another sound apple\nwhich has been treated in the same way in a refrigerator. Examine frequently and compare its condition with the apple kept in the temperature of the outside air. Explain the\ndifferences.\nWhat do the results suggest?\n3. Make a map of the farm on which you live or of some farm in the district.\n4. What farm, garden, and orchard plants reproduce only from seeds ? What ones\nby some other method than by seed ? What ones will not produce valuable varieties (not\n\"come true\") by seed ? (Read Farmers^ Bulletin No. 157.)\n5. Fill one fruit jar with sand, another with loam, both free from sticks, stones, or\nother foreign matter; put on the cover loosely without rubber. Set in a warm place\nimtil well dried out. Weigh and determine the amount of soil. Then turn the cans\nbottom up in a dish of water. Note the comparative rapidity with which water will rise\non the soil within the cans, when it has reached all the soil of each. Then dry them out\nagain slowly, see which soil retains its moisture longest, and compute the amount taken\nup by each.\n(Read Goodrich, First Book of Farming, chapter iv.)\n6. On how many days last year did the sun shine ?\nHOME\n\nWORK\n\n7. Find how much a horse will eat in a month, and what will it cost to keep him a\nyear.\n\n(Read Farmers' Bulletin No. 22.)\n8. Where does a spavin grow on a horse? Sidebone? Splint? Curb? Thoropin? What does \"knee sprung\" mean? Ask a horseman. (Read Mcintosh, Diseases\nof Horses and Cattle, chap, xix.)\n\n9. Find what is a day's work at the following: Plowing; cultivating com; husking\ncom on the hill; husking from the shock; cutting wheat with the binder; shocking wheat;\nthreshing; cutting hay; digging a ditch three feet deep for tile; digging a ditch three and\none-half feet deep for tile.\n10. Make an inventory of all the machinery used on the farm on which you live, with\nthe cost of each piece.\nMONTH\n\nOF NOVEMBER— EIGHTH\n\nGRADE\n\n1. Name some insects injurious to crops which have (a) biting mouth-parts; some\ninsects which have (6) sucking mouth-parts. What kind of treatment is used to destroy\nthe first class of insects ? What for the second class ? (Read Bailey, Principles of Agriculture, pp. 166-69.)\n2. What insect pests cause greatest loss to the apple growers in your section ? Write\nin your notebooks a description of one of these pests. (Read University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 108, 114, and Circular No. 107.)\n3. Weigh a bushel of ears of corn just as it runs in husking. How many ears in the\nbushel ? Find the length of each ear. What is the average length of all the ears ? Select\nthe best twenty ears in the bushel. What is their average length? Find the circumference (measured at one-third the distance from butt to tip) of these twenty ears. What\nis the average circumference of these ears ? What is the ratio of the average circumference\nto the average length ? Select the best ten ears and the poorest ten ears in the bushel.\nWeigh and record the weight of each ear. Shell each ear and weigh its cob. The weight\nof ear less the weight of its cob equals the weight of grain. Find the percentage of weight\nof grain to weight of ear in each of the ears in these two sets of ten. In what ears, best\nor poorest, is the percentage highest ?\n4. What are the symptoms of colic in a horse ? What are the common causes for\ncolic in horses ? What is the proper treatment for a horse suffering with the colic ? (Read\nMcintosh, Diseases of Horses and Cattle, pp. 50-56.)\n5. What is meant by a \"balanced ration\" for a dairy cow? Why is such a ration\nimportant ? What foods ordinarily fed to dairy cows are especially rich in carbohydrates ?\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIKS\n\n429\n\nWhat in fats ? What in protein materials ? What would be a properly balanced daily\nration for a cow giving thirty pounds of milk a day ? (Read Farmers' Bulletin No. 22.)\n6. Select a young fruit tree (apple, plum, or cherry) for study. By the use of a stepladder carefully examine all of the branches. Can you tell by any marks on the twigs\nthe amount of growth each branch has made during this season ? What is the greatest\nlength in inches of this year's growth made by any twig ? Does the rate of growth vary on\ndifferent parts of the tree ? Explain as well as you can why this is so. Make a careful\ndrawing of this tree. (Refer to Bailey's Pruning-Book. Read Cornell Nature-Study\nLeaflet XXXI.)\n7. How many pounds of hay and how many pounds of grain per day are required\nfor a 1 200-pound horse doing ordinary farm work ? Would a heavier horse require more ?\nWhy ? Is less required when the horse is not working ? Why ? Would it be as well to\nfeed all hay, or all grain ? Why ? Should a horse be given water before, or after feeding ?\nWhy ? (Read Farmers' Bulletin No. 22.)\nTHE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nThis room was visited in the afternoon and a recitation in agronomy was\nthe first exercise. The first- and second-year classes were combined for this\nparticular recitation. Corn was the subject of study with Reid's Yellow Dent\nas the particular variety. Each pupil had brought com from home and they\nwere studying samples according to the Score Card adopted by the Illinois\nCorn Growers' Association. The principal of the school called on each member of the class to state which ear of the number he had brought had the best\ntips, the best butts, and the various items as given on the score card. The\npupils were required to give a reason for their answers. The answers revealed\nthat some observation and thinking had been done. Shapes of ears, kernel\nshape, yields or variety, etc., were discussed. While this was going on, two\nboys in the soil-study class were testing soils for loss of organic matter. Types\nof both the cropped and uncropped soils were being used for this test. The\ngasoline plant in connection with the building furnished the heat for the experimental work as well as the domestic science work. The air-pressure water\ntank in the basement furnished water necessary for laboratory purposes.\nIn the regular science work an earnest effort was being made, with success,\nto correlate with the environment of the pupil. Thus the zoology correlated\nwith fall agriculture. Emphasis was being placed on the life-history of insects\nas related to the farm, their economic value, etc. The principal took the pupils\nto the fields and made an examination of corn roots to find the insects injurious\nto corn. A new insect was discovered and sent to the College of Agriculture\nat the University of Illinois, for identification. In addition to the regular\ntext on zoology, use was made of the United States entomological bulletins\nand the very valuable reports of Professor Forbes, who, under special appropriation of the Illinois legislature, is making most important investigations with\nreference to insects injurious to the Illinois farmer. No more valuable bulletin in that particular subject has been printed than the one by Professor\nForbes on Insects Injurious to Indian Corn. The future farmers in this\nsch(\nschool were having this information brought in as a part of their science work,\nin economic zoology.\nThis could be done in this country school, with a high-\n\nIL\n'U\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfNational\n\nschool course flavored with country Hfe and its interests, for two reasons\nmainly: first, the school was so organized and equipped that it was possible\nto relate the laboratory and classroom with the immediate environment of the\npupils; second, there was a trained teacher with a sympathetic insight into the\nconditions of country life, and a realization of the importance of vitalizing\nthese conditions in the training of country children; a teacher who vitalized\nhis science work with a study of environment; a country high-school science\nteacher who did not put the emphasis on the oyster or the lower forms of\nmarine life.\nLikewise with botany: the pupils did have notebooks in their science\nwork; they did make drawings of flowers, plants, and insects; they did mount\nspecimens, etc. But they went farther. They planted seeds at \"school and\nhome and made a study in an experimental way to discover the relations of\nplants to soil, water, climate, etc.\nIn the soil work the instruction was practical and scientific. In this subject, especially, one could note how this high school was putting these farmer\nboys in touch with the great soil work carried on by the Illinois College of\nAgriculture under the direction of Dr. C. G. Hopkins. In classroom and\nlaboratory, use was being made of King's The Soil, Hosier's Soil Physics (this\na laboratory manual), and bulletins from the Illinois experiment station.\nLast but not least, the school had access to the experimental plot of six acres\nadjoining the school campus. The Illinois College of Agriculture has a ninetynine year lease on this small field and under the direction of the faculty of this\ncollege some valuable experimental work is being carried on, not only in soil\nimprovement, but in crop rotation, farm practices, etc. This being close to\nthe school, as was stated, it becomes a valuable out-door laboratory for both\nthe school and the farmer of the consolidated district. The three and onehalf years' work in agriculture are made just as scientific as the physics or\nchemistry work. The horticulture work is made as scientific as the botany\nwork in the ordinary high school. Thus in economic entomology, worms\nworking on vegetation were brought to the schoolroom and placed in jars.\nCages were shown that had been made by the pupils for the larva, and as soon\nas the larva had passed into the pupa state this pupa was put away in a safe\nplace for spring study. Some specimens were being preserved in formaldehyde.\nIn the agronomy work a collection was made of the worst weeds on the farm\nto be studied in connection with the text. There were small bottles of seeds.\nA collection especially noted, collected by a boy, contained the following\ninj^irious weed seeds: Spanish needles, pepper grass, mustard, plantain,\ntickle grass, giant rag weed, fox tail, rag weed, wild parsnip, lamb's quarter,\nwild sunflower, horse mint, sand burr, cockle burr.\nThe building was well equipped with the necessary laboratories. One\nmember of the school board is a graduate of the University of Illinois and a\nfarmer. A second is a graduate of the Central Illinois State Normal School\nand also a farmer. The third member of the board is an intelligent farmer,\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n431\n\nand their wisdom is strikingly shown in the way they have equipped the school\nbuilding for doing good work. This is possible in a consolidated school that\nfits local conditions; and lastly, a consolidated school with a board and community actuated by liberal ideas and right ideals in the equipment of a building\nand the employment of trained teachers to manage the educational plant for\ntraining boys and girls in the life they now live.\nShopwork in manual training was not in progress at the time this visit was\nmade, but the visitor did see the domestic-science work in the chemistry laboratory. All years of the high school were represented. Cream of wheat was the\nespecial subject of study for the day. The girls were getting a training in food\nvalues, chemistry of foods, preparation of food for the table, etc. The teacher\nhad training for this special work, and in addition taught Latin and English\nas a part of her regular high-school work. The principal taught agriculture,\nmanual training, science, and some mathematics. The literature, language, and\nsome history were taught by the domestic-science teacher. These country girls\nwere having their school work related to the home life in a most helpful manner.\nSome of this may be done in the one-room school as now organized, provided\nthe proper equipment and a properly prepared teacher are furnished, but it\nwill then be a very expensive school, based on the day's average attendance.\nEven thus vitalized it will still lack the social enrichment possible in the larger\nunit. And it is the larger social participation that must enrich the life of country people. This social efficiency must come through education. The ideal\nconditions seem to obtain at the John Swaney Consolidated School. The\nunit is not so large as to take away the local character of the school. It is\nstill a country school beside a country road. And the work of the schoolroom\nis not entirely industrial. It seems that a right balance of educational values\nis being maintained.\nA few schools like this one are needed, scattered over the country, to show\nwhat is really possible for thousands of farming communities. With that there\nmust be some medium to let those communities know what is going on out on\nthe front line of country-school improvement. That medium, whatever it is,\nmust be a medium thoroly in sympathy with country life and its interests\nand occupations.\nTHE\n\nCONGRESSIONAL\n\nDISTRICT AGRICULTURAL\nOF GEORGIA\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nO. J. KERN\n\nIntroductory. — ^No attempt here will be made to set forth an argument for\nor against the congressional district agricultural school. The school man in\nOhio, a state which it is claimed now has one-tenth of the total number of high\nschools in the United States, may advocate the introduction of agriculture,\nmanual training, and domestic arts into the course of study for these high\nschools and thus bring industrial education much nearer to all the boys and\ngirls on the farms than could be done in one secondary school for the entire\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfNationai\n\ncongressional district. The school man in Illinois may claim that consolidation of country schools and the already existing small high schools in towns\nand villages furnish the type of schools suitable for industrial education in\nIllinois, while the Wisconsin school man may claim that in addition to the\nconsolidated school and the existing town and village high schools there is\nneeded the county school of agriculture as a distinct type of the secondary\nschool for country communities. This report attempts to settle none of these\ncontentions. The data here given for the congressional district schools of\nGeorgia were obtained by the writer as a result of a personal visit to two of the\nschools in April, 1908. Conditions in Georgia differ very much from the\nconditions in Ohio, Illinois, and Wisconsin. The high school has no legal\nstanding in Georgia, for by constitutional restriction education in that state\nso far as state aid is concerned, below the state university, is limited to the first\nseven grades of the elementary school. The educational leaders hope soon to\nhave the constitutional restriction removed. In the meantime, considering the\nlack of sufl5cient number of local high schools and considering also that the\none-room country school as now administered does nbt and cannot furnish\nall the training demanded by the boys and girls living on the farm, the congressional district school of agriculture comes as an inspiration and a positive\nhelp. Two things need to be guarded with respect to these schools, and of this\nthe educational leaders of Georgia are fully aware: first, that the school of\nagriculture, manual training, and domestic art, does not lose its industrial\nflavor and become an ordinary high school preparing for a liberal arts course\nin some college where the trend is away from the farm; second, that the state\nlegislature must not fail to support the splendid foundations thus laid so that\nin actual farm practices, laboratory, and shopwork, as well as academic\nwork, these schools may meet the fondest expectations of those who have\ntoiled so earnestly to establish them. The era of settlement has passed and\nnow has come the period of development. It is for the educational interests\nof Georgia to show to the country the value of this particular type of school\nfor the farm and the country home.\nThe schools visited were those of Americus and Monroe. Before an\naccount is given of what was seen, here follows the act of the legislature establishing those schools, and the tentative course of study adopted for them, so\nthat a clearer idea may be obtained with respect to the relation of the congressional district agricultural schools to the state school system, and of the work\nto be undertaken in them. Note the relation to the State College of\" Agriculture. The act creating these schools passed the legislature in August,\n1906.\n\nA BILL\n\nTo be entitled an Act to provide for the establishment and maintenance of schools of\nagriculture and the mechanic arts in the respectiv econgressional districts of this state.\nSection i. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, and it\nis hereby enacted by authority of the same, That the governor is hereby authorized to\nestablish and cause to be maintained in each congressional district of the state an industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "CounciJl\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n433\n\nand agricultural school in accordance with the further provisions of this act. Said schools\nshall be branches of the State College of Agriculture, a department of the University of\n(Georgia. The general board of trustees of the university shall exercise such supervision\nas in their judgment may be necessary to secure unity of plan and efficiency in said schools.\nSec. 2. Be it further enacted, That all fees received from the inspection of fertilizers,\noils, and alf other inspection fees received by the Department of Agriculture in this state,\nafter the present year, over the expenses of such inspection, and after any portion of said\nfund otherwise appropriated, shall be used as a fund for the purpose of establishing and\nmaintaining such schools, and, as far as practicable, be equally divided between such\nschools, and the said governor is authorized to pay to the trustees of said schools, from\ntime to time, their respective portions of said fund.\nSec. 3. Be it further enacted. That the governor is authorized and directed to\nappoint from each county in the respective congressional districts one trustee for the school\nto be established in such districts; such trustee to hold office for the term of six years from\nhis appointment and until his successor is appointed, and that the trustees selected in each\ndistrict shall constitute a board of trustees for the school in said district, with power to\ncontrol the management of said school, and make rules and regulations for the same,\nsubject to the provisions of this act.\nSec. 4. Be it further enacted. That the governor shall be authorized to receive from\nany county, or any of the citizens thereof, a donation of a tract of land in such county, not\nless than two hundred acres, on which to locate a school for the district in which such\ncounty is situated, together with any additional donation in the way of buildings and\nmoney; and if there are two or more ofiFers of such donations, the governor, with the aid\nof the trustees of such school, shall select w^hich to accept, taking into consideration the\ntitle, value, the centralness of location, accessibility and suitableness in any respect for the\npurpose intended, and upon the acceptance of any such donation, and the execution of\nproper deeds vesting title in the trustees, within a reasonable time, the school for said\ndistrict shall be established on the tract selected; with the right to select another locality\nshould such deeds not be made to the satisfaction of the governor. And if no such donation\nis made or perfected in any district within one year from passage of this act the pro rata\nshare of the fund going to said district shall go into and be prorated in the regular common\nschool fund in said district.\nSec. 5. Be it further enacted. That the principal of said schools shall, under the\ndirection of the trustees, keep an account of all receipts from the sale of the products of\nthe farm or shops which are not consumed in said school, and one-half of said receipts for\neach year shall be set aside as a fund to pay the students. That each pupil, having performed to the satisfaction of the principal his duties for an entire school year, shall receive\nhis pro rata of said fund, the amount going to each pupil not to exceed one hundred dollars,\nand the balance, if any, to be replaced in the general fund of the school.\nSec. 6. Be it further enacted. That the course of studies in said schools shall be\nconfined to the elementary branches of an English education, and practical treatises or\nlectures on agriculture in all its branches, and the mechanic arts, and such other studies as\nwill enable students completing the course to enter the Freshman class of the State College\nof Agriculture on certificate of the principal.\nSec. 7. Be it further enacted. That the faculty of such schools shall consist of the\nprincipal, who shall be an intelUgent farmer; one superintendent and instructor in farm\nwork; one intelligent mechanic, who shall direct and instruct in all mechanical work in and\nout of the shops; one practical instructor in care of stock and dairying; one instructor in\nEnglish, and such other instructors and assistants as the funds of the college will permit.\nThat the trustees may dispense with and combine the duties of any of the above, as necessity may require, and it shall be the duty of said instructors in said school to co-operate\nin conducting farmers' institutes and farm and stock demonstrations in the several counties\nof their respective districts.\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSec. 8. Be it further enacted, That after the first buildings are erected, before the\nopening of such schools, which shall be only such as are absolutely necessary for temporary\nuse, all work on, in, and about said schools, or on the farm, or on or in the bams and\nshops connected with said schools, whether it be farming, building, care of stock, or work\nof whatever kind, shall be performed exclusively by the students of said schools, under such\nregulations for the proper division and alterations in such work as may be provided by\nthe trustees.\nSec. 9. Be it further enacted. That tuition in said schools shall be free, and the\ntrustees may limit the number of students from time to time, according to the capacity\nand means of the institution, and shall make such rules of admission so as to equalize, as\nfar as practicable, the privileges of the school among the counties according to population.\nAnd the trustees may defer the actual opening of the school until such time as may be\nnecessary to prepare reasonably proper facilities and equipment for beginning the same,\nin the meantime accumulating for said purpose the funds going to said school which may\nbe received from the rent of any portion of the property; but it is made the duty of said\ntrustees to open said school, even though it may have to be done at first on a limited scale,\nas early as practicable, and afterward extend its operations as circumstances may permit;\nand the trustees are authorized to rent to the best advantage, from time to time, any portion\nof the property of said school not required for the purpose of said school.\nSec. 10. Be it further enacted, That all laws and parts of laws in conflict with this\nAct be, and the same are, hereby repealed.\nLOCATION OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS\nThe following are the accepted bids for the district agricultural schools of Georgia.\nThe total value of the bids is nearly $850,000, and the rejected bids amount to fully as\nmuch. It is a splendid tribute to the progressive spirit of the Georgia farmer, and to the\nwisdom of the plans of the proposed schools.\nFirst District. — Statesboro. Sixty thousand dollars cash; 300 acres of land, $20,000;\nelectric lights, water and sewerage, $20,000.\nSecond District. — Tifton. Donations same as first district, except market value of\nland, probably $20,000.\nThird District. — Americus. Forty thousand dollars cash; 300 acres of land, $20,000;\nlights, water and sewerage, $5,000.\nFourth District. — Carrollton. Thirty thousand dollars cash; 300 acres of land,\n$15,000; lights and water, $15,000. (I understand that at least $10,000 more cash will\nbe added to this donation.)\nFifth District. — Monroe. Thirty-one thousand dollars cash; 250 acres land, $10,000;\nlights and water, $15,000.\nSixth District. — Bamesville. — Fifty-one thousand dollars cash; 300 acres land,\n$20,000; lights and water, $15,000.\nSeventh District. — Powder Springs. Academic building and boys' dormitory, according to architect's plans, $28,000; 240 acres land, $20,000; lights and water, $15,000.\nEighth District. — Madison. Forty thousand and five hundred dollars cash; 300 acres\nland, $20,000; lights and water, $15,000.\nNinth District. — Near Clarksville, $25,000 cash and 300 acres of land.\nTenth District. — Sparta.\nForty-seven thousand dollars; 250 acres land, $10,000.\nEleventh District. — Douglas. Fifty-five thousand dollars cash; 300 acres land,\n$20,000; lights, water and sewerage are valued at about the cost of same, and the land is\nestimated at the market value.\nRESOLUTIONS OFFERED BY GOVERNOR JOSEPH M. TERRELL BEFORE\nTHE^BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA,\nJANUARY, 1907, AND ADOPTED\nWhereas the act providing for the establishment and maintainance of an Industrial\nand Agricultural School in each Congressional District declares in section i that \"the\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n435\n\ngeneral Board of Trustees of the University shall exercise such supervision as in their\njudgment may be necessary to secure unity of plan and efficiency in said schools.\"\nAnd whereas section 6 of said act prescribes \"that the course of study in said schools\nshall be confined to the elementary branches of an English education, and practical treatises\nand lectures on agriculture in all its branches, and the mechanic arts, and such other studies\nas will enable the students completing the course to enter the Freshman class of the state\ncollege of agriculture on certificate of the principal.\"\nAnd whereas the paramount object of these schools being the education of the pupils,\nboth theoretically and practically, in the sciences of agriculture and the mechanic arts,\nand preparing them for citizenship, a curriculum should be prescribed that will include\nonly those studies which are in their nature and tendency contributory to that end. Therefore, Be It Resolved, First, that the minimum age for entrance into said schools shall be\nfixed at fourteen years for males and thirteen years for females, and that there be an equitable\ndivision of the dormitory space among the counties of the district as provided in section\n9 of the act, and should all the space allotted to a county be not applied for at the beginning\nof a scholastic year, such unused space may be allotted for such year to any other\ncounty.\nSecond, That the course of study be limited to four years' work, including at least\none year of common-school or elementary studies, and that the scholastic year be forty\nweeks. The school day to be so arranged as to assure at least three hours a day of classroom work in agriculture and related sciences, EngUsh, mathematics, and history, and at\nleast three hours a day on the farm or in the laboratory or ghop, the hours in actual farm\nwork to be regulated by the exigencies of the farm; the program being such as to provide\nfor alteration of the work and study among the classes morning and afternoon, thereby\nsecuring continuous operation of the farm and shop. The female students to be provided\nwith a practicable and comprehensive course in domestic science, sewing, household\neconomics, and kindred studies.\nThird, That the Principals of said schools shall provide from time to time for such\nlectures on agriculture and related subjects as the funds of the school will permit, and shall\nalso provide for short courses for adult farmers in so far as the same may not conflict with\nthe other work of the schools.\nFourth, That for satisfactory work done on the farm and in the shops students may\nbe allowed fair compensation by the principal, per hour, or per piece, to be credited to the\ndormitory expenses of the students. In addition thereto students shall receive their pro\nrata of the net profit arising from the farm as provided in section 5, but the same shall be\ncredited to their dormitory and other school expenses.\nFifth, That one-fourth of the students, or such number as the principal may determine\nas necessary to continue the operation of the farm and shop, be required to remain on the\nfarm during vacation, and for work required during this time the students be given fair\ncompensation. Students of the third and fourth year may be given acre plots for individual cultivation, or small farms for supervision, the profits to be their own, the same,\nhowever, to be first applied to payment of their dormitory or other expenses.\nSixth, That the State Farmers' Institutes Director shall arrange farmers' institutes\nat these schools and secure the help of the faculties thereof in conducting institutes in other\ncounties; that the Professor of Forestry in the State University be authorized and directed\nto aid the several schools in caring for the forests on the farms; that the Professor of\nSecondary Education be required to give such aid as is consistent with his other duties,\nand that the other professors of the State Agricultural College be authorized to co-operate\nin the work of these schools and that of their respective departments.\nSeventh, That the principal of each school shall make an annual report to the board\nof trustees of his district, showing attendance, program of hours, income and expenditures,\nand furnish a copy for publication in the annual bulletin of the State Agricultural\nCollege.\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nREPORT\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTO BOARD\n\nfNational\n\nOF TRUSTEES\nJune 15, 1907\n\nTo the Board of Trustees, University of Georgia:\nGentlemen: The committee appointed at your meeting in January to recommend\na course of study for the District Agricultural Schools of Georgia beg leave to submit the\nfollowing report.\nThe tentative curriculum submitted to your board last January by Professor Stewart,\nbeing the joint work of him and of Professor D. J. Crosby, of the Department of Agriculture\nat Washington, was submitted to leading agricultural professors throughout the Union\nand criticisms asked. Many letters commending the general plan were received. Some\nminor suggestions were made. After receiving all the data possible your committee met\nin Atlanta January 22 and went over in detail every item of the proposed curriculum —\nProfessor Coon of Georgia Tech was by resolution of the committee elected a member\nthereof. All the members' of the committee were present, as well as Professor Crosby\nand two other experts from Washington and a committee from the Farmers' Union. Acting\nunder your instructions optional foreign languages were eliminated from the original\nreport. A few other minor changes were made. The following resolutions were passed at\nthis meeting:\nWhereas, Eleven district agricultural schools are soon to be organized in the state of\nGeorgia; therefore be it resolved :\n1. That the course of study presented by Professor Stewart be adopted.\n2. That for the first year* it is deemed inadvisable for the schools to be overcrowded\nwith too large a group of students; that it would probably be wise for the board of trustees\nto limit the attendance at first in order that confusion and mistakes may be avoided and\nthat time may be given the principals and teachers to perfect the organization of the schools.\n3. That for the first year it is recommended that the work of the schools be restricted\nto the courses of study outlined for the first and second years, except that more advanced\nwork be given in the practical subjects where possible.\n4. That while it should be the primary aim of the agricultural schools to train\nstudents to an appreciation of the farm and to develop in them a love for farm life, yet it\nshould also be the aim of the schools to train students to become useful citizens as well as\ngood farmers and housewives. The home life of the students should be carefully supervised by the principals and members of the faculty, who should provide such interests\noutside the regular school work as will assist in rounding out the characters of the young\nmen and women. At all times the principal of each school should consider it one of his\nprimary duties to maintain a high standard of character and of conduct among the student\nbody.\n5. That the requirements for graduation may be strict, but that the requirements\nfor entrance should not be difficult, especially for older students, who need the practical\nwork and yet may be unable to stand a difficult examination.\n6. That libraries be established, and reading rooms arranged as soon as possible,\nand that special efforts be made to secure books and periodicals relating to agriculture,\nliterature, history, biography, and books by Georgians and about Georgia's history and\nresources; and further that special efforts be made to secure and classify and keep in durable\nform the pamphlets and books on agriculture printed for free distribution by the United\nStates government, by the various state experiment stations, and by the imiversity and\nagricultural colleges.\n7. That the following persons. Dr. Soule, Professor Crosby, Professor Stewart,\nProfessor Coon, and Professor Parks, be requested to arrange and submit a list of books\nsuitable for the libraries of the agricultural schools.\n8. That the following persons. Dr. Soule, Professor Crosby, Professor W. D. Smith,\nProfessor Stewart, and Dr. Hardman, be requested to serve as an advisory committee to\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n437\n\nhe various boards of trustees for the purpose of recommending suitable equipment for\nlaboratories.\nIn addition to the above, the following resolution was passed at the request of R. F.\nDuckworth, president of the Farmers' Union:\n\"We recommend that the law be strictly enforced which requires the teaching of the\nelements of agriculture in the common schools, and that this teaching be done in connection\nwith school gardens, and further that the normal schools of the state be encouraged in their\nefforts to increase their facilities for instruction in elementary agriculture to those who\nare preparing to teach.\"\nOn the 23rd the presidents of all the district boards of trustees, the principals that had\nbeen elected, the governor-elect, the state school commissioner, the commissioner of\nagriculture, and a committee from the Farmers' Union met with your commiteee to hear the\nproposed curriculum, and if need be to offer suggestions before its final adoption as the\nreport of your committee.\nAfter a full and careful discussion, morning and afternoon, of every phase of the\nreport, the joint body unanimously adopted the tentative curriculum herewith submitted.\nWe recommended that $75.00 be appropriated for the immediate publication in\nbulletin form of the report of your committee together with other information relating to\nsaid schools as will be of value in their organization.\nWe trust that the board will see fit to recommend the report of your committee for\nadoption by the several boards of trustees of the district agricultural schools.\nL. G. BAKDMAN, Chairman\nM. M. F ARKS, Secretary\nJ. M. TERRELL\nD. M. HUGHES\nA. J. McMULLAN\nJ. S. STEWART\nA. M. SOULE\nAdopted by the Board of Trustees June 19, 1907.\n\nJ. S. COON\n\nCONDENSED STATEMENT OF TENTATIVE COURSE OF STUDY\nFOR DISTRICT AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA\nThe work is arranged by terms as well as years so that a young farmer may enter at\nthe time when the particular subjects desired are being taught, and stay as long as he may\nwish. The principal should allow such academic work for these special students as will\nmeet their needs, allowing as much time as deemed necessary for the intensive work in\nagricultural subjects selected. In this way the school and curriculum can be made to fit\nthe boy desiring three months, one year, or four years. No one will be allowed to enter\nwho does not take the required practical work. If only literary work is desired, they\nshould go elsewhere.\nFirst Year— Fall Term\nclassroom instruction\n(Numerals refer to number of recitations a week.)\nEnglish — Grammar (3), Composition (i) — all.\nMathematics — Arithmetic (4) — all.\nU. S. History — The period of discovery (3) — all.\nGeography — Political Geography (3) — all.\nPenmanship and Spelling (2) — all.\nThe Plant — Composition, structure, physiology (3) — all.\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFIELD, AND\n\nSHOP\n\n[National\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n(Under the immediate instruction of teachers.)\nPlant Laboratory — 3 hours a week.\nStudy of a number of plants.\nPlat Work — 3 hours a week.\nPractice with small gardens — Elective for girls — boys.\nFarm Mechanics — 3 hours a week.\nFree Hand and Elementary Drawing — boys and\ngirls.\n\nSewing — 3 hours a week.\n\nStitches, Plain Sewing — girls.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\n(Under the general supervision of teachers concerned.)\nFarm — 9 hours — boys.\nHome — 9 hours — girls.\nNote. — Assignments of all farm and home work vAW be made under direction of the\nprincipal so as to cover all kinds of duties, varying with season, weather, location, etc.,\nto be changed from time to time, so that every pupil will become familiar with all the\nfarm operations. The instruction of any term is applied and inforced throughout the\ncourse.\nFirst Year — ^Winter Term\nEnglish — Grammar (3), Composition (i) — all.\nMathematics — Arithmetic (4) — all.\nU. S. History— The National Period (3)— all.\nGeography — From Physical Geography standpoint (3) — all.\nSpelling and Penmanship (2) — all.\nThe Plant — Reproduction, environment (3) — all.\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD, AND\n\nSHOP\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n(Under immediate instruction of teachers.)\nPlant Laboratory — 3 hours a week.\nWork in plants continued — all.\nPlat Work — 3 hours a week.\nContinue garden work — boys.\nFarm Mechanics — 3 hours a week.\nDrawing, bench work, farm carpqptry — boys.\nCooking — 3 hours a week.\nPlain and fancy cooking, care of dining-room — girls.\nminimum\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours a week — boys.\nHome Work — 9 hours a week — girls.\nWork assigned as in Fall Term.\nFor full details of course see accompanying report of work.\nFirst Year — Spring Term\nCLASSROOM\n\ninstruction\n\nEnglish — Grammar (2), Composition (2) — ^all.\nMathematics — Arithmetic (4) — all.\nU. S. History — The Civil War.\nReconstruction, to the present time (3)— all.\nGeography — Commercial (3) — all.\nSpelling (2)— all.\nSoils — ^Nature, fimction, origin, etc. (3) — boys.\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR\n\nLABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nSHOP\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSoil Laboratory — 3 hours a week. Collect samples of soils and test, classify, and\nname.\nPlat Work — 3 hours a week.\nContinue garden work.\nFarm Mechanics — 3 hours a week.\nDrawing, bench work, farm carpentry.\nSewing, Laimdering— 3 hours a week. Machine sewing, patching, etc. Instruction\nin theory and practice of laundering.\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n439\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours a week.\nHome Work — 9 hours a week.\nWork assigned as in Fall Term.\nSecond Year — Fall Term\nclassroom instruction\nEnglish — Composition and Rhetoric (3), Classic Readings (i).\nMathematics — Farm Arithmetic and Farm Accounts (4).\nAncient History — The Nine Eastern Nations (3).\nVegetable — Flower, Fruit Gardening, and Forestry (2).\nThe Soils and Fertilizers — Classification of Soil and Use of Manures and Fertilizers (3).\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nSHOP\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSoil Laboratory — 3 hours a week.\nExperiment with soils, study systems of farm\ncrops.\nPlat Work — 3 hours a week.\nGarden and fruit, vegetables.\nFarm Mechanics — 3 hours a week.\nPlans of farm structures, farm carpentry.\nSewing — 3 hours a week.\nDraughting, cutting, making garments.\nminimum\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours a week.\nHome Work — 9 hours a week.\nWork assigned as in first year.\nSecond Year — ^Winter Term\nclassroom instruction\nEnglish — Composition, Rhetoric (3), Classic Readings (i).\nMathematics — Algebra (3), Farm Arithmetic (i).\nAncient History — Greece (3).\nVegetables — Fruit Trees and Forestry (2), Home Science (2).\nFarm Crops — Boys (3).\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nSHOP\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nPlant Laboratory — 3 hours a week.\nThe botany of farm crops, judging, grafting.\nPlat Work — 3 hours a week.\nManures, winter crops, care of forests.\nMechanics — 3 hours a week.\nFarm carpentry.\nCooking — 3 hours a week.\nStudy of dietaries, table serving, plan meals.\nWork assigned as in previous terms.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours a week.\nHome Work — 9 hours a week.\nWork assigned as in previous terms.\nSecond Year — Spring Term\nclassroom instruction\nEnglish — Composition, Rhetoric (3), Classic Readings (i).\nMathematics — Algebra, through Equations (3), Farm Arithmetic (i).\nAncient History — Rome to Charlemagne (3).\nVegetable — Flower, Fruit Gardening (2), Home Science (3).\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nSHOP\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nPlant Laboratory— 3 hours a week.\nStudy early fruits and vegetables.\nPlat Work— 3 hours a week.\nStudy of field and garden crops on farm.\nand other orchard and garden work.\n\nSpraying\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nauonal\n\nMechanics, Iron Work — 3 hours a week.\nFarm blacksmithing.\nHousehold Emergencies, Invalid Cooking — 3 hours a week.\nCare of patient and sick\nj-oora. First aid to wounded, use of disinfectants, etc., drowning.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQXnRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours a week.\nHome Work — 9 hours a week.\nWork assigned as in previous year.\nThird Year — Fall Term\nclassroom instruction\nEnglish Composition (3), Classic Readings (i).\nMathematics — ^Algebra (4).\nEnglish History — ^To end of Middle Ages (2).\nPhysics — (3) Properties of matter, Mechanics of solids, apply to farm life.\nAnimal Husbandry — (3) Study of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, Home Science\n(3).\n\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nSHOP INSTRUCTION\n\nLaboratory, Agricultural Physics — 3 hours a week. Experiments with soils, machinery, other farm equipment to illustrate laws of physics.\nPlat, Field-Work — 3 hours a week.\nFarm crops, stock judging.\nMechanics — Blacksmithing, plumbing, steam fitting as applied to farm and home.\n3 hours a week.\nSewing, Millinery — Previous work continued, making hats.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours.\nHome Work — 9 hours.\nWork assigned as in previous years.\nThird Year — ^Winter Term\nCLASSROOM\n\ninstruction\n\nEnglish — Rhetoric, Composition (3), Classic Readings (i).\nEnglish History — ^Through Cromwell (2).\nPhysics — (3) Mechanics of fluids, soimd, light; apply to farm life.\nAnimal Husbandry — (3), Home Science (3), Girls.\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND SHOP INSTRUCTION\n\nLaboratory — 3 hours a week. Agricultural Physics. Special attention to farm and\ndairy equipment.\nField Exercises — Care of stock, study of breeds, equipment.\nMechanics — Farm machinery.\nCooking — 3 hours.\nPrevious work continued.\nminimum\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours.\nHome Work — 9 hours a week.\nInclude poultry, bees, pigeons.\nWork as assigned in previous years.\nThird Year— Spring Term\nclassroom instruction\nEnglish — Composition, Rhetoric (3), Classic Readings (i).\nRural Law — (3).\nEnglish History — (2) To Present Time.\nPhysics — Heat, Electricity.\nApply to Farm Life.\nDairying — (3) Home Science.\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nSHOP\n\n441\n\nINSTRUCTIOK\n\nLaboratory — Agricultural Physics.\nEspecially as related to dairying.\nField -Work. — Study of farm buildings in neighborhood, planning and care of same.\nMechanics — Designing farmhouses, farm constructions, concrete work.\nSewing, Hygiene — 3 hours.\nUse of patterns, making simple shirt-waists, skirts.\nHygiene of the home.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours.\nHome Work — 9 hours, including dairying.\nFourth Year— Fall Term\nclassroom instruction\nEnglish — History, English, Literature (2), Theme Work (2).\nMathematics — Geometry (4).\nCivics — (3).\nChemistry — (3).\nRural Engineering (3), Home Science.\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR\n\nLABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nSHOP\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nLaboratory — 3 hours a week. Chemistry of foods, feed-stuffs, fertilizers, animal\nproducts.\nField Exercises — Surveying, laying out groimds, fields, drains, etc.\nMechanics — Draw farm plans.\nContinue previous work.\nHousehold Economics — Home sanitation.\nAssigned work for this year should give as much practice as possible in farm management.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours.\nHome Work — 9 hours.\nFourth Year — ^Winter Term\nclassroom instruction\nEnglish — History, English, Literature (2), Theme work (2).\nMathematics — Geometry (4).\nCivics (2).\nChemistry (3).\nFarm Management and Sanitation, Systems of Farming (3), Home Science.\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nSHOP\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nLaboratory — Chemistry of foods, feed-stuffs, fertilizers, animal products. 3 hours a\nweek.\nField Exercises — Continue work of previous term.\nMechanics — 3 hours a week.\nTopographical drawing, construction of roads.\nHome Management — 3 hours a week.\nHousehold decoration.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours a week.\nHome Work — 9 hours a week.\n(See farm work under fall term.)\nFourth Year— Spring Term\nclassroom instruction\nEnglish— Preparation of Essays (2), Classic Readings (i).\nMathematics — Geometry (4).\nRural Economics (3).\nChemistry (3).\nEconomic Biology (i).\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\nPRACTICUMS,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOR LABORATORY,\n\nFIELD,\n\nASSOCIATION\nAND\n\nSHOP\n\n[National\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nLaboratory — Chemistry continued.\nBacteriology.\n3 hours a week.\nLibrary Reading — 3 hours a week.\nHousehold Management — 3 hours a week.\nPlanning a home.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm Work — 9 hours a week.\nHome Work — 9 hours a week.\n(See farm work under fall term.)\nFIFTH\n\nDISTRICT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAT MONROE,\n\nGEORGIA\n\nThe school building is located on a farm of 250 acres three miles north of\nMonroe. The Gainsville Midland railroad passes through the farm. The\nstudents living in the city of Monroe are thus enabled to go back and forth on\nthis railroad, boarding at home, while students from other places board in the\ndormitories or in the farm homes near the school. The school is in a good\nenvironment and far enough from town, it would seem.\nThis school opened January 6, 1908, with ninety pupils but since that time\nthe enrollment has been increased to 115. Thirty-five of them are girls and\nthe remainder are boys. They range in age from fourteen to twenty-three\nyears and come from every county in the congressional district.\nThus far these boys and girls have done all the work, not counting of\ncourse the construction of the main buildings. The boys have put in the\nsewerage and waterworks, the latter being a well with a fifty-foot water tower\ncontaining a seventeen-hundred-gallon tank. The water is pumped by a\ngasoline engine. The boys put in most of the 2,000 feet of sewer. They also\nlaid out and shaped up the walks and driveways on the campus; set out several\nhundred fruit and shade trees; dug up about a thousand stumps; built an\nengine-house, five henhouses; cut 25 cords of wood, and did considerable\nplowing. An eighteen-hundred-doUar laundry plant has also been installed\nby the boys under the supervision of the teachers. A blacksmith shop and\nmanual-training house has been built by the boys and about three hundred\ndollars worth of equipment has been provided. For the farm work there are\nsix large mules worth two hundred dollars each and two wagons costing\neighty dollars each. A twenty-horsepower engine furnishes the power for the\nlaundry plant which has a capacity of 100 shirts per hour. The boys and girls\neach do their own laundry work. There are no servants on the place. The\ndomestic-science department has an equipment costing three hundred and fifty\ndollars with room for sixteen girls to do laboratory work at the same time.\nThree girls and one boy cook each meal, the boy firing the stoves and lifting\nheavy vessels, while the girls do the cooking. The same students act as waiters,\nthe set being so changed that no student cooks more than one meal a day.\nSix boys wash dishes, attending at each meal, so that no boy is employed at this\nwork more than once each day. The cooks are paid ten cents each for their work\nin preparing each meal. One boy is assigned to each recitation room to sweep,\ndust, and build fires. He is paid ten cents a day for his work.\nEvery boy and\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Coundll\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n443\n\ngirl does some profitable work. Ten cents an hour is allowed for profitable\nwork and about 15 per cent, of the boys paid their entire expenses for the\nmonth of March in this manner. All the academic classroom work is done in\nthe forenoon, the afternoons being devoted to practice and profitable work.\nA walk over the fine farm showing the experimental plots started is an\ninspiration. This work will prove of great value if the state supports this\ndepartment with money as it should. The United States Department of\nAgriculture has a corn experiment station on this farm where several hundred\ndifferent experiments are now being carried on.\nThe estimated revenue arising from the tax on fertilizers sold in the state\namounts to about six thousand dollars — not enough to equip school and farm\nwith necessary things and provide all the trained instructors that will be needed\nto realize the hopes of those who inaugurated the movement. No doubt the\nlegislature will in due time appreciate what these schools may do for the\ndevelopment of agriculture and country life in general, and make generous\nprovision for their maintenance and growth.\nThe following is taken from their first printed announcement with reference\nto expenses, conveniences, etc.\nEXPENSES\nIt is intended to make the cost to the student as low as possible. Tuition, furnished\nrooms, lights, fuel, laundry, tools, vessels and cooking utensils will be free. Students who\nboard and live in the dormitories will be required to bring $10 at the opening of the school.\nThey will be credited with all profitable work done during the first month, this to be\ndeducted from $10 to ascertain the amount to be paid for the second month. Example:\nA student brings $10 at the opening of school for his first month's board. If he or she\ndoes $4 worth of profitable work during this month, then only $6 need be sent for the\nsecond month. If during the second month he or she does $5.50 worth of profitable work,\nthen only $4.50 will be required for the following month, and so on. In other words, the\namount for each month following the first will be $10 less whatever amount of profitable\nwork is done during the previous month. It is believed that the total net cost of attending\nthe school will not exceed $5 or $6 per month. Indeed some students can be used through\nthe vacation period to finish up the farm work, look after the live stock, poultry, etc., and\nin this way can probably pay their entire expenses in work.\nWHAT STUDENTS MUST BRING\nEach student must bring with him or her when he enters the school complete bed\nfurnishings, including one pillow, two pillow slips, two sheets, one pair of blankets, one or\nmore heavy quilts or comforts, four towels and a laundry bag.\nIn addition to the above articles, each student should come provided with working\nclothes, overshoes, umbrella, hair-brush, comb, tooth-brush, soap and any other article which\nhe or she might wish for personal use or comfort.\nEvery article which goes to the laundry must be plainly marked with indelible ink.\nNunnally Bros. & McCrea, of Atlanta, have generously agreed to donate to each\nboy who enters the school a pair of their engineer overalls. The girls will also be provided with work aprons of some value. These will be given the students as soon as they\nshall have matriculated.\nCONVENIENCES\n\nEvery room in every building will be furnished with free electric lights. Plenty of\nbaths and toilets will be provided in the buildings for convenience of students.\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nEach dormitory room will be provided with a double bedstead, spring and cotton\nmattress free to boarding students. Each room will also contain a small linen closet,\na dresser and a washstand.\nThese rooms will accommodate two students. The rooms will be heated with individual wood-burning heaters. The wood will be furnished free, the boys being required\nto saw and carry it in the rooms.\nINSTRUCTION\n\nThe teachers are men and women who have had special training in their several\nlines of work.\nWhile literary instruction shall have careful attention, yet the prime object aimed at\nin this school will be to train boys and girls in agriculture and the useful arts. The whole\nstudent shall be trained, head, heart and hands.\nAll students under eighteen years of age will be required to take the full course prescribed.\nFarmers or others who are over eighteen years of age may attend the school and take any\nspecial course offered, such as farm accounts, farm carpentry, grafting, budding, dairying, poultry business, laundering, soils, fertilizers, gardening, sewing, cookery, millinery,\netc.\nTHIRD\n\nDISTRICT SCHOOL\n\nAT AMERICUS,\n\nGEORGIA.\n\nThe school building is located on a fine farm of three hundred acres adjoining the corporate limits of the city of Americus with about 15,000 population.\nThe school opened January 6, 1908, with an enrollment of fifteen girls and\nninety-five boys, from all the fifteen counties of this congressional district.\nSeventy per cent, of those entering came from farm homes. The faculty and\nstudents are hard at work getting things in shape to do good work. All the\noutside work is being done by the boys. An old cabin has been fitted up for\na small blacksmith shop and one forge installed. Manual training has been\nstarted in a small way, the boys making the work benches. The school must\nhave larger equipment for laboratory, shop, and farm if it is to meet the\nexpectations of those interested in this type of schools. This the people understand. Experiments have been started on the farm for the improvement of\ncotton and com. A farm superintendent is employed and plans are being\nmatured to carry on work in dairying, poultry, fruit, and general farm opi^rations.\nWhen these schools opened in January everything was new both to students\nand teachers. Much work remained to be done upon the buildings, equipment, and grounds. As the plan of the school contemplated the doing of this\nwork, as largely as possible, by students under the direction of the teachers,\ntheir energies were expended chiefly, during the first three months of the year,\nin improving external and material conditions, getting things in order so as\nto be able to take up and carry out the regular course of study.\nAt the time of my visit, the recitations and classroom work observed were\nstill largely devoted to finding out the qualifications and attainments of the\nstudents, and was purely academic, little being attempted with agricultural\nsubjects. The work on the farm showed that much outside work had been\naccomplished, and excellent beginnings had been made in the instruction necessary for this work.\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n445\n\nAt Americus the manual-training work was largely devoted to the making\nof library shelves and some of the simpler furnishings and equipment for the\nlaboratories.\nNot knowing the conditions under which these schools had been organized,\nI had expected to find more of the systematic instruction which should characterize an agricultural school than was in evidence. A few hours' observation, however, made clear the reasons why this work had been delayed, and\njustified the wisdom of the authorities in such delay. In short, the schools\nwere simply finding themselves during those first months, in the hope that by\nthe opening of the school year in September, 1908, they would be ready for\nsystematic and regular work in accordance with the course of study.\nThe teachers in these schools impress one as being an earnest body of men\nand women conscious of their opportunity, and also sensible of the limitations\nof the situation. One must remember that the boys and girls entering the\nschools came from the various counties of the districts, the majority from\nfarms, having had limited advantages in the country schools maintained but\nthree or four months of the year, taught by teachers who themselves had no\nother training than that received in these same schools. Some idea is thus\nobtained of the necessity for the preliminary work necessary in these agricultural schools.\nThe conclusion forces itself upon the observer that the next year will be an\nimportant one in the history and development of this type of schools. If they\nare supported in a financial way so that the necessary equipment can be provided and instructors furnished to meet the growth of the student body, then\nthese schools will come up to the expectation of the founders. If, however,\ntheir growth is to be stunted because of inadequate financial support, then\nthey will become simply standard high schools, with the farms being worked\nby the boys as a means of paying their schooling and with little relation to\neducation. Simply to spend the afternoon on the farm and the morning in the\nclassroom does not mean a course in agricultural education.\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe results of the investigations made by your committee seem to warrant\nthe following conclusions :\n1. That the conclusions formulated by the committee in its first report\nare fully justified by the existing condition of industrial education in schools\nfor rural communities throughout the country, as determined by the further\ninvestigations of the committee and by the investigations of others.\n2. That the development of industrial education in types of schools adapted\nto rural communities has thus far been confined almost wholly to instruction in\nagriculture, except in the secondary schools distinctively industrial in character,\nand which have been authorized by special legislation.\n3. That is it desirable to extend the work so as to provide for training for\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe boys in the use of farm tools and machinery and for the girls in the household arts.\n4. That facilities for appropriate types of industrial education may be\nprovided in the consolidated rural school carrying two or more years of highschool work, provided the interest, public spirit, and liberality of the people of\nthe district are such as to secure adequate funds for the maintenance of the\nschools through local taxation; or provided legislation can be secured that\nwill furnish state aid which, together with the amount the district is able and\nwilling to furnish, will be adequate for the proper support of the schools.\n5. That such schools will necessarily be expensive, and that unless the\nnecessary funds are available to meet this expense, the desired results cannot be\nsecured.\n6. That the same relations between proper maintenance and adequate\nresults exist in the rural high schools attempting to provide for industrial education as obtain in the consolidated school.\n7. That apart from the question of expense, the most serious difficulty in\nthe way of introducing industrial phases of education in the consolidated and\nrural high schools is in the tendency of teachers and school authorities unduly\nto magnify the importance of the traditional courses of study and an unwillingness to modify them except by adding new subjects. Elimination of some\ntraditional subjects, or of phases of these subjects, must be provided for in\norder to give place for the new lines of work without overtaxing the energies\nof the students.\n8. That the existence in different parts of the country of state, congressional\ndistrict, and county schools of secondary type, industrial in character, and the\nintroduction of industrial phases of education into the various kinds of secondary schools previously existing as a part of our public-school system indicate\na healthy development of sentiment on this subject and a recognition of the\nfact that different types of schools are needed in different parts of the country\nto adapt the educational effort in this field to local conditions; that any action\nproviding national aid, which would operate through the influence of such aid\nto fix a single type of industrial school for rural communities for all parts of the\ncountry, would be unfortunate; but that aid from the national government\nfor industrial education in rural communities would give a great impetus to this\nphase of educational work and would result in enormous increase in the productive capacity of the country, provided it be given under such limitations as\nwill leave each state free to work out its system of industrial education in rural\nschools, in such a manner as to adapt it best to local conditions.\n9. That the supply of properly trained teachers for carrying on this work is\ntotally inadequate to meet even the present demand, and that the increase in the\ndemand for such teachers in the near future requires a very large increase in\nthe facilities for their preparation, and that to supply these facilities special\ntraining schools should be established thruout the country for the preparation of elementary rural-school teachers; that the normal schools whose grad-\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n447\n\nuates find positions in rural schools should broaden and strengthen in every\nway their courses of instruction along industrial lines adapted to the needs of\nrural schools; that the agricultural colleges favorably situated for such work\nshould undertake to organize special courses for the purpose of training teachers\nfor the secondary schools, capable of giving instruction in agriculture and related subjects.\n10. That in the growth of public sentiment, in the development of ideals, in\nthe preparation of courses of study, and in the facilities for the training of\nteachers for industrial work in rural schools, decided progress has been made\nduring recent years; but that much yet remains to be done before the importance and value of this kind of industrial education shall be fully appreciated\nby all concerned, and before it shall receive its appropriate recognition and find\nits proper place in our educational system.\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nO. J. Kern\n\nCommittee\n\nDISCUSSION\nDavid B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill,\nS. C. — In the South, before the war, the aim of all education for men was to prepare for\none of the professions — law, medicine, or the ministry — and for women to prepare them to\nshine in society. And this was the aim there, I regret to say, long after the war. It is\ntrue that in South Carolina, the state I represent, a philanthropic citizen with prophetic\nvision, Dr. John De La Howe, founded an agricultural school on his farm in Abbeville\nDistrict in 1796, but this school, though still in existence, never flourished on account of\nthe conditions of admission to it and a lack of appreciation and encouragement.\nThe planter, with his many acres and slaves, was forced to gain by experience expert\nknowledge of the soil and skill in management, and the planter's wife to become learned\nand skillful in home economics; but they constituted a small part of the population and\nhad no help whatever in preparation for their difficult and important life work from the\nschools. The negroes on the plantation received from thesQ two — the experienced planter\nand his wife — the industrial training which is now seen to be such an essential part of the\neducation of all. The negroes were the blacksmiths, carpenters, wheelwrights, shoemakers, housekeepers, raisers of live stock, poultry, etc. And thus industrial education\nfor the whites was placed under a ban. The war broke up the plantation industrial training of the negro and emancipated the white man rather than the black man and has opened\nthe way for the industrial training of all the people.\nThe South has not been alone in its thralldom to classical learning in the schools,\nbut it has been slower than the rest of the country in escaping from it, because, mainly, of\nits conservatism, its impoverishment by the war, and its peculiar social, industrial, and\neconomic conditions. I rejoice that there is now a very general awakening. North and\nSouth, to the need and importance of industrial training in the city and the country.\nThe president of the United States, in a noted address to leading educators of the\ncountry, takes industrial education as his theme, holding that industrial training, the training which fits a man for the shop and the farm, is one of the most potent factors in national\ndevelopment and that real protection to American labor is to be secured not by the tariff\nand the immigration laws but by industrial training of the masses. Great capitalists and\nmanufacturers organize the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education,\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe state of Massachusetts appoints a commission for the study of industrial education,\nwhose reports are in general demand. Bills are introduced in the Congress of the United\nStates for the encouragement of industrial education throughout the country — the Burkett\nand the Davis Bills — and this Committee on Industrial Education is appointed by authority\nof the National Council of Education.\nIndustrial training is nowhere more needed than with the rural population, on account\nof the great interests at stake, the general ignorance of the country people of the best\nmethods of conducting their business — farming — and the great number of people engaged\nin this business. According to the last census, we have engaged in agricultural pursuits\nmore people than in any other pursuit, the number being 10,381,765. The next highest\nnumber, 7,085,309, is engaged in manufacturing, mechanical arts, and mining.\nI believe we are all agreed now that education must prepare for life's duties, whatever\nthey may be. If the child is to spend his life in the country, he must receive the training\nthat will fit him to be an efficient economic unit there.\nThe waste on the farm on account of ignorance is appalling. From authoritative\nreports by government officials we learn that 2,678,021 cattle die in the United States\nannually from exposure and preventable disease. Imperfect and unscientific cultivation\nis a source of great waste. Millions of farmers persist in half cultivation of large areas,\nwhen they would make more by proper tillage of fewer acres, and then ruin the land by\na disregard of a proper rotation of crops.\nThe agricultural South feels keenly the necessity for industrial education for the rural\npopulation and is feeling its way toward the best methods of supplying it. South Carolina holds the world's record for the growing of corn per acre, but it is far from being a\ngreat corn-producing state.\nThe district agricultural schools of Georgia, established by the legislature of that\nstate, have been in existence over a year now and are meeting with great public favor.\nEach school has a farm, and the boys and girls, who all live in dormitories at the school,\ndo all the farm labor in addition to the academic work required. This unique experiment\nby the state of Georgia is being watched with great interest by the other southern states.\nThe normal schools of the South are giving industrial training along many lines, including agriculture, to prepare teachers for such work. The institution I represent, besides\nproviding for training in domestic arts and sciences, housekeeping, care of school grounds\nand buildings, manual training, and the other usual industrial arts, gives instruction in\nelementary agriculture in connection with school gardens and a farm of 144 acres, where\nthere is a dairy, an orchard, an apiary, etc.\nI agree with the final concllision of the committee \" that much progress has been made\nduring recent years, but that much yet remains to be done before the importance and\nvalue of industrial education for rural schools shall be fully appreciated by all concerned\nand before it shall receive its appropriate recognition and find its proper place in our\neducational system.\"\n\nPRELIMINARY REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON MORAL\nTRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nA.\nMARTIN\n\nG. BRUMBAUGH,\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEM\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSTATED\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nI. THE SCOPE. — ^To determine the limits of the problem.\nI. Related essentials. To furnish the soul with the elements of the\nproblem.\na) The virtue of civilization, which is politeness or courtesy.\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncO]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n449\n\nThe problem of civilization is to secure conduct on the plane of\nsocial demand.\nb) The virtue of morality, which is conscientiousness or dependableness.\nThe problem of morality is to secure conduct on the plane of thought,\nwhence arises the function of conscience.\n2. Religious education proper.\na) The virtue of religion, which is humility.\nThe problem of religion is to secure a recognition of the inadequacy\nof human guidance for conduct and to follow implicitly the guidance\nof the divine.\nb) Its aspects.\n1. The theoretical training in the religious life.\n(a) Nutrition of feeling — Problem of elementary education.\n(b) Nutrition of definition — Problem of secondary education.\n(c) Nutrition of insight — Problem of higher education.\n2. The practical training.\n(a) Consecration of self to our ideals.\n(b) Reconciliation of the individual with his lot.\n(c) Selection of a viewpoint in life.\n3. The absolute training.\n(a) Conformity to law.\n(b) Investigation of the activities of the race in its effort to\nachieve the higher life.\n(c) Selection of a creed or confession of faith.\nII. THE METHOD. — ^To determine the process of instruction.\n1. Tell it— to solicit thought — Intellectual phase.\n2. Rhyme it— to solicit feeling — Emotional phase.\n3. Formulate it— to solicit guidance — ^Volitional phase.\nThe question or problem is: How much of all this may be taught in the\npublic schools?\nB.\nJ. W.\n\nCARR,\n\nTHE\n\nTREATMENT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUPILS\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nDAYTON,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe future greatness of this nation will depend more upon the care and\ntraining of its children than aught else. It is not enough to teach children the\nrudiments of knowledge. They must be protected against vice, and receive\nthat kind of moral training that will develop in them the right sort of moral\nfiber. If we as a people fail, it will not be for lack of wealth, or opportunity,\nor knowledge, or skill, but it will be on account of low ideals and the failure to\namong the children. So the\ndevelop proper standards of moral character\ni\nthe nation, is not financial,\nls\nof\nbut\nschoo\nthe\nof\nems,\nonly\nnot\nproblem of probl\nl—\nthe problem of developing\n,\nmora\nbut\n,\ncal,\nsocial\nor\nor commercial or politi\n\nIP\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "45©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIt is too much to expect the public schools to develop the highest types of\nmoral character among children, just as it is too much to expect the schools\nto develop the highest types of scholarship or the best examples of skill. These\nhigher forms of excellency can only be attained by mature persons after years\nof training in the school of experience and under the exigencies of real lifeThe public school will do all that can reasonably be expected of it, if it aids\nthe pupil to lay a broad foundation for the development of moral character\nin after life. This is done in two ways:\n1. By aiding him to form lofty ideals of honor, truth, justice, duty, and the like.\n2. By training him in the formation of certain moral habits, such as habits of selfcontrol, cleanliness, obedience, honesty, justice, industry, fairness, considerateness, patience,\nperseverance, self-respect, respect for others, loyalty, reverence, and love.\n\nNow, in order that moral habits may be formed by pupils most readily\nand certainly, several things are necessary, such as a definite understanding\nof the habits to be acquired, wholesome environments, competent and sympathetic teachers, kind and just treatment, proper stimuli for developing the\nsensibilities and the will, and frequent opportunities for the performance of\nmoral acts until they become habits. An adequate discussion of any one of\nthese would transcend the limits of this paper; hence, the briefest outline only\ncan be given.\nIn order that anything may be done properly, it is first necessary for us\nto have a clear conception of just what that thing is. If we want to build a\nhouse, we first decide what kind of a house it is to be, and then we make a\ndefinite plan of every \"part of it, having due consideration for the use to which\nit is to be put, the amount of money to be expended, the material available,\nand so on. We then proceed to build the house ourselves or have someone\nto build it for us. In a similar way we must decide what traits of character\nwe wish to develop in the pupils in the public schools, and then we must\nknow how to go about it in order to develop those traits most surely and in\nthe best way. We decide definitely that every child needs to acquire certain\npersonal habits such as honor, self-control, and the like, and then we use the\nmeans available to aid him in acquiring these habits. Having decided on\nsome of the moral habits we wish them to acquire, we should then provide\nan environment for the school where it will be easiest for pupils to form these\nhabits. Hence, the necessity of locating the school in a place where pupils\nwill seldom come into contact with vicious people, and where they will be\ncontaminated least by the evil influences of the community. The people of\none of our great cities were indignant and shocked when an official report\nrevealed the fact that 384 of their public schools was each located in the same\nsquare with a saloon. Many of these saloons had gambling dens and brothels\nconnected with them. As a natural consequence, the children attending these\nschools came into daily contact with drunken men and drunken women,\nheard profane and coarse language, and were constantly exposed to dangers\nthat are as deadly to the moral life as the miasma of the Congo is to the\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councilj\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nphysical life. No wonder mothers prayed for the deliverance of their children,\nand fathers resolved that these things should not be. If dens of iniquity must\nexist, they at least should not be allowed in immediate proximity to our public\n451\nschools.\nThere should be a healthy moral atmosphere pervading every school.\nThe administration of school affairs should be clean and wholesome. Members of the board of education, officers of the board, superintendents, principals,\nand teachers should all be persons of high moral character. They should be\nsuch persons as command the universal respect and confidence of the people\nof the community and the admiration and love of the pupils. Children may\nbe brought up amid evil influences at home, they may be exposed to contamination from bad associates, they may be neglected and buffeted by society\nin general, but it should be the heritage of every child to have the opportunity\nof spending at least a part of\" his youth in a public school, every part of which\nis pervaded by the most wholesome moral atmosphere.\nTeachers must not only be competent but they must have an unselfish\ninterest in the children and be able to sympathize with them in all their activities. Ihave never known a teacher to have a strong and abiding influence over\ntheir lives unless the children were first convinced that their teacher had a\ngenuine interest in them. \"What is the first requisite for reclaiming and\ntransforming these children ?\" I once asked the principal of a great truant\nschool on the East Side in New York City. ''We must first convince them\nthat we have an unselfish interest in their welfare,\" was the prompt response.\n\"At first, they resent everything that we attempt to do for them or have them\ndo for themselves,\" she continued, \"because they think that we are trying\n>*to work them' as the boys say. But as soon as they realize that the teachers\nreally have a genuine interest in them, their whole attitude changes and they\n;begin to improve.\"\nThe same thing is true with all children in all schools.\nTeachers must be able to sympathize with pupils in all conditions and\n[under all circumstances — sympathize with them in their work and in their\njplay — sympathize with them in their difficulties — sympathize with them in\n[their joys and sorrows. The Great Teacher is touched by our infirmities,\n;he sympathizes with us. It is by the mystic bond of sympathy that the virtue,\n•the healing and transforming power of one soul is transferred to another.\nAs oxygen is to the body, so is sympathy to the moral life of the child.\nKind and just treatment of children is a prime requisite for their moral\ndevelopment. In the modern school, kindness has almost entirely supplanted\nthe rod as a means of discipline. The results, on the whole, have been good.\nThe best traits of moral character are developed by the repression of the evil\nand the cultivation of the good. By treating children kindly, they are not so\napt to give way to passion and it is easy for them to be obedient, cheerful,\nand happy themselves and kind to others. In the atmosphere of kindness,\nevery virtue blossoms and bears fruit.\nBut children should be treated justly as well as kindly.\nIt is very easy\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfor kindness to degenerate into mere indulgence. It is not kindness, but quite\nthe opposite, when we tolerate in children idleness, falsehood, disobedience,\ndishonesty, and the like. Justice demands that these and similar things be\ncorrected. Children as a rule appreciate correction and even punishment,\nso long as it is not unjust, but any form of injustice, or the failure to mete out\njustice to all alike, is quickly felt and always resented. Justice, as well as\nkindness, must be enthroned in the school if the moral life of the children is\nto be properly developed.\nEvery form of school activity should contribute an important part to the\nmoral development of the pupils. In fact it is the chief purpose of the school\nnot to impart knowledge but to develop character and it is indeed fortunate\nthat when a school is so conducted as to do most for the intellectual development of the children, it, at the same time, may do the most for their moral\ngrowth. It all depends upon the way in which it is done; the spirit which\npervades the school. The routine work of the school; the discipline of the\nschool; the incidental and minor exercises of the school; the recess periods;\nthe friendly intercourses of pupils with one another and with their teacher; the\nstudy period; the recitation; the course of study; and especially the example\nof the teacher — these must all be utilized in training pupils in the formation of\ncorrect moral habits. It is this training, the daily practice in these simple\nelemental virtues, that enable pupils to form habits of uprightness, which\nfinally develop into moral character. It will be one of the most important\nparts of this report when finally presented to show how these different school\nactivities may be utilized to aid in the formation of moral habits and lofty\nmoral ideals.\nC.\nJ. M.\n\nGREENWOOD,\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nKANSAS\n\nCITY,\n\nMO.\n\n[ylw Abstract]\n\na) Obedience. — In the moral sphere the child at first has no intuitions of\nthe abstract principles of right and wrong. Behind every act there should\nbe clear knowledge and a definite purpose, and the more complete the knowledge, the stronger is the tendency to act up to the fullest measure of light\none has. The entire training of a child begins with the observance of certain\nrules, and this leads the way to obedience and self-control — the object of all\ntraining.\nb) The home. — Whatever is good and pure and clean, or whatever is bad\nand impure and vile in the inner life of the individual, has its rise in the home\nlife.\nc) The relation oj parent and child. — Honesty with children always counts.\nThe parent who practices deception, either covertly or openly, or\"'plays sharp\ntricks, or induces his child to engage in practices that will not bear the closest\nscrutiny, is false to the sacred trust committed to his care.\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouiicUl\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n453\n\nd) Habits that should he taught to children. — (i) Doing honest work; (2)\nShouldering responsibility; (3) Gaining ends by honest means, etc.\ne) Making children over. — Each case requires special treatment since\nthere is no universal science of human nature. To substitute higher motives\nfor lower motives.\nIdeals are higher than ideas.\n/) The school life. — ^Teachers cannot have direct physical and spiritual\ncontrol over pupils to exceed eight hours each school day, and not to exceed\ntwo hundred days out of the three hundred and sixty-five days of each year.\ng) Children's school habits. — ^The school is the pupil's place of business,\nand while there he should attend to his business promptly and cheerfully, and\ndo everything required of him in the best manner possible.\nh) Moral training in school. — ^The theory of all moral training is based on\ntwo simple principles: judgment and feeling combined, jollowed by doing.\nThe reading lessons will usually furnish sufficient material for the inculcation of good habits and their opposites.\nSelf-help is the mainspring of all genuine worth.\n1. How to train pupils incidentally.\n2. How to train pupils formally.\n3. Illustrations contrasting virtues and their opposites — ^vices — in short,\nteaching by contrast.\nD.\n\nRELATION\n\nCLIFFORD\n\nW.\n\nBARNES,\n\nOF MORAL\n\nAND\n\nRELIGIOUS\n\nTRAINING\n\nEXECUTIVE\nCHAIRMAN,\nINTERNATIONAL\nON MORAL TRAINING, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe discussion of this subject invites us to sweep the whole gamut of\nphilosophical thought, both ancient and modern, to discourse wisely on natural\nand revealed religion, and to enlarge upon the meaning of the categorical\nimperative, in a manner that would delight the soul of Immanuel Kant. But\nlet it suffice for our purpose to say that, judged from the standpoint of abstract\nphilosophy, the relation between morals and religion is very close, and whether\nwe arrive at our knowledge of God through a recognition of duty or recognize\nduty through a knowledge of God, there is something in the moral imperative\nthat links the human with the divine, something in religion which must find\nexpression in moral action, and in moral action which finds its chief dynamic\nin religion.\nPassing from the academic to the practical discussion of the problem,\nespecially as it pertains to education, we find that the closest relation has always\nexisted between moral and religious training. In the early days of our own\ncountry the summun bonum of education was a course in biblical literature and\ntheology that would do credit to a modern church seminary; the spelling book,\nthe reader, and even the arithmetic obtaining the substance of their content\nfrom the sacred Scriptures. Moral training was not intentionally neglected,\nbut it was considered such a natural and inevitable resultant of religion that\nit received little attention.\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nOur own system of education was but the counterpart of that which existed\nin Europe at that time, and which, indeed, had existed in much the same form\nfor many generations. Speaking in general, it may be said that all civilized\nand even the so-called barbarous nations have always made religion the rock\nfoundation and the most pervasive force in education, while moral action has\never been considered its true expression in the lives of good citizens. Of\nrecent years, in the more progressive of European countries, there has been a\nsteadily growing feeling of dissatisfaction with the results of religious training.\nSomehow the Bible stories have not always been transmuted into ethical\nprinciples, active in the lives of pupils, and there has seemed to be a dangerous\ngap between precept and practice in the routine of daily affairs. During the\npast year, in many of the schools of England the Scripture lessons have been so\narranged as to constitute a systematic course of moral instruction; and in\nGermany a league has been formed to make religious teaching more ethical.\nBut, however you look at the problem, in the abstract or the concrete,\nthrough the eyes of philosophy or the records of history, moral and religious\ntraining have ever gone hand in hand, maintaining the closest relation to each\nother, finding strength in union and weakness in separation.\nIt is unnecessary to recall to your minds those changing events in our\nnational life which have gradually eliminated all religious instruction from\nthe public schools, and made our system of education nominally secular.\nThat system is here to stay, and it is our duty to accept it gladly as a part of\nGod's wise providence, and do our level best to make it most effective in the\ntraining of the young. There is, of course, no question as to the propriety\nor desirability of so arranging this system of education as to give the first place\nto moral training, for in the very nature of things all else should be secondary.\nBut, in the light of that which has gone before, how are we going to have a\nvital morality without the introduction of that religious instruction which is\nforbidden ? or, stated somewhat differently, what relation can be established,\nin the public schools of America, between these two essentially complimentary\nfactors — ^religion and morality ?\nBriefly answering this question, I would say:\nFirst, In teaching morals one should yield to the philosophical requirement\nof the situation and acknowledge the religious basis on which morality rests.\nSurely we may be permitted in this country to speak with greater freedom\nconcerning the general subject of religion than they who live in that land of\nreligious controversy, sometimes called \"Godless France,\" and yet that government, in its official program, urges upon its teachers to show the relation\nbetween the moral and divine law, to inculcate in their pupils a reverence\nfor God and religion, and to be attentively respectful at any service of the\nchurch.\nSecond, As one makes use of that best medium for the teaching of a moral\nlesson, i. e., the biography of a good man, it can properly be shown how\nlarge a part religion playedln the development of character and in the winning\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n455\n\nof success. There need be nothing here of dogmatism or theology, but a\nsimple recognition of the historical fact that one of the mighty influences in\nthe life of any man is his religion, be he Protestant, Catholic, or Jew.\nThird, Formal worship once a day should be the universal practice in th e\nschools of America. If at the basis of all moral teaching we come in touch\nwith the divine, and if the chief aim of education is to promote moral training ,\nsurely we are illogical and foolish beyond measure to prohibit the recognition\nin some formal way of that first great underlying Cause, whom some call\n''Lord,\" '' Our God,\" and \"Heavenly Father.\" When the juror, and the witness, and the client before a notary are no longer asked to swear their affirmation in God's name; when our judges, and our congressmen, and other\npublic servants are permitted to assume their solemn obligations without taking\noath of office on the word of God; when the President of the United States\nrefuses to issue a Thanksgiving proclamation, in acknowledgment of the\nblessings of Almighty God; when Congress, by deliberate choice, refuses to\nelect a chaplain, or be led in prayer, and strikes from our coin \"in God we\ntrust;\" and when the laws of the land so change their character as to give no\nrecognition to God's Holy Day, and divine authority, then, and not till then,\nwill the public schools of America be justified in omitting all forms of daily\nworship. It is needless to enter here upon the discussion of this much mooted\nquestion, but I cannot refrain from saying how monstrously absurd and\nsinfully dangerous I consider it to be for any organization controlling the\neducational force of a great sin-burdened city deliberately to refuse to give\nofficial recognition to the greatest power which makes for righteousness in\nall the world.\nFourth, The atmosphere of the school may be a medium for the introduction of religion. This will require no stating of creed, no expression of\nbelief, nothing that might be called pietistic or sanctimonious, but only a\npervasive spirit of light and joy and happiness, a sort of general understanding\nthat life is a great and beautiful gift of God, not to be used for sordid purposes,\nbut rather as a means of serving others to the limit of one's ability. This\nwill be religion, pure and undefiled, admitting of no sectarian controversy,\nbut exerting a tremendously vitalizing influence on every effort at moral training. The source of this religious atmosphere is not the school in which we\nfind it, but the church and the homes of the neighborhood. A score or more\nof antagonistic denominations will help to make it, a thousand different faiths\nwill enter into it, the Bible story, the pastor's prayer, the mother's counsel,\nthe father's command, these aU will do their part, while underneath these\nruns a steady current of religious conviction, sweeping down from the days\nof our ancestors to keep the hearts of the children strong and true. This is\nnot some strange illusion of an idle dreamer, for here and there one finds a\nschool whose life and spirit answer well to this description, and the religious\nelement which pervades it in this atmospheric manner is a powerful reality\nworking mightily for good. The church and the home may well feel a new\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[i?Jational\n\nsense of responsibility as it thus becomes clear that the correlation of religion\nand morality in our system of education is so largly dependent upon them.\nReligion in the individual is good; but it becomes a better and greater thing\nwhen, multiplied a thousand fold, it gives the spirit of religion to the town, the\nschool, and the nation.\nFifth, The teacher, through his personality, should bring religion to the aid\nof morality. Considering my words very carefully, I have no hesitation in\nsaying that an irreligious person has no right to teach in a public school.\nDo not understand me to mean by \"irreligious\" a person who lacks membership issome one of our many churches. I mean by ''irreligious\" a person\nwho fails to perceive any relation between the finite and the infinite, who\nrecognizes no supreme good in the universe, who has no consciousness of a\n\"power not himself that makes for righteousness.\" Such men are often\ncaught up by the tide of wholesome life which surrounds them on every side\nand are carried on to the achievement of a noble career. But as teachers of\nthe young they lack in the spirit of reverence, in the discernment of true values,\nin the power to quicken high ideals, and in that love for self-sacrifice which\nthe Great Teacher taught his disciples. I know there are some whose faith\nhas been twisted and dwarfed by the blows of misfortune until its form is\nstrange beyond words to describe; and there are some who by nature or\ntraining can only bow the knee, like the Greeks of old, before an altar inscribed\n\"Agnosto Theo\" (to the Unknown God); but such men are not irreligious,\nfor with patient hope they look forward to a day of clearer vision, and with\nglad self-sacrifice they lend a helping hand to others as they walk the road\ntoward the better life. Religion, even such religion, expressing itself in the\nperson of one who is honored and loved, is worth ten thousand homilies on\ntheology, or as many chapters learned by rote from the Holy Book.\nSumming it all up, then, very briefly, we are agreed that moral training\nshould be increasingly emphasized in our system of education. To be most\neffective it should never be divorced from the element of religion with which\nit has always been closely related by the theories of philosophy and the history\nof events. Under the conditions which exist in our country today, it lies\nwithin the power of our educational authorities to develop an increasingly\nstrong and vital connection between these two important agencies, by a clear\nstatement of their mutual dependence, a fair portrayal of their joint influence\non the lives of men, the observance each day of some form of public worship,\nthe wise use of a potential and pervasive religious atmosphere, and last, but\nnot least, by the life and character of the honored teacher, who himself is\nsincerely religious.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Nebraska Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind. — It is very evident, from the able\nreports presented this morning, that moral development cannot be secured by any kind\nof early specialization (not even by manual training), nor apart from personal guidance.\nThe studies of the elementary school, reading, writing, arithmetic, manual training,\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nTHE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n457\n\nart, will not' of themselves secure moral development though they are the opportum'ty for\ngrowth by means of self -activity, and also the means by which the child is related to the\ngreat world, of which the school is a part. The training of the intellect must be considered\nin training for moral development.\nThe important and difficult work of the school is to furnish such conditions, by association and work, as will develop the rational will. To make the will pure and strong, as\nFroebel tells us, is the object of education; to place the action of the will beyond the power\nof accident, and, in our time especially, to make a man capable of dominating the machinery\nwhich he himself has invented.\nWe are constantly endeavoring to adjust our conduct to the standards of our civilization. Imitation as a process should not be underestimated in education. \"How can I\nlisten to what you say when what you do is thundering in my ears ?\" The personality of\nthe teacher is the great factor in moral education. Children must be considered as individuals, and must be directed by individual intelligence and sympathy. The organization\nof the school community is most important, but all machinery should be considered subordinate tohuman growth. It is impossible to give adequate moral training in the present\ncrowded condition of the schools. The reform most needed is not a reduction of the\nnumber of studies, but a reduction of the number of pupils assigned to each teacher. The\nstudies in the curriculum represent only the opportunities which a child might have in a\ncultivated family.\nMuch attention has been given to literature for children, and no instrumentality is\nmore effective in creating the ideals which must influence and direct the will. The theory\nof life, the theory of conduct is expressed in the art form and applied to life, before the\nchild is capable of understanding philosophy or religious creeds.\nOur literature and art should explain the child to himself in his own civilization. The\nlife of the primitive man has its place, no doubt. The myths of earlier civilizations have\nmuch value, in a scheme of education, if they are well chosen. The method of indirect\nteaching has great value, but not to the exclusion of direct teaching. Children are constantly asking the meaning of the life around them and are placing their interpretation\nupon it. The old-time stories endeavored to explain, in a very simple way, the consequence\nof the deed, and the relative values of actions. It is true that an arrest of development\nmay take place in an effort to bring the moral powers to early maturity, but it is equally\ntrue that development may be arrested by teaching below the level of the child's power to\ncomprehend.\n\nDISTINCTIVE FUNCTIONS OF UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE, AND\nNORMAL SCHOOL IN THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nUNITED\nSTATES COMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIt is, I believe, my function at this time merely to start the discussion of\nthis topic, a topic that has been much discussed in the past, and sometimes\nwith the warmth of opposing convictions. The points in which there has\nappeared to be irreconcilable opposition of view have now been so far talked\nout and studied out, that it will be possible, I am sure, for us here to consider\nwithout irritation the difi&culties with which the question is necessarily attended.\nAnd we may be able to go a little way forward toward a solution of those\ndifficulties.\nWhat I have to present may be summed up as follows : The chief difficulty\nof adjustment from the side of the normal school arises from the fact that the\nnormal school seems to be out of the main current of our scholastic life, which\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nINational\n\nflows from the elementary school through the high school directly into the\nuniversity or, the other way round, from the university to the secondary and\nelementary school.\nThe chief difficulty of adjustment from the side of the university arises from\nthe fact that it has been found impossible as yet to organize in the university\nany system of training in the actual practice of teaching that can be compared\nin efficiency with that to be found in our best normal schools.\nI am taking the question as it was assigned to me with this exception, that\nI do not undertake to discuss the function of the college as apart from that of\nthe university. What I have to say concerning the university will apply only\nin part to an institution having a fully developed school of education or teachers'\ncollege. What is said of the lack of adequate practice teaching of secondary\ngrade is, I think, of universal application. With reference to both of the\ndifl&culties mentioned above I shall have some mild suggestions toward improvement to offer before I close.\nWe are now well accustomed to the idea that all grades of education in\nthis country are to be closely bound together, from the lowest to the highest.\nOur fidelity to the spirit of democracy requires this of us, and we are convinced\nthat it is best in the long run both for science and for the national life. Continuity and coherence are watchwords of our educational organization.\nBut just because the higher grades of instruction are bound fast to the\nlower, we see the need of especial care that a steady progression shall be maintained in both the method and the content of our teaching. No grade of\ninstruction shall be allowed to lay a detaining hand of scholastic custom and\ninertia upon the grade above it. At no stage of our scholastic ascent shall we\ntarry for more than two years with instruction of essentially the same type or\nthe same grade of difi&culty.\nFurthermore, we cannot be content with the standards of the past. Not\nonly our own national development, but, more particularly, our closer touch\nwith the rest of the world, has shown us that our standards have been pitched\ntoo low. This is true both on the side of knowledge and on the side of skill\nin teaching. In our new position in the world, it is not enough that we win\npatronizing approval of our science and of our school instruction from the\nolder culture nations. That new position requires of us that we do our full\npart in determining what the world-standard shall be, both in pure science\nand in pedagogic practice. This is particularly difficult when half our teaching\nforce is a rope of sand and when the profitable pursuits of applied science are\nluring our scientists away from their laboratories. But these unfavorable\ncircumstances cannot relieve us of our responsibility; and a consideration of\nthe higher attainments which the present times demand, as regards both\nknowledge and teaching skill, has an important bearing on the distribution of\nfunction between normal schools and universities.\nWe are pretty well agreed that the knowledge of subject-matter and skill in\npresentation are both requisite in all grades of teaching, and that, broadly\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Coundll\n\nTHE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n459\n\nspeaking, the skill is of greater relative importance in the earlier grades and\nthe knowledge in the later years of schooling. A general recognition of this\nfact works automatically in the distribution of teachers, tending to place the\ngraduates of colleges and universities in high-school positions and the graduates\nof normal schools in elementary grades, with a fair mingling of the two in\nthe principalships and teaching positions of grammar schools. Making\nallowance for many exceptions, I think we should be agreed that the public\ngood is fairly well served by such a distribution. We must recognize the fact\nthat high schools, of the type and standing now expected in our high schools,\nmust be mainly taught by those who have had collegiate or university training.\nThe same should be said of the seventh and eighth grades of our grammar\nschools when they are taught on the department plan or offer studies of secondary grade.\nWe need to get special knowledge and special skill into their right relations\nto each other, and a third element must be added, namely, special inborn fitness\nfor teaching. The considerations which we have before us, then, range\nthemselves about as follows:\nIt is of first importance that we attract into the business of teaching and\ninto our training schools for teachers those who have the right stuff in them,\nthe right kind of manhood and womanhood for such work.\nIt is next in importance that these persons shall be well educated, as\nregards both general culture and special knowledge of some one subject or\ngroup of subjects.\nClose after these requirements comes the requirement of technical training\nfor the processes of teaching.\nPresident Alderman remarked in his recent paper on \"The Growing South\":\nThe ability of this generation to recognize education as something larger than mere\nlearning or even discipline, to perceive it as a great force molding national character, has\ncaused the enlistment into this field of work of young men and young women of creative\ncapacity and exalted character, who, under other conditions in Southern history, would\nhave instinctively turned to political and social fields of distinction and service.\n\nSuch a condition is of the utmost importance for the teaching profession\nand for teachers' training schools of every kind. It can be brought about\nonly through the concurrence of the whole set of conditions surrounding our\neducational system. All that can be done, by co-operative action of all persons\nconcerned, will be needed to turn toward education in the country at large\nthose who can best do the work of education.\nThe second requirement, that the teacher be well educated, is emphasized\nhere for two reasons: First, because a teacher needs such a grade of education\nas will give him an assured place with the best educated people in the community, and so give to his influence in the schoolroom the added weight of\nthe respect of the community; second, because the teacher needs such a\nstanding with his pupils that his influence upon them will outlive their days\nof schooling. There is a kind of skill in teaching, adequate and successful\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "460\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\naccording to the standard of immediate requirements, sometimes markedly\nsuccessful, which nevertheless is without depth and so falls flat when it comes\nto the need of a lasting influence in the grown-up lives of those on whom it\nhas been exercised. It is particularly unfortunate when it happens, as sometimes itdoes happen, that the most distinct and conscious moral impression\nis made by a teacher whose skill in teaching is not balanced by impressive and\nsubstantial scholastic attainments, a teacher who has become a pathetic memory\nand nothing more when his pupils have reached their maturity.\nThe third requirement, that the teacher shall have mastered the art of\nteaching, is likewise emphasized here for two reasons *. First, that his lack of\nskill may not come between him and his pupils, or indeed come between his\npupils and their rightful education. The apostle Paul, you remember,\nboasted that he did not frustrate the grace of God. And second, that the\nyoung teacher, particularly, shall be able to go into team-work with the rest\nof the teaching force. There is something pitifully lonesome for himself and\nhampering to his fellows in the position of a highly-educated teacher who has\nnot enough of pedagogic interest and teacher-training to enable him to join\nhands with others in making the school a school.\nNow let us come back to the actual diflSculties of present adjustment.\nA normal-school president said to me not long ago, \"If you want to do anything\nfor the normal schools, help them to get out of the blind alley in which they\nfind themselves.\" It was only another way of stating the diflGiculty which was\nmentioned at the outset of this paper. Another, a teacher in a normal school,\nput it in this way: \"Personal relations within the school are good, but intellectually we are starving.\" I am well aware of another side to the case.\nIndividual presidents and teachers of normal schools have made their institutions fairly a-tingle with intellectual and aesthetic interest. Strong teachers\ncontinue to go into the normal schools, many of them bearing the higher\ndegrees of the most advanced universities. But the blind alley exists, not as\na fault but as a situation. It appears in other unattached professional schools,\nin schools of medicine, of law, and of theology. It may be doubted whether\nan adequate remedy is to be found in empowering normal schools to offer\ncollegiate courses and give collegiate degrees, though that plan may be justified\nwhere a full course of collegiate grade can be provided without detriment\nto the wider work of the institution. The obvious remedy is to bring the\nnormal school into more intimate relations with the institutions in which the\nhighest scientific work is done, to give it an appropriate place in the university\nsystem of its state. Just how this is to be done in any given case, I am not\nprepared to say. The cases are extremely various. The present disposition\non the part of our universities to break the undergraduate course in two at the\nclose of the sophomore year suggests that in some instances the normal\nschools might profitably offer, along with their other courses, the first two\nyears of the college course. One incidental adjustment which seems worthy\nof consideration is a regular and systematic exchange of instructors between\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl)\n\nTHE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n461\n\nthe normal school and a university or certain universities. Such an exchange,\nwhen it settled into an accepted routine, would, I believe, have advantages\nfor both of the sides concerned.\nThe second difficulty of which I spoke, that on the side of the university,\nis the difficulty of providing suitable practice teaching, particularly in schools\nof secondary grade. This difficulty has been partially met, in a variety of\nways, at the universities of Harvard, Brown, Chicago, and California, at\nTeachers College, and other institutions. It does not seem to me that it has\nanywhere been fully met. It is comparatively easy to provide practice teaching\nof a grammar grade or in laboratory courses in the high school, but for highschool class work, outside of the laboratory, it is more difficult. The normal\nschools, by their successful organization of practice teaching of an elementary\ngrade, have set a standard of practical training. And strong city superintendents and high-school principals are demanding, with good show of reason,\nthat they shall not be required to do the breaking-in of high-school teachers\nwhen' the normal school does successfully the breaking-in of teachers for\nelementary schools.\nIn the main it seems to me that university authorities have not yet taken\nthis problem seriously. Yet it is, I am persuaded, a problem which will have\nto be taken seriously. It is to be hoped that closer relations between normal\nschools and universities may lead to wider experimentation in this field. I\ndo not look for an altogether satisfactory outcome, however, till the matter\nhas been taken in hand by some of our state legislatures. In a serious way,\nas part of the educational system of the state, the professional courses of our\nuniversities will have to be supplemented, as it seems to me, by regular provision for special high schools organized expressly as schools for practice teaching; or by apprentice teaching in designated high schoolS; after the manner\nof the German Prohejahr; or by both of these provisions with others added\nthereto.\nThese few suggestions are offered with the greatest diffidence, for I well\nknow the difficulty of the subject. I am convinced, however, that it is a field\nin which we must have courageous discussion and careful experimentation.\nAnd it would seem that a time has come when this Council may lead the way\nto some constructive advance and improvement.\nDISCUSSION\n\nJohn W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. —\nIt is difficult to treat, with any degree of satisfaction, the function of the normal school\nas distinguished from that of the college and university within the limits of a thousand\nwords.\nNothing can be more obvious than that the elementary school must depend quite\nexclusively for trained teachers upon the normal school. An occasional university woman\nwill seek employment in the grades but, like the rest, she needs the normal-school discipline\nunless she has had special advantages in pedagogical training in the university. In such\nan event she will seek the high school rather than the grades because of a higher salary\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Natioiai\n\nand of the richness of the subject-matter. The elementary school will be taught for years\nto come by young women who enter and leave the calling with a degree of freedom not\ndiscoverable in any other vocation that aspires to be called a profession.\nIn the large cities there is already a fair degree of permanency of tenure and it is\nsteadily increasing, for, in the great centers of population, young women are more and\nmore abandoning the idea of marriage and are seeking occupations that will furnish them\nsubsistence and at the same time will supply a fairly satisfactory social standing. It is\nan encouraging sign to note that salaries are moving along toward a living wage so that\nyoung women who are contented to Uve modestly will accept the situation and will enter\nthe schoolroom to remain there for the working period of their lives.\nThe compensation attaching to these positions, however, will not attract women of\nuniversity training. In consequence we may expect to see few of them there unless they\nenter the grades for the purpose of securing that indispensable experience which will fit them\nfor higher and more lucrative places in the educational system. They will look toward\nsupervisorships and principalships and if they intelligently persist they will receive their\nreward. The old disparity of salaries is fast disappearing and in the great cities the\nwomen principals and supervisors are on a par with the men in the matter of compensation.\nThere is no further occasion for the old lament that women must accept smaller salaries\nthan men, simply because they are women, in these positions of grave responsibility.\nAway from the larger cities the fluid character in the teaching force is its striking\ncharacteristic. The average tenure will barely exceed four years, I suspect, although I\nam not fortified with statistics to establish this statement. Here the work of the normal\nschool assumes even greater importance, if possible, for without its assistance the majority\nof the schools will be in the hands of teachers who are in the apprentice stage and who will\nretire from the school about the time that they have acquired a fair degree of efiiciency.\nGood normal schools are supplied with training schools which furnish to their graduates\nsuch an experience in theory, and in the actual teaching work, under normal conditions, as\nwill equip them for excellent service upon their graduation. They will not only have the\ntheory which broadly underlies elementary education but they will also be supplied with\nthe material of instruction adapted to the various grades, and will have sufl&cient practice\nin class teaching and in room management to render them fairly good teachers from the\nfirst day of their service in the public school.\nIt is not practicable for any other institution to attempt this work. The university\ncannot do it for its students are rarely so much interested in elementary education as to\nengage in this practice work for a sufficient length of time to acquire the requisite skill.\nFurthermore, the universities are not supplied with training schools which would furnish\nsuch an opportunity if the students were disposed to avail themselves of it.\nThere is another class of positions which the normal school is most admirably adapted\nto fill. The villages and towns, and their name is legion, usually employ a principal who\nsupervises the work of the elementary grades, oversees the high school, at least, and does\nsome of the work of instruction. These positions pay but moderate salaries, yet they\nattract good talent and furnish a preparation for service in the larger towns and cities.\nThese capable young men from the normal school are an unqualified godsend to the communities in which they are employed. They are full of the spirit of the teacher and are\ndevoted to the work of the elementary school. They have learned to regard it as not only\nhighly honorable but as extremely interesting and improving, and with their fine idealism\nthey give themselves to their tasks with great enthusiasm and earnestness.\nIf they are prepared to enter the university whei> they go to the normal school they\nrealize that their discipUnes there will receive full credit at the higher institutions, hence\nthey find their way sooner or later to those great well-springs of culture where they constitute a most admirable element in the student body. The school has caught their attention and interest and when they come back with their superior learning they make the ideal\nmanagers of educational systems.\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Coundll\n\nTHE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n463\n\nA third group that the normal school can admirably prepare consists of principals\nand special teachers in village high schools where the compensation will not attract the\nhighly-trained specialists that the cities can afford. It is an unfortunate fact that many\nof the teachers in secondary schools have more knowledge than skill. They come from\nthe university with a sense of superiority and are often disposed to think slightingly of\nteaching as an art. The university method quite occasionally finds its way into the secondary school and invariably to its detriment. When these young women and young men\nhave added to their normal-school training the wider culture already referred, they are\nextremely desirable.\nThere is a fourth class that the normal school is peculiarly well fitted to prepare.\nCritic teachers for city systems and for normal schools should themselves be imbued with\nthe normal-school spirit. Equipped with a normal-school and college training they may\nreturn to the normal school and connect themselves with its training department with very\ngreat profit to themselves. Two years of such experience furnish an admirable preparation for such positions. A well-equipped training school can take care of two or three\nsuch pupils and do most excellently for them.\nThe question of the preparation of secondary teachers is still open for discussion. It\nis still my conviction that the normal school as at present organized is not an ideal agency\nfor the preparation of teachers for secondary schools. Many of the normal schools,\nhowever, have extended their courses of instruction until they have become really colleges.\nIt may be that these institutions will solve the secondary-school problem. It is my fear,\nhowever, that in their attempt to do so they will neglect the elementary school. Those\naspiring to this wider development seem unwilling to accord to the elementary school the\ndignity that belongs to it. There is an ill-concealed dissatisfaction with the thought of\nlimiting one's fife-work to the training of young children. We shall soon see, however, the\neffect of this disposition and then we can talk more wisely about it.\nJames E. Russell, dean of Teachers College, Columbia University. — The training\nof teachers, like other educational work, is a matter chiefly of teachers and students. The\nright kind of teachers brought into the right kind of relations with the right kind of students\nshould produce the right kind of results.\nThe trouble with most of our institutions is that we lack somewhat either in the abifity\nof our teaching staff, or in the quality of our students, or in the equipment essential to a\ntraining school. It is clear that most colleges are defective in that they supply inadequate\nfacifities for observation and practice in teaching; some of them are not disposed, possibly\nunwilling, to give that kind of academic instruction which is required by teachers of highschool subjects, not to mention teachers of lower grades; few colleges or universities have\nas yet put the professional training of teachers on the same plane as the training of engineers,\nor lawyers, or physicians. No first-class medical school, no, not even a second- or thirdclass medical school, would today think of graduating physicians without clinical demonstration and hospital practice. In the training of teachers the practice school is the hospital\nand good teaching in the presence of observers is clinical demonstration.\nMoreover, young college graduates are nowadays pseudo-specialists in some one of\nthe collegiate studies. What is taught in the average college course is not suited to the\nneeds even of secondary teachers. Perhaps if it were entirely suited to such a purpose it\nwould not be a proper college course. The college course I consider an essential prerequisite to the professional training of teachers for secondary schools, but we should not\nlose sight of the fact that the cultural discipline of the college course is no substitute for\nthe technical equipment in the particular subject which every teacher must acquire either\nby experience in the classroom or by professional training. No professional school tries\nto equip its students with all they may need in professional life, but it should strive to\nsystematize the body of knowledge employed in professional service in accordance with the\nhighest professional ideals and the best scientific principles, to the end that the period of\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLNatioml\n\nirresponsible practice may be reduced to a minimum. What is needed in each collegiite\ndepartment that offers instruction for teachers is at least one course which shall unify the\nstudent's knowledge of the subject acquired in preparatory school and college and assist\nhim in supplementing and organizing his material in such a way as to be of greatest service\nto him in his future professional work. Such a course may be truly academic, but it is\nalso professional in that it selects and organizes its materials for practical purposes. It is\nthe connecting link between the cultural discipline of the college and the technical training\nof the professional school.\nThe college professes to give cultural discipline. If it will train teachers effectively\nit must also give technical instruction of the character I have just specified, instruction in\nways and means of selecting, arranging, and presenting school subjects, and finally observation and practice in teaching sufficient to make intending teachers conscious of their personal faults if not skilled in the methods of their art. All this requires money — money for\nmore teachers, more equipment, and more technical facilities than most colleges possess.\nIt means, too, more money than most colleges and universities are as yet able or willing to\nexpend. Until the means are forthcoming the professional training of teachers by colleges\nand universities will be abortive.\nThe aim of normal schools is avowedly the professional training of teachers. Social\nand political considerations demand that the great public-school system below the grade\nof high school have particular care; economic considerations make impossible the requirement of a college course as a prerequisite to teaching in an elementary school. Hence the\nlimitation of cultural discipline in most normal schools to that offered by high-school and\nrural-school graduates. It is highly desirable that some elementary teachers have more\nacademic training than the high school can give, and I see no inherent reason w^hy such\nadvanced academic instruction cannot be given in a normal school as well as in a college.\nIn fact I see no inherent reason why collegiate instruction, or even university training in\nmethods of research, cannot be given in a normal school. It is, as I have already said, a\nmatter chiefly of teachers and students and equipment. But the right kind of teachers\nand equipment means the expenditure of money — far more money than most normal\nschools can get or perhaps should have. But the normal school that can get the money\nby public grant or private gift and knows how to use it properly is surely in a position to\ntrain teachers efifectively, and teachers of any grade and of any subject.\nThe question before us, therefore, is, in my opinion, largely a theoretic one; it is practical only in so far as prevailing conditions suggest future possibilities. Theoretically, we\nshould have schools for the training of rural teachers, elementary teachers, high-school\nteachers, teachers of special branches and teachers in special schools, college teachers and\nuniversity teachers.\nIn, my opinion the graduate faculties of our universities should care for the college and\nuniversity instructors; they are really professional schools for training in pure scholarship.\nFor other grades of teachers we also need professional schools, not subordinate and\nsuspected departments of another type of institution. The normal school that confines\nitself to the elementary field is on sure ground, but the average normal school gives little\nheed to the needs of rural education and is not equipped to train teachers for high schools.\nGranting that professional training is desirable for high-school teachers and for specialists\nand administrative officers of the entire public-school system, I think that professional\nschools for these purposes can be maintained more economically in connection with an\nestablished college or university than independently. The independent normal school that\nwould do this work well must maintain most of the departments of a good college and give\ninstruction of collegiate rank. To do this in some localities or in some states may not be\na duplication of existing opportunities; in other localities it would certainly seem both\nunwise and wasteful.\nI doubt whether we shall ultimately develop in this country many professional schools\nthoroly equipped to train teachers for rural schools, elementary schools, and high schools,\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n465\n\nand administrative officers and educational experts for our school system — or, indeed, •\nfor any two of these classes, in one and the same institution.\nThe difference in the students\nwho offer themselves for training in these respective fields, differences in home environment, personal tastes, scholarly ability, and future aims, are in themselves quite sufl&cient\nto warrant separate and distinct training schools.\nBut we shall not develop an ideal system in a day; we may never do so. What we\nare likely to do is to work out a scheme that shall be economically satisfactory and fairly\nresponsive to our needs. We are sure one day to have training schools chiefly devoted to\nrural education — for the simple reason that rural education is today the most neglected\npart of our school system and the most in need of expert guidance. We are also sure to\nhave teachers' professional schools in all of our great universities — for the reason that the\nsole function of a university is to train leaders in every art and science of value to\nhumanity.\nWhen the eyes of university officers are finally opened to what observers in the marketplace now plainly see and when they come to hear what the public is saying about their\nshortcomings, I have no doubt that public service in education will be rated in importance\nwith engineering and law and medicine. The university professional school will concern\nitself chiefly with the training of high-school teachers, specialists, and administrative officers.\nIt can do this work economically and it should be able to do it as well as any independent\ninstitution.\nThis analysis leaves to the normal school the training chiefly of elementary and grammar-school teachers and certain kinds of special teachers and school officers. It is the\nfield historically reserved for such schools and it is the field in which they have given best\nreturns. There is no other field of greater importance, none that justifies better support\nor offers greater inducements to devoted service. I have no sympathy with the normal\nschool that envies the college as something better or higher or worthier than itself, and\napes collegiate ways for fear of the criticism of so-called learned men. On the other hand, I\nhave only contempt for those scholars who will not grant honorable recognition to men\nabler than themselves in making learning of use in the world. We have need of both\ntypes of workers and I have faith in the university's ultimate conversion to the position that\nis obviously just and right. The progress of the past decade is an earnest of the future.\nThe history of professional training in no other field, so far as I am aware, shows such surprising advance as has been made by the universities of this country since 1898. In my\njudgment the greatest obstacle to future advance is the lack of men qualified to do work\nof university grade. They are not to be had in sufficient numbers and it is to the credit of\nthe universities that they will not put inferior men in superior places. As soon as the men\nare available, I think we shall find the means for supporting university schools for the professional training of teachers and I am sure the universities will be ready to accord such\nschools proper recognition. Without the men not even a normal school can perform the\ntask.\nMeanwhile I rejoice that some universities are putting forth honest efforts to solve\nthis problem, and I am by no means averse to having some good normal schools point out\nthe way. Overlapping and competition may be necessary evils designed by a guiding providence to hasten that educational millennium when all teachers shall be fitted for their\nwork and take honest pride in giving professional service.\nJohn R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. — The university\nrepresents academic freedom. All agree that it may have any kind of school or college\nthat its means will support. Hence, the university has no distinctive function in the preparation ofteachers. Its sphere is unlimited. The University of Missouri has a Teachers\nCollege, with an elementary school and a large high school for purposes of exemplifying all\nphases of public-school education. This is a genuine pedagogical laboratory, useful in\npreparing teachers of all kinds from kindergarten to high-school seniors inclusive. Normal-\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nschool men in Missouri encouraged and urged the university to establish the Teachers\nCollege.\nThey welcome such competition.\nIt is conceded that the college may have any subordinate college, sub-college, or department which its funds will support. So the college too represents academic freedom; and\nsurely no sane man would seek to restrict any college to any alleged distinctive function\nin the preparation of teachers, especially while the typical college in our country is growing\ninto a university and may become a university.\nFor too long a time the normal school has represented a journey into a bUnd alley, but\nsound education of every kind demands academic freedom. The normal school demands\nfreedom. There is no restricted sphere which the normal school is destined to fill. There\nis no exclusive field in education. Restriction means educational cramp and narrowness\nand lack of initiative and lack of outlook. Overlapping is healthy and invigorating.\nRestrictions upon a normal school are no more sane than restrictions upon a university\nor a college. The normal school demands liberty to give academic courses, paralleling the\nbest of college work. Pedagogy itself is not in pedagogical form. Pedagogy as a subject\nto be taught does not now give and for a long time cannot give the mental virility which\nother subjects, such as languages, sciences, etc., give. But the normal school should\nexemplify the best of teaching. The normal-school student should become habituated\nto the best kind of work in academic and pedagogic subjects. Hence, the best results in\nthe preparation of teachers are produced by having pedagogical and academic subjects\ntaught side by side, interacting upon one another.\nIt must be evident that a normal school without facilities for preparing high-school\nteachers cannot by any possibility prepare good elementary teachers. The products of\nsuch a normal school are handicapped in the outset. They lack knowledge. They lack\nexperience in handling the keys to knowledge. They lack skill in using the instrumentalities of instruction. They are likely to lack constructive ingenuity. The philosophy is\nunsound which would allow half-educated or poorly educated teachers in schools up to\nand including the last day in the elementary school, while demanding fully educated persons\nthe next day the children are in school, i.e., the first day in the high school.\nThe elementary school needs scholarly teachers; indeed, it seems self-evident now\nthat if any teacher in the world needs a college education, it is the grammar-school teacher,\nand I think no one in the world should be marked or honored with the stamp of professional teacher who has not the equivalent of a college education along with adequate professional preparation. Ideal teachers cannot be produced or grow up in a restricted atmosphere. The university and the college and the normal school should each prepare teachers\nof all kinds. It is only in the atmosphere of freedom that a really good teacher can be\nproduced. Several normal schools in the middle west conduct pedagogical courses and\ncollege courses side by side. Their graduates by natural processes differentiate into\nteachers of various kinds. Much human energy is economized and incomparably better\nresults are secured.\n\nPRELIMINARY REPORT ON NEED\nOF INVESTIGATION\nTHE CULTURE ELEMENT AND ECONOMY OF\nTIME IN EDUCATION\nJAMES\n\nH.\n\nBAKER,\n\nPRESIDENT,\nDENVER,\n\nUNIVERSITY\nCOLO.\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nCOLORADO\n\nIn 1903 at the Boston vmeeting of the National Educational Association a\ncommittee was appointed in the Council of Education to report upon the desirability of an investigation of \"The Culture Element and Economy of Time in\nEducation.\"\nThis committee, as a committee, has never reported beyond\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\n467\n\nsuggesting two or three topics for investigation. The subject was revived at\nthe 1907 meeting of the Council and the writer was asked by the president to\nmake a preliminary report upon it. It is to be remembered that this is not even\na preliniinary report of an investigation, but a preliminary report upon its\ndesirabihty — an examination of the field to see if treasure is contained within\nits limits.\nI am aware of the limitations to the value of the questionnaire as well as\nof its proper uses, and it has its uses. When such an investigation as this is\nproposed, the first step is to seek experiences, facts, opinions, and tendencies,\nas concerns the subject, and I believe unusually rich returns have been secured\nin this instance.\nI sent out several hundred copies of a circular inquiry to men carefully\nselected among the following: presidents of universities; professors of education; superintendents of schools and principals of high schools; sociologists and\nbusiness men. Eighty replies were returned. The number of replies from\neach group is in the order of the groups named, few being received from sociologists and business men, although a second special inquiry was sent them.\nThe questions, a summary of the opinions, classified extracts, references to\narticles, experiments, and investigations, and a valuable additional bibliography, furnished for this report by the National Bureau of Education, are\nsubmitted as an Appendix. Also, as a part of the report itself, is a condensed\nand reclassified list of characteristic quotations, showing the tendency of\nthought upon the various topics. The questions were made as searching as\npossible for the general view to be obtained. The replies as a whole show\nexceptional knowledge, conscientiousness, and interest on the part of the\nwriters, and very little perfunctory work or mere disposition to find fault appearing.\nI think I may here present a general impression of the whole, before calling\nattention to the questions and summaries.\nThe first impression is that there is real and widespread dissatisfaction\nwith the results of education, especially as related to the time expended ; that\nthere is a growing consciousness of the need of adjustment to new ideals; that\nthere is a demand for reinvestigation and reorganization. The people are\nready for the leadership of any representative body that will attempt to reduce\nto some degree of order educational theories, methods, and standards. It is a\nsurprise to me to learn that two thirds of the correspondents believe the period\nof formal education should be shortened and that very many would place\nthe age limit at twenty-four or earlier. All ask for a shorter limit, or better\nresults for the time, or both. They recognize that since the early New England college, education has added eight years, the high school has taken the\nplace of the college, four years have been set apart for the higher degrees;\nthat the college today occupies an anomalous position without a well-defined\nfunction; that each unit of the system is yearly increasing its demands; that\nquantity is the ideal rather than quality. There is a disposition to call a halt\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nalong all the line and have an inspection. There is also a strong sentiment\nthat culture must be redefined, that it covers much of the field which formerly\nwas regarded as exclusively practical. The waste of time in elementary\neducation, the need of reforms in secondary education, the need of definition\nof the college and of its relation to the professional school are emphasized\nwith substantial reasons assigned. I was doubtful about the value of the\nquestion relating educational aims to social needs, but much wisdom is shown\nin the replies and a majority claim that real culture will not suffer if we pay\nreasonable attention to efficiency and economy of time. The last question asking\nfor summary views upon the whole problem of the organization of education\nin this country brings out many valuable suggestions.\nThere is nearly unanimity of opinion that much time is wasted in elementary education, and a large majority claim that the time should be shortened. That there are too many odds and ends, topics and subjects, is a common criticism, the teaching and the lack of knowledge of ends aimed at having\ntheir share. Time can be saved by making a distinction between first-rate and\ntenth-rate facts; not trying to teach everything that is good; limiting the work\nto the tools of education; teaching content studies differently from the method\nin formal subjects; keeping educational aims in view. Upon the whole, the\njudgment regarding vocation studies in the elementary schools is conserv^ative and good. A striking suggestion is to provide studies which take the\nplace of the work children formerly did with their parents in the home, on the\nfarm, or in the shop.\nA majority favor a change of the high-school period, the preference being\nfor twelve to eighteen. Some advocate two divisions only for the dominantly\ncultural education, since a distinction between the aims of the high school and\nof liberal college does not exist. Important reforms in the high school are\nfreely proposed by nearly all. Amongst these are simplifying the courses,\nefficiency in character-making, directing the work toward well-defined ends,\nimproving the teaching. I believe that, as noted under elementary education,\nsome subjects should be presented in a way to invite and inspire and not for\nformal discipline, and that they should require little preparation. No greater\nmistake has been made in recent years than using the same rigid method for\nall studies. This practice is based on an exploded doctrine that attained\ngreat dignity a few years ago. Many people thank their stars that they did\nnot get their literature and history in the modem elementary and secondary\nschool. Vocational needs are generally recognized, and various schemes are\noffered for providing practical courses. A typical scheme is: grouped electives leading in practical directions, and offered in connection with the regular\nhigh school.\nThe length of the college course is put by the most at four years, but this\nis done by those who believe college entrance should be much earlier, and by\nthose who would begin university work with the junior year, as well as by those\nwho would preserve the college intact. Evidently they would first make a\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncOJ\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\n469\n\nreadjustment of the college and the professional school in accord with present\ntendencies, and leave for a later solution the less important problem of requirements for the A.B. degree. And here is the most significant fact of the whole\nreport: one-half of the correspondents would have university work begin at the\njunior year — work that gives scientific power — with groups leading to the various professional degrees or the Ph.D. degree, the last two years counting toward\nthose degrees; and would complete the professional work or Ph.D. work in\ntwo years more, or six years after college entrance. One great university has\nalready advertised substantially such a plan. In the independent recommendations for reorganizing the college are some interesting plans; this voices\nthe sentiment of many: ** I would thoroly reconstruct the American college\nfrom top to bottom, for it retains its name having lost its character.\" They\ndo not shrink from specifying the kinds of reform. One would adapt the\ncollege to the years sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, and nineteen. A few point out\nwhat business men really appreciatein the college graduate: the subjects of study,\nactivities, moral and physico-moral qualities, practical traits, and show wherein\nthe college as now organized fails to meet the demand.\nThe logical order of this inquiry may not appear at a glance: the time\nelement is related to the culture element, and the culture element in turn is\nrelated to the needs and ideals of society today. At different times many\neducators have expressed to me the belief that relating the inquiry as above\nis a hopeless and profitless undertaking. However, I am unable to see how a\nthorough investigation of American education could fail to connect aims\nwith needs. The history of education can be understood only in connection\nwith the history of civilization: the conditions, needs, and dominant thought\nof different eras. We cannot understand our problem unless we study our\neducational aims as related to our civic needs — the time, means, and methods\nin view of results. Germany has had the wisdom to do this and aims its\ninstruction toward service to state and society. I wonder whether we shall\nnot yet re-examine Persian, Spartan, and Roman, as well as Athenian, education, and learn many things to our advantage. I wish to add here that, to the\nend proposed above, educators must throw light on their problem from public\nopinion when formulated and expressed by inteUigent representatives. What\nare the needs of society today ? If one may believe the \"crowd of witnesses\"\nthey are, in plain terms, efficiency ^ real culture, and responsible character —\nnothing new, but peculiarly our needs at the present time, and the schools are\nnot giving the people satisfactory results. These three demands of real life\nsuggest the weakness of our education and the ideals to be emphasized. Nothing is changing so radically as the definition of culture, and this is shown in the\nreplies to the fifth topic on the relation of the subject to the demands of business and society and the ideals of our civiHzation. All agree- that smattering\nhowever extended is nc)t culture, and that one may possibly cover the eight\nyears of high school and college and not get an atom of culture. Culture, in\nmy mind, is the insight and inspiration from knowledge; it is closely related\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto efficiency and character. People are demanding that young men be made\nready for Hfe, and that they be trained in a character that will stand modern\ntests, and that they shall gain real culture and not the mere show of it. I\nrefer to the extended extracts in the Appendix upon this subject as well worth\nreading.\nThe topic, asking for summary views on the organization of education in\nthe United States, gives much freedom and scope, and the answers are suggestive inmany directions. The replies may be summed up under the heads:\nModifications of the School System; Organization of the System; Vocation\nElement in Education; Preparation of Teachers; Educational Aims, Means\nof Educational Progress, etc. Some believe we are now nearly ready for the\nGerman plan. The need of eUminating comparatively valueless material\nthruout is emphasized. Great stress is placed upon organization, national\nand state, and the need of some central power or representative body that\nshall unify and standardize, and shall make use of discovery and the various\nmeans of progress. There is a general recognition of the need of practical\nstudies throughout the school system, \"branching off at different points from\nthe central line of general culture.\" I have never seen more strongly emphasized the demand for forceful, wise, inspiring teaching — and this is not the\nonly recent powerful expression of the same idea. The connection between\nmeans and the ends to be reached are duly discussed. The faults of election,\nthe superficial quaUty of our education, the need of solidarity in our system,\nan interesting paragraph from Professor James on ** Motor Education,\" the\nimportance of recording school experiences and providing means of interpretation ina central bureau, are found in the list.\nWe are slow to adopt new ideas, and the views here represented will not\nbe welcome to all teachers and professors. But I see nothing in all the tendencies noted which will not strengthen education, and dignify the position and\nwork of the teacher and the professor. In a scheme of readjustment most\ncollege departments in universities (which now in spirit and in method are\nlargely high-school departments) would become of university grade. Moreover, the scheme would include the ways and means to develop productive\nscholarship in this country. I recommend strongly a careful reading of the\nentire Appendix, for it is a compilation of up-to-date material of rich value\nupon the greatest present problems of education.\nIt must be understood that this is not a report — this is not the stage for it,\nand I have not presented many of my own views. I have given a summary\nof the returns to an inquiry. I am convinced that the conditions warrant an\ninvestigation, and under auspices of this body. The work should relate the\ntime element to culture, and culture to social needs. • Vocational training\nshould be a part of the investigation, and also the question of organization\nof the educational system — indeed these are now a necessary part of the original\nsubject. As to the things to be investigated, there is enough wisdom in the\nviews already compiled; as to the methods of investigation, a properly\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\n471\n\nselected committee will find its own ways. If this work is to be pursued by\nthis Council a committee should be appointed ably representing elementary\neducation, the secondary, the collegiate and university, the field of social\nscience and of the science of education. Such a committee should enter upon\na thoro investigation along the lines already marked out, co-operate with\nother national organizations that may be pursuing similar inquiries, formulate results, and unite in a final report with practical recommendations. This\nreport with the Appendix is so much material for the work of such a committee.\nCONDENSED\n\nSUMMARY\n\n{Taken from the Appendix to this Report)\n1. a. At what age should formal general and special education end, as normally marked\nout for attaining a professional degree or the Ph.D. degree ?\nh. If the entire period of general and special education should be shortened, where\nshould time be saved ?\nI. a. Two-thirds would shorten the period of formal general and special education,\nand nearly half of all the replies name the age limit as twenty-four years or earlier.\n1. b. If the time is to be shortened, the order of preference is as follows: \"All along;\"\nin the elementary school and the high school; in the elementary school and the college; in\nthe elementary school; in the college; in the high school and the college; in the college\nand the professional school. More than half of these preferences include the elementary\nperiod, and more than half include the college.\nI. a\nMost of the schemes for modification come under subsequent heads.\n\"The medium age of graduation from American colleges is twenty-two years and ten\nmonths.\"\n1. h\n\"It is a pity that A.B. has been advanced two years in quantity since 1880, rather than\nin quality.\"\n\"Sacrifice the length of the college course rather than that of the professional course.\"\n\"The purely preparation stage is too long extended. \"\n\"Time should be saved by rapid promotions throughout the elementary school system,\nand by flexibility in the high-school and in the college course.\"\n2. a. Is there important waste of time in elementary education ?\nh. Should the period of elementary education be shortened ? Where and how ?\nc. What\nHow? provision should be made in this period for \"vocation\" schools or studies?\nd. Please refer to experiments in this country or elsewhere to shorten the period of\nelementary education; to articles, papers, etc., bearing upon the subject, or organizations that are investigating any phase of it\n2. a. Five-sixths say time is wasted.\n2. h. Two-thirds think time should be shortened.\n2. c. Less than one-third favor vocation studies in the grades.\n2. a\n\"I suspect present results could be had in half the time now taken. \"\nTime is wasted by —\n\"Lack of medical inspection of school children.\"\n\"Unmotivated and inefifective reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography.\"\n\"Covering unimportant and unpractical topics.\"\n\"Needless multiplication of the subjects taught.\"\n\"Hopelessly expending energies upon non-essentials.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n\" Scattering of pupil resources. \"\n\"Routine practice, odds and ends, 'fads and frills' generally.\"\n\"Lack of great, strong, enthusiastic, educated teachers.\"\n\"Lack of enlightenment regarding the ideals at which education aims.\"\n2. &\n\nTime can be shortened by —\n\"More careful pruning of the elementary program of study.\"\n\"Making distinction between first-rate facts and principles and tenth-rate.\"\n\" Casting out worthless rubbish. \"\n• \"Not trying to teach everything that is good. \"\n\"Sticking to the elements of the subject.\"\n\" Pruning and vitalizing subject-matter. \"\n\"Confining period of elementary education to mastering the tools of education,\"\n\"Not overemphasizing military and political details in history.\"\n\"Putting less time on formal reviews.\"\n\"Not teaching content studies with the method suitable to the formal subjects.\"\n\"Fitting the course of study to the individual.\"\n\"Following social and concrete interests.\"\n\"Using industrial or manual training to vitalize academic instruction.\"\n\"Teaching children relations of what they are doing to ends that they desire to reach. \"\n\"Separating the brighter pupils destined to a profession and securing concentration\nand continuous progress. \"\n\"Introducing secondary school work in the higher grades.\"\n\"Beginning the study of foreign language, elementary algebra, constructive geometry,\nand elementary science, thus saving one or two years of the high school. \"\nProvision for vocational schools or studies:\n\"Providing studies which take the place of the work children formerly did with their\nparents in the home, or on the farm, or in the shop.\"\n\"Placing greater emphasis on the practical aspects of nearly all the subjects.\"\n\"Setting apart from one-sixth to one-fourth of the time for some elective interest.\"\n\"Putting in manual training, elements of commercial practice, etc.\"\n\"Providing vocational training for defective and irregular pupils, who for these and\nother causes are over age.\"\n\" Converting first our legislatures and our boards of education, and next our teachers.\n(Within one year I have visited the schools in twenty-three of our largest cities, and I\nconfess complete disheartenment in respect to further development in many of them.) \"\n\"Employing for vocational work one who is a teacher as well as cook, plumber or\ndressmaker.\n(There are almost no such persons at present alive in America). \"\n3. a. Should the high-school period be shortened or should it be extended in either\ndirection ?\nb. Should it be six years — ^from twelve to eighteen, or fourteen to twenty ?\nc. Are important reforms needed in high-school education ? What ?\nd. Should provision be made in this period for \"vocation\" schools or studies ? How ?\ne. Please refer to important experiments in this country or elsewhere, and to articles or\npapers bearing upon the subject, and investigations now being made.\n3. a. A majority favor a change of the high-school period.\n3. 6. A majority of these choose the period 12-16, a less number 14-20, and a few\n\n12-16.\n\n3. c. Nearly all think important reforms are needed.\n3. d. The replies are practically unanimous in favor of vocation schools or studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfll\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\n473\n\n\"Six years, 12-18; for the first two years simply diflferentiating the work of the ele3. &\nmentary school. \"\n\"At twelve specialization should begin either for vocation or college.\"\n\" Only two divisions of education that is dominantly cultural should exist, elementary\nand higher.\nAt present the distinction between the aims of the high school and liberal\ncollege does not exist.\nThe student at twenty should be ready to enter a professional\n\"\ncourse.\nReforms of high school are —\n3- <^ necessary to take all the sciences in a high\n\"Simplify course of instruction; it is not\nschool. \"\n\"Adapt subject-matter to the pupils' interests, capacity, and mental development,\"\n\"Concentrate on a few valuable studies.\nCease multiplying subjects.\"\n\"Have less educational padding.\"\n\"Make college-entrance requirements reasonable.\"\n\"Emphasize, like the Greeks, the value of continuous and systematic attentioVi to the\ndevelopment of the human body. \"\n\"Banish from the high school elementary attitudes and relationships.\"\n\"Emphasize elementary ethics.\"\n\"Emphasize character elements.\"\n\"More training for character; less of the purely bookish elements.\"\n\"More thoroness, initiative, and moral emphasis.\"\n\"Emphasize history, civil government, and economics for citizenship.\"\n\"Make more real; less formal. \"\n\"More vocational; less textbook work.\"\n\"More training for Ufe, citizenship, vocation, and service.\"\n\"Organize courses on basis of general vocational activities, with so-called culture\ncoming from the wisdom of knowing what the world is like, what it wants, and what one can\ndo about it.\"\n\"Correlate industrial studies with what is known as purely academic studies.\"\n\"Recognize the differing cultural, vocational, and social ends of various groups and\nprepare for these. \"\n\"Provide for a classical, a general-scientific, a commercial, a domestic-economy, a\nmanual-training, or a technical course. \"\n\"Provide continuation or night schools for special cases.\"\n\"Improve quaUty of teaching.\"\nProvision for vocation schools or studies:\n\" Adding hours for industrial work without loss to regular high-school work. \"\n\"In connection with high schools.\"\n\"Vocation studies as electives.\"\n\"In the surroundings of the school, rather than under the conditions of apprenticeship.\"\n\"Spending one-fourth to one-half the time in vocation work.\"\n\"Manual training branching into trade activities, or commercial training, definite,\nthoro, practical.\nIn some cases part time might be spent in actual shop or factory. \"\n\"By grouping electives, by providing in connection with the regular high-school work\nfacilities for training in simple business methods, wood- and iron-working, use of tools and\nsimple construction of buildings, elementary principles of gardening and farming, sewing\nand cooking, stenography, etc. \"\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. a. What should be the length of the college course ?\nb. Would you advocate the following scheme ?\n(i) To end college work with the sophomore year but allow four years as now for\nthe A.B. degree.\n(2) To let university work begin at the junior year — work that gives scientific\npower — with groups leading to the various professional degrees or the Ph.D.\ndegree, the last two years of college counting toward those degrees.\n(3) To require two years of college for admission to all professional schools.\n(4) To complete the professional work or Ph.D. work in two years more or six\nyears after college entrance.\n(5) To let the college do the first two years of the professional work instead of allowing the professional school, as now in many cases, to do the last two years of\ncollege work.\n(6) To consider the possibility of advantageously building the engineering school\nupon the first two years of college.\nc. If not in accord with the above, please describe your own view.\nd. From the standpoint of business men, so far as you can judge, what is the value of a\ncollege training for young men who are going into business ?\ne. Please describe devices now in use to shorten the college course; refer to any articles\nor papers upon the subject and any investigations now being conducted.\n4. a. Nearly all favor four years, though a few advocate three years or dividing the\ncollege between the high school and the university.\n4. 6. It will be seen from the summary which follows that fully half favor this scheme\nin general — to begin university work with the junior year.\n4. h. (i) One-half favor ending the college work with the sophomore year, but allowing four years for the A.B. degree.\n4. h. (2) One-half would begin university work with the junior year, and count the\nlast two years of college toward higher degrees.\n4. h. (3) Most of the replies would require two years of college for entrance to the\nprofessional schools.\n4. &. (4) One-half would give professional degree or Ph.D. degree in two years after\nthe B.A. degree.\n4. b. (5) Two-thirds would have the college do the first years of the professional work.\n4. b. (6) A large majority would build engineering on two years of college.\n4. d. Two-thirds think college preparation is valued by business men, tho the\nopinion is usually personal.\nLength of college course:\n\"The German Gymnasium and university\n4. a plan is more rational than our high school,\ncollege, and university or professional school. Annex the first two years of the college to\nthe secondary school and allow the students to enter the graduate or professional school of\nthe university at once. \"\n\"Professional work -should undoubtedly begin at twenty in the majority of cases.\"\nBeginning university at junior year:\n\n4. &\n\"I have recommended (2), and have made a report to our Board of Trustees urging\nits adoption here in 1913, the freshman and sophomore years to be required for entrance.\"\n\"Keep four years for those not aiming at professional degree, but have last two years\nfor the others count for professional degree. \"\n\"In professional and technical schools I believe that the best of general culture will\nyet be found in the biographies of leaders in the lines studied, and in a history of the development of the occupation and the sciences and social life related to it.\"\n\"The chances are in favor of the work being better done if the college course should\ntake on two years of basic science training for medicine, rather than that the medical school\nshould pretend to do the scientific work which is almost certain to be done better in a university laboratory. \"\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\n475\n\n\"The colleges and universities (so called), especially in the east, but also elsewhere*\nhave deteriorated, if we measure their standards by their educative value. I am only\nvoicing the judgment of the most experienced and thoughtful when I say that fully one-half\nof all the courses offered, and the work done, is of almost no educative value whatever. I\nwould, therefore, thoroly reconstruct the American college from top to bottom; for it\nretains its name having lost its character, (i) I would reduce the number, and increase\nthe thoroness, in the subjects required for admission; (2) reduce the time to three years,\nfrom seventeen to twenty; (3) reduce the foolish and expensive and needless exhibition\nof courses offered, making them much fewer, and much more thoro; (4) make twothirds or three-quarters of the curriculum required — compelling such studies in language\nand literature, mathematics and physical science, and in the psychological sciences, as are\npreparatory to and introductory to professional and Ph.D. studies; (5) clean out the whole\nhotch-potch of courses which have the name, but can never have the substance of true\nprofessional studies. Business demands trained and disciplined men; if the colleges would\ndo this of course their graduates would be in demand in business circles.\"\n4. c\n\n'\n\n^\n\nOther views of organization of college and university:\n\"I would save the two years needed for the college course by simplifying the grade\nwork and shortening the time these two years. \"\n\"I would suggest the following scheme:\nElementary school, years of child's life; 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.\nHigh school, years of child's life, 12, 13, 14, 15.\nCollege, years of child's life, 16, 17, 18, 19.\nProfessional, Ph.D., years of child's life, 20, 21, 22.\"\n\"The University of North Dakota gives additional credits for superior work, thereby\nshortening the time for excellent students. \"\n\"Group subjects as minor electives or minor requirements about a major core of subjects in which advanced work must be done, and which may even make the group prelegal, pre-medical, etc.\"\n\"It is easily possible to make the college course so easy by elective courses and avoidance of advanced work that it never forces the choices which should be made; say even for,\nor against, future study and a learned profession. \"\n\"The graduate school loses educational perspective when it assumes to influence the\ncollege course.\"\nValue of college for business:\n\"None. I refer to the typical business 4.man,\nd and not to the great business man. The\nlatter unusual person is in favor of a sane college course in history, languages, sciences>\nhistory courses, economics, English, very thoro; German, biology, physics, chemistry,\nhistory of philosophy, algebra and geometry with trigonometry. This course is to be taken\nby a youth who takes part in the social and athletic life as a doer of things. Business men\nas I know them — manufacturers, wholesalers, railroad men — desire in the young man\ncertain moral qualities — obeying rules and instructions implicitly, promptness and punctuality, arithmetical perfection, rapid and legible handwriting, faciUty and accuracy in\nEnglish. I call these \"moral\" qualities and so they seem to me; and they are glad to get\nalso the young man who knows a great deal of geography, of civil government and of\ngeneral information. They desire also certain physico-moral qualities, such as cleanliness,\nneatness, and orderliness. This is to say, they desire health, strength and discipline.\nThey like frankness, openness, courage toward themselves and discretion toward all others.\nOur school courses cannot develop these qualities for two reasons: our teachers do not\nthemselves manifest them, and our courses are not designed to produce them. \"\n\"Let the college course be sincerely and seriously a part of vocation, too definite to\nattract the \"elective\" students; too hard to attract the man who is too lazy to go to work\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nat a serious business; too exacting to be satisfactorily done by the unmotivated trifler who\ngoes to college, kindheartedly acquiescing in his parents' fond wishes, with a superior indulgence of their ambition. \"\n\"They (collegemen) think, few people (or educated people for that matter) do.\nThey are systematic. They have many bits of knowledge that are useful sometimes when\nleast expected.\"\n\"So far as I can judge business men value highly the training which young men who\nare going into business get in college. \"\n\"Without question the men with college education who have gone into business have\nsoon forged to the front. I have been teaching for a number of years in manufacturing\ncenters and I know that this condition is true in great manufacturing plants. \"\n5. How does the whole problem of culture and time elements in education relate itself\nto the demands of business and society today or to the ideals of our civilization ?\n\" Culture should relate to fundamentals in society, business, civilization. \"\n\"The problem is one that affects and is affected by social and business conditions.\"\n\"A certain amount of conformity to standards set by modern social forces is necessary,\nelse the young graduate will find himself in a world for which he is unprepared.\"\n\"That subject is most cultural which is most serviceable to humanity from a dynamic\nstandpoint. All industrial, vocational, and other subjects, when studied and realized in\nlife for a richer life and deeper civilization are cultural and at the same time meet the business interests of life. The business interests think too much is consumed by education\nwithout equivalent results. It is very natural for us to interpret with our experiences which\nare those of the educational cloister. \"\n\"The practical demands of life and the interests of culture are congruent in this, that\nnothing which is valuable merely for the training it gives is worth pursuing. The instruments of culture are practical means to a large, rich life. Sixteen years of school work\npreliminary to professional study is unnecessary and hostile to the time interests of culture. \"\n\"For the sake of business I would lay far more stress than is now put on the studies\nthat deal with man and history, what man has done — on literature, what man has thought\nand felt. The best way to adjust students to the intelligent demands of business is to adjust\nthem to the interests of society, and, so far as may be, to the ideals of our civilization. \"\n\"Give up archaic ideas regarding a distinction between culture and utility. The\nuniversity should be a place where everything useful under the sun is taught, and everything useful has a place in the university, and anything useless has no place in it. \"\n\"The drift is away from alleged disciplinary effects to studies that combine both\ndiscipline and useful information.\"\n\"Culture will come best by an enrichment of vocational life. This is real culture.\nCulture has been a borrowed thing since the Romans began aping the Greeks. Vocational\npreparation is entirely in harmony with culture in the best sense, and there is doubtless\nplenty of time for each. \"\n\"Business, society, civilization, demand of the world's workers a certain minimum of\nequipment and maximum of achievement. Society is the loser if academic requirements\ncarry a man past the time of his greatest energy, efficiency, and adaptability. \"\n\"There is evidently a need of squeezing a lot of water out of our curriculum. \"\n\"The modern demand is for young men and women to get into things while plastic\nand full of the sense of adaptation. \"\n\"It is desirable that the time element should not seem too extended, in order that we\nmay persuade our youth not to yield to the temptation of neglecting education, particularly\nso-called cultural education.\"\n\"Make the training ever richer, better, more effective, rather than shorter.\"\n\"I think that the true ideals of our civilization demand high culture and an abundance\nof time in our education schemes. One great need of our country now is men who can\nthink straight.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "477\nCouncil]\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\n6. Please give your views briefly on the whole subject of the organization of education in\nthe United States.\nModification of school system.\n\"If it were possible to reorganize the whole of education in the United States now, I\nbelieve that we are more nearly prepared for the German system than we ever would have\nbeen before now. \"\n\"We have shoved elementary education too far, and crowded our universities to the\nwall.\"\n\"There are four units in our educational system; each element magnifies its own\nfunctions; and each unit seeks to control the units below itself, and to increase still further\nthe burdens they are carrying.\"\n\"I think it desirable that a professional direction be given to the upper half of the\nfour-year college course, or that specialized studies leading toward original research begin\nin the junior year.\"\n\"One correspondent gives instances of students, prepared privately, non-essentials\nbeing omitted, who recently entered college at fourteen and fifteen and graduated successfully.\"\n\"I would advocate considerable diminution of the quantity element in college-entrance\nrequirements. \"\n\"We must eliminate unnecessary subject-matter in elementary subjects; must have\ndifferent kinds of high schools to meet the needs of different kinds of pupils. \"\n\"We are trying to do too much in our colleges, secondary schools, and in our grammar\nschools. \"\n\"I believe the greatest waste is in the dilettante attack on the elementary subjects in\nthe late primary and the secondary schools. A differentiation in the middle of the high\nschool which shall give an optional trend similar to the Gymnasium and Real Schools in\nGermany might be desirable. \"\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nSYSTEM\n\n\"Education today from the kindergarten to the university is lacking in effective organization. \"\n\"I would have the Commissioner of Education a member of the President's cabinet;\nwould establish a great national university at Washington; would have a state university\nin every commonwealth except New England, and the incorporated colleges and universities associated with it in the closest relations that can be secured; would have the\nsuperintendent of public instruction the head of the state system. \"\n\"The educational system in a state should be recognized as a department of state\ngovernment. State systems should have some sort of federal co-ordination in a bureau\nof education at Washington. \"\n\"We should have a strong, central (representative) national body whose duty it should\nbe to unify standards for primary, secondary, academic, and professional education. \"\n\" Colleges and universities need to be defined by law. It should be possible, as in\nGermany, for a student to go from any secondary school in any state, to any college in the\nland without loss of time.\"\nVOCATION\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n\"The tendency is to get away more and more from the monastic system and to educate\nmen and women more in real life, for real work. The greatest defect of our educational\nsystem is this neglect of those who have to go to work at about fourteen years. \"\n\"Dropping out of school is because of the violation of the natural impulse to do, keeping it repressed. \"\n\"Some way should be found of getting part of one's education while engaged in productive work.\"\n\"I would have vocational courses of various kinds branch off at different points from\nthe central line of general culture. \"\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n\"I would make it possible for a B.A. graduate to go from the Greek recitation room\nto the blacksmith shop or carpenter shop, and have the one line of work count equally with\nthe other toward the B.A. degree.\"\n\" People think a trade school a very good thing for their neighbor's sons. \"\nBETTER\n\nTEACHING\n\n\"One deplorable defect in our system is the lack of scholarship, breadth, and training\non the part of the elementary school teacher, and to a large extent on the part of the highschool teacher. \"\n\"We need more men in the schoolrooms of the upper elementary and high schools.\nWe need better and many more professional schools for teachers. \"\n\"The lack in education is rationality. Instructors have not much to build on.\nHence in taking a boy in charge it is a matter of memory. \"\n\"Teachers of the rural schools of the nation are not as good as a class as they were\ntwenty-five or thirty-five years ago.\"\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAIMS\n\n\"We might express our educational aims in the four specific fields of physical, vocational, social, and cultural ends^ and then make our adjustments to the needs of varying\ngroups with which society and education must deal.\"\n\"No school that is regarded as primarily preparatory to some other school has yet\nachieved a real educational reason for being. I should like to see the college allowed its\nplace as a divergent limb of higher education whose integrity is to be tested by itself.\"\nELECTIVE\n\nSYSTEM\n\nEducation Superficial\n\"In our overemphasis at times upon the rights of the individual, we are making\nserious mistakes in our elective system.\"\n\"In general I think education as it is generally pursued in the United States is inclined\nto be superficial.\"\nSolidarity of System\n\"I believe in the unity and solidarity of our educational system.\nProfessional, technical, trade, and continuation schools should be as closely co-ordinated with the elementary\nschools, high schools, and colleges as possible, \"\nMOTOR\n\nEDUCATION\n\n\"I have a suspicion strong enough almost to amount to a conviction that book work\nup to the age of thirteen or fourteen ought to be almost abolished, and that the basis of\neducation up to that age should be almost exclusively motor — dancing, games, music,\ndrawing, manual training of every sort, with reading and writing, taught early of course,\nand ciphering, but very little methodical instruction out of books. \"\nMEANS\n\nOF\n\nINVESTIGATION\n\nOF\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n\"Questionnaires will never settle great educational problems in controversy. Every\nschool should be a laboratory, or should at least be preparing materials for educational\nresearch. Every county, city, and state superintendent of education should be in position\nto tell truthfully and legibly the experience of the pupils and teachers under his supervision.\nThe national commissioner of education should be able to collect and to interpret facts as\nto methods and results in all parts of the United States.\"\n\"I urge strongly more attention to current-school records, so devised as to make possible an analysis of experience. \"\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "479\nCouncil] CO-OPERATION\n\nREPORT\n\nWITH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON CO-OPERATION WITH EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES\nW.\n\nT.\n\nHARRIS,\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nYour committee, appointed at the last session of this Council to consider\nand report what steps may be possible toward securing co-operation with the\nvarious civilized nations of the world for the promotion of education, would\nhereby respectfully offer the following general report together with supplementary reports, setting forth, briefly, a preliminary survey of the conditions\nof our inquiry, together with reflections and suggestions from different members of the committee, separately added to the general report, with a view to\nbroaden the scope of the inquiry, and secure fuller expression of what may\nbe called the prevailing public opinion among our teachers as to the profit\nto be gained by a closer knowledge of foreign schools.\nYour committee assumes in advance that there are three classes of things\nin our school system, and in any national system, which must be discriminated\nand kept distinct thruout our investigation. These three classes of things\nare graded according to the degrees of community or divergence to be found\nin the constitutions, governmental policies, and industrial necessities of the\nnations in question.\n1. It is obvious that the first class of things in our school system to be\nconsidered will include what represents the purposes that all civilized nations\nhave at heart and can teach as well or better than we do.\n2. This leads next to a further discrimination, within the first class, of a\ntwofold list of educational subjects and disciplines: (a) What things do we\nof the United States teach better than other nations and with such excellence\nof method that they could profitably learn from us ? and {b) (What is more\nimportant for us to know) the methods better than ours which we may learn\nfrom other nations.\n3. There is a class of subjects and disciplines that we teach in our schools\nwhich cannot on any account be permitted in foreign nations by reason of\ndifferent national purposes from ours. This is a comparatively small class\nof things for nations of Anglo-Saxons, kindred as they are by blood, but it is a\nlarger class with Romanic nations of Europe; and a still larger class with\nSlavonic nations; and these forbidden lessons and disciplines amount with\nsome Asiatic nations to a class so large as to contain an all-inclusive inventory\nof what we teach as to nature and man, and of what we insist upon as to\nschool discipline and rules of behavior.\nIn China and in any nation with what we call a patriarchal form of government, so much stress is laid upon obedience to parents, jto elder brothers,\n^to petty officials, and to the princes of the empire, that American parental\n^authority and our slight ceremonial respect to our government officials seem\naltogether shocking, and indeed fatal, if adopted in place of the strict family\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\netiquette which takes the place in that country of moral conscience, statute\nlaws, and religious ceremonial.\nWhat we easily recognize as pestilent and destructive in our own code\nof family and school discipline, should it be transplanted to any part of China\nor India, is less and less pestilent if transplanted to western Asia and Europe.\nAnd yet, even in Russia, as Mackenzie Wallace tells us, there is so much patriarchal etiquette left, that the surviving grandparent receives the wages or other\nincome of any son or grandson, and distributes it to the entire family without\nreference to the actual earners of the wealth or wages. Who has not observed\nsurvivals of patriarchalism in the parental ties which fix the succession of both\nnobility and royalty in the monarchies of western Europe ? The laws of succession and primogeniture are rigidly taught from the nursery thru all grades\nof schools up to the entering upon a vocation in life, and even in the ceremonials\nof religion. American family and school education would in a brief time\ndestroy the very foundations of the English caste system upon which is built\nthe threefold royal and noble and ecclesiastical structure of the governing\npower of that country.\nCommencing our studies with the far East, it is not so difficult to trace out\na progress in branches of the course of study in school from a rigid prescription\nof sacred formulae (which must be lodged in the memory of the school pupil)\nonward and upward until something of the rationale is permitted to be learned,\nand more self-activity is expected of the pupil. In Europe Christianity has\ncaused to prevail as a fundamental dogma the equality of all human beings\nbefore God. Doubtless this idea has shown its most important result in\nundeifying nature and making the work of a scientific inventory possible. A\nprogressive emancipation follows from mere tradition and from superstition;\nbut, for fifteen centuries, inventories made by Greeks were memorized and\nrepeated like the texts of Confucius in the far East without attempt at verification. In fact, for nearly all of Asia, scientific method was profane and\nsacrilegious; and even the Mohammedan church of today believes that western\nEuropean science is accursed of God tho it possesses some magic power of\nvictory against Allah, and his faithful Moslems.\nEven in Russia, with Greek Christianity, labor-saving machines, that\nmodern natural science has invented to conquer nature and provide food,\nclothing, and shelter without drudgery, are of ten want onlydestroyed by peasants\nwho see only loss of employment in store for mere hands if machinery shall\ncome into use.\nTurning to the great powers of western Europe, Germany, France, and\nGreat Britain, we come to peoples in the van of civilization and with national\npurposes more in accord with our own. Caste exists there, to be sure, but\nside by side with caste there is provided a ladder of merit whose rounds are\nservices to the state — industrial, civil, and military services — ^which can be\nclimbed by the brave, the industrious, or the talented individual tho born\nat the very bottom of the ladder, and he may lift up his family with him into\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council! CO-OPERATION\n\nWITH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n481\n\na higher caste that will give permanence to his achievement. But it is his good\nwill and his industry alone that furnish the ladder. The castes which have\nbeen founded long ago are now rewarded by preferment that comes by ordinance and statute, and by the will of the monarch, but is frequently a reward\nnot earned. There are obstacles thrown in the way of the lowest peasant, by\nthe accident of birth, which prevent him, unless exceptional in his will power,\nfrom changing his caste by climbing to a higher round.\nHere in America it is so easy to gain wealth, and so easy to serve one's\nsocial community by a substantial service, that we have come to a public opinion\nwhich makes us critics, and sometimes caviling critics, of our western European\nfriends and neighbors; and the consequence is not favorable to our profitable\nco-operation in educational studies. This hurts us because it veils from us the\ntrue power of the three giant nations with whom we have to co-operate in\nsupporting civilized public opinion around the globe, and in arriving at a joint\npublic opinion which contains the most humane elements. It is not possible\nfor us to co-operate with Germany, France, and England in our educational\ninterpretation of history. The German boy's mind is full of history antagonistic to France, and the French boy cannot read history as the German and\nEnglish see it ; and we all know what our Fourth of July orators have to say of\nour mother country, England, and its king, George the Third. So of literature,\neach nation has its own poetic works of art which express its completest view\nof human nature, and the barrier of an alien tongue prevents German, French,\nand English from getting a co-operating literature from one another. But\nfortunately, for the United States, it makes English literature the staple of its\neducation in the school and the home, and there is an ever-increasing participation of Great Britain in the educative influence of the literature of British\ncolonies.\nIn science there is a great common field of intellect and insight, open alike\nto Germans, French, British, and Americans; and this, more than anything\nelse, is making our co-operation in the education systems of our European\ncongeners more and more effective.\nOrganization of people's schools with us uniting the rich and the poor in\none school coming from all rounds of the ladder, this, and our coeducation of\nthe sexes are not subjects on which we can expect the entire sympathy of the\ngoverning classes of Germany or France or Great Britain, altho w^e may\nreceive a very polite hearing. That our people's schools have not grown more\nand more to show a cleavage from the schools of wealth and official position\nsurprises our European educators, and furnishes them a warning against our\nentire educational organization. Your committee believe that it is not\nprofitable for us, in reaching out, to take the hand of a foreign educator, to give\nforemost place to such items of our inventors as imply a national convulsion —\na revolution, in short — if established over there in the foreigner's land.\nIt is better for us to see clearly the real foundations of strength in Europe —\nthe foundation which implies a competitive struggle to lift up the lower classes\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[NationaJ\n\nalong the ladder of the creation of wealth, and the performance of exceptional\npublic service.\nAll of which is respectfully submitted,\nW. T. Harris, Chairman\nJ. M. Greenwood\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nJoseph Swain\nPOSSIBLE\nCO-OPERATION\nASSOCIATIONS OF\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nCommittee\n\nBETWEEN\nTHE\nEDUCATIONAL\nDIFFERENT COUNTRIES\n\nUNITED\nSTATES\nWASHINGTON,\nD.\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nC.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThe suggestion which I made to this Council one year ago, that steps be\ntaken to bring the National Education Association into closer co-operation\nwith similar bodies in other lands, was offered in the conviction that the greater\npart of the work of education in all lands is one work, and that all teachers\namong civilized peoples have a common cause. There is abundant ground\nfor this belief. The legislative bodies of many nations have found enough\nof common interest to make possible an Interparliamentary Union, and that\ninternational body has profoundly influenced the course of recent history.\nYet parliaments are the centers of positive nationalism. We may fairly\nexpect to find more elements of unity in the schools of different nations than\nin their legislatures.\nAnd such undoubtedly is now the case.\nThe world-relationships of universities have been recognized, with varying\nclearness, for seven or eight centuries. The earlier development of schools\nfor the people was more closely connected with the rise of modern nationalism.\nThis gave us higher schools which emphasized unity, alongside of lower\nschools which emphasized difference. Such a distinction of course goes down to\nthe fundamental constitution of society. It cannot be maintained, as a\nprinciple of sharp separation, where the distinctions between social classes have\nbeen smoothed out or are in the way of disappearing. Nations which have a\ntraditional enmity to keep alive toward some of their neighbors — a memory\nof ancient quarrels which colors all their history — are at a disadvantage in this\nregard. In so far as class distinctions persist in such societies, with something\nof the finality of caste distinctions, a lower class will be taught to hate another\npeople while the highest class is learning to understand other peoples.\nBut this condition can hardly continue, unmodified, in our modern world.\nThe many care to learn what the few have known. The scientific spirit forbids us to teach in the lower schools what is untrue from the standpoint of\nthe higher schools. Then, there is a New Humanism in the world, which is\nsurely spreading abroad. This new humanism recognizes the fact that to\nknow and understand living men, both individuals and nations, is a great\npart of any complete education.\nThis humanism tinges all of the social and\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council] CO-OPERATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIONS\n\n483\n\nthe international striving of our time. It tinges our education. I have had\noccasion before to speak of one little symptom of it— a straw on the waters of\nour primary schools — in the wide popularity of that children's book, the Seven\nLittle Sisters, by Miss Andrews. And for more pretentious indications of the\nsame current, you would not have far to seek.\nWe live already in a world in which men are trying to understand one\nanother. Men are trying to understand their neighbors, and that is the better\npart of democracy. Men are trying to understand other peoples and nations,\nand that is the foundation of our new world-politics. The reason why we may\nhope to understand the rest of the world, the reason why we even care to\nunderstand the rest of the world, is that our differences stand out from a background of agreement, a substratum of ultimate unity. The differences are\npicturesque and interesting, and at times they command the whole field of\nattention. Without national peculiarities and even oppositions, our worldunity would be a poor thing, a dull and insipid uniformity. But we must\nnot forget that, after all, the differences get their life and worth from that\nunderlying unity. The time has come when men can give attention to the\ncommon human purposes of all the tribes of men without suspicion of treason\nagainst their own government. In our own land this is pre-eminently true.\nAs Mr. Stead has said of us, \"America is the one great international country\nof the world.\"\nWhen Professor Payne of the University of Virginia a few years ago made\nhis comparative study of the public elementary school curricula of the leading\nculture nations, he found an approximate agreement in the subjects of instruction and in the relative amount of time devoted to different subjects in the\nschools of representative cities. Aside from differences as to the inclusion or\nexclusion of religious doctrine, the most important variations were those\nrelating to the language employed and studied and the content of instruction\nin the national history and literature. Even here the instruction in the schools\nunder consideration might readily be compared with reference to its form and\nthe principles guiding the choice of materials in those subjects. So striking,\nindeed, was the agreement which his study revealed that Professor Payne was\nled to make the following remarks:\nIt is to be feared that our educational theorists have sometimes excused themselves\nfrom making a comparative study of these different curricula by an exaggeration of the\nsupposed disparity of aim and the consequent improbability of gaining suggestions of worth.\nThe tables .... show such a slight difference of curricula in the elementary schools of\nthe several countries, that it makes one suspect either that the aim of education does not\ndetermine what shall be studied, or that the aims of the several countries do not differ as\nmuch as has been supposed. i No one can fail to be impressed with the fact that the\ngeneral principles which govern the selection and arrangement of the subject matter of the\nelementary curriculum are practically the same in the four educational systems here\nstudied, a\n» Bruce Rybum\n' Ibid., p. 182.\n*ad France\n\nPayne, Public Elementary School Curricula.\n\nSilver, Burdett and Co. (1905). PP- iS- 16.\n\nThe four educational systems studied were those of the United States, England. Germany.\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWithout doubt, national differences must still be more influential in determining the teaching of the lower schools than in that of the universities. In\nsome degree this difference must, I think, be regarded as permanent. A strong\nnationalism and even a certain wholesome provincialism are to be cherished\nin those schools. But it is quite as important, and is in truth essential, in this\nmodern age^ that the lower schools preserve their continuity with the teaching\nof the universities and their loyalty to those common aspirations in which\nthe nations of the world shall be able to understand one another.\nI hope that our great National Education Association, in its unquestioned\nloyalty to our national ideals, may take steps which shall promote the good\nunderstanding now gaining ground among the nations of the earth. Let\nus send our emissaries to confer with similar bodies in other civilized lands,\nas we have so often welcomed foreign teachers in our great annual gatherings.\nLet us take our part in setting up world-standards in the domain of culture\nand education. Such a movement, I believe, will make for peace; but if so,\nit will accomplish that end by promoting one of the best tendencies in modern\neducation, a humane tendency, which may be summed up in the saying, Let\nus see if we cannot understand one another.\nDISCUSSION\nAnna Tolman Smith, National Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. — What is\nin my mind to say is in the nature of reflections excited by the subject under consideration\nrather than a discussion of the views already unfolded. In my studies of education I have\nbeen deeply impressed with the differences in the administration of this interest in the leading nations. France, for instance, presents an example of extreme centralization; our own\ncountry, the extreme of local independence; while England, at this moment, offers an\nexample of a happy medium between the two. Now, these differences have grown out of\nhistoric conditions and that indefinable something that we call national genius or temperament. They are fundamental, and they affect the teachings of a whole group of subjects,\nethics, civics, history and literature, and — in nations where church and state are one — the\nteaching of religion. The national mode of dealing with these subjects cannot be changed\nnor transplanted; neither is it possible to overcome that national sentiment which is the allpervading essence of these differences. You cannot fight a sentiment because you cannot\nset it up as a target and shoot at it.\nWe have a national school sentiment, sometimes jocosely called a P'ourth of July\nsentiment. The genesis of this sentiment was revealed to us in the address of our English\nvisitor, Mr. Brereton, on vocational aims in education. In a striking passage he pointed\nout that the \"technical end\" of the education of the directive classes in England was the\n\"knowledge of men and mancraft.\" That is, knowledge of the motives which move men\nas set forth in their self -revealing literatures, and of the social orders and institutions out of\nwhich states are formed. No other nation so perfectly imparts this knowledge as England.\nNow, this underlying idea, the idea of \"mancraft\" as the aim of education for the directive\nclasses, was brought to this country by our English ancestors and in the spirit of sound\ndemocracy we have adopted it for all the people, since all are admitted into the directive\nclass. This is our heritage, a precious, a sacred heritage, and we feel an instinctive fear;\nour national consciousness is alarmed at the thought of change in this vital matter; at the\nbare suggestion that any American child shall be deprived of his share in the training that\nmakes for directive power.\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "CovinciW CO-OPERATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIONS\n\n485\n\nThere is, however, a deep significance in the recent common impulse of the principal\nnations, that is those in the current of our own civilization, to turn their administrative\nforces to new educational ends; to new, but common, ends, resulting in part from economic\npressure and in part, let us believe, from the irresistible growth of humane ideals.\nThe purpose that is at present uppermost in our thoughts is that of industrial, or\nvocational, aims in a system of public education. The problem is becoming acute in some\nparts of our country and we are interested to see what other nations offer in the way of\nsolution. Germany has a settled policy in this respect, but we cannot assimilate the type\nto our freer life. France has an elaborate graded system of technical schools, but as yet we\nfollow France only in matters of fashion. This very word emphasizes a deep distinction\nbetween us. We have^ craze for fashions, but fashion is not a principle in our national\nlife, a part of our consciousness of power as it is of that of France; hence a large part of\nFrench technical training has motives impossible to us. In respect to this problem of\nvocational training, England is nearer to us at this moment than any other nation, and by\nreasons of the prevailing social distinctions the problem presents a simpler form in that\ncountry than in our own.\nThe English system of public, or popular, education is based upon the idea of class, the\nso-called elementary-school class, definitely estimated at six-sevenths of the population*\nthree to fourteen years of age. It is proposed to separate these children at about twelve\nyears of age as follows: drawing off into secondary schools those whom it appears may\nreadily be raised to the higher social and industrial plane; transferring to higher grade\nelementary schools the brighter pupils of the elementary schools who can continue their\ntraining up to sixteen years of age; and leaving the remainder in the ordinary elmentary\nschools. We should not tolerate such a separation of our child population at the early\nage of twelve years, but this proposed segregation, in no way disturbing to English opinion,\nhas served to fix the attention of some of her ablest men, educators, administrators, and\nbusiness men, upon \"the higher elementary schools,\" with a view to determine the kind of\neducation that shall orient these schools, as it were, toward vocational ends.\nThe discussion of the problem, thus narrowed down and unclouded by sentiment, is\nequally illuminating whether the line of separation is placed at twelve years of age, as\nproposed in England, or at fourteen, as it probably will be with us. We see at once what\nis implied, a school linked at every point with the grades, offering two years' specialized\ntraining, less bookish than our classical high schools, and more craftsmanlike than our\nmanual training high schools. Is not this after all a municipal, rather than a national,\nproblem ?\nBut the directive class in England is constantly increasing with a proportionate increase\nin the number of those who, like ourselves, demand training in \"mancraft\" for their children, and oppose early specialization. Hence, the English discussion of vocational training faces both ways and becomes, therefore, doubly significant to us.\nIn the moment that remains, let me allude to a common movement toward social services auxiliary to the schools. Here also England has a lesson for us in the after-care\ncommittees, such as have been formed in Birmingham and London, to look after children\nwho go out from the schools for the mentally defective. In London, also, employment\ncommittees of trade representatives are co-operating with school managers in the effort\nto find work for ordinary children. As one authority well remarked, \"the extraordinary\nwill be amply able to place themselves.\" Here, I believe, is a practical suggestion for our\nwomen's club.\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nHOME\nELLEN\n\nNATIONAL\n\nECONOMICS\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nELEMENTARY\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nH. RICHARDS,\nINSTRUCTOR IN SANITARY CHEMISTRY,\nINSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BOSTON, MASS.\n\n[National\n\nSECONDARY\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nThe ideal American home to which preachers, moralists, and most ethical\nwriters are attempting to confine the labors and interests of women w^as a\nplace of busy industry with occupation for the dozen children, and all the\nhelpers to be gathered within its precincts — a miniature community. The\nchildren in it learned by doing. The interest of one was the interest of all.\nIn the ideal home children are taught morals, manners, and habits by the\nloving care of father and mother and the somewhat less gentle means of elder\nbrothers and sisters — all done in that privacy which the very word home\nsignifies. They were not shamed by rebuke in a public hotel or on a street\ncar. The parents felt a responsibility — too heavy, the children often thought—\nfor all that the ''nursery of good citizens\" meant to them.\nWhen we women are told that the place for us is the home it is this picture\nthat the advocate has in mind. But in its entirety the reality no longer exists —\ngone out of it are the industries, gone out of it are ten of the children, gone\nout of it in a large measure that sense of moral and religious responsibility\nwhich was the keystone.\nHome ideals, as developed in Americaby the Anglo-Saxons in the nineteenth\ncentury, are certainly fading away and are not, as yet, replaced by a definite\nnational purpose. Luxury, carelessness, idleness, and a pursuit of readymade pleasure have taken the place of thrift and responsibility. Today, as\na rule, neither morals, manners, nor good habits are taught in the home, when\nit exists and certainly not in the hotel and railroad train.\nThe methods of work prevalent in the home environment are mediaevally\nwasteful of time, energy, and money, and because this is blindly realized the\npeople are restive.\nIntelligent and thoughtful observers admit the conditions; disagreement\ncomes with a discussion of remedies.\nThe first and most obvious course is a blue-law compelling parents to train\ntheir children according to the accepted ideals of the nineteenth century. The\nsecond is for the school to take the place of the negligent home. The third\nalternative toward which the country is fast drifting is for all education and\ntraining of children to be assumed by the State for its own protection.\nIf the state is to have good citizens, it must provide for the teaching of\nthe essentials to a generation that will become the wiser mothers and fathers of\nthe next. Therefore, even if we regard this as only a temporary expedient,\nwe must begin to teach the children in our schools, and begin at once, that\nwhich we see they are no longer learning in the home.\nMorals, niannersj and habits may be most easily, naturally, and effectively\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\n487\n\ntaught by the very means used in earlier days through domestic science courses,\nif they are properly planned and intelligently carried out.\nNo state can thrive while its citizens waste their resources of health, bodily\nenergy, time, and brain power, any more than a nation may prosper which\nwastes its natural resources.\nAmerica today is wasting its human possibilities even more prodigally\nthan its material wealth. The latter deficiency is being brought to a halt.\nShall the human side receive less attention ? A sharply divided line between\nhome and school is no longer clearly drawn.\n\nParents' associations are\n\nbeing formed' everywhere and co-operating with the school teacher. To\nwhat end? To the better moral and intellectual atmosphere of the home.\nPhysical education has had its vogue, but too much as an endeavor apart, not\nas a necessary element in the whole.\nThe pedagogical world is now becoming convinced that physical defects\nare more often than not the basis of mental incompetence and this leads\nlogically to the teaching of the laws of right living in a practical way, not merely\nas lessons from books but as daily practice. This must also go into the home\nwhere the most of the child's hours are spent. It is as useless to expect good\nhealth from unsanitary houses as goo'd English from two hours' school training diluted by twelve hours of slovenly language. Hence the imperative need\nof such teaching and example as can be put into practice and since house-tohouse renovation and change of view is impossible, the school must provide for\nteaching to live wisely and sanely as well as for clear thinking and aesthetic\nappreciation. Practical hygiene, food, cleanliness, sanitation, all must eventually be exemplified by the schoolhouse and taught as a part of a general\neducation to all pupils, boys and girls.If this sounds like socialism, let us not be afraid but educate for five or ten\nyears all children, so that homes may be better managed and then it is to be\nhoped there will be no need for such school training. To live economically\nin the broad sense of wise use of time and money as well as of bodily strength\nis the great need of the twentieth century. This is practical economics. This\nis something which cannot today, except in rare instances, be learned at home\nfor conditions change so rapidly that grown people may not keep up with them.\nMothers' ways are superseded before the childern are grown.\nThe school if it is maintained as a progressive institution and a defense\nagainst predatory ideas is the people's safeguard from being crushed by the\nirresistible car of progress. I repeat, standards may be set by the school\nwhich will reach and influence the community in a few months. Such standards\nshould be a means of safeguarding the people from panic as to their own\nhealth or wages and this leads to the most important service which a teaching\nof domestic economy can render to the people in giving them a sense of control\nover their environment, than which nothing is so conducive to stability of ideas.\nTo feel oneself in command of a situation robs it of its terror. A great\ndanger in America today is the loss of this feeling of self-confidence with\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niNational\n\nwhich the pioneer was abundantly furnished. A certain helpless dependence\nis creeping over the land, because of the peculiar development of resources,\nwhich must be replaced by a sense of power over one's environment. This\npower has its limits, but they are wider than the people in school today realize.\nThe teaching of this control over living conditions costs, and efficiency is at\nthe root of all social progress today. Shall it be shirked because it does not\nconform to older academic ideals ? Will not the college and university come\nto the rescue by accepting for entrance certain fundamental knowledge which\ncannot but make brain power? Will our higher schools take the risk of\nretarding not only the country's development but of limiting the character and\nforce of its people ?\nI come before you, Gentlemen of the Council, as the chairman of the Lake\nPlacid Conference on Home Economics, in support of our various requests,\ncovering a space of ten years, that your attention be given to the suitable and\neffective method and content of courses in domestic economy for the elementary\nschool; domestic or household science for the high and normal schools;\nhome economics or euthenics for the college and university.\nCourses under these and other names are being wedged into the curriculum\nin an increasing number of schools in every state in the Union, for the most\npart as sporadic and uncorrected efforts often by irresponsible persons, I\nmean not responsible to the same extent as the teacher of subjects -regularly\nrecognized in the curriculum. The result may be excellent, or it may be\ndemoralizing. In any case, it is not as yet recognized as legitimate and a\nnecessary part of an American education.\nThe advocates of the kind of training comprised under the general head\nof home economics feel that this great body of educators must take a controlling\ninterest in the subject-matter and in the various forms under which this may\nbest be utilized as educative, and therefore they have petitioned you (see last\nyear's report) to appoint a committee of five or seven to study the matter and\nreport a workable outline.\nMiss Thomas acknowledges the trend of the times when she says most\nwestern universities and many eastern ones are boring through their academic\ncollege course at a hundred places with professional courses. It is true the\nroad through the curriculum is being built, the tunnel is bored, the temporary\ntracks are laid, construction trains carrying passengers at their own risk are\nnow running .... soon it will be too late to change the road-bed without\nviolence, but now is a time when wise counsel will tell. Suppression will not be\ntolerated. There is a deeply rooted conviction that the times are out of joint,\nthat the bounty of this productive country is being wasted, not only its fuel\nand forests but its men and women and especially its children.\nThe economics of consumption, including as it does the ethics of spending,\nmust have a place in our higher education, preceded by manual dexterity and\nscientific information, which will lead to true economy in the use of time,\nenergy, and money in the home life of the land. Just what that place is\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\n489\n\nto be, how its various phases are to be presented is for your committee to decide. Iventure to present, as aids or as foundation; first, a statement of\nsuggestions given to the Society for Scientific Study of Education in 1904;\nsecond, an outline prepared by the holder of a scholarship of the Woman's\nEducation Association, of Boston, as a result of her year of study of the question,\ncarried on in schools east of the Mississippi; third, a report on survey courses\nThis report shows that a large proportion of educators (men, of course, I mean)\nreally believe in something of the sort now being taught under domestic science,\nhousehold arts, or home economics, but they are nqt yet pushed hard enough\nfrom their customary ways to take the matter up — most heads of schools are\nwell content to let private parties do the experimenting. Today the ideas are\nso far developed that there is something tangible to combat ; there is fire enough\nto be reckoned with and it behooves the leaders to take a hand in shaping the\nfuture course of a group of subjects bound to outgrow control unless trimmed\ninto harmony.\nSeveral questions are even now clearly defined. What hand training\nshall take the place of the home industries now gone into factories ? What\nteaching in economics is legitimate in view of the fact that buying and not\nrnaking is the province of women ? How^ much science is essential to enable\na buyer and a household to live safely in a time of uncleanly manufacturing\nand handling ? How shall sanitation in all directions be firmly impressed on\nthe habits of all citizens ? Safe food and clean food, how shall it be assured ?\nHow shall that degree of good taste and those desirable standards of living\nbe ingrained in the people for their best development ? How shall morality\nin daily life reach to the details of living ? The municipality is made up of\nindividuals and cannot rise above the level of the average.\nThe sanitary research worker in laboratory and field has gone nearly to\nthe limit of his value. He will soon be smothered in his own work if no one\ntakes advantage of it. The law has made as many regulations as it is wise to\nhave unenforced on the statute books. The board of health inspector leaves\nhis orders on all the households he considers may be scared by his badge.\nSocieties, with long names and many ofl&cials, meet and tell each other of the\ngreat things they might accomplish.\nMeanwhile children die by the thousands; contagious disease takes toll of\nhundreds, back alleys remain foul and the streets are unswept; school houses\nare unwashed, and danger lurks in drinking cups and about the towels. Dust\nis stirred up each morning with the feather duster, by the inefficient worker, to\ngreet the warm moist noses and throats of the children.\nTo the watchful expert it seems like the old cities dancing and making\nmerry on the eve of a volcanic outbreak. There is ready to hand the field to\ntill by the home economics teacher. Is she ready for it ? A' few years ago\nthe whole atmosphere was so unsympathetic to science that only a pretty\nthoro course was weighty enough to convince the student. He could not\ngrasp it and he could not be trusted to represent it.\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "49©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nToday, though it is not very profound and is not always sound, science\npervades the air to such an extent that the resistance is much less. Science,\ntoo, is much surer of its ground so that it is possible to give the public a talk\nand have a great deal of it understood by the audience. It is possible for the\nhome-economics teacher to give much hygienic instruction under the topics now\ndown, and in the course of her teaching to change the attitude of the whole\nsection. Here is our opportunity to teach the art of right living. Never\nmind the name by which it is designated; it is the result which we are offering. It is not temperance nor mere hygiene, but the whole round of abundant\nphysical life.\nGive the child a chance. Use knowledge, so far as we have it. The\nhome-economics teacher has a better chance to interest her pupils than any\none else, if she will fit herself to do it. It is not cooking alone, nor sewing\nalone, but psychology, pedagogy, and ethics that come into this home teaching.\nWho can doubt that by whatever means it came to be, the domestic science\ncourse offers the best means to influence the lives of the people and influence\nthem quickly ? Coming as it does, or should, in the grammar schools, it may\ntouch every scholar and in five years re-make health ideals in every home in the\nland. In that time it can change the environment in the worst and enable the\nothers to mitigate the evils in their homes. At the end of that time the whole\ncountry will have sufficiently aroused to carry it on. For five years turn\nall investigation of all the research laboratories tow^ard better living\nconditions.\nI hear you say, \"Where are the teachers ?\" Did we fold our hands in Panama or in Cuba and say, \"Where are the experts ?\" Our schools are turning\nout hundreds of young men who have been trained to hunt bad conditions; put\na few of them at work alongside the young women from our state universities\nand let them both take counsel with the few faithful teachers who have been\nyears ahead of the times, making a halo of light in a few dark places.\nIn England, in 1884, 1 saw a young man from the university in the board\nschools giving instruction as to the baby's milk. In America we have allowed\nthe newspapers and magazines to do the public instruction which belongs to\nthe universities.\nFor a practical people we have been most impractical in our methods of\nreaching the people.\nIndustrial education, unless carefully considered, may make matters worse,\nfor it takes more and more the interest from home life, which I must reiterate\nhas been robbed by taking away the creative side. You cannot make women\ncontented with cooking and cleaning and you need not try. The care of the\nchildren fully occupies only five or ten years of the seventy. What is she to do\nwith the rest ?\nThe movement for industrial education is doomed to fail of its great purpose\nunless you take account of the girls. You cannot put them where their great\ngrandmothers were and yet take to yourselves the spinning and weaving and\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nHOME\n\nECONOMICS\n\nsoap making. There was always sornething to do, now there is only something\nto he done.\nWe ask for this committee with appropriation because in our sporadic\n491\nefforts to ascertain what is being done we found it required personal correspondence and a following up of trails like a study of family history. No one\nof those interested could undertake the task — much less were we qualified to\nmake the necessary computations and desired deductions as guide to further\ndevelopment.\nWe hope to convince you, if you are not already aware of the extent to\nwhich those subjects have already crept, often unauthorized, into the curriculum\nof the public schools of all grades, and no one knows better than this body of\nmen how inspiring an unauthorized subject may be or how far from correct\npedagogical lines — all depending upon the individuals presenting it.\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "flDemorial\" a5&re06e6\nH)r, if* Xouis Solban\nBEN BLEWETT,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION,\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nF. Louis Soldan was born in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1842, was trained\nin the schools of his native land, and came to America in 1863, without fortune\nand without friends in the new world. After a brief stay' in New York, he\nwent to St. Louis and established a private school which he conducted till 1868,\nwhen he became an instructor in modern languages in the St. Louis High\nSchool. In 1870, he was appointed assistant superintendent in charge of the\ninstruction in German, and in 1871 was made principal of the normal school.\nThis position he held till the high and normal schools were united under his\nprincipalship in 1887, where he continued until 1895. At the close of that\nyear he was elected superintendent of instruction in the St. Louis schools and\nheld this position till his sudden death on March 27, 1908.\nIn 1880, he organized the first normal institute for teachers held in South\nCarolina and for his distinguished services in this work he received from the\nrevived university of that state the degree of LL.D. In 1877, he became\nan active member of the National Educational Association, and in 1885\nwas elected its president. He served on the Board of Trustees from 1897 to\n1905. He was without interruption a member of the National Council from\n1880 to the time of his death — a period of twenty-eight years. In 1881, he was\nmade its first secretary, and in 1890, its president.\nSuch is the index record of the successive steps of a great hfe in the history\nof education in this country and its limits in time. Who can adequately set\nforth the significance of this life in the great push of its influence during the\nlong years of its continuance; or presume to comprehend by his imagination\nthe expanding sweep of this influence as perpetuated in the lives and institutions\nit has stimulated and shaped?\nThe morning of March 27 was a beautiful morning in St. Louis, a morning\nwhen hope was buoyant, when life was in the spring. At one o'clock in the\nafternoon the assistant superintendents had assembled for the usual weekly\nconference with Superintendent Soldan. A message came from him that he\nwas not well and must visit his physician, but expected to be at the meeting\nlater. In a few minutes a telephone message from one of the papers told that\nSuperintendent Soldan had fallen dead on the street. Our hearts stood still;\nwe were dumb; our superintendent, our leader, our friend, was dead. Within\ntwo hours the Board of Education had met and appointed a committee that\ndrafted this among other resolutions :\n\nd\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nF. LOUIS\n\nSOI.DAN\n\n493\n\nResolved^ That in the loss of its superintendent, F. Louis Soldan, the Board of Education feels itself deprived of its ablest officer, of a friend to whom every one of its members\nwas warmly attached and who was a guide and inspiration to the whole corps of our\nteachers.\n\nOn the following day the supervisors, principals, and teachers assembled,\nand in the profoundest sorrow deplored the irreparable loss to themselves, the\ncity, and the nation. Through the morning of Monday, March 30, the body\nlay in state in the corridor of the Central High School and thousands of pupils\nand their parents passed in solemn procession to pay their loving tribute.\nIn the afternoon, the funeral services were held in the auditorium where\ncitizens of all walks of life, with municipal and state oflScials, crowded every\ninch of space within, while hundreds, unable to gain admission, stood outside\nin a pouring rain. The eulogiums pronounced on this occasion are published\nin a memorial volume where they may be read at length. Yet I think it proper\nto repeat here selections from them that the records of the National Council of\nEducation may treasure these estimates of the worth of him we mourn.\nI quote from Dr. Magoon, president of the board:\nThe Board of Education of the City of St. Louis desires to put on record its expression\nof deep sorrow at the loss of this remarkable man, and its feeling of indebtedness to him\nfor the great services which he has rendered as Superintendent of our Public Schools. Our\nhigh appreciation of the great share which he had in the upbuilding and uplifting of our\neducational system and our deep regret that not only this community but the cause of\neducation should have been so suddenly deprived of the great and beneficent work which\nthis able, scholarly, and enthusiastic educator might still have accomplished, can be but\nfeebly expressed.\nDr. Soldan was the type of a true scholar whose aim and ideals embraced the perfection of hunianity through educational methods.\n\nProfessor Woodward, a member of the board, said:\nThe Board of Education, for whom it is my privilege to speak today, feels and will\nfeel profoundly its loss, now that those lips are closed and that large heart beats no more.\nFor twelve years, the board as now constituted has enjoyed and profited by his tireless\nenergy and his splendid abilities. But the splendor of his service makes our misfortune\nonly the harder to bear. It is needless for me to say we loved him, for all who knew him\nloved him, from the children and teachers in the grades to the cabinet of assistants whom\nhe had gathered around him.\nTo know him was to love, honor and trust him.\nI remember that the great Swiss-American biologist, Louis Agassiz, asked that his\nepitaph should be the single word \"Teacher.\" If I were to write an epitaph today I would\nask that these words be engraved on the tomb which is to hold this casket: \"Frank Louis\nSoldan, Teacher, Friend, and Guide of Teachers.\"\n\nMr. E. C. Eliot, formerly member of the board, and as chairman of the\n\\Committee on Instruction, given the most favorable opportunity of estimating\nsuperintendent Soldan's w^orth, paid this tribute:\nThis man thruout a long life of educational service poured his soul and intel[ligence into the hearts and minds of the people and leavened them all to higher and better\nlife. For not alone those who received instruction from him, but the many more who\nreceived help from those he instructed, the hundreds of the good and faithful who have\nspent their lives in the inspiration of his words — ^yes — and the thousands, who, without\nknowing when or how, have breathed the spirit of his life: these are his beneficiaries and\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nhe is their benefactor. How poor and meager seems the opportunity of him, who, out of\nthe selfishness of his Ufe, can give only money to the uses of a community, compared with\nthe one who has given himself I\n\nWe bore the body away and as we closed the portals of the tomb, above\nour sobs arose this song, sung by his companions of the Liederkranz Society:\nStumm schlaft der Sanger, dessen Ohr\nGelauschet hat an andrer Welten Thor.\nEin naher Waldstrom, brauste sein Gesang,\nUnd sauselt auch wie ferner Quellen Klang.\nDu schlummerst stille, schlummerst leicht,\nWeil uber dir der Sturm and Zephyr streicht,\nDer Sturm der dir den Schlachtgesang durchdrohnt,\nDer Hauch der sanft im Lied der Liebe tdnt.\n\nThe morrow placed us face to face with the work to be carried on and our\nleader was gone. Then came the most marvelous demonstration of what\nhe had been to us all. Staggered by the awful blow, the Board of Education\nand corps of teachers had been dazed for the moment and apparently helpless.\nYet with the need for action came the calm of returned courage thru the\nconscious and certain reliance upon the efficiency of those plans of organization\nand principles of co-operative responsibility on which he had constructed and\nby which he had animated the life of the schools. No longer in our midst, he\nwas now more than ever present in each of us and seemed to dominate us .the\nmore completely thru his disembodied spirit. And making what he would\nwish us to do, our criterion, all, members of the board, officers, and teachers,\nstood to their work with confidence in each other, without a waver. Saul was\ndead but Saul still lived.\nCrush that life and behold its wine running.\n\nEach deed thou hast done\n\nDies, revives, goes to work in the world; until e'en as the sun\nLooking down on the earth, though clouds spoil him, though tempests eflFace,\nCan find nothing his own deeds produced not, must everywhere trace\nThe results of his past summer prime — so, each ray of thy will,\nEvery flash of thy passion and prowess, long over shall thrill\nThy whole people, the countless, with ardor, till they too give forth\nA cheer to their sons; who in turn, fill the south and the north\nWith the radiance thy deed was the germ of.\n\nProbably no superintendent of schools ever commanded more completely\nthe respect and confidence of his colaborers and of the community in which\nhe worked. The fundamental causes of this condition were: (i) the evident\nsingleness of his purpose; (2) the thoroness of his preparation for his task;\n(3) his enormous and untiring capacity for detailed work, and (4) his very\nhuman sympathy.\nHe desired with all his heart to make the schools the best possible instrumentality forthe development of the powers of the child that it might accomplish\nits own happiness in the highest degree, and contribute most efficiently to the\nworld in which it lived and was to live as a man.\nX I\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nh.\n\nLOUIS\n\nSOLDAN\n\n495\n\nHe bent all his ability to the accomplishment of this aim, and no suggestion\nof personal gain could turn him from it. As was natural with one of his\nacknowledged insight and practical experience, he was constantly urged to\nreach a larger audience through the lecture platform or through the literary\nand educational press, but he never yielded to the temptation that might dissipate his strength or that might place him in a position where his judgment\nwould be biased on questions affecting the immediate interests of the schools.\nProblems of administration that have proven impossible of reasonable solution\nby weaker men were seemingly easy to him, because his only policy was direct\naction where right could be determined and the test for right in any line of\nconduct was its adaption to the general interests of the schools. His decision\nof questions was always so clearly based upon this principle that those who\nwere disappointed when their pleas could not be granted, with rare exceptions,\nrecognized the justice of his decisions and were won by the impartial and\nsympathetic ear he gave to the presentation of their case.\nIn one of the sacred moments of intimate friendship, he disclosed to me that\nhis highest hope was to be remembered as one who had devoted his life to the\nchildren. This lofty purpose was his pole star, and we, his fellows, have seen\nhow steadily the helm was held toward it, and today recall a verse of one of\nhis favorite poems — ''Columbus,\" by Joaquin Miller:\nThey sailed.\nThey sailed.\nThen spoke the mate;\n\"This mad sea shows its teeth tonight.\nHe curls his lip, he lies in wait,\nWith lifted teeth, as if to bite !\nBrave Admiral, say but one good word:\nWhat shall we do when hope is gone ?\"\nThe words leapt as a leaping sword :\n\" Sail on ! sail on ! sail on ! and on !\"\n\nHis preparation for his work began in the dawning of his life, where those\nsilent influences of inheritance were molding the physical instrument which\nshould express the spirit that with developing strength smote upon its chords.\nHe was born with the disposition to do what was to be done and the conditions\nof his home and the traditions of his country laid upon him the training that\nfamiliarized him with the history and literature through which the classic\ncivilizations had expressed themselves, and with the methods of scientific\ninvestigation and the attitude of philosophic insight.\nThe influence of this training showed itself both in the thoroness that\ncharacterized every portion of his subsequent work, and in the poetic enthusiasm that idealized the whole path of duty and glorified it with light of eternal\ntruth and beauty. The scope of his interests may be crudely shown by the\nturning lathe in his workshop, his unexcelled private photographic apparatus,\nhis minutely annotated library of philosophy, and the little pocket volume of\nHorace which was his vade mecum.\nWith the natural tendencies of character thus developed he came to the\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nUnited States at a time when the ferment of hostile poHtical beliefs was threatening the very existence of the nation, and located in St. Louis where those of\nhis own nationality were to play so large a part in determining the future of\nAmerican institutions. The young German soon found his new home a better\nfield than his old for the development and expression of that individual freedom\nof thought and life which is a natural impulse of the Anglo-Saxon spirit, and\nof that consequent respect for the opinion of one's fellow-man.\nIn such a congenial atmosphere, men of high purpose were attracted to\neach other and drew together in groups for the discussion of questions of large\nhuman interests, and to such association F. Louis Soldan, a young man not yet\nthirty years old, was drawn. Already a scholar, with other master-minds he\nbecame a close student of sociological movements as determined by man's\nspiritual nature, and with the insight that came from such study, he added\nwisdom to his scholarship. The effect of this intellectual companionship\nwas shown during the years he was principal of the normal and high schools,\nin his sound judgment, his knowledge of human nature, and the motives that\ncontrolled it, and his ready tact in meeting new situations.\nWhen, at the age of fifty-three, he was called to the office of superintendent,\nevery necessary element for success had entered into his training for the work.\nScholarship, intellectual companionship, struggle with material things, keen\nobservation of stupendous social movements, and practical experience with\nevery phase of elementary and secondary education — all these things were in\nhis preparation.\nWhen he entered upon this crowning epoch of his woi-k, the organization\nof the schools in St. Louis differed little in principle from the organization\nof a country district. The board was elected partly by wards and partly by\nthe city at large. All the business, including that requiring expert knowledge,\nwas undertaken by committees of the board and responsibility could not be\ntraced directly to any individual member or officer. This type of organization\nperforms without marked disaster the work of a small district, but it is hopelessly inadequate for the administration of the complex system of schools in a\nlarge city. This statement may seem an unnecessary repetition of a truism\nto the men and women before me. Yet its truth was not recognized in St.\nLouis thirteen years ago, and there is some good ground for the belief that it is\nnot universally accepted in practice throughout the United States today. In\nspite of the presence in the board of many intelligent, virtuous, and patriotic\nmen, abuses that hindered the development of the schools and threatened to\ndestroy completely their usefulness grew out of the crudeness of the institution\nthat had not developed the proper organs for the increasing and specialized\nwork.\nOur experienced and philosophic superintendent soon saw that the only\nsatisfactory way to be rid of the evils that beset his work was to attack directly\ntheir cause. Within a year, modestly keeping himself in the background, he\nhad summoned to his aid the awakened conscience and intelligence of his\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nF.\n\nLOUIS\n\nSOLDAN\n\n497\n\ncity and thru them had secured the passing of a law that gave to the Board\nof Education a charter that has become distinguished as a pioneer movement\nin the betterment of city-school organization. Its fundamental principles are\nsharp definition and location of responsibiHty and bestowal of authority to\nmeet it.\nAuthority rightly used he knew would bring success; authority abused,\nmisused, or left idle would bring reproach upon the law and all for which it\nstood. Opportunity had been won, opportunity must be used, and, in the\nlargeness of his plans, this meant untiring zeal, a great comprehension of\nproblems, and a policy that would merge tact and firmness into actions that\nshould clearly have regard for the feelings and interests of the individual while\nprotecting the schools.\nSome feared the misuse of the power that gave to the superintendent complete initiative in the selection of textbooks and supplies, the shaping of the\ncourse of study, and the nomination of teachers. He was called dictator and\nczar. But so great was his discretion in the exercise of his authority that all\ninterests, except those of the most viciously selfish kind, soon found the assurance and comfort that result from reliance upon the decisions of one who is a\ncompetent and just judge in affairs where his training has made him an expert.\nThe energies of the board which, under the incompetence of the old law,\nhad been dissipated in the worries of detail, in the handling of which it was not\nexperienced, and had been distracted by the multitude of warring interests\nwhich it did not know how to reconcile or defeat, were now concentrated upon\nthe consideration of the large question of policy in the administration of the\nschools.\nFornierly money could not be found even for housing of the schools, and\nthousands of children were at school only on half-day time. Poor textbooks\nwere in use, school appliances or apparatus were meagerly supplied, and\nsupplementary books for reading as literature or information subjects were\nregarded as the wild dreams of the enthusiast. As if by magic, under the new\nconditions, it became possible to obtain all that was needed for the maintenance and development of the work. What seemed magic, however, was\nmost intensely matter-of-fact. The recommendations of the superintendent\ncarried because the committees of the board were convinced that his conclusions\nhad been reached after the most unremitting scrutiny of all that bore upon the\nsubject under consideration, and that they were made with their value to the\nschools as the supreme test of their merit.\nHis singleness of purpose, his many-sided training, and his tireless attention\nwould alone have made Doctor Soldan a great superintendent; but added to\nthese qualities, dominating them, or better still coloring and vitalizing them,\nwas his superabundant s)mipathy with man and child. Many of you were\npresent at the recent meeting of the Department of Superintendence in Washington where Doctor Soldan replied to the addresses of welcome. The chairman in introducing him expressed his pleasure that a man who for over a third\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof a century had been mo^ active in the work of the association was still alive\nand could be called upon to respond. You will remember how, with glowing\nface and the vigor of youth, he rushed to the platform and gave vent to expressions of joy that he was still alive, alive in these times of stirring thought when\nmen were aglow with the fervor of their desire to meet and solve the questions\nthat bore upon the improvement of human hfe. You will remember how his\nenthusiasm kindled us all with its magnetic radiation.\nTake up any journal you please in which the profession, after his death,\nrecorded its estimate of him. Underlying all that is said in praise of his\nscholarship, his skill as an instructor, his executive force, his influence as a\ndebater, there runs the note which sings of his friendship. Other men used\nother words, but the sentiment was the same as that so delicately expressed\nby Aaron Gove:\nHis coming brought to me an atmosphere saturated with such cordial friendship,\ngladsome welcoming, and unbounded confidence as did that of no other man. His framed\nlikeness has been the only one in my room for three years; as it hangs above my desk his\ngenial recognition is apparent as I look up.\n\nEach of us knows what loss he has suffered in this death, each of us knows\nwhat precious heritage in this memory is his. How shall I now reckon the\nindebtedness of this association of teachers to one who, with no regard for\npersonal comfort but with the enthusiasm of personal interest, devoted his\ntalents and time without stint to its work, as member, committee-man, trustee,\nand oj05cer ? The history of his service is set down in the records of this institution, itis impressed upon men's hearts, it will live in the expanding influence\nof lofty example.\n\nIRutus IHenrp Ibalsei?\nJOHN A. H. KEITH,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOSHKOSH,\n\nWIS.\n\nA little less than a year ago, in the northern Wisconsin woods, whither\nhe had gone for needed rest and recreation, the fruitful life of Rufus Henry\nHalsey was ended by the accidental discharge of a revolver in the hands of\none of his sons.\nBorn at Blooming Grove, N. Y., in 1856, he removed in 1858 with his\nparents to Brooklyn. In the public schools of Brooklyn, and Adelphi Academy\nof the same city he received his early education and preparation for college.\nHe was graduated from Williams College with the class of 1877. The six\nfollowing years were spent in teaching in New York state, one year at Newtonville, and five years in Adelphi Academy. From 1883 to 1896 Mr. Halsey\nwas principal of the Oshkosh High School and for the last five years of that\ntime, city superintendent as well, being the first professional superintendent\nthat Oshkosh had employed. In 1896 Mr. Halsey was called to the superintendency of the Binghampton, N. Y., city schools. Upon the death of Mr.\nAlbee, who had been president of the Oshkosh Normal School from its founda-\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nRUFUS\n\nHENRY\n\nHALSEY\n\n499\n\ntion in 187 1, the faculty of the normal school and the leading citizens of\nOshkosh felt that Mr. Halsey was most capable of managing the great school\nwhich the genius and life of President Albee had built up. The Board of\nNormal School Regents concurred in this feeling and Mr. Halsey became\npresident of the Oshkosh State Normal School, January, 1899, in which office\nhe served until his death.\nWhat manner of man he was and in what estimate he was held by the leaders\nin educational thought and activity is best shown by the fact that he was\ntwice elected to membership in this distinguished body and was a frequent\ncontributor to its programs. In whatever relation to life he found himself,\nMr. Halsey conceived his fundamental duty to be service. In this fact is\nfound the source of his wide-ranged interests, his devotion to all that he\nattempted, his power of co-ordinating details effectively, and his power over\npeople.\nMr. Halsey has been characterized by one of his college-mates as '*an incurable boy.\" He never lost the enthusiasm and buoyancy of youth, nor his\nearly love for games and sports, as is shown by the fact that in the hour\npreceding his tragic death, he had engaged in target practice with his sons.\nThese interests kept him youthful and gave him power over youth.\nAlong with this buoyancy and power, however, was an abiding devotion\nto his work, and he conceived his work to be the organization of upward-tending, life-giving experience for the youth with whom he dealt. A distinguished\nsuperintendent recently said to me, ''Mr. Halsey had intuitively that rare\neducational insight which only few men can acquire after long study.\"\nSuch a man is public-spirited without reflectively framing a code of public\nethics. In the literary, social, business, and civic life of Oshkosh he was an\nactive factor, and it is indeed a suitable tribute to his work that the alumni of\nthe schools and the citizens of Oshkosh have raised a fund to provide Halsey\nMemorial Lectures so that the knowledge, good-sense, and ideals which he\nstood for in community life may be brought in perpetuity to the community\nand the school.\nWhile a man may be drawn unreflectively into matters of public concern,\nhe must become conscious of ends and ways and means when he assumes\nleadership. That Mr. Halsey added practical insight to his natural social\nsympathy is clearly proved by the organization of faculty and students which I\nfound existing at Oshkosh. The faculty committees Which he organized\nare working committees, and the student organizations, without exception,\nare related to each other through their relations to the welfare of the school.\nThis ability to see the practical outcome from the beginning was one of Mr.\nHalsey's most serviceable traits.\nIn addition to all this, Mr. Halsey had a rare power of detecting fundamentals. Ido not mean that he had a formulated set of fundamentals to\nwhich he logically adhered. Instead, his sure-footed mind took in all the\nrelations of a tangled problem and, with difficulty, but also with clarity, he\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbrought order out of seeming chaos. He not only saw — he did; and what\nhe wrought needed never to be untangled.\nA man with such qualities and exempt from such negations as they imply\nis, in simple truth, \"the salt of the earth;\" and the earth which he served loved\nhim devotedly. I cannot more fittingly close this tribute to the memory of\nMr. Halsey than to quote the last paragraph of his baccalaureate address of\n1903:\n\n\"Enter upon your work with a spirit and determination that shall enable\nmen to say of you when you have put the harness off: He was\nOne who never turned his back but marched breastforward,\nNever doubted clouds would break,\nNever dreamed, though right were worsted, wrong would triumph;\nHeld we fall to rise, are baflSed to fight better,\nSleep to wake!\"\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Miss Bertha Payne, kindergarten director, School of Education, Chicago, 111.\nVice-President — Miss Barbara Greenwood, supervisor of kindergartens, Pomona, Cal.\nSecretary — Miss Harriet Rockwell, director of kindergartens, Cleveland, Ohio\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, June 30, 1908\nThe Kindergarten Department of the National Education association met in the First\nMethodist Church. Bertha Payne, School of Education, the University of Chicago,\npresident of the department, presided.\nThe session was opened with songs by a chorus of students from the Cleveland\nKindergarten Training School, under the leadership of Miss Anna Goedhardt.\nPatty S. Hill, president of the International Kindergarten Union, gave greetings from\nthat society, expressing the hope that the two associations might become more closely\nallied.\nEarl Barnes, lecturer for the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching, Philadelphia, Pa., gave an address on \"Fundamental Factors in the Making of a Kindergarten Curriculum.\"\nAlice Temple, of the Kindergarten Institute of Chicago, read the next paper, her\nsubject being \"The Factor of Environment.\"\nA paper on \"The Relation between the Ideal and the Practical\" was presented bj\nLuella A. Palmer, kindergarten critic teacher, Speyer School, New York.\nThese papers were discussed by Mrs. Alice H. Putnam, Chicago, III., Patty S. Hill,\nNew York City, Mina B. Colburn, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nCommittees were appointed by the president as follows :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nAlma L. Binzell, Menomonie, Wis.\nNetta Faris, Cleveland, Ohio\nWinifred Smith, Detroit, Mich.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nElizabeth Harrison, Chicago, 111.\nElla C. Elder, Buffalo, N. Y\nAnna Littell, Dayton, Ohio\nSECOND SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July i\nA joint session of the departments of Kindergarten, Elementary, and Art Education\nwas held in the First Methodist Church, Bertha Payne, president of the Kindergarten\nDepartment, presiding.\nThe nominating committee of the Kindergarten Department recommended the folowing for officers:\nFor President, Mabel A. McKinney, Cleveland, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President, Luella A. Palmer, New York, N. Y.\nFor Secretary, Caroline Sewell, Denver, Colo.\nThe report was on motion accepted and the secretary was directed to cast the ballot\nfor the election of the nominees. The ballot was so cast and the nominees were declared\nelected for the ensuing year.\nThe topic for the session was \"Art in the Kindergarten and Primary Grades.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\n\"The Art Impulse; Its Early Forms and Relation to Mental Development\" was the\nsubject of a paper given by Lillian S. Cushman, instructor in art, School of Education, the\nUniversity of Chicago.\nMrs. Alice H. Putnam, superintendent of the Chicago Froebel Association, read a\npaper on \"Drawing in the Kindergarten.\"\nThis was followed by a paper on \" The Use and Abuse of Design \" by Mae B. Higgons,\nkindergartner. Public Schools, New York City.\nA paper treating of the \"Motive and Methods in Primary Art Work\" was read by\nBeatrice Weller, institute instructor and supervisor, New York City, and afterward illusstrated by her.\nA general discussion followed, participated in by Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago, 111.,\nWilliam N. Hailmann, LaPorte, Ind., and George W. Eggers, Chicago, 111.\nROUND-TABLE SESSION.— Thursday Morning, July 2\nA meeting with the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education was held\nin the First Methodist Church, for the discussion of the topic: \"The Co-ordination of\nthe Kindergarten and the Elementary School,\" as presented in Part II of the Seventh\nYearbook of that society. Charles McKenny, Milwaukee, Wis., president of the National\nSociety for the Scientific study of Education, presided.\nPresident McKenny gave an outline of the presentation in the Yearbook.\nPatty S. Hill, of New York City, gave a resume of her article in the Sixth Yearbook on\n\"Some Conservative and Progressive Phases of Kindergarten Education.\"\nThe following took part in the discussion: Mrs. Alice H. Putnam, Elizabeth Harrison,\nand Bertha Payne, Chicago, 111.; Lida B. Earhart, New York, N. Y.; Emma C. Davis,\nCleveland, Ohio; Luella A. Palmer, New York, N. Y.; Mina B. Colbum, Cincinnati,\nOhio; H. E. Kratz, Calumet, Mich.; Robert I. Hamilton, Vincennes, Ind.; Alma L.\nBinzel, Menomonie, Wis.\nThe president of the Kindergarten Department, Miss Bertha Payne, then took the\nchair. The Committee on Resolutions presented its report thanking the Day-nursery\nand Free Kindergarten Association, and the Kindergarten Union of Clevefcind and those\nindividuals who had contributed to the entertainment and comfort of the visiting kindergartners.\nThe report was accepted and adopted.\nAfter the introduction of the president-elect, Mabel McKinney, Cleveland, Ohio, the\ndepartment adjourned.\nHarriet D. Rockwell, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nFUNDAMENTAL\nEARL\n\nBARNES,\n\nAND\n\nFACTORS\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN THE MAKING\nGARTEN CURRICULUM\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nLECTURER,\n\nOF A KINDER-\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nIn the past most curricula have been made to fit a theology or a philosophy.\nToday it is almost universally recognized that a curriculum should be made to\nfit the children who are to be affected by it. It is the crowning glory of the\nkindergarten that it has generally started its theories and its practice directly\nwith the child and has studied to understand his nature and to meet his needs.\nIts.successes have been based on the wisdom of its founder and on the splendid\ndevotion of the master's followers; its mistakes have been the errors common to\nhuman nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMAKING\n\nOF A KINDERGARTEN\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n503\n\nDuring the last twenty years we have had a great deal of really scientific\nstudy devoted to the little children. On the whole, the results of this study\nagree with the teachings of Frederick Froebel; they re-state the earlier discoveries ofgreat educational leaders, with here and there a modification or an\naddition. This paper seeks to state the fundamental factors in the making of\na kindergarten curriculum from the point of view of modern genetic investigations.\nIf a scientist were set to study a child under six years old the first thing to\nstrike his attention would certainly be the marvelous activity of the specimen.\nHe wriggles, squirms, gurgles, laughs, claps, creeps, walks, trots, and tumbles\nabout. He talks, cries, shouts, and rubs himself into every object he can\nreach, so that a student like Professor Dresslar is able to write a long article\nin merely enumerating the acts of a three-year-old for a half-hour.\nBut the scientist will hunt in vain for any steady axis of organization running through the chaos of doing. This is why all records of infancy, like those\nof Miss Shinn or of Mrs. Moore, or even the volumes of Preyor, are such\nuninteresting and almost impossible reading for anyone except students of\nchildhood. A well-organized mind moves easily along the lines of its normal\naction; compelled to turn hither and yon in an attempt to follow the accidental\nmovements of a child's mind it is quickly tired out. This is also the reason\nwhy any real work with little children is so fatiguing; and it explains the\nconstant struggle between kindergartners and boards of education over the\nquestions of double sessions in kindergarten work. It is true that there is\nlittle difference between children in the last days of the kindergarten and the\nfirst days of the primary grades; but there is a vast difference between kindergarten children and primary children as a whole, and this difference is mainly\ndue to the quality of fragmentariness in the activity and in the attention of the\nlittle ones.\nThe third quality that must strike the scientific observer of little children\nis their remarkable desire for and facility in social intercourse. Even in\nextreme infancy the baby longs to have someone near him. In his first days\nhe prefers to lie in a lap rather than in a cushioned crib. Only with protestations and cries will he break his social bonds and voyage off into the lonely\nland of sleep. In the first year he greets animals and babies as his peers;\nafter the first year any child who seeks solitude is something of a monster.\nThis intelligent interpretation of and response to the social forces about him\nearly mark the child as the master of all living things. He learns quickly\nwhom he can control and how to do it; whom he must obey, and why. At\n[three years old, he reads a face as adults read books; and at six he has passed\nthru, and at least partially assimilated, most of the social experiences of life.\nThis social sensibility makes little children strangely imitative. Whatever\nany of us thinks that he tends to do; what we think with admiration tends\ndoubly to pass over into action and hence into conduct. We live by our admirations; and what we love that we become.\nLater in life, fixed habits and\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\naccepted ideas and ideals will inhibit this imitative tendency, but little children\nare the prey of all suggestions that play upon them.\nAnd because a little child is weak and unformed, and his ideas run always\nbefore his powers, he seeks to realize himself in imitative play. As I write\nthese pages, three children are playing with a cart on the lawn. They have\njust made a Httle journey by sea and so the cart is a ship ; the child in front is\nthe captain; the one who pushes behind says he is the sailor; the smallest one,\nwho because he is the smallest has been crowded into the back of the cart,\ncries lustily because he wants to be a sailor. ''No,\" explain the others, \"you\nare the passenger; here is your ticket.\" Already, as I write these words, they\nhave deserted the ship and have gone to play in the garden. Here you have\nan epitome of young childhood with its activity, its fragmentariness, its social\ndemands, its openness to imitation, and its attempt to realize life and prepare\nfor it thru imaginative play.\nThis, then, is the material we have to work upon — an undeveloped human\nbeing, active, chaotic, social and hence imitative, ineffective and so driven to\nimagine, invent, and play at all sorts of actuality. The curriculum must be\nmade to fit this individual and it must also anticipate and lead toward the life\nthat we wish the child to grow into. That life is very different for different\ngroups of children. It depends largely upon the philosophy, theology, and\nsocial and political theories of those who are in charge of the children. A\nkindergarten in a convent must care most to secure success in the life that\nfollows this one; a select kindergarten in an aristocratic neighborhood will\ncare especially to fit the children for the walk of life to which they have been\ncalled by the parents' wealth; a slum kindergarten must always be used as\nan instrument for improving the slums. In this paper, we shall take it for\ngranted that the kindergarten is secular, democratic, and American.\nTo train a creature with the qualities we have described it is clear we must\ndepend on its activity for our motive power. It is a sad thing when a school\nfor children neglects to train them; it is a sadder thing when it destroys the\ndriving desire to do things. To maintain the hunger for activity we must have\na curriculum providing for pretty constant physical work or play. This can\nbe secured in organized indoor games, in industrial exercises, in gardening, in\nplayground exercises, or in excursions. The children's corners in the recreation centers of Chicago are admirably devised to encourage activity. Wide\nsand piles, ample wading-pools, swings, and teeters provide a succession of\nactivities that can be combined in endless variety.\nBut this activity is merely opportunity for training. Play will keep activity\nalert, but work must organize this fragmentary activity into significant\nsequences. A recreation center may be merely a place for discharging unused\nenergy; but a kindergarten must shape life, if it is to justify its existence.\nHere we meet the universal paradox of education. We must keep initiative\nunchecked and activity alert, and still shape desire and direct activity to ends\nthat will be of deepest value in life. It is the old struggle of wind and rudder\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmeutJ\n\nMAKING\n\nOF A KINDERGARTEN\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n505\n\nfor the control of the ship; without wind, nothing is done; without rudder\nno port is gained.\nThe directive work in the kindergarten, so far as guiding activity is concerned, must lie mainly in the direction of organizing the tyrannical but\nnecessary reflexes that we call habits. Infant education should be mainly\nconcerned with stocking and directing the subconscious nerve centers. The\nchild should learn to walk well, to carry his head erect and his chest well forward, to step lightly, to run and dance, to shake hands, bow, pass articles or\nmove a chair aside. He should learn to articulate clearly, speaking distinctly\nand agreeably, the pitch of his voice should be properly regulated, and harshness worked out of his tone; he should learn to sing and recite little poems\nagreeably. Laughing, grimaces, tricks of mouth and eyes, all these should\nbe constantly shaped towards excellence. Wearing the clothes well, eating\nand drinking properly should be reduced to habits, and then forgotten. Of\ncourse, if the teacher is stupid she will make the children into self-conscious\nprigs, into little automata. That is why the teacher of little children should\nbe wisely and carefully trained, well bred and experienced in the usages of good\nsociety. The *w ell-to-do have always looked after these matters with great\nsolicitude, and hence they have been able to retain social leadership for themselves and for their children. Some day the children of the people will be trained\nin this early period, when life-long reflexes are being established, to act like cultivated boys and girls, and the action will strengthen the thoughts and the\nfeelings that make a man truly cultivated. When this time comes, America\nwill have a cultivated and humanized democracy capable of protecting itself\nagainst all class aggression and ready to live life with the grace and dignity\nthat human life deserves.\nAnd in the kindergarten all this training of lower nerve centers takes place\nin a social atmosphere to which children are fully alive and to which they\nfreely respond. Sympathy, emulation, hope, fear, selfishness, altruism, all\nthe passions that gather round social life and intercourse are a\\railable for the\nteacher who knows how to use them. Hence the work and play must be\ndirected to group activities that will give wide and ordered activity to all the\nfeelings of social life. Just as the child is trained to walk erectly so he must be\ntrained to play the game of life fairly and generously. As he is trained to\narticulate distinctly, so he must be trained to speak honestly. Most of\nus are good because we have been trained to be good, and we have the\nhabit.\nThe teacher, standing as the embodiment of authority, can and should\ncommand absolute obedience; in the various combinations of the group she\n.will find all the other relations that go to make up our human institutions. The\nlindergarten is an enlarged and self-conscious home, and a' miniature state.\n)0, too, in groups, the industrial games can be carried through all stages of\nsimple production and distribution; while in dramatic combinations, they can\nfigure forth the relations and the crises of life. Probably all sex distinctions\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nhad best be, as far as possible, ignored in the kindergarten period. They are\nfar J;oo important in our adult life; they had best wait on older years.\nTo work out these basal conceptions of industry, society, and life the teacher\nmust depend largely upon imitation. All the surroundings of little children's\nlives should be simple and capable of childish imitation. The teacher should\nstand and walk well, she should have a cultivated voice, and should dress with\ntaste and variety. The kindergarten should look more like a living-room\nthan a school; and bad children should be quickly eliminated by making them\ngood. We cannot afford to reform bad children, whether from rich homes or\npoor, by having them associate with good children four or five years old.\nThe imagination, as we have said, enables the child to accompHsh thru\nplay what his powers cannot compass in reality. Hence industrial games\nare very effective, but they should always be organized on the basis of some\nactual observation and experience. That is what imagination can do at this\ntime; it can make observation real, through tactual and muscular experience.\nNowhere else does the ordinary kindergarten curriculum lay itself open to\ngraver criticisms than in the imaginative plays. They must be developed\ndirectly out of experience, even if they do not recapitulate the experience of\nthe race.\nDramatic activity, based on imagination, should deal also with the affairs\nof the home and the neighborhood. And here again they must really appeal\nto the children as connected with life; otherwise they are not exercises for\nimagination, but mere mimicry. Instead of gripping the feelings, and shaping\nthem, they stultify them. The real life of the homes from which the children\ncome should be represented, but lifted and glorified by the play of imaginative\nfancy.\nOn the side of aesthetics we are coming to realize that little children have\nnot the ability to grasp wholes, to feel the charm of proportions and of suggested associations in which all developed art rests. They like brilliant colors\nand strong sounds and they are especially fond of rhythmic repetition. Dress\nis the form in which beauty appeals to them most strongly and here it is doubtless blended with egotism in their own case, or, when others are concerned,\nwith admiration for the wearer. The kindergarten can do little more than\ngive plenty of sense experiences properly related out of which the children in\nlater years may build up forms of beauty.\nInstitutions have all the selfishness of human beings, with few of their\ngenerous impulses. They tend to usurp the proper functions of other related\ninstitutions and to gather everything into their own hands. The church\nillustrated this tendency during the Middle Ages. The public school now\ntends to take over the functions of the home, the neighborhood, and the state\nitself. But the business of the school should be to supplement the home\nand related institutions. It is true that the teacher should have a complete\nphilosophy of life in mind to guide her in her work, but in the country village\nthe kindergarten curriculum should give much of what the city home naturally\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nFACTOR\n\nOF\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n507\n\nfurnishes, while in Boston it should bring the child into contact with what the\nvillage child sees daily all about his home. There are then these two reasons\nwhy we cannot formulate a universal curriculum for kindergartners. In\nthe first place the kindergarten must take up and use the experience the child\nhas ahready met; and in the second place it must supplement the home. It\nmight be possible and desirable to work out type curricula for well-to-do\ncountry village homes, for industrial centers like Manchester, for congested\nslum districts, and for fashionable city homes. Where life is so fluid, however,\nas it is with little children, it must generally be better for the teacher to be well\ngrounded in fundamental principles and then to work out a daily course of\nexercises, following the seasons, knitting her work on to daily experience and\nfilling out the acreage of interest and need, not cultivated by the home. To\ndo this, she must be well acquainted with the development of little children, she\nmust have a vivid and complete philosophy of life, and she must be trained to\nthink of her institution as one of several, all working to give the children life\nmore abundantly.\n\nTHE\nALICE\n\nTEMPLE,\n\nFACTOR\n\nINSTRUCTOR,\n\nOF ENVIRONMENT\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe education of the child during the period of infancy proceeds through\nthe free expression of his impulses, but this free play goes on in a social organization ofwhich the child is a part, and to^which he must adjust himself. The\nchild is, at first, absolutely dependent upon the grown people about him for\nthe mediation of his impulses. They not only furnish the stimuli which he is\nunconsciously seeking, and to which his motor processes are all ready to respond,\nbut they help him to complete the reaction. For example, the child's hand\nwants to grasp, but until someone puts an object into it, the grasping impulse\ncannot function. Later he reaches for the bright object that catches his eye,\nbut someone must take him to it, or bring it to him, before this impulse is\nrealized. When he is a little older, the activities and occupation of the people\nin his immediate social environment furnish the stimuli which he needs. He\nresponds in what we call imitative play, and even here he depends more or\nless upon the members of the family for material, for sympathy, for co-operation in carrying out the play activity. It is thru this free expression of\nimpulses, free in the sense that they are not controlled by any end beyond their\nown realization, operating in an organized social environment which furnishes\nboth stimuH and standards, that the child gets control of himself and enters\ninto human life and activity.\nBy the time the child comes into the kindergarten at the age of three or\nfour, he is well along in the so-called play stage. He is constantly producing\nin various play forms what he sees going on about him, both in home and\nneighborhood. We need only watch his spontaneous play activities to get a\nvery fair notion of what his experience has been and in what sort of an environment, social and physical, he has lived.\nIt gives us the key also to the phas,es\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nin the life about him which make the strongest appeal to the child. This\nnatural tendency on the part of the child to ''play at what the society in which\nhe lives is doing\" is the bond of relationship between the individual and the\nsocial whole. It is the child's mode of reconstructing experience, the process by\nwhich his education goes forward. The immediate experience then of the group\nfor which the kindergarten program is made must very largely determine, not\nonly the subject-matter of the program, but the particular methods and materials used. Environment, therefore, which determines experience, becomes a\nfactor of prime importance in the making of the kindergarten curriculum.\nHaving determined that the subject-matter, if it is to appeal to the child,\nmust be selected from his particular environment, three questions present\nthemselves: (i) What phases from the life immediately surrounding the child\nshall be selected? (2) Upon what principle shall the arrangement of the\nsubject-matter be determined?\n\n(3) How shall it be presented so that the\n\nchild's reaction to it shall result in his entering into the life about him and\ngaining control of himself and his powers through such participation ?\nFirst, then, what phases from the life immediately surrounding the child\nshall be selected ? It is in the concrete activities and occupations of persons\nin the family and immediate neighborhood that the child seems to be particularly interested. He is interested in the physical environment as furnishing a\nsetting, or affording the means, for human activity. Now whatever the\nparticular social environment may be, certain phases of its life are of more\nsocial or economic importance than others and therefore of more lasting\ninterest to the child; the occupations in the home, for example, that are necessary to the physical well-being of the family, and certain industrial and civic\nactivities that touch these closely. Around this life, therefore, the work and\nplay of the kindergarten should largely center, if it is to be such as will give\n\"richest meaning to the daily life of the children.\"\nBut certain of the transient interests of particular groups of children\ndeserve some recognition in the kindergarten. For example, in one of our\npublic kindergartens in Chicago, the fathers of about two-thirds of the children\nspend their Sunday afternoons at the baseball game, sometimes taking the\nchildren with them. The children bring the banners of the ''Cubs\" and\n\"White Sox\" to school. They talk quite a bit of the slang, and so the other\nday, when one child brought a bat, a game was organized during the outdoor\nrecess period, the children against the teachers. A low stone wall about the\nyard served as bleachers, and the lusty fans did their duty. This was the\nfavorite outdoor game for several days. It afforded vigorous exercise to both\nlungs and muscles, and this play imitation of the game certainly brought the\nchildren into sympathetic touch with one side of their fathers' lives. One\nof the fathers, who happened to be visiting the kindergarten, said it was the\nbest game of baseball he had ever seen.\nIn another kindergarten more than half of the children are negroes. They\ngo to the theater of the neighborhood regularly with their parents.\nA platform\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nFACTOR\n\nOF\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n509\n\nin the kindergarten room suggested the idea of a performance, and these\nchildren soon worked out a sort of Buffalo Bill show. One day a week, for\na few weeks, was devoted to this sort of play, and the ''company\" and ''audience\" carried it on with perfect spontaneity and unconsciousness. The\nbaseball play and the dramatic performance are illustrations of the recognition\nof the transient interests of particular groups. Neither would have place nor\nmeaning elsewhere.\nThe arrangement of the subject-matter is the second question to be considered. A little child relates the objects and persons in his environment\nthrough the action going on among them. The whole or unity which appeals\nto him is what Dr. Dewey calls a \"dramatic\" unity. Bearing this in mind\nthe kindergarten might begin the year with one of the very common household\noccupations, the preparation of food, perhaps, and then take one phase of the\nprocess after another, one object after another, as the whole large process\nseemed to demand it. The cooking necessitates stove and utensils, and food to\nbe cooked. This leads quite naturally forward to the serving of the family\nmeal, or back to the immediate source of supply, pantry, storeroom, or market\nas the case may be. The mother goes to market and brings back the supplies\nin a basket, or they are sent in a cart. The market itself now becomes a vital\nfactor in the whole process. If it happens to be the fall season, certain special\ncooking may be going on, and so the fruit stalls become especially attractive\nand significant as containing that which may be enjoyed later in the form of\njelly and preserves. As the children reproduce these experiences in play forms\nthey \\vill themselves suggest what should be done tomorrow as growing out\nof the play of today. They may have certain quite new experiences, as an\nactual trip to the market to buy fruit, which may then be preserved by the\nchildren themselves.\nSo other household occupations may well be made the starting-point for a\nseries of play activities, all growing naturally out of the particular occupation\nand related to it, as they are related in the child's actual experience, thru the\naction going on, the things being done. The seasons of the year will often\ndetermine the order in which such subjects are taken up. But it must be apparent that the way in which any one of these occupations, with its various related\nactivities, is reproduced in the kindergarten will necessarily be determined by\nthe particular environment of the group.\nThis brings us to the third question, that of method. If the subjectmatter selected is in direct and real relationship to the child's life and interests,\nhis response will be immediate and spontaneous. The subject-matter itself\nwill furnish motives and suggestions for play reproduction. The teacher's\nbusiness will be to secure for the child whatever is needed in the way of further\nsense perception in order that his plays and constructions may be the expressions of his own mental images and ideas. Next she must offer those materials\nfor expression which will help the child to realize most completely his ideas.\nIn his effort to do this, various little problems will arise which he will need\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nto solve before he can reach his end. Here again he will turn to the teacher\nfor help and suggestion, getting the knowledge he needs to carry on his activity.\nBut note that it is his activity, a self-activity called out in the child's effort\nto reach ends which are his own.\nA final illustration will emphasize, perhaps, the points I have been trying\nto make in favor of the factor of environment as fundamental in the making\nof the kindergarten curriculum.\nI visited a kindergarten this spring and found the children making dells'\nhats. The subject for a few weeks had been the preparation of clothing for\nthe spring and summer. As a necessary part of the dolls' outfit the children\nhad suggested hats. They had accordingly visited a milHner's shop the day\nbefore. Today the teacher had a very attractive little hat made of manila\nand tissue paper to serve as a model. The children were given the necessary\nmaterials which had been prepared to the extent of a penciled outline of a\nsailor hat on the manila paper. With the model before them, and directions\nas they were needed, the children succeeded in turning out some very creditable\nlittle hats. They immediately suggested playing store. So the blocks were\nused to build store windows, standards for the hats were contrived, and the\nplay of buying and selling followed. Finally, hat boxes were made in which\nthe hats were carried home. These various occupations and plays carried\nover four or five days.\nIt seems to me we have here the conditions for really educative play.\nThe special subject of the week is a phase of the larger one of social significance\nand permanent interest. It is adapted to a particular group of children in a\ngreat city. The experience which the children have already had is enlarged\nby the excursion to the shop. They are given opportunity to reconstruct this\nexperience in various ways. The model of the hat supplies the needed image,\nso that with the partially prepared materials and tools the child can work with\nrelative independence. As he proceeds, he becomes conscious of the need of\nmore knowledge, which he finds the teacher ready to give. The dramatic\nplay of buying and selling is a further mode of interpreting and getting control\nof the whole experience, which is completed, so far as the kindergarten is\nconcerned, when the fittle hats are taken home in the boxes. But any such\nseries of plays is sure to be carried further, or at least repeated in the home.\nAnd so there comes to be that relationship between home and kindergarten\nin which the life of one interprets and reinforces that of the other. Where\nthe kindergarten fails to connect thus vitally with the home, there is a break\nin the child's development which means waste and loss. The danger of such\nloss is reduced to a minimum, I believe, when the program is made with\ncareful reference to the social and physical environment of the particular group\nof children with whom it is to be used.\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nIDEAL\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nRELATION BETWEEN THE IDEAL AND THE PRACTICAL IN THE KINDERGARTEN PROGRAM\nLUELLA\n\nA. PALMER,\n\nSPEYER\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nEvery individual is living out, each moment, his own view of the relation\nbetween the ideal and the practical, between ultimate purpose and immediate\nnecessity. Unrest comes from the constant changing of relationship necessary\nto growth. A quiescent state in individuals, in groups, in institutions, would\nshow deterioration, for the elevation of the ideal with the consequent adjustment of the practical is the activity which indicates the expanding of life.\nThe relation between the ideal and the practical in the kindergarten program is,therefore, not a static condition. Yet if it is a valid relationship, it\nmust be based upon the same principle as that relation in the world at large.\nIn this paper, it will be assumed that the relationship is one of unity, not\nidentity, that both are aspects necessary for reality, the ideal being the power,\nand the practical the means, by which the potential becomes actual.\nEvery act which rises above the threshold of an impulsive or of an instinctive\naction is by its very nature ideal — practical. It implies in varying degrees that\nthere is a purpose, that the immediate action is not left on the plane of the\npresent but is lifted somewhat toward the possibility of the future. Except\nwith the pessimist, it implies the attitude which learns from the past, and\nwhich interprets by faith, believing that the future will excel the past by the\nhelp of the present.\nIn attempting to define the position held toward the relationship between\nthe ideal and practical in the kindergarten program, it will be well to seek in\nthe past for that which will aid in leading toward the goal mapped out by\nfarsighted interpreters. To Froebel we will turn as it was not possible to have\na kindergarten — to educate consciously a child of five years — ^until he had\nbrought to consciousness certain educative principles. Froebel is also one of\nthe philosophers who will point out the goal.\nFroebel saw all living and consequently all education as a process of interaction. His observations led him to discern that it was carried on from the\nbeginning of the new life to the last days. His educational aim was to bring\nto consciousness in the individual the idea that strength of personality was\ndependent upon the degree to which interaction was carried on. It was for\nthe purpose of encouraging a child to develop this principle in his daily living\nand also to see it in perspective as fully as his few years made possible that the\nkindergarten was established. This was the step in the revelation of the\nprinciple which the five-year-old child was to take.\nIt was Froebel who saw that interaction occurred in three different directions in the universe. Between an individual and (i) a higher level, God;\n(2) the same level, man, and (3) a lower level, nature. It is the differing\nattitudes of human beings which make it possible to appreciate these different\n\n5\"\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nSATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nlevels. There are all gradations of attitudes and so there are feelings of\nmany different levels, but these three are different enough in degree to be\ndesignated as distinct types. The attitude toward (i) a higher level is that\nof worship; toward (2) the same, comradeship; toward (3) a lower, control.\nThe first attitude involves a feeling of an ideal to be copied, an end to be attained;\nthe third, a feehng of material to be impressed, a means to be used to gain some\nend; the second attitude involves a feeling of the possibility of both copying\nand impressing, of using as means or as end.\nThe kindergarten, as Froebel suggested it to us, was to show the principle\nof interaction working in the form in which it was found in the universe in\nits three different directions. The teacher was to stand for (i) the higher\nlevel — she was to call forth the feelings of love, faith, and obedience. The\nplaymates were to stand for (2) the world of humanity, and the spirit of cooperation was to be cultivated; opportunities w^ere to be given for each one to\nlead and to be led. (3) Materials were to be used for carrying out and enlarging the child's expressions of his purposes, and in order that this functional\nuse might be accompHshed in the best way, the possibilities of the materials\nwere to be considered. These are the three factors in the kindergarten\nprogram (teacher, playmates, materials^), which are so to be used that a child\nshall be able to comprehend better the working of interaction in his later life.\nThe kindergartner is the one to whom a child should look for guidance.\nShe is the sympathetic leader who stands to the child, relatively, as the philosophers do to the adult. It is she who will develop his behavior toward a\nstandard ; it is she who will give the cue as to his association with other children ;\nand it is she who will suggest his attitude toward materials. It is the kindergartner who determines what a child shall gain from all these factors. She\nstands to the child as an embodiment of an ideal and also provides means\nby which he can strive toward it. The most important connecting link, then,\nbetween the ideal and the practical in the kindergarten program is the kindergartner.\nThe next point is the consideration of the motive which will determine a\nteacher's influence in the kindergarten. If every individual is living out each\nmoment his own view of the relation between the world's purpose and immediate\nnecessity, he will give back to the world what he feels the world has given him,\nhe will give back the meaning which the world has for him. Professor James\nsays your philosophy \"is your individual way of just seeing and feeling the\npush and pressure of the cosmos.\"^ The philosophy of the kindergartner\ngoverns the program. It will indicate the goal toward which to strive and\nalso point out the path by which this can be reached. Let us consider the\nattitude of the kindergartner toward a few of the philosophical problems\nwhich will most strongly affect the program.\n' The word materials, as here employed, covers everything that a child uses as a means in gaining\ncontrol of his experiences. Conversation, song, and story are materials for the tongue; rhythm and games\nfor the. body; handwork of various kinds for the hands.\n» William James, Pragmatism, p. 4.\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "beparttueuti\n\nRELATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nIDEAL\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\n513\n\nThe attitude which the kindergartner will try to create toward herself will\ndepend upon her own feeling toward the spirit in the universe. She could\nhold one of three differing views : (i) that spirit is transcendent only; (2) that\nit is immanent only, or (3) that it both enfolds and is in matter. If (i) God\nis transcendent only, the kindergartner will rule her little world with absolute\nauthority, requiring blind obedience, probably controlling with kindness but\nconsidering no appeal possible. With this attitude there is a tendency to\nignore the child's impulses and instincts, using artificial means to make growth.\nIf (2) spirit is immanent solely, there will be no attempt to set a standard;\nthe decision of the children will be as important as that of the teacher. Her\nidea will be that a child will force his best growth if allowed to follow his\nown wish. If (3) the same spirit is in and around all, impulses and instincts\nwill be utilized to make toward the highest ideals known. The children will\nbe helped to work for self-control by exercising their own power of making\ndecisions, but these will be aided by the suggestion and example of the adult.\nThis adult will reserve to herself the final authority where permanent injury,\neither physical or moral, might result.\nKindergartners may have differing views concerning the relation of the\npast to the present. This will affect the development of the social spirit\namong the children. If (i) the values recognized by the best men of today\nare the only ones of worth, children must be made to conform to those standards.\nIf (2) the ideals of the past are as important as those of the present, children\nmay be allowed to form their own ideals as a group without advice or aid.\nBut if (3) the values found by the race in its gradual development have had\ntheir share in forming the models of the present, which represent the highest\naspirations of the race, the kindergartner will recognize the place which\nchildish standards should have in the growth of the group, but by example\nand suggestion she will seek to elevate the ideal to what more nearly approximates the best of today. There will be the gradual evolution of a society\ngrowing in a way similar to man's founded upon the desire for activity and\nthe gregarious instinct. First, the children will all do the same thing at the\nsame time. A little later the result of the activity will be put together to form a\ncommon product. Then will come the choice of a leader with all the children\nfollowing. Next will come the planning of a purpose by contributions from\nmany individuals, this purpose will then be carried out by each child in his\nown way. Finally will come the planning of a common purpose which can be\naccomplished only by each child perfecting the particular share which falls\nto his lot. The kindergartner will use these methods with all materials progressing asfar as she can with each, as she will realize that between four and\nsix years of age is the period for the most rapid development of social ideals.\nThe attitude cultivated toward materials will depend largely upon what the\nkindergartner considers most real in life, (i) The extremists, such as the early\nChristians, held that reality was spirit only; appearance was to be despised.\n(2) Others, as the later Greeks, believed that reality was only in what stimulated\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n-\n\n(Kindergarten\n\nthe senses. (3) The philosophers of the present maintain that reahty is the\ncomplete union of the spiritual and the material, the latter being the form in\nwhich spirit, in order to exist in this world, must embody itself . If (i) spirit\nis the solely important, that time is wasted which is spent dealing with the\nconcrete; conversations, stories, and songs which treat of virtues and other\nabstractions will be the only valuable parts of the program. There will be a\nconstant play of moods, but the essence of each wuU be lost because not\nembodied in form. If, on the other hand, (2) the material side is solely valuable,\nmaterials will be used as ends in themselves, acquisition of facts, perfection of\nform, and ability to practice technique will be the aim. Each thing, even the\nkindergarten itself as a whole, will be so complete that it will show a finish\nvery pleasing to the adult. If (3) reality is the unity of the spiritual and the\nmaterial, the kindergartner will lead a child to feel that there should be a guiding\nthought which seeks expression through all the materials at his command,\nthru conversation, story, song, rhythm, game, and handwork. Balance will\nalways be preserved; the creative spirit will be called forth and take form\nin something adequate to the significance of the moment. A child will gain a\nfeeling of the self as an organic unity; thought and expression in perfect accord\nwill intensify the personality.\nThe kindergartner's yearly and even daily plans will be influenced by her\nview concerning the teleology of the universe. She may think that (i) God's\ndesign is static and unchangeable, in which case she can have a fixed program\nwhich will be of use everywhere. She may believe that (2) there is no preconceived plan ; that the purpose is gradually evolving, as the universe develops;\nthen she will use any momentary suggestion of the children as a basis for work.\nBut if (3) God's purpose is a living, growing one which man is helping to\nembody, the kindergartner will have a definite plan in mind but it will be a\nprinciple rather than a design, so flexible that it will allow for variations which\nwould be more valuable for the children at the particular time and place than\nthe detail she had prepared.\nIn the kindergartner's attitude toward good and evil will be found the key\nto her discipline. If (i) because the body contains a soul, every human being\nis naturally good, mature ideals will be held up for copy in the belief that this\nis all that is necessary to bring a child back to rectitude. If, on the other hand,\n(2) being in a fleshly body means a natural inclination to sin, the evil must be\ndriven out at all costs even by negative, compulsory methods. There may be\nanother view (3) that goodness is a relative term, according to the standards of\nsociety, which are constantly changing. If evil is untrained impulse, the\nteacher will generally notice an offending action by suggesting a more virtuous\nway to free the energy.\nLastly, the view which the kindergartner holds of the nature of unity will\nbe at the basis of her attitude toward the principle of interaction and will\ndetermine her choice of topics and method of treatment. If (i) she leans to\nthe ideal side, the adult will give much and the child little. Any subject which\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nIMPULSE\n\n515\n\nthe adult feels of value will be presented, trusting that the child will gain something from its consideration. If (2) emphasis is placed on the practical side,\nthe respective shares will be reversed. Whatever interests the child will be\ntaken up in the same way that a child uses it— for its momentary significance\nonly. If (3) unity means the combining of two equal though unlike elements,\nboth adult and child must have equivalent parts in carrying out the principle\nof interaction. It will fall to the child's lot to select the points of interest for\ndiscussion (these for a five-year-old child will be in his immediate surroundings), and to the adult to find wherein they can be stamped with the values\nwhich will lead toward the acceptance of race judgments.\nIn summing up, if it were possible to mention all the methods included under\nnumeral one (i) under each point, they would be seen to carry out a very\nconsistent philosophy. A totally opposing view, and yet consistent in itself,\nwould be found under two (2); and the middle view under three (3). Very\nfew people are extremists, yet there is a tendency to lean more to one side\nthan the other. Along the middle line lies truth. Emphasis on either the\nideal or the practical in the kindergarten program makes it one-sided. The\ntrue relation is the union of the two, and the degree to which this relationship\nis maintained depends upon one factor.\nThat factor is a personality.\nThe usual program states the topic chosen, the idea which the children\nare to gain from its consideration, and also the particular method and purpose\nof each part of the day. The real program can never be written, for the personal touch of the kindergartner arouses the controlling ideas and is the most\npowerful method.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Alice H. Putnam, superintendent of Chicago Froebel Association. — It is interesting to consider the matter of habit. We hear much about spontaneity and freedom\nbut little about habit. I should like to ask Mr. Barnes if we are harming the child by\ndefinitely directing his acts ? Should he evolve his line of action from his own consciousness, or should he secure definite direction ?\nMr. Barnes. — A child should yield unquestioning obedience to someone before he\nis a year old. He should receive definite instruction in matters relating to personal habits\nor social intercourse and should obey without coaxing, begging, or delay, so that gradually\nthese acts will become subconscious, leaving the conscious mind free for more important\nthings. This obedience should, as the child develops, be transferred from the individual\nto the social group and its laws and then to the divine law. At the same time we must\ntake care not to dictate to a child with reference to religion, art, or any of the higher and\nunsettled problems of life.\n\nTHE ART IMPULSE; ITS EARLY FORMS AND\nMENTAL DEVELOPMENT\nLILLIAN\n\nS. CUSHMAN, INSTRUCTOR IN ART, SCHOOL\nUNIVERSITY\nOF CHICAGO,\nCHICAGO,\n\nRELATION\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nILL.\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nOne is tempted to believe that in the matter of art education surely the\nfinal word has been spoken.\nYet to every teacher whose work is alive the old\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "5i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nfundamental questions are as new, as germane, as if he were the first to ask\nthem.\nHow does art relate itself to the life of the child and what contributions\ndoes it make to the sum total of experience ? This query is not to be turned\naside. The entire fabric of the course of study — the specific problems —\nthe technical sequence and method are molded in accordance to the\nanswer.\nTo explain my meaning, we must know what kind and how well developed\nan interest it is which stimulates a child to express himself thru pictorial and\ndecorative art. I am using the term interest in its largest sense. In a grou])\nof thirty children, engines, boats, birds, flowers, animals, thirty individual\ninterests may be expressed by their drawings. That the thirty children show\na rather common tendency to scribble something denotes a more universal\nmotive power back of the specific engine or bear. It is this impulse which I\nhave in mind.\nIt is evident that if the art work which we organise in the school is to function normally in the lives of the children it must respond in the fullest degree\nto this genetic motive. Hence, our question — The Art Impulse, its nature and\nrelation to mental development ?\nIs it play? the mere physical resultant of the contact with suggestive\nmaterial — the joy of pounding — of sticking fingers into soft clay, of wielding\na paint brush ? If so, then the educational attack must be planned thru materials selected with reference to the nature of stimulation and response. Is it\nutilitarian ? Does the child picture his ideas primarily in order to communicate them ? When he makes things is he dominated by the desire to use them ?\nWhy does he decorate them — is it because the decoration will enhance their\nsignificance ? Is it because he plays with material or is it that he has an innate\nfeeling for beauty which thus finds expression ? Is this art impulse perchance\nwholly aesthetic ?\nIf we answer that it is utilitarian, use becomes the point of contact. If it\nis aesthetic, we have but to give more and more opportunity for the exercise\nof those impulses which will finally lead to the consciousness of the laws of\norder and beauty. Doubtless we would all agree that aesthetic development\nis the educational function of art in the curriculum. Therefore the last plan\nwould appear to represent the direct mode, consequently the economical method\nof fitting means to end. An art course which is at all points essentially aesthetic ismost attractive.\nBut second thought is a reminder that such a plan represents economy\nonly in case it is built on the real basic motive power. We have seen boys\nprepare a field for their athletic sports, or execute other projects distinctly\ntheir own. In the presence of the overwhelming momentum generated by\nenthusiastic desire we realize the waste that occurs in the schoolroom. Economy\ncan be gained only by utilizing this energy. Any plan which we adopt, no\nmatter how well organized, sinks to the level of a formal technical drill, attended\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nIMPULSE\n\n517\n\nby the evils of isolation, unless we make this vital contact. And so our question isstill before us.\nThe answer must be sought outside of the schoolroom in the wider\nfields of art itself. Not the art of the adult race with the highly specialized\ninterest of a renaissance, but the art of a culture which corresponds most\nclosely with the stage of consciousness of the kindergarten or primary grade.\nThis takes us back to the first scratchings on clay and to the primitive use of\nthe picture and decoration. We need to know how these happened to be and\nwhat values they represented, if any, in the aesthetic history of the race. From\nthis primitive art let us ask two questions: (i) The nature of the art impulse;\n(2) The direction of its development and the influences which have contributed\nto its growth.\nYou who are familiar with the literature of the subject know that formerly\nscientists assumed some one motive as the source of all these phenomena.\nPictographs, personal adornment, decorative art, were all either motor, utihtarian, or aesthetic in origin according to the point of view of the writer.\nMore recent methods of scientific investigation have led ethnologists to a\ndifferent view of the situation. Dr. Kroeber clearly states this change and so\nI quote:\nEvery explanation of an origin in anthropology is based on three processes of thought\nwhich are unobjectionable logically but are contrary to evolutionary principles and the\ncountless body of facts that support these principles. First is the assumption in the word\norigin that before the beginning of the phenomena explained, itself and its cause were\nabsent; second is the belief that a suddenly arising cause singly produced the phenomenon;\nand third, is the idea that this cause as suddenly and completely ceased as it had before\nsprung up and that its product has remained unaffected by other causes unaltered but for\nwear and tear to the present day. The fundamental error of the common anthropological\nmethod of investigating origins is that it isolates phenomena and seeks isolated specific\ncauses for them. In reality ethnic phenomena do not exist separately. They have their\nbeing only in culture. Much less can the causative forces of the human\nties or tendencies, be truly isolated. ^\n\nmind, the activi-\n\nIn Dr. Kroeber's exposition of the matter, we have a view of the primitive\nconsciousness in which the motives of later life exist in an embryonic and\nundifferentiated state. Instead of certain well-developed interests we are led\nto expect a composite in which are all sorts of individual variations, due to the\ndominance rather than the isolation of certain ones. It accounts for the fact\nwhich impresses the student of primitive art; viz., that in a way there is no\nsuch thing. That is to say, he cannot conduct his research as he would if he\nwere studying the art of Greece or of the Renaissance. The decorative art of\nthe Haida or of the Pueblos does not stand out by itself. There is no wide\nrange of material in their culture of which one can say \"Here they rested\nfrom their labor and said 'Let us rejoice and be glad. Let us make unto\nourselves beautiful things just for the joy of the making.' \" As their religious\n' A. L. Kroeber, The American Anthropologist, Vol. Ill, p. 308: chapter on \"Decorative Symbolism of\nthe .Xrapahr.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "5l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nceremonials are a part of their scheme of self-preservation so their art is inseparably bound up in those activities which have to do with the life processes.\nOn the ivory handle of the skin scraper, on the bird snare, and the harpoon,\non the bead moccasin and the skin par-fleche, on the tepee, the blanket, and\nrobe, on basket and bowl, on the warrior's shield and club, on the wrappings\nof the dead and at the altar of sacred mysteries we find their art. It is a\npart of the entire range of primitive culture. Evidently it was not a festal\ngarment to be assumed and discarded at will. The fact of its universality\nand of its rich content of associated meaning argues that it emanated from\nthe mainsprings of being.\nTo the educator the significance of the discussion of primitive origins lies\nin the fact that these motives are so rudimentary that even experts have differed\nconcerning their nature. It argues that if he is dealing with an equally elementary mind he will not be justified in assuming a fully developed or even\nclearly distinct interest. That on the other hand motives will be complex.\nDoes not this correspond to facts ?\nWhen I have tried to check up my observations by former theories I could\nnever quite succeed. If I concluded that utility started the machinery of\nartistic development I found cases where there seemed to be only a play\ninterest. In other instances there was every evidence of its being aesthetic.\nIf I built a course of instruction, however, on the last assumption, the results\nwere too artificial and the children were too passive to indicate its universal\ndominance.\nIn fact, can you put your finger on any one genetic force which prompts\na play activity ? When a group of children laboriously fashion a retreat in\nwide-spreading branches and become tree-dwellers can you prove that it results\nfrom the love of climbing or from the delight in building, or from the enjoyment of the song of birds and the lace net- work of sky and green leafage?\nWe know that all these and something more which eludes analysis are a\npart of that happy playtime, a playtime which is just as real as any experience\nof later life.\nTo state the conclusion concerning the nature of the art impulse as it exists\nin primitive consciousness let us say that it is true. It is motor activity, a\nresponse to the physical stimulus of material. It is utilitarian. It is aesthetic.\nThere is something of all of these in every primitive art form. The dominant\ncharacteristic is determined by individual bias, by the persistence of some one\nof these interests. The universal fact is that whether in the race or the child\nthese impulses are bound up in those pursuits which are centralizing and\nsocial.\nWe come to the second question — The direction of aesthetic development\nand the influences which have contributed to its growth. This necessitates\nexplanation of the term aesthetic as applied to those qualities which are\nvisual.\nAll of the fine arts have this in common; viz., they interpret to the same\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nIMPULSE\n\n519\n\nhuman mind. This mind is so constituted that it seeks organization of the\nmaterials with which it deals. Therefore logical arrangement or unity is the\nbasic principle of all art. In those arts which make their appeal through the\neye the unity must be visual. No matter how intricate the details, they must\nrelate to each other in such a way as to produce a single visual impression.\nThe visual impression is due to a more or less complicated but unconscious\nprocess.\nAs the eye moves from one spot of attraction to another in case there is an\norderly relationship of units it follows that a joint movement is established\nso that it is carried thru the various parts of the decorated area.\nThe degree of resultant pleasure depends upon two things: first, the physical nature of this movement, whether abrupt or smooth, whether direct and\nsimple, or subtle and complex; second, upon the ideas associated with the\nspots themselves.\nThe laws which govern such arrangements are stated in the highly specialized terms of philosophy as rhythm, balance, and harmony. The early conformity to those principles is evidently due to unconscious response to physical\nor emotional stimuli. This unconscious response has been the starting-point,\nand control resulting from conformity to principles has been the cHmax.\nBetween these two points art has traced the path of evolution.\nIn primitive culture graphic art has taken the two directions of the pictographic record and decoration. In the pictograph naturalistic forms abound,\nand in instances such as drawings of cattle by Australian bushmen, or the\nhorses and men painted on the tepee of ihe Crow Indians, the accuracy of\nrepresentation is remarkable.\nI trust you are all familiar with Mr. FenoUosa's lecture on the *' Structural\nBasis of Art \" as he explains so clearly the reasons why we cannot trace any line\nof aesthetic growth from these beginnings which possess no other visual\ninterest than that of the more facts of nature.\nThe relation of the various elements of the pictograph is dependent upon\nthe organization of the ideas which are interpreted into them by people who\npossess common experience. As a rule this unity is not apparent to the eye\nof others.\nDecorative art shows two well-defined tendencies: the naturalistic and\nthe geometric. It is pretty generally understood that the naturalistic tendency\nis associated with those artifacts which belong to ceremonial usage. In these\ncases the natural object has represented associated values. Therefore its\npicture becomes a symbol of certain ideas. So among the Hopi, an eagle\nrepresented on an object imparts to it the strength and swiftness of the living\nbird. It is a sort of medicine. A picture of a buffalo or a tuft of feathers\nupon the raw-hide shield of the plains Indian renders it protective.\nSo either in preserving certain myths or in imparting medicine power to\nceremonial objects, all of the emphasis is placed upon the associated ideas.\nThere is every reason for the persistence of the interest in the thing itself to\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergartei.\n\nthe exclusion of attention to the objective result as a matter of mere pleasure.\nTherefore, as one would suppose, this phase of art has contributed but little\nto the collection of well ordered decoration. As a rule it lacks the essentials\nof visual art and is chiefly literary in character.\nIts contribution has consisted in the enrichment of the naturahstic motives\nbut not in their structural adjustments. It has been an interest which has\ntended to break down rather than build up the aesthetic qualities of which we\nare speaking. The Eskimo finds relief from the tedium of the long Arctic\nnight by carving on walrus tusk the creatures of his fancy. Polar bears follow\neach other in solemn procession along the edge of his pipe stem ; the reindeer\nand dog sledge, even the great sailing craft of the trader, share in his dream\nlife. These carvings serve no practical end and express merely the joy of\nexpression. While naturahstic, that interest is not unduly emphasized and\nconsequently these are more developed aesthetically than the symbohc picture.\nThe so-called geometric pattern has been used most commonly on articles\nof daily use as utensils and clothing. Its origins are attributed to the accidents\nof play with material and to the influence of technic methods. Certain aboriginal specimens would lead one to imagine that an ecstacy of physical dehght\npossessed the potter as he scratched with stick or shell upon the plastic surface\nof the soft clay, that, surprised and pleased with the record of his play, he\nrepeated the process with the intention of again producing the result, and, by\ndegrees, that the undirected movement developed into a controlled effort to\nattain a definite standard. Other art forms show the working of the principle\nof expectancy. We find on an ax handle a painted pattern resembling the\nwrappings of leather thongs and we know that the power of habit had been at\nwork. The eye accustomed to the ax-head tied to the handle seeks something\nin the place of the discarded string. Brush or knife suppHes the lack and a\nseries of patterns are generated. Other decorative styles are due to such\naccidental effects as that of the different colored warp and woof in textiles.\nWhen I read Haddon's Evolution oj Artl hoped that I had found the key\nto the situation. It sounded so plausible that conventionaHzed decoration had\nresulted from the breaking down of the naturalistic symbol, a unit which owed\nits initial use to some peculiar set of associated values, and thru the process\nof much copying had degenerated into formal pattern. His sequence of examples from New Guinea was so convincing that my unscientific mind \"jumped\"\nat many conclusions. It seemed quite probable that one could establish in the\nchild's mind a logical basis for decoration by beginning at this same point,\nwith a symbol significant to him, and thru interest in the idea to engender\nan interest in the effect produced by its expression.\nA more extended study of the question showed that while the process\nindicated by Haddon occurred in some regions, in others the direction was\nquite the opposite. The prehistoric pottery of the southwest, for instance,\ngives every evidence of a geometric origin and there is reason to believe that\none can trace an evolution from the formal to the naturalistic.\nIn this case\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTEE\n\nART IMPULSE\n\none may suppose that the conventional form suggested a certain object, the\nresemblance became emphasized, certain meanings were read into the design,\nand by degrees it ended in a naturalistic decoration. Many questions occur\nin relation to the subject which there is no time to mention. The point of the\nf)resent discussion is— first, that decoration has sprung from not one but at least 521\nthree sources; viz., motor stimulation, technic habits, and naturalistic symbols.\nMoreover, these are correlative rather than isolated. Second, the predominance\nof certain kinds of stimulation has caused the varying vicissitudes which are\ncharacteristic of primitive art. The analysis of these vicissitudes leads to the\nconclusion that certain influences have tended to break down decorative quaUties while others have tended to build up standards of visual beauty.\nThe term standard is so hackneyed that it is a question whether ordinarily\nany one stops to consider its genealogy. Common educational practice would\nindicate a presumption that the individual is a passive recipient of influences\nbrought to bear by outside agencies, and that his standards grow by an aggregation of these more or less isolated experiences. Of course, when we stop to\nconsider the matter at all, we know that the individual is the active agent in the\nbuilding up of his own standards, and that these result from a twofold mental\nprocess — abstraction and selection. When I express a preference for the colors,\nred and green, I have gone through the process of isolating or defining certain\nsensations as red, green, yellow, blue, etc. All such experiences taken together\nmake up my idea of color. If certain of these are more agreeable than others\nthey become the criterion. If experience is enlarged by recognition of neutralized hues my standard must undergo revision. If it persists it is the result\nof a new judgment, and has survived the ordeal of wider experience. If it\nis modified it is due to the enrichment of the original idea. If to bright and\nneutral color I add the abstraction of color combination, again my standard\nwill undergo modification. Just as psychology no longer gives us an idea\nwhich is static, but something which is re-enacted constantly by the process of\nabstraction, so the standard is also a continuous act of selection. Its modifications are due to the combination of new experience with that which is\nalready familiar.\nI recently studied the Field Museum collection of pottery from prehistoric\nruins of the Southwest. Among specimens from the same ruin the decoration\nranged from crude uncontrolled markings to an application of pattern which\nmight have done credit to a modern craftsman. The difficulties of fitting the\ndecoration to a scheme of repetition on the curving form of a vase were most\ningeniously overcome. When his pattern came out unevenly the potter modified a portion of the motive and fitted it into the left-over space in a way that\nmade detection difficult. Here there was no doubt but that attention had been\ncentered upon the decorative problem of spacing. This specialized interest\nmust have resulted from a process of selection.\nWe can imagine that as the craftsman wrought at his task, no matter what\nhis chief aim might be, the technical difficulties would serve to divert his mind\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nto the mere effectiveness of the result. After the task was completed he would\nbe apt to consider it somewhat critically. Certain effects would please him\nmore than others. He would also compare his own with his neighbor's work,\nand in such critical review would build up a notion of what he would produce\nwhen he made another. In the course of events those effects which seemed\ndesirable would persist and become more emphasized, while the incentive\nwhich originated the pattern would probably be entirely forgotten.\nAs the primitive mind seems to tend to repeat itself this process of selection\nmust have been very slow. New ideas and variations were probably due to\naccidents and to the restrictions and exigencies of material rather than to direct\ninvention.\nThe various materials used in primitive culture, clay, textiles, wood, metal,\nhave furnished certain common aesthetic values, but each has also made a\ncontribution which the others did not afford.\nRepetition of any single unit as a line, dot, etc., is largely motor. Its\nmany physical forms, idle drumming with fingers and feet, the dance, repetition of rhyming sounds, all coexist with its graphic expression. It is the most\nnaive manifestation of the rhythmic impulse and must have been about the\nfirst occurrence of visual order. The plastic quahty of clay afforded the best\nopportunity for the free play of this motor activity and was invaluable, therefore, as a starting-point in the aesthetic development of the race. The same\nquality, however, admitted the indulgence in unorganized and barbaric realism.\nNot so with textiles. No matter how crude the realistic unit, it was necessarily limited by the threads of warp and woof which caused it to assume a\ncertain relationship to the entire fabric. Modifications due to translating\ncurves into straight lines also ensued. The necessity of counting threads led\nto some scheme of repetition and the resultant was not so much a picture of a\nthing as a well-ordered pattern built on the lines of a natural object. We see\nthat these woven patterns exerted a reflex influence on other crafts and became\nperhaps the important factor in building up a notion of formal and geometric\ndecoration.\nThe difficulties of exact copying in wood and metal have tended to the\nproduction of a series of generalized shapes and consequently have served to\neliminate trivialities of outline. Structurally, clay, metal, and wood represent\na progression in the evolution of qualities which reach their climax in the\ndevelopment of construction that is architectonic. When this high-water mark\nof aesthetic consciousness is reached by the race, or an individual, we may\nassume that it has passed the chrysalis stage and has entered upon a more\ncomplete exercise of its manifold social functions.\nTo summarize the conclusions, we state, as our thesis, that art must function\nin the life of the child as it has in the race. That the ultimate purpose of such\nfunctioning is aesthetic development. The consciousness of the child is\ncomplex and undifferentiated, and among equally undeveloped races art was\nbound up in the central social activities resulting from a complexity of motives.\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN THE KINDERGARTEN\n\n523\n\nThat aesthetic development began in the accidental response to this complex\nstimulus and progressed to the point of conscious conformity to principles.\nThat the principle of the survival of the fittest and the restraining and modifying influences of material served to develop the standards of visual order.\nTo apply this to our educational problem we would say that if we gain this\nnormal functioning in the life of the child, the things which he makes, the\ndecorative and pictorial activities must belong to him. They must emanate\nfrom his own center of interest. They must respond to the same rather complex stimulation. That is, they must give him a chance to scribble because\nhe does like to make marks. They must give him a chance to fit out a play\nhouse because he will clothe it with reality. They must give him a chance to\nmake things just because they are pretty. For this child of a modern hybrid\ncivilization will be stirred not by some one but by each and all of these impulses.\nWe are not presenting any culture-epoch theory. We do not advocate the\nnecessity of prolonging or encouraging the state of savagery. Time is too\nshort for such indulgence, and so, having determined the starting-point, it\ncertainly is the duty of the educator to take the shortest road to complete\ncontrol. This necessitates the most economical organization of those influences which have developed social standards — opportunities for first-hand\nexperiments, and manipulation of real and typical materials, as clay, textiles,\nand wood.\nThe more specialized interest in the aesthetic elements of graphic expression will emerge slowly. We shall not expect to predict with any certainty\nthe exact time when differentiation will be complete. Signs of the interest\nmultiply more rapidly after the tenth year, yet the freshman high-school boy\nsays \"What is the use ?\"\nMay I say in closing that it is my hope that this hasty sketch of so large a\nsubject may serve to indicate a valuable field of study ? It is a study which\nwould make teachers more sensitive to the signs of individual bias. It would\ngive standards for a more accurate valuation of children's work. It would\nmake it obvious that a course of art instruction should be elastic enough to\nadmit of adjustments. That a deeper insight into the artistic experiences of\nany people would tend to do away with the evils of deadening systems I am\nconfident.\n\nDRAWING\nMRS. ALICE\n\nH. PUTNAM,\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nOF CHICAGO\n\nFROEBEL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBefore considering the child's kindergarten drawing, I would like to speak\nfor a few moments of that which has preceded the kindergarten stage, and\nalso we should consider that which is to follow, for the isolation of the work of\nany one period is likely to result in a misinterpretation of it.\nIn a very little child's first delight in marking on any surface — ^paper,\nboard, damp sand or clay — the fact that he has power to change the appearance\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nof it— that he is doing something, appears a sufficient end in itself. But\nsoon thru his movements, indefinite tho they are, there comes a something\nwhich has a meaning for him, and he turns to mother — or the bystander —\nfor the sympathy and appreciation of his effort. It is thru her response that\nhis ''muscle-minded scribbles\" come to have a clearer meaning for himself.\nDr. Dewey has given this thot in his Pedagogical Creed when he says:\n\"It is thru the mother's response made to the child's instructive babblings,\nthat the child comes to know what those babblings mean. They are transformed bythe mother into articulate language, and thus the child is introduced into the consolidated wealth of ideas and emotions which are summed\nup in language.\"\nAll thru Froebel's Mother-Play Book runs the same idea; it pervades every\nactivity which interests the child, and it is not too much to say that thru a\nsimilar response we find one of the means by which interest in the graphic arts\nis fostered.\nIn passing to the thought of drawing in the kindergarten, I again quote Dr.\nDewey: \"Every mode of expression, no matter how mechanical, no matter\nhow fantastic, no matter how impressionistic, has the two sides of idea and\ntechnique.\" Long, long before a child has any notion of technique, he revels\nin the use of the pencil to express an idea. At first it is vague, but it gains\nstrength thru the act of giving form to it. Each object is isolated; but little by\nlittle they begin to appear in relation to each other — and a story, an organized\nthought, runs thru it all — and lo ! he has \"an illustrated drawing.\" Mr. Bailey\nsays of this type of drawing that \"it opens the realm of pictorial art to the\nyoung child more directly than any other type of drawing yet discovered.\"\nIt is closely allied to the primitive picture-writing, in that it is mainly used to\ngive information concerning experiences w^hich have interested the child, and\nthe pleasure he gets from it is not exactly aesthetic pleasure. I well remember\nthat when the drawing of my own children seemed to them complete, they\nwere generally inclosed by a frame — and this frame was highly decorated with\nmarvelous scallops around the edge, numerous dots within the inclosing bands,\netc. — and here, I think was the first sign of a desire for beauty in their productions— something to please the eye, as well as the mind. A child will often take\na stick and make holes at regular distances in damp sand or soft clay; when\nthat happens, I would suggest to him that he lay the stick lengthwise above\nand below the holes — see if it doesn't look prettier. I cannot agree with\nmany of my co-workers who think that a child doesn't care for symmetrical\narrangements. Again and again a mere toddling baby will push the chairs\nback against the wall and, if one is out of line, will straighten it and express\ndelight. True it is mainly the activity which is interesting — but the fact of\narrangement is there, and we can nourish it by giving things and conditions\nfor this instinct to work on, or let it starve itself out. It is just here that the\nsticks and twigs of the kindergarten are so suggestive that I think their use\nshould be encouraged.\nWhen the child is in this stage or state is the time for\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nIB E KINDERGARTEN\n\n.\n\n525\n\nmany good outline pictures. Stencils too, should be used more in the kindergarten than I think they are commonly used. The little old-fashioned transparent slate was always a delightful toy in my family, and I have used it not\na little in the kindergarten. The child in tracing the pictures gets the feeling\nof the movement and all unconsciously the direction and relation of lines\ncomes as a fact — as a part of the wholeness of the picture. The main good\nof this, at this stage, is the way it reacts on the child's imagery, but as he goes\non he finds a bit of technique a help. What to draw is not now the only\nquestion, but how to draw is beginning to be of some concern to him.\nI used to use rightly proportioned sticks and tell the children how to make\nthe skeleton figure of a boy — I could never succeed with animals, alas ! and then\nthey would change the attitude themselves — make the fellow run, kneel, sit\ndown, etc. It was always great fun, as much to me as to the kindergarten\nchildren. Later when these were wanted for the board, the children would\nmeasure the sticks, and the lines would appear in very good proportion. The\nchildren came in time to want to make theii; drawings mean something to\nother folks as well as themselves. While they have much time for evolving\ntheir pictures and designs from the depths of their own consciousness, it is\ngood to direct their attention to what others have done. I'm not one bit\nafraid even to dictate an occasional good design now and then and let it go\ninto their scrapbook — keeping one of these for their original designs, one for\nthose they find elsewhere.\nI cannot believe Froebel's drawing is good for children at this stage, tho I\nbelieve it has a place in the plan later on. Just as a good reading teacher\nwould know when and where she might give a child a real drill in phonics,\napart from the reading in which the child gets and gives thought, so I believe a\nchild likes a bit of technique when the right time comes. I do not think life is\nlong enough, however, to go thru this network drawing as drawing — but for\nmathematics. I believe there is a great deal that can be gotten from it, but\nnot for the kindergarten stage.\nAnd now, what of the period after the kindergarten — how can we prepare\nthe children for that ? Mr. Bailey's definition of drawing as given in the\nSchool Arts Book for June is very serious, and ought to be considered. He\nsays it is the \"putting down with the pencil point the thoughtful, sincere, truthful\nfacts of form.\" We may not be altogether satisfied with the statement, but\nit is surely to be considered most carefully. But has the kindergarten everything to do with or for such a standard ? If so, what is our relation to it ?\n\"Thought,\" \"sincerity,\" \"truth,\" are not the product of spontaneous generation, any more than any material thing — but the germs of these living principles\nmay develop if we provide a right \"culture medium\" — as the bacteriologist\nwould call it. This the kindergarten may furnish.\nThru the training of the senses, \"the doors,\" as Froebel calls them, \"which\nswing two ways, outward to nature, inward to the soul,\" the child begins his\nthinking. In all of his handwork this thought is to be wrought out in all sincerity\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "5^6\n\nNA210NAL\n\nEDVCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergartt-n\n\nand truth. This is to be the daily work of the little child. That which comes to\nhim thru the senses is not even with us in the kindergarten, to. stop with mere\npresent delight, but is to be used for larger and larger ends — ^growing gradually\ninto a purer, wiser understanding of the meaning and mission of beauty.\nOne thing more : There has been a great deal of work done in the kindergarten under the banner of spontaneity and freedom which is positively, hideously ugly. Crude, a child's work may be — should be — but I do not believe\nit need be ugly. I do not believe even a child should continually violate the\ncanons of art — if that happens, it is because either the conditions or the medium\nof expression or the general influence of the teacher have not worked together —\nbut as has been well said: \"The child's work at every step should help him\nto the best utterance of himself, to sincerity, genuineness, unconsciousness,\nand power.\"\nTHE\nMAE\n\nB. HIGGONS,\n\nUSE AND\n\nABUSE\n\nKINDERGARTNER,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nOF DESIGN\nSCHOOL\n\nNO.\n\n68, NEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nIn discussing the use and abuse of design in the kindergarten, it may be\nwell to note that there are two phases of the subject, so distinct as to be quite\nseparate.\nFirst, there are those productions called, in the parlance of the kindergarten, beauty-forms or forms of symmetry. These are usually made with\nthe blocks, tablets, rings, and parquetry papers, or, less frequently nowadays,\nwith the Froebel system of paper-cutting. This is what the word design means\nto many kindergartners. To others, however, the word has a far different\nmeaning. It means that form of artistic expression which is known as design\nby an artist or an art-teacher; it means the arrangement of units under the\nlaws of repetition, balance, and harmony; it means the production of borders,\nornaments, and sketches calculated to decorate definite objects; it means the\nappreciation of the beautiful, begun in the kindergarten and carried on thruout\nlife. The first use of the term design is peculiar to the kindergarten, the\nsecond is familiar in all grades of the school and indeed, in life in general.\nThe chief fault with the formal design of the kindergarten is that Froebel's\ntendency toward over-emphasis of geometry has been followed, while his\nplayful spirit has been forgotten by many.\nFroebel gave as one of the uses of the gifts the production of symmetrical\nfigures which he called beauty-forms. We find, however, that in his description these beauty-forms are translated in terms of life-forms, for he says of a\nfigure, ''It appears to us something, but we do not know what is formed by it;\nwe call it a picture, and it will look now like a flower, now like a star.\" Also\nlater, in describing the different moves in a sequence, he speaks in terms of\nlife-activity saying, \"Come child! we will dance the cubes,\" and he gives\nlittle rhymes for the child to sing for the dancing. Surely this playful changing of shapes is very different from the dictation of sequences of symmetrical\nforms which one sees in many modern kindergartens.\nContrast the. usual\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dei>artnientJ\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nAND\n\nABUSE^OE\n\nDESIGN\n\n527\n\nmethod of presenting forms of symmetry with what Froebel says of this kind\nof work. He says, ''How shall these representations of forms of beauty be\ncarried on with the children ? In the same way as mothers play with their\nchildren, of their own accord and guided by motherly love. Some particular\nobject which has a symmetric form has been represented by the mother or\nthe child or by both together. Thru its symmetry it captivates for an instant the child's attention. The watchful mother perceives the fascination\nand seeks to heighten and retain it through words spoken or sung.\"\nNotice the life-names in the rhymes he gives:\nThis is a very pretty play\nAll our blocks in a wreath to lay.\nNow all our blocks to the middle go\nAnd clearly a beautiful star they show.\nWhen the flowers and circles meet\nThen we look like flowers sweet.\n\nIt is difficult to see how a kindergartner, who tries to follow Froebel to the\nletter, can read these words and still continue to dictate to children sequences\nof forms which have no meaning whatever to the child. What is a sequence\nto the adult mind may not be to the child's mind because he does not see the\nunderlying philosophy.\nRecently, as a matter of observation and experiment, I dictated a long\nseries of forms with blocks. The children obediently made form after form\nwith little apparent joy. Finally, I worked into a more divergent figure which\nI thought too scattered to be seen as a whole by the children. I was surprised\nat the spontaneous burst of admiration with which it was greeted. \"Ah!\nisn't that pretty ?\" \"That's pretty,\" and \"It's a star,\" came in a chorus from\nchildren who had been almost silent up to that point. To my mind, this was\nan indication that each form is a separate thing to the child to be approved or\nnot on its own individual merits, not as part of a larger whole.\nThe use of a sequence may be legitimate as a means to an end but it is\ncertainly not an end in itself. Easy forms must precede the more difficult\nones but each one must have a meaning of its own. I do not believe that\nsequence work can be made to any extent the outcome of the child's own\nthought, and I do believe that Froebel was right when he said, \"All that does\nnot grow out of one's own inner being, all that is not one's own original feeling\nor thought, or at least awakens that, oppresses and defaces the individuahty of\nman instead of calling it forth.\" I believe that, to be educative, design must\nbecome the working out of a problem. The child must see the need for it and\nmust think out the best way to fill that need. To be sure, an able teacher can\nmake almost any work educative by the way in which she presents it, but, by\nthe same power, she can make a thing which is inherently 'interesting that\nmuch more educative.\nWhat is true of method is true also jof materials. Why should we confine\nourselves to blocks, tablets, rings, and parquetry papers, when there are so\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nED U CAT\n\nION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nmany leaves, grasses, shells, nuts, etc., that might serve the same purpose and\nthat appeal so strongly to the child? Primary education has long since discarded the tyji^e forms for drawing and other work and has taken nature\nmaterial instead. The kindergarten would only be carrying out FoebePs\nsuggestion if it did the same. Perhaps by studying primary methods the\nkindergartner might get a better perspective of the child's life, and so help him\nrealize his highest possibilities in each stage of his development.\nTurning now to the other phase of the topic: What are the reasons for\nteaching art in the kindergarten ? To answer this question we must first\nanswer the larger question: ''Why do we teach anything ? What is the aim of\neducation ?\" Looking at the many and varied answers to this question, we\nfind that right living and adjustment to environment, natural, human and\nspiritual, is the general ideal sought. If this is the aim of education, it must\nalso be of every branch of education. We must teach art not because it may\ntrain a few possible artists but because it affords an experience which will\nbroaden life.\nIf we look at education from the cultural standpoint, we find that the study\nof artistic expression gives the aesthetic and artistic development which\nincreases a hundred fold the richness of life through the power of appreciation\nof the beautiful. If we look at it from the utilitarian standpoint, we find that\nthe study of artistic expression gives the means for gaining control of the\nmental image and trains the imagination. Imagination is at the foundation\nof all human activity. The power of imagining things as they are and as they\nwould be in different combinations lies at the very root of production and\ninvention, and makes progress possible. Imagination creates the sympathy\nwhich governs our relation to those around us. I have heard it said that lack\nof the picture-making faculty is responsible for most ot the criminals of the\nworld; that a person who could imagine beforehand all the effects of an act\nwould avoid crime. If the study of art will train the imagination and help men\nto live better lives, it is well worth while. Design is a form of art which may\nbe systematically studied by even a young child. It inculcates a love of order\nwhich is the basis of righteousness. Denman Ross says there is more ethical\nvalue in manual training than in the study of a dozen sciences.\nFor the child of kindergarten age the first of the laws of design is the allimportant one. Balance and harmony are too subtle to appeal to him, but repetition or rhythm is the response to a native instinct. Life itself is essentially\nrhythmical. Every bodily and every mental process shows this. Respiration,\nheart-beat, and the processes of waste and repair are the constant accompaniment of life and if their rhythm be disturbed, pain is the result. Day and\nnight with their alternation of activity and rest have a definite influence over\nthe mind. We might multiply examples by showing how the patter of the raindrops, the ceaseless ebb and flow of the ocean, the growth and decay of plant\nlife, the change of season, and many other processes of nature are a part of\nlife and have affected man thruout the ages.\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "ix^partmentl\n\nI\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nAND\n\nABUSE\n\nOF\n\nDESIGN\n\n529\n\nIt is perfectly natural that children should find satisfaction in rhythmical\nactivities and forms. Design is rhythm applied to the picturing activity.\nGroos in his Play of Man states that the pleasure which is derived from\nform is primordial and universal, and he goes on to trace the development of\ndesign in the earliest forms of art. In so far as the Recapitulation Theory is\napplicable, we may gain some knowledge of the child's instinctive attitude\nfrom the study of primitive life. In the early development of the arts, man\ndecorated his person, his pottery, and his baskets with representations of the\nactivities of nature. A series of vertical lines represented the fall of rain, a\nbroken line stood for lightning. These show simple repetition tho the\nlatter begins to have in it the elements of contrast and alternation shown again\nin the compound curve for waves, and the alternation of sun and star indicating\nday and night. As the race progressed there came to be a fuller appreciation\nof design and mere repetition was supplemented by symmetrical and bisymmetrical forms arranged with reference to balance and harmony and studied as\nto proportion, relation to background, and appropriateness to the subject\ndecorated.\nIn the kindergarten, we naturally begin with simple repetitions and alternations which the child happens upon in his play. In drawing, painting, and\nother occupations, the repetition of a unit may be the result of simple efforts\nof control. We may wish to give the child an opportunity to experience the\nactivity of using a brush and he may just daub, daub, daub, and if by chance,\non holding it off, he discovers a system of arrangement, he will try to reproduce\nit or will vary it for the satisfaction of this instinct. Simple arrangements in\nstringing or pasting have a wonderful charm for the child. Even grown\npeople find a certain fascination in stringing beads and similar activities.\nAfter such work involving only repetition more purposeful design may be\nintroduced and the child may compare different pieces of work and learn\nthat beauty depends upon spacing, balance, and tone as well as upon repetition\nand alternation.\nEvery design which a child makes should have some excuse for being;\nthat is, it should be made to suit some definite purpose. It must not be a\nborder or ornament such as we use on objects but it must actually decorate the\nobject itself. The crafts are the natural basis for design. Pottery, basketryweaving, bookbinding, and wood- and metal-working supply the productions\nwhich call for decoration and in a school where these industries are taught,\nmost of the design work would originate in this way. But what about schools\nwhere there are no facilities for teaching these crafts ? Must design be imposed\nupon the children according to the teacher's ideas ? By no means ! Most of the\nfailures in the teaching of design result from this\" very fault. The object to\nbe decorated and the need for the design do not grow out of the life of the\nchildren and consequently interest is lacking. Subject-matter and material\nshould be in a large degree the outgrowth of the environment and should\ndiffer in different localities.\nFor instance, with children whose homes and\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCA2UON\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\n530\nschoolroom were destitute of curtains, we would not attempt to make a border\nfor a curtain. Similarly, we would not lead children who had never seen a\nrabbit to use this form in decoration. Of course, in both of these cases the\nteacher might provide the conditions to make the lesson of vital interest. If\na window or a closet needs a curtain, nothing could be a better excuse for a\nstudy of design than the making and decorating of siich a curtain; and if a\nrabbit visit the kindergarten or the children be taken to see one, it would be\nvery natural to use that as a unit of design. Lacking these incentives, however,\n\nthere are always available articles made of clay, wall-paper, carpets, and\ncurtains for the doll's house, borders for the blackboard, book-covers, blotters,\ncalendar-cards, wall-pockets, picture frames, valentines. May-baskets and\nboxes, and other construction work.\nWhen the object to be decorated has been chosen, the kind of a design to be\nused becomes the problem. Dr. Haney says, \"A design which is to be applied\nmust primarily consider both the purpose of its application and the nature of\nthe form it is to decorate. The first question must aways be : Is the problem\na proper one? Should this form be decorated; and if it should, what shall be\nthe nature of the decoration ?\"\nThese questions should be answered by the children after sufficient study\nof good examples. Classic decoration, as well as artistic designs found in the\nenvironment, should be presented in order to give the children a wide range of\nvisual material to influence them in the selection of designs for their work.\nFriezes for the room, made by the combined efforts of the class, are very\ngood. For these, the units should be objects of interest, appropriate to the\nline of thought for the season or the day. More or less natural outlines should\nbe used, as conventionalizations come at a later period. At Thanksgiving a\nfrieze may be made by alternating corn-stalks and pumpkins on a background ofsoft brown. At Christmas the units may be a Christmas tree and a\nSanta Claus cut from crepe-paper decorations. In March a windmill and a\nboat have been used effectively. At Easter a chicken and an egg may be\nused and later in the spring, flowers or animals, birds or insects.\nI leave it to you to decide which of the two phases of design is more educative and which you will use. At the same time, I would remind each one that\nwe are not true disciples of Froebel unless we present to the children that\nwhich serves to awaken self-activity in the broadest sense. Whatever the\nform of the work it must be self-expression. What they do is far more important than what they make.\nSUMMARY\n\nThere are two distinct phases of design: (i) making symmetrical figures,\nborders, etc., with the traditional kindergarten material; (2) decorating definite\nobjects with designs studied from the standpoint of art.\nThe first form of design was described by Froebel, but it seems that his\nspirit has not been imitated by those who use forms of symmetry in uninterest-\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "I)ei>artmentl\n\nMOTIVE\n\nAND\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN PRIMARY\n\nART\n\nWORK\n\n531\n\ning sequences. These are not educative when given in the usual way. Children do not see sequences as adults do because they cannot understand the\nunderlying philosophy.\nThe second phase of design may be made the outgrowth of the children's\nown experiences and, therefore, allows great opportunity for development.\nWe teach art, as we teach all branches, to broaden the children's experience\nand help them to live. Art trains the imagination — imagination is the basis\nof all human activity.\nDesign should teach the laws of repetition, balance, and harmony. Repetition isnatural to the youngest children because rhythm is fundamental to life.\nBalance and harmony can be taught in the grades better than in the kindergarten.\nThe crafts are the natural initiative for design. Where these are not\ntaught objects made by the children should be decorated or friezes and borders\nshould be made for the room, curtains, etc.\nWhatever the form of the work, it must be self-expression. It is the process,\nnot the product, that counts.\n\nMOTIVE\nBEATRICE\n\nWELLER,\n\nAND\n\nMETHOD\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nIN PRIMARY\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nAND\n\nART WORK\n\nSUPERVISOR,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN. Y.\n\nThe object of all our thought is the child. In its broadest interpretation, the\naim of our educational system today is to develop the head, the heart, and the\nhand — that trinity of the individual — symmetrically, giv^ing him a better\nappreciation of right living and happiness, and a knowledge of how to get the\ngreatest measure of enjoyment out of life in this beautiful world of ours.\nWe want to make the child intrusted to our care self-helpful, and possessing\npower of initiative, preparing him for his life's work, giving him the ability to\nappreciate, the power to do, intensifying high ideals, and increasing his efficiency so that he shall be of the greatest service to society.\nIdeals in education are rapidly changing. In the old idea individualism\nwas an unknown quantity. The new scientific spirit has completely revolutionized many departments of our education, and is rapidly invading others.\nCharacter building is the first aim in the new education, and in our endeavor\nto erect a perfect structure, we seek to cultivate a love of the beautiful in music,\nliterature, art, and nature. This love of the beautiful and for it, as an abiding\nelement is, perhaps, second only to religion, as a protection against gross living.\nThe school should be a part of life, not merely a preparation for life.\nThe conditions of our environment have undergone such rapid changes that\nour process of reaching the ideal in education must undergo radical changes\nalso. Longer school hours, different home and neighborhood environments\nand occupations demand a change in curriculum, if we wish to give a child the\nsame insight, skill, and independenee which marked our men of action in the\npast. We must also teach them the doctrine of responsibility as well as\ngive them the power to do.\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nOne of the greatest civic needs today is training for better citizenship and\ntruer patriotism if we hope to maintain the original standard of a republic.\nThe school should be the most potent influence for good, clean, honest,\nconscientious, interested citizenship. Ruskin sounded the keynote of warning in these words:\nWe are always, in these days, endeavoring to separate intellect and manual labor, we\nwant one man to be always thinking and the other to be always working, and we call one a\ngentleman and the other an operative; whereas the working man ought often to be thinking, and the thinker often to be working, and both should be gentlemen in the best sense.\nAs it is, we make both ungentle, the one envying, the other despising his brother; and the\nmass of society is made up of morbid thinkers and miserable workers.\n\nThe greatest institution in the world today is still the home, despite what\nsome skeptics say and write regarding the lack of home influences in our\ncongested districts like those of New York City. The influence of the home\nis felt the earliest, the longest, and the strongest. A most important thing\nin education, then, such being the case, is any subject which will enable the\ncaretaker to make that home more attractive. Beauty is always uplifting.\nWe hear a great deal today about being in harmony with our surroundings,\nwe admire a well-balanced individual, and we all appreciate the rhythm of\nmotion. These three things, balance, rhythm, and harmony, are the qualities\nwhich everything must possess to be beautiful. They are the foundations\nof the artistic and this foundation is to be laid in drawing ( ourses of our schools.\nI. There are but four ways of giving our thoughts to others : language, written\nor spoken, number, music, and drawing. Where adults express themselves\nalmost wholly by spoken or written words, the child, as the savages, attempts\nto express himself by pictures as well. With the child this expression by\npicture drawing is a real pleasure, a form of play. Froebel first called our\nattention to the fact that play was a great factor in the child's development.\nThe desire for self-expression in music and art is instinctive. In the early\nyears of a child's life he finds it necessary to acquire his knowledge by sight\nperhaps, more than hearing, and since his vocabulary is Hmited he turns to\ndrawing, appealing to the sight of others as the easiest means of self-expression.\nII. In the second place we all realize that ''Knowing is not a complete\nprocess until it terminates in the act of doing.\" The ideomotor activity — the\nco-operating of a thought with its muscular expressing — is one of the sore needs\nof the present-day education. It is to fill this need for the right directing of\nmotor activity and to train the child to a greater degree of an interest in and\nknowledge of his surroundings, based upon an instinctive desire, that drawing\nis recognized as an essential and not as a fad in our public schools.\nThe feehng that drawing is still a fad and will eventually be relegated to\nbecome a companion with other fads, still exists in certain localities, probably\nbecause it was not included in the ancient venerable, and, so far as they went,\neminently essential three R's, tho its educational value is almost universally\nconceded.\nIt is connected with the arts and trades much more closely than\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMOTIVE\n\nAND\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN PRIMARY\n\nART\n\nWORK\n\n533\n\nis generally recognized. There is hardly a profession in which it is not used\ndirectly or indirectly, either in the preparation for or in the profession itself.\nDoctors, manufacturers, architects, constructors, engineers of all kinds, merchants, journalists, all must plan out their ideas on paper first.\nIf this fact were universally recognized the subject would receive a wonderful impetus and parents would demand and insist that a thoro course should\nbe taught their children. All opposition to the school art movement would\ndisappear and it would be but a few years comparatively before its beneficial\nresults would everywhere be felt.\nAs a vehicle of expression 'tis most potent. It gives the individual another\navenue, and a very direct and concise one, by which he may give his thoughts\nand emotions to the outside world. Dickens — that monarch in the art of word\npictures — takes three pages of closely printed matter to tell how a cartwheel\ncame off. A bright boy can tell the same thing on one sheet of paper, with a\ndozen strokes of the pencil, and be as well or better understood. The picture\nis a language common to all classes of society and to all nationalities. In the\ndark ages, they used this means of expression to educate the mass of the people\nin religious belief. At the present day, another style of picture, the cartoon,\nis used to call attention to some vital issue of national or local importance.\nWe have noticed that the first barrier to the successful presentation of\ndrawing is the idea that drawing is a fad. The second great barrier is lack of\npreparation and knowledge of the subject on the part of the grade teacher.\nIn many cases, she received no early training in drawing, and during her special\npreparation, gave so short a time to this branch that she failed to get any knowledge of the science of it. The word talent is one that is very much overworked.\nIt is more or less indefinite in its meaning, but all the people who have done\nthings in this world of ours are supposed to possess it in large quantities.\nThomas Edison, the wizard of Menlo Park, was once asked what he considered\nthe secret of his genius. ''Genius, my friend,\" repHed the great inventor, '*is\none-tenth inspiration and nine-tenths perspiration.\" ''I cannot draw; I have\nno talent,\" is a common cry of the grade teacher. ''I don't think my child\ncan draw ; he has no gift for it,\" is the comment often made by the uninformed\nparent. And it is very diflacult to convince a person with such an idea that\nit does not require talent to learn to draw, that anyone can learn the principles\nwhich underlie all art work, just as easily as he can master the principles of\nmathematics. All he needs is the willingness to try. Drawing is a science\nand should be taught as such. It consists of principles and causal relations, all\nof which may be taught and learned as easily as the principles of mathematics.\nThe subject comes under three heads: First, representation, the reproducing on\npaper of our surroundings; second, construction, the art of making; and\nthird, design, the art of decoration. The principles of the first are four in\nnumber — ^position, proportion, direction, and perspective. Each of these in\nturn have subdivisions. Position teaches the relation of one object to another\nobject, as placing one tree at the right of another.\nProportion teaches the\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nrelative size of one object to another, or of one part as to another part, as the\ncomparative size of the windows to the side of the house, or the relation of\nthe height to the width of an object. Direction teaches what hnes are used\nto represent certain surfaces, as a road winding up a hillside, and perspective\nteaches one to reproduce the third dimension, thickness, on a flat surface —\nas looking down a village street.\nAll this can be taught or learned as easily as the rule of three, and it really\nforms a very much more interesting lesson. A little child has absolute faith\nin his power to do, and perfect willingness to try to draw anything proposed,\nso long as the object or scene is one which appeals to his imagination. He\nis not abashed if the result does not rival a masterpiece in its beauty. His\nIndians, soldiers, autos, and trains are to him of the greatest interest because\nthat is the way his imagination pictures them to him, and he considers one\nstupid when he fails to recognize that the lot of lines he tenders for inspection\nis his favorite horse or some much-loved member of the family.\nThere is not the timidity and fear to overcome, which prove such a stumbling block in the path of the older ones, when they first try to reproduce something on paper.\nSo far as is within her power, let the teacher nurture that unabashed\nwillingness, encouraging each effort, praising the good parts, for there is always\nsomething good when the effort has been there; suggesting another look to\nmake the mental image more vivid and striving to keep off the evil day when\nthe child shall awaken in self -consciousness to defects, and lose the desire for\nthat form of self-expression.\nEnergy indirected has a tendency toward the destructive side. Energy\nwhen directed toward constructive and creative work will prove a blessing to the\nindividual and his associates, and it is our business as teachers to direct that\nenergy so that it will prove a blessing. For there is just so much vital force\nwhich seeks an outlet and, being used in the right direction, the destructive\ntendencies will disappear because of disuse.\nNo great desires have ever been givenwith the thought that they be leftfallow.\nThey were given by the Giver of all, for some specific purpose. God had\nsome definite design when he gave the love of picture-making to the little\nchild. A mother once gave this thought — *' A thing that the child loves to do so\nwell must have some definite bearing upon its culture and judgment.\"\nTaught in a practical manner as a science, drawing can be mastered by\neveryone. It develops the aesthetic qualities in our natures and makes us\nmore keenly alive to the beauties of our surroundings. It is another vehicle of\nexpression. It lays the foundation for many of the professions which the\nchild may wish to enter in later life. Of all the reasons why drawing should be\ntaught to children, however, I am inclined to put into most prominence this\none, the child loves the work. To reproduce all the things he loves gives him\nthe keenest interest as well as a delightful channel whereby he may use his\nmind and at the same time give play to his desire for muscular activity.\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nMOTIVE\n\nAND\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN PRIMARY\n\nART\n\nWORK\n\n535\n\nThe result of careful training in this branch is '* self-reliance, honesty,\naccuracy, perseverance; it invests dull subjects with new life, develops wholesome respect for labor, and the laboring classes; it keeps the boys longer in\nschool; it trains the mind to think, the eye to see, the hand to do, and it gives\nsystematic drill to the child's motor activities whereby he gains complete control\nof his powers.\"\nDISCUSSION\nElizabeth Harrison, Chicago Kindergarten College. — It is interesting to note that\nthe authorities on art education in their threefold classification of \"representative,\" \"constructive,\" and \"ascetic\" training agree with the kindergarten division of handwork into\n\"life-form,\" \"forms of knowledge,\" and \"forms of beauty.\" We are urged so much\nnowadays to connect all school activities with life that some kindergartners have dropped\nall work with forms of symmetry or \"beauty-forms,\" forgetting, it seems to me, that a\nlove of beauty ought to be a part of all lives. For deep down in every heart is a hunger\nfor it, and a love of it means much to any life. The danger that today threatens the kindergarten isthat it may be turned into a preliminary training-post for utilitarian purposes,\nand all poetry and beauty be denied the young soul. We talk of the enormous importance\nof training for social service. Has not the life that loves and knows how to create beauty\nan added power for social service ? Therefore let us continue to give to young children\nexperiences in creating \"repetition, balance, and harmony\" in a simple childish way, as\nwell as experiences in creating utilitarian objects.\nA second point which interested me was the strong plea made for bringing the child\ninto contact with art beyond his own simple efforts. If pure air invigorates his physical\nbody and noble conduct inspires him with higher ideals, surely artistic surroundings\nmust feed his love of beauty and harmony. And all that tends toward development of\nbeauty and harmony rather than ugliness and discord helps to elevate life and advance it\ntoward its spiritual goal,\nW. N. Hailmann, Interlaken School, La Porte, Ind., was called upon to say a few\nwords. He approved the general tendency of the papers, insofar as they emphasized the\npre-eminent importance of self-expression on the children's part as contrasted with the\nlogical requirements of the occupation. He expressed great reverence for the \"divine\ncrudeness\" of the children's work and deplored the still persistent efi\"orts of teachers to\nsuppress the latent possibilities of which it gave evidence, by precocious forcing of the\nteachers' view upon the child.\nIn discussing certain fundamental principles on which the solution of the problems\ninvolved rests, he would substitute for the conventional trinity of head, heart, and hand,\nwhat he called the \"quinity\" of the exploring hand, the interpreting head, the appreciating\nand desiring heart, the planning or directing head, and the achieving hand. In this quinity\nhe assigned to play a place in its first half; to drawing and art, in the second half.\nHe warned the kindergarten against infringing in its educational work too extensively\nupon the province of the primary or elementary school. In the development of the individuality that comes to the family, he would assign to the kindergarten predominantly the\ntask of socializing this individuality and to spare it the pressure of the conventionalizing\nelementary school.\nIn conclusion he referred to a maxim of Goethe's as a key of the situation in the\ngrowth of the child's purposes or needs which, he held, the kindergarten, would do well to\nadopt and which he quoted as demanding that in his development the child should or does\npass \"from the useful, thru the true, to the beautiful.\"\nGeorge W. Eggers, head of Department of Graphic Arts, Normal School, Chicago.\n' — It seems futile for a mere art teacher to attempt to add anything to what our speakers of\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe morning, with their richness of experience with the tiniest of children — the real artists\n— have so beautifully said.\nThere is one impression, which above all others, I always carry away from a gathering\nwhere many kindergartners are present, and of which I have often desired to speak to them.\nIt is that sense of repose — that sense of having in some way solved the problems of life that\nvex the rest of us, and of having achieved thereby a sort of poise or spirit of quiet, a mood\nwhich even communicates itself to the fortunate Philistines who now and then find themselves within the kindergarten camp.\nIt is the kindergartner who has brought the more reposeful, more wholesome spirit\ninto education, and we cannot help feeling that in imparting it to the children under her\ncare she has cultivated in herself a greater abundance of the same.\nTwo or three years ago I heard Dr. Hillis define art as \"the bodying forth of an inward\nsoundness.\" This definition, quaint as it may seem at first, will bear deep analysis. To\nproduce great art, individuals, as well as nations, must possess within themselves first of all\nthis \"inward soundness.\"\nI beUeve that the atmosphere or spirit which we feel, whether we visit the kindergarten class or the gathering of kindergarten teachers, this wholesome outlook on the\ngarden of life, which I have mentioned before, I believe this to be the manifestation of\nthat \"inward soundness,\" and further I believe that if the vital and characterizing ideals\nof the kindergarten were to be carried up even more freely than they now are thru the\ngrades, and spread out into our grown-up world, and into the life of the nation itself, we\nwould need feel no concern for the future of that national art of which art teachers dream\n— for it would be as natural a reality as the blossoming of the flower in its season upon the\nplant — the resistless expression of the nation's inward soundness.\nCONSERVATIVE\nPATTY\n\nS.\n\nHILL,\n\nAND\n\nTEACHERS\n\nPROGRESSIVE\nEDUCATION\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.\n\nY.\n\n[Outline]\n1. The kindergarten represents a body of teachers who are studying, progressing, and\ngrowing. Kindergartners are well represented in universities and university extension\ncourses, studying philosophy, psychology, child-study, nature-study, art, primary methods,\netc.\n2. The kindergarten is conscious of its own deficiencies, hence the great desire to study,\nmodify, and reconstruct.\n3. Criticism of the kindergarten is coming from kindergartners themselves, as well\nas from those outside the ranks.\n4. Division into parties is a credit rather than otherwise. This is the wholesome\n• evidence of differences of opinion necessary to growth and progress.\nThe differences of opinion in the kindergarten are no more marked than in any other\ndepartment of education, as, for example, the differences in attitude toward the three R's\nin elementary education. The same differences in point of view are to be found among\nstudents of art, literature, philosophy, psychology, theology, etc.\n5. Main causes for the division into parties, found in kindergarten circles, are differences in temperament, in training, in philosophy, in psychology.\n6. Needs for future development of the kindergarten: (a) Kindergarten training\nschools to affiliate with normal schools and universities in the preparation of their teachers;\n(b) The need of supervisors of both kindergarten and primary schools who have been\nprepared in both kindergarten and primary education; (c) Superintendents and principals\nof schools who have given the same respectful study to Froebel and the kindergarten that\nthey have given to Herbart and the problems of the elementary school.\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departnieui]\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCO-ORDINATION OF THE KINDERGARTEN\nELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nAND\n\n537\n\nTHE\n\nMrs. Alice H. Putnam, superintendent of Chicago Froebel Association.— After\ndeclaring that there is a break between the kindergarten and school, Mr. Gregory passes at\nonce to the methods employed in dealing with the difficulty.\nI believe a better way would be to look the distinction squarely in the face and see\nwhat causes the trouble. That is the way a physician would begin his curative process,\nso I ask you to consider whether the ideals of school and kindergarten are the same?\nThe most concise and masterly statement of Froebel's principles that I know of is that\ngiven by John Jay Chapman in his essay on \"Education — Froebel,\" in the book, Causes\nand Consequences. He sums up Froebel's laws thus: \"The child is a growing organism.\nIt is a unity. It develops thro creative activity. It is benefited by contact with other\nchildren, and is happy in proportion as it is unselfishly employed.\" These principles are\nneeded at every step of the educational way. They are as fundamentally true for the\ntwelfth grade and the college as for the kindergarten. But as Mr. Gregory has said —\ndifferent phases of the same truth appear at different stages of growth, and varying applications are needed.\n\"A growing organism!\" I sometimes wonder if people who have not lived with very\nyoung children for twenty-four hours of the day, year in and year out, begin to realize the\ninfinite and constant self-adjustments of the child to the situation in which he finds himself.\nDo educators in general know what it means for the mother or kindergartner to keep pace\nwith the child's constantly changing attitude in the very early years — mentally, physically,\nand spiritually, in order that at each stage she may make the conditions for the development of the child what he needs, what it is best for him to have, that he may grow harmoniously ? Is this truth recognized and applied by the kindergartner in the making of\nher daily program ? Is it a plastic or fixed plan ? Is it determined by a general knowledge\nof children — ^without reference to a particular group — or does she really know what this\nparticular group can do or can not do, and does she try to hold each one to his best ? And\nthe school: are the lessons, the discipline, the requirements, based upon this living fact,\nor upon conventions and traditions ? Just where does the child's living estimate of the\nvalue of these traditions appear ? Do school boards reckon with it in the planning of the\nbuildings and playgrounds — or is the necessity for right quantities and qualities of the air\nthe children breathe properly met; the seats in which they spend considerable time — are\nthey adapted to growing organisms ?\n\" The child is a unity.\" As Colonel Parker used to say — \" the whole boy goes to school.\"\nHis restless body isn't sloughed off at the schoolroom door. He is constantly emerging\nfrom the \" big, buzzing, blooming confusion \" — or, as Froebel calls it, \"the state of chaos\" —\nand trying to find himself in relation to all things which interest him. In play, his mind acts\nin its wholeness. Is it so in his work ? Is that too an expression of all there is in him ?\nThis leads to the third truth : that only thru creative activity can the child find an *' at-onement \" in the conditions of his daily living. This does not mean that everything he does has\nto be evolved from the depths of his own consciousness, but that thru the whole-hearted\ndoing of play or of work — thru the doing of things for which he feels there is a purpose —\neven if it should be an apparently formal thing like working now and then from dictation\nin the kindergarten, if it has a meaning to him, if he feels that something is coming of it—\nhe will give himself to it gladly. Any action that takes the child's whole self into play —\nthat calls for an exercise of feeling, willing, and thinking, can't help being useful to him.\nNow how much chance is there for this in the average schoolroom ? \"To have found onefourth of an answer through his own effort,\" says Froebel, \" means far more to the child\nthan to half hear it in the words of another.\" The same idea Browning gives us, \"Well it\nis for the youth to strive through acts uncouth toward making, than repose on aught\nfound made\"\n\nL\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe fact that children are benefited by other children, and that it is good to lead them\nto live more for others, needs no comment. We all believe it. The vital question is: Has\nFroebel on the whole given us a true ideal ? The question of the personality of the man has\nnothing to do with the case. He was certainly consistent — true to his principles — and on\nthe whole they are in accord with modern psychology. No one has ever illustrated the\nidea of motor activity as the main center of early development more emphatically than he\nhas done in the \"Play with the Limbs\" in his Mother-Play Booh. Dr. Dewey said to me\nonce, \"the whole of psychology is in that play.\" So, too, we find his lessons in the beginnings of sociology true to the core.\nAs to \"standardizing the kindergarten,\" listen to Froebel — \"A life whose ideal value\nhas been perfectly established in experience never aims to serve as a model in form — but\nonly in its essence — in its spirit.\" A word as to the materials which are to the little kindergarten child what books are to the school — one means by which the child gets thought — one\nmeans by which he expresses himself — one means by which he comes into close relations\nwith form, color, in fact with most elementary attributes of objects, useful only as means\nto an end. Time will not permit me to make a plea for the use of most of the kindergarten material. It helps the child in the use of nature material in that it gives concrete constants, and the very limitations of it have an advantage, when set over against the many\nvariations in nature.\nTogether, they enable the child to solve many problems.\nKindergartners owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Gregory for his paragraph on p. 30,1\nin which he speaks of Froebel's desire to make the child conscious of his power, but I've\nno time to consider the justness of it now.\nAs to the loyalty of the kindergartner to Froebel (p. 34),^ is it any wonder when a\nyoung woman comes into the kindergarten training class and finds what Froebel would\nopen up to childhood — ^what he opens up to her — that she becomes enthusiastic, that like\nany novitiate she feels that here is a cure-all for many a misunderstanding of childhood ?\nBut more than that: if she is in a school that believes in self-activity she has the jov of making some educational discoveries for herself. Suppose she blunders. Suppose, because\nthe truth now grasped for the first time is large in comparison with her previous experience\nin school, she overestimates it— even to the point of exploiting it, time and more truth will\nhelp her to gain her balance; she will see things in their true relation as she lives and\nstudies longer; she will learn that this kindergarten is but the first step on the ladder, that\nis to take her up from \"God's earth to God's heaven,\" as Froebel puts it. It can only do\nits own work in its own way. I can't quite agree with Mr. Gregory in thinking that the\nkindergarten will ever pass away. It stands for a unique purpose — in a unique phase of\nchild life — the presentation of conditions for the nourishment of the germs of thought, feeling,\nand will — the pathway from subconsciousness to the conscious growth; and this process\nis worthy of a name of its own. There will always be some people who take a special\ninterest in this stage. These will be drawn to specialize in this field, but they will realize\nthat, to understand it, they must know what has gone before, must know the home environment, as well as that which will come later — the school.\nWhen a sapling is transplanted from its nursery to a new field, there is not, at first,\nmuch sign of growth. The adjusting itself to its new soil goes on underground — and the\nmore it is let alone the better, provided it have such light, air, and water as is necessary.\nI can't help thinking that the constant talk of the break between kindergarten and\nschool acts as suggestions are likely to act. If each teacher who feels that all is not as it\nshould be would talk less about it and work diligently to see that right principles are everywhere applied — if she would put some of her traditions into a good hot crematory, reduce\nthem to ashes, and use these to fertilize the soil for both kindergarten and elementary\nschool, the closing sentence of Mr. Gregory's fine paper would indeed be realized.\nMeantime let teachers of the grades, especially the first, second, and third, come to' Seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. Part II.\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n539\n\ngether and compare notes as to what has been done and what can be done to work economically and harmoniously as well as progressively.\nTo this end I have brought a schedule which was prepared by a group of Chicago\nkindergartens — not at all as a formulated statement of what had been done but as a sort of\nchart to keep them sane and steady and definite as to their purpose.\nYears ago I had a somewhat similar leaflet which I always passed up to the firstgrade teacher when the kindergarten children entered. Mine was a little more defi.nite,\nfor I told what stories, songs, and games the children had had; something of the construction work we had done, giving our aim in each case, and something of the methods by which\nwe reached it; what blocks we had used; what grains and seeds we had planted or played\nwith and what forms the child had a living or a playing acquaintance with. Do not misunderstand this— it was not that any finals had been reached — but it seemed only fair to\nthe child and the teacher to let her know something of where the children stood as to general\nintelligence, habit, physical condition.\nElizabeth Harrison, Chicago Kindergarten College. — Superintendent Gregory\nseems to have grasped so clearly the distinctive difference between the kindergarten and\nthe kindergarten principles which underlie all development that his paper scarcely needs\ndiscussion. Yet I would like to emphasize one or two points. He speaks of \"the divine\nfire\" which animates the kindergartner and devoutly wishes it could be had by the grade\nteacher as well. Here is a thought for us kindergartners. If we had enough of this divine\nfire we would transmit it. It is as contagious as any other fire. Show me the kindergarten teacher who realizes the sacredness of her work and the divine significance of education, that it is not merely the giving of knowledge, but awakening and development of \"personality\"— show me this kind of a kindergartner and I will show you the kindergartner\nwho has awakened and inspired her next-room neighbor to better work. Are we as\nkindergartners, who have been trained in insight, Hving so that this fire within us warms\nand gives light to those who are near us ?\nThe second point of which I would like to speak is Dr. Gregory's praise of the law of\n\"self-activity\" which he wishes the grade teacher understood better. Here is another\npoint for us to consider. Are we sure that our daily work with the kindergarten children\ncan always be called by that name ? Do we fully understand the meaning of the word\nself- activity ? It is not indulging the child in his caprice, nor wasting his time in trivialities.\nUnless it helps him to unfold within himself something that is worth while it is not true\nself -activity. If we could show the primary teacher results that manifested creative power\nin our children, even in its simplest forms, we would not need to argue against cut-and-dried\nmethods. The wonderful growth which the lower grades have made in the past few\n^ears shows that the earnest primary teacher is just as anxious to improve as the average\nkindergartner.\nThere is one point on which I think Dr. Gregory is not just to us. He speaks of our\nusing the third gift, for instance, because it was Froebel's expression of a great idea. We\ndo not use it because it was Froebel's invention but because it is a simple, easy means of\nbringing to the child contrast of size, relationship of number, a unit of measurement,\nthe three directions of up and down, right and left, top and bottom, and shows in a very\nconcrete way the dependence of parts on the whole and a whole on its parts. These same\nthings are illustrated in a morning program in a dozen other ways. We use the kindergarten tools just as any other intelligent worker uses his tools — because they serve our purpose, not because they were invented by some one individual. And I hope we are broadminded enough to use better tools if better tools are invented. But a sensible workman\ndoes not throw away a good tool because somebody advertises that he has made an invention of something else. New tools do not make skilled workmen any more than old tools.\nThe test is, \"Does this or that tool do the work desired ?\"\n\nk\n\nEmma C. Davis, Cleveland, O. — In response to the request of the chairman I wil\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nA^^ TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nspeak first as to the continuity of the training carried forward in the grades by means of\nthe materials used in the kindergarten, altho there is another point of greater importance Iwish to touch upon.\nMy experience is that in up-to-date school systems nearly all, if not all, of the materials\nused in kindergarten \"occupations\" are used in the primary grades, either in the art and\nmanual-training courses or in the \"expression-by-hand\" activities and exercises, or frequently in both.\nThat a definitely outlined course of training beginning in the kindergarten \"occupations\" and going on thru the grades is not more common is due to the fact that in very\nfew, if any, cities the number of kindergartens is equal or anywhere near equal to the number of first grades, and therefore a definitely outlined progressive course which is feasible\nwhere these ideal conditions prevail is not usual. But notwithstanding the conditions as\nthey are there is an encouraging degree of continuity and progression in the work as it is\nnow carried on, and this is becoming more pronounced as the organization of public kindergartens becomes perfected and more truly a part of the system of schools. And by this I\ndo not mean that the kindergarten work needs to be organized; it is already splendidly\norganized, perhaps even too perfectly.\nThis leads me to the second point I wish to speak upon, the relation of the kindergarten to the grades above.\nI have been surprised to hear recently so much about definite attainments in the kindergarten in the way of number work, and even in the elements of reading and in other definite\nmeasurable attainments. That the children's number sense is trained and that their\nperceptions take definite form is true; that their ears are trained to the recognition of\ndifferentiations in sounds is also a fact; that the ideas of space and dimensions are developed\nis without doubt. But it seems to me that a required standard of measurement for such\ntraining would be fatal to the best work of the kindergarten. The children who come out\nof the kindergarten do not, under present conditions of organization, make their way\nthru the grades any faster, usually, but they bring to the work trained intelligence and\nthe social spirit, developed senses, skill of hand expression as well as of language expression —\nall of which enables them to do the work better, to realize a richer content, and to have\nmore joy in the work. If the kindergarten accomplishes this, it seems to me it has filled\nits niche — has accomplished a splendid mission.\nAlma L. Binzel, director of kindergarten training, Stout Institute, Menomonie,\nWis. — I shall confine myself to the actual attempts we are making to solve this problem\nin the training schools in Wisconsin. The kindergarten departments of the Milwaukee\nState Normal School and of the Stout Institute at Menomonie had their origin in an efi\"ort\nto meet demands for kindergarten teachers; their development is accompanied by »\ngrowing recognition of the following facts : First, that an insight into theory, methods, and\nsubject-matter of elementary grades is essential to the doing of the most intelligent\nwork in the kindergartens by the teacher thereof; second, that requests from small cities\nfor teachers prepared to do both kindergarten and elementary work are frequent;\nthird, that demand for elementary teachers with some kindergarten training and\nexperience is on the increase; and fourth, that effectiveness and economy are dependent,\nin many cases, upon finding the particular phase of work with young children for which\nprospective teachers are specially adapted.\nAppreciation of these facts has resulted in the modification of courses to such an extent\nthat the requirements for elementary teaching are being met. Two years ago the state\nlegislature acted upon the matter so that today the graduates of the kindergarten departments are recognized as qualified to teach not only in kindergartens but also in first, second,\nand third grades.\nBy the elimination of some of the phases of the traditional kindergarten work it has\nbeen found possible to give a course in y)edagogics involving consideration of the law? o1\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deijartment]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nteaching, of the subject-matter, and of the methods of primary work. This is followed up\nby actual teaching in the grades. Eighty forty-minute periods are allotted to this, whereas\nthree times that amount is devoted to kindergarten teaching. For the coming year a\nreversal will be made for those choosing the elementary as their field.\nA two-year's trial has convinced us that this plan is not only desirable but also worth\nwhile. It so happened that the woman who was responsible for the work along elementar}\"- 541\nlines at Stout Institute had never before dealt with a group of student teachers with kindergarten training. Her experience had been, however, a very extensive one with normalschool students for she was for many years supervisor of the model department and practice\nteaching, instructor in methods at a state normal school, and hence the following comment\nis of special interest and value : \" I have never had a group of teachers take hold as readily,\ndo effective work as early, appreciate so thoroly the basis of criticism as these kindergarten students. It is no doubt due to the fact that the various courses given to prospective kindergartners prepare them to see and understand the child in his many relationships,\nwith his many needs and interests, in a way that is not equaled by the usual work in other\ndepartments of normal school.\" ^\nOn the other hand, the kindergarten critic teachers feel justified in saying that work\nwith kindergarten children is stronger because there is knowledge of next steps; because\nthere is greater clearness, concerning whys and wherefores, that comes through restatement and reapplication of fundamental laws to more than one phase of teaching.\nNot that we have reached our goal in the unification of courses and in the attainment\nof the consequent economy for adults and for children but we are studying the problem\nand approximating toward a sane solution, we hope.\nIn such an attempt every criticism made by grade teacher or supervisor must be welcomed and acted upon. For instance, when the supervisor reports that the art work of\nchildren in a certain building does not come to standard for first grades and that the class\nteacher maintains that the drawing habits fixed in the kindergarten are responsible then\nthis question must be answered: Does the supervisor of drawing, who by the way is\nfrequently the teacher of art to junior kindergarten students, concern herself only with their\ndevelopment of power and skill in execution, or does she deal with the pedagogy of the\nsubject so that as seniors and teachers these students understand the work with young\nchildren ? If the specialists fail to concern themselves with beginnings that are made in\nthe home and utilized in the kindergarten the continuity must be a matter of accident.\nLack of articulation would be frequent where conscious design is not present; herein lies\nthe waste and misdirection of student and child, energy and time.\nUpon kindergarten and grade teachers, upon supervisors and specialists, devolves the\nobligation of seeing that articulations in conditionings characterize the environment of the\nchild so that the continuity of .and progress in his development is insured. To welcome\ncriticisms, to discover their causes, and then to remove them, this is the only attitude that\nwe as teachers ot children can afford to cultivate.\n\n■For statement of work given and elaboration of views held see Stout Institute Bulletin, No. 3, Vol. Ill :\n\"Advantages of Unifying Training Courses for Kindergarten and Primary Teachers\" by Mary D. Bradford,\nsupervisor of elementary work.\n,\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — J. K. Stableton, superintendent of schools, Bloomington, HI.\nVice-President— Mi'A's. Adelaide S. Baylor, superintendent of schools, Wabash, Ind.\nSecretary— Mms S. Belle Chamberlain, state superintendent of public instruction, Boise, Idaho.\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday\n\nAfternoon,\n\nJune 30, 1908\n\nThe department met in the First Methodist Church at 2:30, the president of the\ndepartment, J. K. Stableton, presiding. George P. Brown, editor of School and Home\nEducation, Bloomington, 111., spoke on \"The Physiology and Psychology of Elementary\nEducation.\"\nThe discussion was opened by John W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State\nNormal School, DeKalb, 111., and continued by Ella Flagg Young, principal of Chicago\nNormal School, Chicago, 111., and Elizabeth Harrison, principal of Chicago Kindergarten\nCollege.\nThe second paper of the afternoon was presented by James H. Van Sickle, superintendent ofschools, Baltimore, Md., on the subject \"Is the Technique of Reading, Arithmetic, and Writing Receiving due Attention in the Elementary Schools Today ?\"\nThe paper was discussed by W. C. Martindale, superintendent of schools, Detroit,\nMich., and P. M. Harbold, superintendent of training department, State Normal School,\nMillersville, Pa.\nThe subject was thrown open for general discussion.\nUpon motion, the president appointed the following committee on nominations:\nDuncan Mackinnon, San Diego, Cal.\nCharles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn.\nT. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.\nWednesday\n\nMorning,\n\nJuly i, 1908\n\nA joint session with the Kindergarten and Art Departments was held. , For minutes\nof the meeting see Department of Kindergarten Education.\nThursday\n\nEvening,\n\nJuly 2, 1908\n\nThe Department met in the First Methodist Church, and was called to order by the\npresident, J. K. Stableton.\nThe report of the committee on nominations was as follows:\nFor President — James F. Chamberlain, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Adelaide S. Baylor, superintendent of schools, Wabash, Ind.\nFor Secretary — Miss Margaret McConkey, supervisor of primar}' schools and kindergartens, Springfield, Mass.\nThe report of this committee was on motion unanimously adopted and the nominees\ndeclared elected.\nR. R. Reeder, superintendent of the orphanage, Hastings-on-Hudson, N. Y., presented\na paper on \"Moral Training an Essential Factor in Elementary-School Work.\"\nFassett A. Cotton, state superintendent of schools of Indiana, being absent, his paper\nin discussion was read by Laurence Duncan, assistant state superintendent of Indiana.\nThe second paper of the evening was \"Mathematics\n543\n\nin the Elementarv\n\nGrades\"\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATJON\n\n[Elemeniaiy\n\npresented by Robert J. Aley, professor of mathematics, Indiana State University, Bloomington, Ind.\nThe discussion was opened by I, C. McNeill, superintendent of schools, Memphis,\nTenn.\nThe department adjourned.\nS. Belle Chamberlain, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nGEORGE\n\nEDITOR,\n\" SCHOOL AND\nBLOOMINGTON,\nILL.\n\nP.\n\nBROWN,\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\nEDUCATION\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\nHOME\n\nEDUCATION\"\n\nIn the first paragraph of his ^' Essay on History\" Emerson says:\nThere is one mind common to all individual men. Every man is an inlet to the same\nand to all of the same. He that is once admitted to the right of reason is made a freeman\nof the whole estate. . . . Who hath access to this universal mind is a party to all that is or\ncan be done, for this is the only and sovereign agent.\n\nTaking Emerson's statements as our point of view, education may be\ndefined as the process by which one obtains admittance to the right of reason,\nand so gains access to this universal mind and becomes a party to all that is\nor can be done.\nElementary education is that state .of this process which conducts the growth\nof the child from the dawn of his intelligence through his preparation for\nentering a secondary school.\nThat part of this elementary process which we call the elementary school\nseeks to prepare its graduates to begin to learn some industrial vocation; or\nto enter a high school for a more advanced training in power and scholarship\nthan is needed as a preparation for beginning to learn a strictly industrial\npursuit. The elementary pupil cannot gain admittance to the right of\nreason; he can only make the preliminary approaches to such admittance.\nThe primary duty of the elementary teacher is to gain a clear conception of\nwhat is the best preparation the child can make for this next stage of his\neducation.\nThe two classes of powers that constitute the child are the physical and the\npsychic. They make the body and the mind. We have come to understand\nbetter than formerly the interaction of these powers, and the bearing of this\nknowledge upon education is better appreciated. Modern investigations in\nboth physiology and psychology have revealed a new child to the school teacher.\nThe physiological processes in man are similar in kind to those of the lower\nkingdoms of life. Education from the physical point of view is concerned\nchiefly with the nervous system of this animal inheritance, and especially it is\nconcerned with the gray matter of his system.\nThe psychic processes are those of the psyche or person who is the new\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "545\nUepartmentj\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nbeing that has emerged at this human stage of the evolution of life, and who\nuses the nervous system of the body for attaining his ends.\nThe doctrine of this thesis is that the body as nervous system is the servant\nor instrument of the person or self, and, therefore, it denies that the body is the\nsource or creator of this new being. The full extent to which the person may\nbecome master of this machine — may come into control of this servant — doth\nnot yet appear. The body, in and of itself, is but an animated machine — a\nliving automaton — which accumulates and transmits energy according to\nphysical laws.\nThe life process of this mechanism animates the system of afferent-efferent,\nor sensory-motor cycles that constitute the nervous system. Each of these\ncycles, as you know, consists of a sensory nerve filament, a central cell, and a\nmotor filament. These filaments I understand to be simply the prolongation\nof the gray matter of the cell. When the stimulus from the environment\nexternal to the cycle attacks the receiving end of the sensory filament it is\ntransmitted to the central cell which directs its course through the efferent or\nmotor filament or filaments to the muscles or other tissues upon which it\noperates. The purpose of the cycle is to transfer the stimulus received from\nwithout the cycle from one point in the organism to another.\nNow the entire complex of processes which make the nervous system is the\nco-ordination of many thousands of these afferent-efferent cycles which move\nwith the precision of the shuttle in the power loom. This system of nerve\ncycles is a harp of thousands of strings, which, when played upon by the\nenvironment, gives always the same music to the same stimulus.\nI speak of this to remind you of the mechanical nature of the processes of\nthe human body, which body is the instrument of the soul.\nNow the person who uses this mechanism is quite another being. In the\ninfant stage of its growth this person is spontaneous and lawless free power,\nwhich must attain to ordered freedom thru education. When this power first\ncomes to consciousness it is will-as-desire, or desire-as-will, and this is the\ninfant personality or ego. This free power is what eventually grows into the\neducated man or woman thru the acquisition and use of knowledge in\nattaining its freedom. By freedom I mean the liberty and power to do as one\ndesires within the limits imposed by the common mind. No will can be free\nthat does not will the freedom of all.\nHow can the elementary school best lead, thru the influence of its environment, this free, lawless power on its way toward freedom in our social order ?\nI take it that this is our fundamental problem in the elementary school.\nEmerson says the \"secret of education lies in respecting the pupil.\" Freewill isthe spark of divinity within the child. His free-will best comes to respect\nthe free-will of others thru the respect of others for his free-will.\nThe need of better results from the schools, especially in character and\npower, is universally felt, and there has been, in consequence, much advertisJust now the industrial line is much in evi— e> ing of new^ educational routes.\n\nIL\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlElemeniary\n\ndence. It is certainly true that the process of putting ideas into material\nforms in obedience to mechanical laws affords an opportunity for respecting\nthe free-will of the pupil in his growth toward freedom, superior to that of\n\"backing-the-book,\" with which it is often contrasted. But the emancipation\nthat comes thru industrial education does not reach very far. There are some\nof these devices, such as industrial education, manual training, domestic\nscience, and others, which ought to be in the tool-chest of our old reliable educational route, to be used upon occasion, but none of them can be a highway\nfrom lawless free-will to rational freedom.\nThe goal of education, since man began to think, has been the free use of\nopportunity under the law imposed by the common mind. Every individual\nin this country is a party to the laws imposed by the common mind. Hence\nsuch common law is self-imposed by each individual. ''Man thus becomes\na law unto himself,\" which good authority declares is ideal freedom, I believe\nthis definition of freedom holds good whether one is a rationalist or a pragmatist in his philosophy.\nThe first and most commanding duty of the elementary school is to bring the\ninfant psyche — ^which is will-as-desire — into control over the physical instrument which he must use in his rise to manhood, and which he must live with\nand keep in order while an inhabitant of this planet. This psyche must rise\nto manhood thru (that is, by means of) the acquisition of knowledge; for\nknowledge is necessary to its attainment of its ends. Knowledge is embodied\nin words or other symbols, therefore oral and written speech have always been\nthe leading subjects of study in elementary schools. The personality, or\npsyche, this will-as-desire, not only creates the words and other signs that\nsymbolize his knowledge, but he registers them in certain convolutions in one\nof the hemispheres of the brain — ^generally the left hemisphere. He does the\nsame thing with his music, his arithmetic, and all other symbols of ideas and\nother psychic experiences. These must be ready for use when the personality\ncalls for them. These brain convolutions are practically the same in the brain\nof the chimpanzee as in man, but the chimpanzee can make no use of them for\nthe chimpanzee is not a person. Only a person can create speech and store it\naway in the brain.\nThe chimpanzee is a system of motor-cycles played upon by its environment;\nit is an animated machine. Man is all this and more. What he is more is\npersonality — a free psychic force who plays upon these cycles for his own ends.\nThe conflict between man and the beast thus begins in the child. Whether\na worse than beast or a man shall be the final outcome, in our present social\norder, the elementary school can do much to determine.\nWhen the psyche rises in desires and in purposes as it advances in knowledge\nthen the instincts belonging to the beast come by degrees into subjection to the\nhigher ideals of the man, and a moral being is the product.\nThe process by which the mind grows in ideals and aims is similar to that\nof its growth in knowledge; that is, it grows by persistent effort and repeated\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "II\n\nDepartment]\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n547\n\ntrial. Little progress can be made without language. The psyche has a\nnatural impulse to express himself in symbols by means of hand or tongue.\nWords first enter as sensations from without and are registered' in a welldefined convolution of the brain by psychic power which uses the sensorimotor cycle in doing it. Helen Keller, who was blind and deaf from early\ninfancy, knew not one word when she was seven years old. Miss Sullivan\ntells the story of the registration of her first word after weeks of effort; how\nshe stood transfigured when she first discovered that a certain succession of\nstrokes made on her hand meant water. From that moment she filled the\nword register in her brain with marvelous rapidity. In four years she was\nconversing in oral speech with the most cultured people of the nation, who\nwere astonished at her command of English and range of thought. The\nwonderful things she must have done in educating the brain cells of her Broca\nconvolution to talk — thru her sense of touch alone — shows the power of the\nwill in bringing the brain machinery under control. Only the neurologist\ncan best appreciate what must take place in the brain to produce this result.\nWhat shall be said of the teaching of certain psychological professors who\nwould have us believe that the action of ''the finer anatomy of the central\nnervous system\" made Helen Keller's passion for knowledge, made her indomitable will, and her exalted character ? If I could help to keep that deadly\nerror from finding lodgment in your minds, I should feel that I had not lived\nin vain.\nDickens says in his \"Battle of Life\" that Dr. Jeddler was a great philosopher and the ''heart and mystery of his philosophy was that he looked upon\nthe world as a gigantic practical joke; as something too absurd to be considered seriously by any practical man.\" Was the doctor a professor of\nphysiological psychology as well as a philosopher ?\nI can only mention, in passing, such illuminating examples as Helen Keller\nand Laura Bridgman, hoping that those who have not learned the lesson they\nteach of the dominance of personality over the sensori-motor mechanism may\nbe encouraged to make a study of the processes by which these persons were\neducated, and may read such suggestive books as Brain and Personality, by\nDr. William Hanna Thomson.\nThe way in which the will registers its knowledge is akin to that in which\nit registers its ideals and purposes and thought — the process by which it grows.\nIt is by the growing experiences of the personality resulting from persistent\nrepetition and study that the soul develops.\nI have opportunity to give only this single illustration of the interaction\nbetween the nervous system and the personality in the growth of the soul.\nThe rest of my time will be given to speaking of the psychology of elementary\neducation.\nThere is a psychology common to all individual children, and a somewhat\ndifferent psychology of different groups of children, but the most important\nto child and teacher is the psychology of the individual child.\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nThat which is common to all seems to be this, that what children desire\nthey are impelled to obtain, and they seek some way of obtaining it. Involved\nin the movement are the desire that reaches toward some object, the will that\nexecutes or appropriates, and the intelligence that directs the execution; and\nthey act in this order in the evolution of the race and of the individual.\nThis suggests the psychic cycle by which the personality approaches its\nself-realization in early years. This, it seems to me, is a psychological experience common to all children, and to men and women, most of whom, in this\nregard, are but grown-up children.\nThe impulse to do the agreeable thing and reject the disagreeable is the\nlaw of the infant will, and this remains true until he arrives at the \"age of reason.\" When the primary school requires of the child to do the disagreeable\nand reject the agreeable, the natural order of growth is not followed. This\nreversal of the order of nature may be temporarily necessary in some mental\nattitudes of the child, but only in so far as to secure the change of attitude.\nThe child's voluntary efforts are determined by his desires, except in so far\nas these desires are inhibited by influences external to himself. These inhibitions can be made more educative than they are, and they are an important\npart of the process.\nI have no time or space in three thousand words to describe the steps by\nwhich, in the primary grades, the child is led to construct for himself a body\nof language and of meanings and register them in the brain, nor to show how\nthe child's imagination can be used in perfecting his language and — what is\nmore important^n filling the mind with a registration of beautiful deeds,\nand noble ideals, and loving sympathy for what is good and true and just in life.\nThe elementary school is the school par excellence for laying the foundations\nof character. The impulses of will, desire, and interest that clamor for satisfaction are a wild, free power which must be led to subject itself to order. The\nbest school is the environment that stimulates interest and joy in doing educative things. The philosophy, religion, and ethics of the human race have\nalways taught, and the history of the world confirms it, that the human soul\nhas from the beginning more and stronger impulses and desires that lead\ntoward love, and truth, and righteousness than of those that lead toward selfishness, injustice, and malevolence.\nIn the child's conflict between his human impulses and his animal inheritances, the teacher finds the human to be the stronger tendencies. There is\nno access to the child except by way of his environment. The free personality\nof the child must work itself into order under the influence of the school. The\nschool can perform this function better than the family.\nI cannot detail here the steps of the process. There are many ideal schools\nin our country where they can be observed. It is like the process which\nHawthorne describes in the ''Great Stone Face\" where he tells us what happens to every child in a greater or less measure, when the environment is favorable to the best results.\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n549\n\nThere is a prevailing notion that the value of a school is in the knowledge\nthe children acquire. An inteUigent member of a school board in one of our\nmore enlightened cities declared that he always supposed that the sole business of the school was to impart knowledge. He did not see how the will and\nfeelings could be taught.\nIt is the purposive free-will that becomes the man or the woman whom the\nelementary school conducts as child thru the grades. Knowledge has no\nmoral quality. It helps the evil will \"who knows better and does worse\"\nas willingly as it works for righteousness and justice. We have a saying that\n''knowledge is power.\" Knowledge is the servant of power. I do not know\nwhat will be said to those at the final reckoning who are now proclaiming that\nthe supreme duty of the elementary school is to advance scholarship ; who say,\n\"Let the other institutions attend to the rest of (he boy.\" But I do know\nthat the boy cannot be taught in sections with the best results.\nIt is the prevailing weakness of our social order that people disregard their\nconvictions of truth when immoral desires and purposes are uppermost in\nthem. The determined man can make himself believe, or believe that he\nbelieves, that the worse is the better when he wishes it to be so. If knowledge\nwere the power which rules the world this could not be true. Socrates made\nknowledge the commanding virtue, it is true, but he assumed that a man who\nknew could not be a fool, and do the worse when he knew the better.\nI am pleading that the education of the will and the desires of the personality\nshall be the commanding purpose of education in the consciousness of teacher\nand parent.\nIt is now, at best, only an incidental purpose in the school.\nI am considering the will to be that psychic force, or spiritual unity, that\nfeels and executes and thinks. The school must regard all these aspects of the\nsoul's activity and so distribute the emphasis between them as to promote\nthe supreme purpose of education, which is the moral life. I am not making\nthis the conscious purpose of the child in his work in the school. His conscious\npurpose is to do the work the school assigns.\n•Nor am I saying that thought begotten of knowledge does not become\nidentified with power in the best educated man. I am considering the condition ofchildren's minds in the first years of school.\nThe lines of effort in the elementary school that will best realize our ideal of\nlife are three :\n1. It must give such knowledge and train to such thinking as will best\ndirect this uninformed will to the attainment of its ends.\n2. It must lead the desires to test the ideals they create by a feeling of the\nworthiness of the ends toward which they lead.\n3. It must persistently practice discovering ways and means of attaining\nends which the child deems worthy; and this is what is meant by teaching\nhim to think. He must be ever solving problems.\nThe school must respect the child's view of life and take that as its point\nof departure in educating him. The main educational route is toward the goal\n\nu\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "55©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nof a high order of social life. As I have intimated, two ways may lead to this\nend: one the industrial, the other the scholastic.\nBut the elementary school I have in mind will afford the best preparation\nfor the pursuit of either of these special ways. The child's natural development should be fostered; it should not be interrupted. It is in this sense that\nthe elementary school is not consciously a preparation for life, but is life. It\nshould turn out the best-developed boys and girls practicable. If, when this\nis done, the demands of our civilization shall continue to require that we arrest\ntheir further development into full grown men and women in order to make of\nthem captains of industry and finance, or of some other specialty, then we must\nneeds wait for a higher stage of the evolution of man for his harmonious and\ncomplete education in the school. But it is the duty of education to cry aloud\nand spare no effort to persuade the people that manhood and womanhood\nof a high order constitute the power and honor and glory of that nation which\nshall continue to lead in the civilization of the world.\nWhatever is done in the elementary school that is directly related to a special\nvocation should be done because of its general educational value in any and\nevery vocation, and only so far. It is certainly true that the initial steps in\nmastering modern industries and occupations are steps toward freedom in any\npursuit.\nWhat the world needs is men and women of power. When the schools\nwork for the attainment of results in power which are not measured by per\ncents., they will produce more persons of power and efficiency. The elementary school is for stimulating and putting into order in the lives of the\nchildren worthy feelings and purposes thru the accumulation of knowledge,\nand thru such practice in the use of knowledge as will mature these feelings\nand purposes into habits. Habits should be the stepping-stones of dead\nselves to higher things, and never to lower things.\nWe should be concerned vastly more about the aims and ideals of the children. This concern will result in making the need of knowledge more and\nmore evident to the pupils, and will turn their will and desire toward its mastery.\nIt is thus that the school will follow the natural order of the growth of the child\nand of the race.\nHow inadequate is the conception that the commanding purpose of the\nelementary school is to construct the instrument by which desires are to be\nrealized, and leave to chance the choice of ends, or the worthiness of the\ndesires.\nThe natural order of growth, I repeat, is first a desire for some experience\nand an impulse to attain it; second, putting order into impulse and desire by\nthe use of knowledge; in other words, it is will prompted by feelings and\ndirected in its achievement by knowledge.\nI have only entered upon the threshold of the consideration of one psychological element that belongs to the work of the school, but what has been said\nwill suggest the order in which the other elements must follow.\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n551\n\nI have tried to emphasize the source of power and the general process by\nwhich power becomes developed and effective. What I have in mind to say\nof the auxiliary processes that become active at different stages of the child's\ngrowth, and of the agencies and instruments to be used to make this power\nmost effective in the social order would fill a volume.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, III. — An analysis of this interesting paper discloses the\nfollowing body of doctrine: (i) Mind is the common possession of all men, hence all of\nits possible ranges are open to each within the limits of his individual capacity. (2) Education isthe process of realizing in each individual the largest possible embodiment of the\ncommon mind. (3) The highest manifestation of this embodied mind is a moral personality. (4)A moral personality is a being that has become conscious in some good\ndegree of certain things with regard to itself: (a) Of its participation in the common\nmind. (&) Of its consequent identification with an established spiritual order organized\nby the energy of universal law. (c) Of the possibility of that free self-control in conduct\nwhich is the explanation and meaning of the existence of desire, {d) Of the necessity of\nconformity to the organic law in the case in order to realize the free self-control which is the\nend of desire, (e) That it has favored the survival of desires that are in harmony with\nthis necessity.\nI submit the following rather formal propositions as at least applicable to the argument\nwith no claim that they are either original or new.\n1. A distinction should be made between training and education. It suits my purposes better to limit the application of the latter term to those processes in which the pupil\nhas a somewhat definite conception of what is happening to himself and in which he is\ndisposed to lend a hand in furthering the realization of ends that begin to be explicitly\nseen. Whatever of a purposeful disciplinary character precedes such a consciousness I\nprefer to call training. In this discussion, therefore, we are engaged in the consideration\nof what the teacher should do for the child that the child would desire to have done for him\nif he knew himself, and that the youth will approve when he discovers what has been going\non.\n2. The consciousness of being a moral personality cannot be reached within the\nlimits of elementary education. It is because of this delayed insight that elementary\neducation is of such enormous importance. The teacher must represent that introspective\nattitude which the child has not yet developed. If he fails to have the highest respect for\nwhat he finds in the child the case is parallel to that in which one who has come to know\nhimself finds nothing within himself that merits his respect. To such a being the moral\nworld has suffered collapse, for all sense of worth has its basis in a feeling of personal worth.\nIt is within this area of spiritual experience that the real tragedies of human life are enacted.\nA teacher who is lacking in this attitude toward his work should be cast out of the temple\nwhich his presence desecrates. Emerson's remark, that \"the secret of education lies in\nrespecting the pupil\" is another of the many illustrations of his wonderful insight.\n3. The relative values of knowledge and habit during the period in which the ministry\nof the teacher is training rather than education is a theme that may well engage our most\ncareful consideration. By knowledge is here meant the mental creation of what is ordinarily thought of as truth, in its various aspects. By habit is meant the organization of\nautomatic reactions to substantially identical stimulations. Habit must take marked\nprecedence, but with a diminishing preference thruout this whole period.\n4. The direction of habit-forming activities is a most delicate task. Habit is the\nvanishing-point of education. While all education must eventuate in habit, the formation\nof a habit arrests education at that point, or, perhaps I should say, completes education\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nat that point. To organize one into one environment and thus to render him immune to\nanother presents at the same time benign and malignant features. And here is where\nimminent peril lies.\n5. The antidote to the arresting tendency of habit is growth in knowledge. Growth in\nknowledge implies the acquisition of an acquaintance with new objects and ideas and with\nnew aspects of old objects and ideas. We have been so much impressed with the significance of the doctrine of apperception that we have lost sight, at least partially, of its\ncomplementary doctrine of estrangement. It must never be forgotten that growth in\nknowledge necessitates the invasion of new and strange fields. This is hostile to the\nessential conception of habit. But, like the chambered nautilus, we must move into the\nnew and larger house; yet, unlike the chambered nautilus, we ought not to seal up the old.\n6. Growth in knowledge contributes to the formation of that moral personality which\nis implicit in freedom in at least two ways: (a) The method of acquiring knowledge is\nthe solution of intellectual problems. The problem-solving activity is peculiarly the method\nby which the intellect grows, and intellectual growth is essential to the development of any\nworthy personality. (6) Without knowledge man is the mere shuttlecock of circumstance.\nThere is no real will in its absence. Impulse implies it, desire begins its definition, reason\ncomprehends it, will incorporates it into the character. Mere intellectual apprehension is of\nsmall consequence in the concrete life of a personality. Knowledge in the elementary\nschool is for the same purpose that it is anywhere else; it is for conduct, for guidance, for\nfulfilling the destiny of a being who becomes really human just so far as he shares in the\nreason common to all men. Its value may be justly estimated by the will that it awakens\nand mediates.\nTo do things one must desire things, know things, and will things.\nElizabeth Harrison, Chicago Kindergarten College — In the inrush of new thought\nthat has come to us in the realization that our problems in education are necessarily changing as our civilization changes, it is refreshing to listen to a paper which insists so clearly\nin defining the ultimate aim of all education to be the development of the personality of the\nindividual child. The greater the personality or soul or ego of any individual, the greater\nis that individual's power, and the greater the power the greater the possibility of \"social\nservice.\" Unless some such idea is held steadily in view one is apt to think that art or\nmanual training or physical culture or some means to an end is the all-important thing in\neducation. When, as Mr. Brown's paper so admirably shows, we comprehend that feeling,\nor desire, as he chooses to call it, to stimulate the will-activity to voluntary activity, and\nwhen that knowledge or thought guides this will-activity to efi&ciency, we begin to adjust\nour curricula, and avoid undue emphasis on any one factor of development.\nI wish to speak this afternoon on the danger of our forgetting the value of training\nthe imagination of the child, as the source of all volitional activity. In our present-day\nenthusiasm over the physical training of the child's body, and his industrial training toward\nsocial independence, we are apt to overlook the fact that both of these receive their real\nvalue from the personality, so to speak, which is housed within that body, or which is at\nwork in that same body applied to some form of bread winning. We need strong personality more than we need strong bodies or able financiers, valuable as these are when ruled\nby the right kind of a spirit within. It is this inner life which is the source of all outer power\nand success worthy of the name.\nIn speaking of language as the largest and most spiritual of the child's instrumentalities, Mr. Brown adds \"What is more important than all else in this matter is to what use\nthe child's imagination can be applied, not only in perfecting his language, but filling\nthe mind with pictures of beautiful deeds and noble ideals and sympathies, with that\nwhich is good and true and best in the image world which his will constructs.\"\nAre we giving enough time and attention to the right training of the imagination?\nAll art, all literature, and all religion are products of the power of the mind to see the\nunseen; to establish a relationship between the finite and the infinite.\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] TECHNIQUE\n\nOF READING,\n\nARITHMETIC,\n\nAND\n\nWRITING\n\n553\n\nIn fact all that is highest and best in the attainments of our race are the results of the\npower to image something better, larger, more beautiful, than exists in the realm of external\nexperience. We realize the immense importance of training the creative power which\nresults from a trained imagination, properly developed. We either ignore this poetic\ncreative side of education, or we train it in a haphazard or oftentimes pernicious way. As\nfor example the recent craze over dramatic presentation of such heroes as Robin Hood,\narousing in the child of today the spirit of rufl&anism. Is it not as important that we consider what kind of stories we tell to children, what reading we put into their leisure hours,\nwhat poems we teach them to love, what pictures we hang on our school-room walls, as\nthat we consider what folk-dances they shall learn or what handwork shall be introduced,\nor what household activities they shall share in ? I am not decrying rythmic training of the\nbody, nor clever skill of the hands, but let these take their proper place as instruments to\nbe used by the creative imagination, that the world may grow richer and better in its inner\nlife as well as in its outer material prosperity.\n\nIS\n\nTHE\nTECHNIQUE\nOF\nWRITING RECEIVING\nELEMENTARY\nJ. H.\n\nVAN\n\nSICKLE,\n\nREADING,\nARITHMETIC,\nAND\nDUE ATTENTION IN THE\nSCHOOLS TODAY?\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBALTIMORE,\n\nMD.\n\nREADING\n\nIf the discussion of the technique of reading is to get its trend from the\ncommon definition, \"the method of performance or manipulation in any art,\"\nit would at first thought appear necessary to limit it to oral reading. Technique,\nhowever, plays so important a part in getting thought from the printed page,\nconsciously in the early school years, unconsciously later, that we are fully\njustified in considering technique e>^en in silent reading.\nThe conclusion of the Committee of Fifteen, that \"learning to read and\nwrite should be the leading study of the pupil in his first four years of school\"\nundoubtedly stated a belief very general at the time the report was written, and\none which is in a sense valid today; but competent authorities are not wanting\nat the present time who would change the emphasis, even in the first lessons,\nfrom \"learning to read\" to \"reading to learn;\" and from \"learning to write,\"\n\"to writing for the purpose of making a record.\" This change of emphasis\nis very noticeable in courses of study that have been revised in the last few\nyears; it is so marked as to be almost revolutionary. It is also in evidence\nin all the newer series of readers.\nThe difference between the two points of view, though apparently a difference chiefly in statement, has in fact an important bearing both on method\nand subject matter. The former attitude emphasizes the technique of reading\nbut fails to suggest present use of reading to the learner or to reckon with\nmotives which make an appeal to him while he is acquiring technique. In\nthe recent courses of study and in the newer method, readers' motives from the\nchild's standpoint are prominent. These are : to get meanings, to give information, to give pleasure.\nNow-a-days formal considerations, such as pauses and inflections, are\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\npassed over lightly. We also expect children to use many words that they do\nnot yet know how to spell. We are seeking short cuts to the fi Uest possible\nuse of reading as a means of getting information. In these days ys hen men of\nall occupations and little leisure read the new^spapers each mcrning, reading is\nno longer an accomplishment for the few, an end in itself. It is cnly a means\nto a practical end; so the most direct method must be sought to master the\nreading process. Hence in our schools, introduction to reading by way of\nthe spelling-book and the building up of new words, letter by letter, has disappeared. After a small stock of sentences and words has been acquired\nthere follows an analysis of words into their elements. The old order was\nelements first — then combination. The new procedure reverses this order;\nbut while it defers analysis it does not ignore this important step. The danger\nis that the step of analysis will be neglected, and little power be developed to\nattack unknown combinations. When analysis is neglected we have bad\nspelling because children are not trained to observe the elements of words.\nThe older method — that of the alphabet, syllable, and spelling-book — moved\nless directly toward meanings, but by its very nature secured power in word\nrecognition. When, however, analysis is given suitable attention the prevailing\nmethods secure better technique than the more formal ones because they\nappeal to the need for expression, thus working in co-operation with child\nnature rather than against it. As this truth has become plain to teachers\nwe have seen the close of an era dev^oted to the advocacy of so-called synthetic\nand other formal methods in which technique for technique's sake was deemed\nmore important than technique for thought's sake; but we have not yet seen the\nend of the practice of such formalism. Practice lags far behind theory\npartly because of the disinclination of conservative teachers to change their\naccustomed ways and partly because the new ways unquestionably involve\ngreater labor on the part of teachers of beginners.\nOur foremost schools of education hold that reading should not be taught\nas a formal end in itself, and that the child's reading vocabulary should grow\nmainly from his daily varying and developing needs of self-expression in the\nsocial activities of the school. If the teaching of reading and writing is to\navoid the formal method of drill, the two arts will be taught together and the\nfirst reading will be of script which the children and teacher produce; for\nthus only may the fresh interest and the motive for good form in writing and\nready and fluent expression be secured. The ideal would be for each child\nto write the sentence which he will immediately or later read — in other words\nto make his own reading-book. Each book would be different from every\nother book. The group story scheme, now quite common, falls somewhat\nshort of this in that the resulting sentences are a composite of all the individual\ncontributions and the resulting collection of sentences is no child's own. At\na later stage phonetic drill is resorted to for voice training and pronunciation, but it is relegated to a separate period and is treated as preparatory for\nreading.\nIt is when the child does not know a word that the teacher takes\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department) TECHNIQUE\n\nOF READING,\n\nARITHMETIC,\n\nAND\n\nWRITING\n\n555\n\nhim into the mechanics of reading; but she does not mix technique and\ninterpretation. Here lies the chief difference between the old methods and\nthe new. Use cf the book is deferred until the children can read. From the\nfirst they are led to regard the page as containing a story, and they read to\nget the story.\nThis attitude of mind which is cultivated so successfully by our best primary\nteachers is not utilized to as good advantage in the intermediate and grammar\ngrades. It must be admitted that in many instances the early promise of\nintelligent and intelligible reading is not fully kept up. This is chargeable to\na faulty ideal of the recitation. How seldom do we see children trained to\nlisten to the recitation of their classmates with any real purpose of learning\ntherefrom. In studying their lessons they know that each classmate has access\nto the same items of information. If at the reading period each has before\nhim the very words to be uttered by the reader, there is no real audience for\ninspiration — no adequate motive for effective expression. It matters little\nwhether the reader is even heard by his mates. One obvious remedy for lack\nof technique here lies in so arranging the oral reading that there shall be a real\naudience to inspire and to be inspired. Effective silent reading such as is necessary in studying geography and history would be forwarded by furnishing a\nvariety of textbooks, by emphasizing the use of books of reference, and by readjusting the plan of study and recitation so as to furnish adequate motive for\ngetting information from the printed page. For instance, let the assigned\nlesson be a topic which the pupils are to report upon from all available sources\nof information. See to it that these sources are not the same for all pupils\nin the class, and the opportunity to make a real contribution to the recitation\nfurnishes a motive for effective preparation thru silent reading which is\nabsent when all study the same paragraphs from the same book. The necessity also exists for attending to the recitation of others since all are held for\nall that is presented. Moreover, the reciting pupil has a motive for clear\nstatement since he must make all understand his contribution to the lesson.\nWRITING\n\nWhat is Jiandwriting ? Clearly a means to an end. What is the end\nsought ? It is manifestly the conveying of thought by written symbols so that\nit may be readily und^stood. Handwriting is not now, nor was it e/er, a fine\nart. It is a mechanical device. It is obviously true that one should speak so\nthat he may be understood. He must convey thought by means of the voice so\nthat his auditor may not have to guess at what he intends to say. One should\nconvey thought by means of the written sign so that one may not have to guess\nwhat the writer means to say. The hand must therefore be legible. It is\nnot of first importance that it be fast. Beauty is not of importance. It is of\nsupreme importance that handwriting shall be so distinct, so readable, so\nsure, that nobody may mistake the intention of the writer.\nIn teaching writing, the aim is to have the process become automatic as\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nearly as possible so that attention need not be given to the movement, but may\nbe free to follow the thought. At first the form must be studied and the mind\nmust be fixed upon the process. In fixing the technique of writing the things\nof vital importance are the position of paper on the desk and bodily posture\nconducive to the greatest ease in writing. Proper holding of the pen and\nproper movement are more important considerations than the particular\nstyle of letter which may be in favor at any given time. The supreme importance of early cultivation of life habits should be regarded here. The\nposition of the paper on the desk and the position of the writer determine the\nangle of the writing: If less attention were paid to the slope of the letters and\nmore to securing correct position, practice in movement, and correct habits in\nwriting, better ultimate results would be obtained. But satisfactory technique does not require that all children should use the same letter forms or\nthe same slant or hold the pen and paper in the same position. Individuality isto be considered in it all. It is, however, in the interest of economy\nof effort, both in teaching and learning, in these early years when children\nhave so much to acquire of the formal side of all studies, that the letter forms\nadopted in writing shall be as nearly as possible like the printed forms they\nwill see in their reading books. Vertical forms are therefore to be commended\nin beginning writing. Any slight change of angle that may be natural to the\nindividual or that may later be required is so simple and so easily made that\nit is unnecessary to force the primary school to depart from a style of writing\nthat is so natural and so easily learned.\nIn former times children were often taught to make print letters before\nattempting script; but the script of those days was the difficult Spencerian\nscript which had little resemblance to the print of the book, and learning it\nafter print was to the child almost like learning a second language. The labor\nof learning to write has been greatly reduced by the adoption of simple letter\nforms. It is my conviction that in places where these forms have had reasonable permanence and where careful attention has been given to teaching\npenmanship in the first five elementary grades, the results are fairly good\nthruout — far better than they have ever been before. In Baltimore this is\nconclusively shown by comparing the manuscript work of pupils in our eighth\ngrade with that of pupils of the same age and grade frojn 1852 to 1889. We\nhave bound volumes of examination papers which were written by pupils who\nwished to enter the high schools in each of those thirty-seven years. These\nvolumes furnish indisputable evidence that the writing of grammar grade\npupils was far less legible than the writing of present-day pupils of the same\nage.\nDoubtless greater expertness could be secured in the penmanship of pupils\nin the three upper grades if it were made a specialty and if all the teachers in\nthose grades were expert teachers of penmanship; but instead of being a\nspecialty as it may properly be in the school of business, penmanship is a means\nwhich the pupil uses toward the larger end of getting educated. If, when he\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] TECHNIQUE\n\nOF READING,\n\nARITHMETIC,\n\nAND\n\nWRITING\n\n557\n\nleaves the elementary school, his writing is reasonably rapid, neat, and easy\nto read, a moderate amount of special practice in penmanship will give his\nhand the qualities which we admire in the practiced penman. But the elementary school cannot and does not undertake to turn out professional penmen\nany more than it undertakes to turn out skilled accountants, or artisans ot\nany sort. It does, however, undertake to fit children to write a plain, easily\nread hand, and I venture to say that it now accomplishes this purpose to a\ngreater degree than ever before. While this is true, it must be admitted that\neven better results might be obtained if more attention were given to technique\nin the earlier lessons, particularly in the first and second grades.\nSome of the most thoughtful of my associates suggest that in the first grade\nno penmanship should be permitted except under the immediate direction of\nthe teacher. The custom of allowing children to use penmanship without\nguidance for so great a portion of time in the second grade tends to fix bad\nhabits more firmly. A fifteen-minute writing period for directed practice is\nquite insufficient to correct habits fixed by two hours of undirected writing.\nForms of seat work requiring less writing should be devised for this grade.\nWork carefully supervised should be continued thruout the third, fourth,\nand fifth grades, allowing difficulties to be met progressively. Thereafter\nsystematic speed tests and the rejection of written work carelessly performed\nshould be sufficient to maintain and increase skill. The fact that the dictation\nspeed test in writing is a feature of the civil service examinations should be\nknown by teachers and used to stimulate children to meet the standards of\nthe world.\nARITHMETIC\n\nI do not know exactly what is meant by technique in arithmetic — ^possibly\nfacility and accuracy in fundamental operations. It may perhaps be said\nthat if we are not now getting the desired technique we are getting at it.\nChildren are to some extent making their own problems, using price lists and\nactual measurements in connection with school and home occupations. School\nwork in arithmetic is growing more purposeful and to the extent to which the\nneed for thoughtfulness and accuracy is appreciated by the children, we find\nthe necessary drill work undertaken with determination and zest. We are\nfamiliar with investigations made some years ago by Dr. Rice, in which it\ndeveloped that there was little relation between the time devoted to arithmetic\nand the results obtained. The effort made in the past decade or two to make\nthe teaching of arithmetic more rational has undoubtedly led to improved\nresults. But we still attempt too much. We have ehminated some of the\ntopics that used to appear in the texts, but we have too many left.\nThe fundamental operations in arithmetic, with a few of their simple\napplications, are the only ones that pupils in elementary schools have opportunity to employ. After developing these, and fixing their technique by drill,\ncontinued use of arithmetic in connection with drawing, manual training,\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "558\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ngeography, physics, etc., as called for in the quantitative aspect of such studies,\nwill furnish sufficient practice to keep arithmetic a ready tool. But to follow\nrecent tendencies to the extent of making the textbook in arithmetic a compendium of useful information about a variety of industries for the sake of showing the application of arithmetic to them is as time-wasting a scheme as the\nolder plan of filling the book with arithmetical puzzles. The brevity that must\nof necessity characterize the treatment of an industry in a textbook on arithmetic defeats the informational aim, and the topic as an industry demands\ngreater maturity and larger experience on the part of the pupil than to do the\narithmetical computations incident to the study. Either the industrial topic\nis beyond the comprehension of the children or the operations in arithmetic\ninvolved are too easy to bring adequate increase of mathematical knowledge\nand skill. Arithmetic, like other studies, possesses a unity and continuity of\nits own which cannot b,e freely violated without a wasteful scattering of effort.\nMany opportunities arise for useful correlations between arithmetic and other\nstudies; but when orderly development of a topic in arithmetic is governed\nby the exigencies of some other subject, we violate the true principle of correlation and fail to secure advance of mathematical power proportional to\nthe time consumed.\nSays Raymont :\nIn giving a lesson or a series of lessons upon any particular topic, the teacher should\npress into his service allied material that will help toward the completer grasp of the topic\nunder consideration, but should exclude all else.\n\nBy ceasing to teach obsolete topics and by following this principle of true\ncorrelation we may easily, by the close of the sixth school year, teach all of\nthe arithmetic that our pupils will ever need and give drill enough to insure\naccuracy.\nIt would be well for teachers to become familiar with the tests for facility\nand accuracy which their pupils are likely to be subjected to in the business\nworld. A kind of test with which the boy is not familiar is likely to confuse\nhim and cause him to make errors which he would not make in the schoolroom. For example, boys who are able to write numbers properly from\ndictation, and add accurately fairly long columns, made many errors when\nsubjected to an addition test by a bank cashier who had advertised for help.\nThe unusual condition which handicapped the applicants was the necessity of\nholding in the left hand a bundle of checks ranging in amount from more than\na million dollars down to thirty-seven cents, while copying on a pad with the\nright hand the sums represented by each check, and then footing the column,\nknowing that account was being taken of their speed as well as of their accuracy.\nIn this instance mistakes in placing the figures were far more numerous than\nin actual adding. The boys were confused by the one element in the test new\nto them — the manipulation of the checks.\nOur pupils can easily meet the business man's demand for accuracy and\nfacility if we will but find out how he makes his tests and then give such tests\nin our classrooms.\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl TECHNIQUE\n\nOF READING,\n\nARITHMETIC,\n\nAND\n\nWRITING\n\n559\n\nBy way of review I would say: As to reading, the most enlightened practice\nof today in the lower grades is toward early mastery of meanings, accompanied\nby due attention to technique. It may be questioned whether our grammargrade teachers are so training their pupils for independent use of books as to\nenable them to meet the promise of these favorable beginnings.\nAs to writing : in places where pedagogical considerations have been allowed\nto govern in the selection and retention of simple and easily made letter forms,\nthe writing of school children is reasonably rapid and far more legible than\nthat which prevailed two decades ago. Improvement is to be sought in the\nearly fixing of correct writing habits.\nWe begin teaching formal arithmetic too early, and we continue teaching it\ntoo long as a separate study. We include too many topics, and in our most\nrecently exploited correlations we waste time on topics that do not lead to\nincrease of mathematical skill. In practice for facility and accuracy we should\naccustom our pupils to varied tests so that they may not be nonplussed by\nunusual conditions.\nDISCUSSION\nW. C. Martindale, superintendent of schools, Detroit Mich. — Early in June I\nreceived a communication from the leading speaker, stating that his paper had not yet\nbeen outlined and suggesting that I take up the discussion from my own point of view.\nThis statement is made to account for any apparent lack of correlation between the leading\npaper and the discussion.\nSimple as the question seems it is vitally related to the history of the development of\nelementary education in the United States. Consider for a moment the subject of arithmetic. As a rule our present courses of study have come to us from the past. They originated before the development of secondary schools as a part of local educational endeavor.\nWhen the early grammar schools and the Latin select schools formed the local educational vehicle for preparing students for business and college, the arithmetic taught was\nembodied in a few elementary principles with a minimum of practice.\nThen the elementary school expanded and took over the preparation of the children\nof the masses for their every-day life. That life in a new and expanding community was\ndominated by a business or commercial spirit. The old idea of fixing a few arithmetical\nprinciples was revolutionized into an endeavor to supply all the kinds of problems required\nfor the conduct of any sort of business. Teachers, somewhat under the force of public\nopinion, somewhat from their own inclination, made arithmetic the feature of the course,\nthe real reigning \"fad.\"\nThe development of the graded system helped to keep arithmetic in its place of paramount importance. Standings in arithmetic are gotten at easily and offer a very convenient basis for classification. For a variety of reasons, then, elementary-school courses\nin arithmetic became gradually swollen until they contained problems of every conceivable\nsort. Today the usual three-book course, or, to state the fact more explicitly, the ordinary\noutlined course of study for the elementary school, furnishes more processes than the ordinary registered accountant is able to perform without some thought and study. Is this\nto be the accepted subject-matter for pupils whose average age is fourteen years when they\ncomplete the elementary work ? I believe that time may be more profitably employed.\nHowever, I do not mean that arithmetic is to be neglected. We cannot afford to neglect\nit. We are too firmly convinced of its value to the child and the demand for it is too insistent to go unheeded.\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "56o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nI do believe, however, that there should be a readjustment both in prescription and\nassignment and that something should be left for the continuation and the secondary\nschool.\nI believe that the technique of arithmetic is receiving due attention in Detroit. We\nhave done something in the matter of eliminating superfluous material. The necessity\nfor quickness and accuracy in the performance of the four fundamental operations is\nemphasized. Clear comprehension of principles is required and in certain districts of the\ncity commercial work is provided in the eighth grade. By this means many pupils who\nwould otherwise leave school are retained and even go on to the high schools where they\nreceive the business training they desire and are at the same time subject to the cultural\ninfluence of other subjects. I do not believe that the teaching of the technique of arithmetic has been injured by these methods and we cannot afford to neglect the demand for\naccuracy in arithmetic. Faithfulness in this matter is just as much a part of education and\ntends as much toward the upbuilding of character as do literary appreciation and skill in\nthe use of English.\nA word on the subject or subjects of reading and writing. The discussion today from\none standpoint is a direct result of the tendency in recent years to infuse thought and imagination from the very beginning into the processes of learning to read and write. It is not\nenough that a child shall learn in the first year to recognize and pronounce words. The\nprocess should be associated from the beginning with rich content.\nIf the stories and pictures which delight him and the physical activities which make\nup his life furnish the inspiration for his first simple reading lessons, these lessons are a\nmedium for thought and imagery and activity from the very beginning. The words are not\nmere black characters on the page, but open doors into the child's fairyland.\nThe same thing is true of writing. The tendency today is to teach writing as a branch\nof language, not as a detached and mechanical thing to be afterward properly related to\nthe larger subject. Instead of beginning with lines and proceeding in a fixed order to words\nand sentences, children are allowed from the beginning to write words and even short sentences. The writing lesson is based upon the reading lesson.\nA skillful teacher will be successful, using the term to indicate mechanical accuracy,\nwith either method. Granting this, there can be no question as to which method is preferable. Any method which inculcates carelessness is bad, but the carelessness where it\nexists lies usually in the application and not in the method itself.\nWe are withdrawing the emphasis on technical grammar in the middle elementary\ngrades. We are trying to have children use language rather than dissect it. We are\nendeavoring to select reading-matter which will appeal to them so strongly that mechanical\ndifficulties will be overcome by means of interest. By training them to write as a means of\nself-expression, we infuse the breath of life into the mechanical process. By making\narithmetic a training of judgment we provide the proper incentive for quickness and accuracy. All of these things tend to make the school attractive rather than repellent to the\naverage child.\nThe active boy particularly is held in school and does not merely float along until he\nis old enough to go to work.\nP. M. Harbold, superintendent of Model School, State Normal School, Millersville,\nPa. — ^Whatever the trend of advanced educational thought with regard to method in\nreading, this one thing seems evident in certain sections of the country. In primary work\nthe technique of reading receives at least its due amount of attention. Almost all of the\npopular methods of reading used today devote much time, particularly during the first\nyear, to the mechanics of the process. Upon the examination of the pedagogical literature\nextant one must conclude that, in intermediate grades almost no emphasis is laid on technique and, in grammar grades, literature, as such, claims all attention in the reading classt\nThe end and aim in reading in any grade, it seems to me, should be that which makes for\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj TECHNIQUE\n\nOF READING,\n\nARITHMETIC,\n\nAND\n\nWRITING\n\n561\n\nthe sanest unfolding of the child's powers, that which gives him mental discipline, and, at\nthe same time, that which has in it the element of interest.\nIt is a well-known fact that the elementary school is the people's school, and that a\ncomparatively small proportion of the children ever enter secondary schools. The large\nmajority of our good middle class must go out into the world without that culture and powers\nwhich training in the secondary schools and colleges must give. This fact argues for this\nthought : Whatever else the elementary school aims to de-telop in the child who has small\nchance of higher education, it should aim to develop all the capabilities in the child which\nan elementary education can develop. I mean that power which the child can use in his\nevery-day life as he performs the duties of a good citizen, power that aids him in becoming\nself-supporting, power that is a means to further self-development, power that makes him\nindependent, and power that is in order to the enjoyment of life.\nThis then lays the basis for the kind of work to be done in our elementary schools ,\nand its special application to reading is obvious. We shall speak of four phases of the work\nin reading which partake of the nature of technique and which may not be neglected without\ninjury to our school work.\nThe first of these is a definite, thoro training in certain elements which are essential\nto the intelligent use of self-helps. It was stated above that in the primary grades much\ndrill on the elements finds its place. This is as it should be, and from these elements, mere\nraw materials, something can be made that will serve a larger purpose in later school days\nand in life. These elements must be so mastered as to be of value later. They must\nbecome available in actual practice.\nIn the second place there should be training in the use of self-helps. All about man\ntoday are books, papers, etc., which can be made use of by him if he is trained in the proper\nuse of these helps. Educated man either knows, or knows where to find what he doesn't\nknow, and how to acquire what he has found. We need to teach our youth to know some\nthings, to know where to look for the things which he doesn't know, and to make him master\nof that which he has found. To be more specific in a few instances, I would have every\nchild, upon leaving the elementary schools, know how to use the dictionary, and books\nof reference intelligently, and perhaps how to make the most of a library.\nNot only must elements and the use of self-helps be mastered, but also training in the\naccurate mastery of the content of the printed page deserves mention here. We are living\nin an age of many books, newspapers, and magazines. He who cannot get the content\nof the printed page rapidly and accurately loses time which is a thing of great moment.\nSilent reading is a matter of technique which becomes paramount to any one in busy life\nor in schools of higher education. This is a power which can be trained to an almost unlimited degree.\nThis is also an age of expression as well as of acquisition. Not only must a man be\ntaught how to acquire knowledge and information, but he must also learn to express himself before his fellow-men. The laborer wants to be heard by his fellow-men, the farmer\nhas occasion to discuss before his fellow-farmers the questions of the day as well as the\nproblems of his own calling, and man in society has opinions which demand expression.\nThis power of expression should be trained in the elementary school to a greater degree than\nit is at present. To this end the argument for considerable good oral reading has a place\nin the discussion of the technique in reading. The declamation, or the selection found in\nthe reader, memorized and spoken intelligently, manfully and forcefully also demands\nmore attention than it at present receives.\nBearing all this in mind, we ask ourselves the question: shall the technique be of such\na character as to benefit those who never go beyond the elementary school, without due\nconsideration for those who enter high schools, academies, seminaries and colleges ? The\nanswer is not far to seek. Generally speaking, that training in technique which makes\nthe child by the time he leaves the elementary school practically independent of teacher\nand tutor in the getting of thought from the printed page is also the best training for the\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elemmiary\n\nyouth who pursues courses of study above the elementary schools. Good training in technique in the elementary work almost invariably predicates a successful career in higher\neducation.\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\nR.\n\nR.\n\nAN\n\nREEDER,\n\nESSENTIAL FACTOR\nTARY SCHOOL WORK\n\nIN ELEMEN-\n\nHASTINGS-ON-HUDSON,\n\nY.\n\nN.\n\nAn interesting study on the history of education in this country is the\nshifting of emphasis from one point to another in the zig-zag course of development of the public -school curriculum. There is probably no better index\nto an estimate of the relative worth placed upon the various branches of study\nor methods of teaching them in the elementary school than the proportion of\ntime devoted to their consideration in the programs of this Association during\nthe fifty years of its history. In running thru the Annual Reports one soon\ndiscovers a surprising dearth of matter on the subject of the teaching of morals.\nEach branch of the curriculum in its manifold aspects of content and method\nhas been treated again and again, and great progress in the making of a course\nof study better adapted to the needs of the children and of the times has\nundoubtedly resulted from these discussions. But instruction in morals,\naltho conceded to be of vital necessity in all educative endeavor, has never had\nextended or intensive treatment at the hands of this Association, and from the\npresent status of moral instruction in our public schools as compared with any\nformer period, it is not easy to see that any progress in this field has been\nmade. The inconsistency involved in conceding first rank in worth and least\nattention in discussion to this subject of instruction may be explained by the\nfact that our public -school system was established as an adjunct to the home\nand the church at a time when both of these institutions stood for much more\nin the life of the child than they do today; at a time when the child was much\nless a ward of the state than he is today, when life was rural, homes wxre\nhouses and lands with firesides and gardens — not tenement boxes — ^v^^hen\nreligion was potent in the home, parental authority was unquestioned, and the\nchurch and minister functioned largely in every community.\nThese conditions have all changed. The delinquent child of today is the\nproduct of city and town life. Out of 130,000 children in our reformatories,\n98 per cent, come from cities, towns, and villages. At the House of Refuge\nin New York City 78 per cent, come from the tenement district. In Baltimore\ncrime is 50 per cent, greater in the slum tenement district than in the city at\nlarge; in Chicago 260 per cent, greater.\nWith the growth of factory industries the home as an industrial center\nhas steadily declined. With the elimination from home life of the old-fashioned\nchores and daily responsibilities for home-making services and industries,\nhas come the breaking-down of family discipline and parental control. Children can't behave if they have nothing to do. An idle child is a danger signal.\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nWORK\n\n563\n\nToday and for the next ten weeks all over this country hundreds of thousands\nof idle children will be flying danger signals.\nAlong with the weakening of home influence has come an immigration of\na million or more foreigners annually — ^parents too ignorant to learn our\nlanguage with children too quick to grasp the privileges of American liberty\nwithout the sense of self-control or social responsibility which safeguards it.\nThe result upon child life of all these disintegrating factors is not only an^\nincrease of juvenile depravity, but a ratio of precocious crime and delinquency\nnot known a half-century ago.\nWhile the state may have been but a passive agent in the recidivism of the\nhome resulting from changes in social and industrial conditions, she has\nnevertheless been an active agent in the elimination of religious instruction\n.from the public school. Moral instruction in the earlier period of education\nin this country was inseparably bound up with religious instruction. But the\nstate in demanding of the church \"hands off\" in all matters pertaining to\nthe public -school system has brought about a gradual but effective elimination\nof religious instruction from public education, forced a schism between religious\nand moral instruction, and left the latter swinging in the air. Whatever may be\ntrue of the ability of the mature mind to form moral conceptions and act upon\nmoral grounds independent of religious feeling or of the consciousness of a\nSupreme Being, it is certainly true that such ethical abstractions do not appeal\nto the child mind. At each step in the elimination of religious instruction from\nthe public schools the state has assumed increased risk. The public -school\nsystem is the extension downward of the nation's police force. It is the\npeaceful arm of the police system before it has become necessary to don the\nblue coat, brass buttons, and locust wand. The only rational and adequate\nmeans at the state's command to safeguard and perpetuate herself, her laws,\nand her institutions, is thru the education provided for her future citizens\nin the public schools. The state is expending immense sums of money trying\nto correct grievous ills by legislation. The children of today form the state\nof tomorrow. Nine-tenths of these children receive their education in the\npublic elementary schools. Character by culture thru public -school education\ninstead of by-laws and penalties should be the aim of the state. An education\nwhich is not moral is unsafe both for the individual and for the state. With\nthese facts before us — ^which must be patent to everyone — it certainly needs\nno further argument to show that moral instruction is essential to elementary\neducation.\nExcept for the peculiar conditions under which public elementary education\nhas developed in this country, it would certainly be uncomplimentary to us\nas a body of teachers and to our progress in educational affairs to find it necessary to discuss at this late date such a fundamental proposition as that which\nforms the subject of this paper. Its appearance on the program is a confession of neglect in previous years to give the teaching of morals the consideration\ndue to such a vital interest to education and democracy.\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nIn his paper before the National Council of Education at Los Angeles\nlast year, Mr. Clifford W. Barnes, chairman of the Executive Committee of\nthe International Committee on Moral Training, said :\nGenerally speaking, systematic moral instruction may be said to have no place in our\nAmerican school system, for it has only been tried to a very limited extent in a few^ small\nplaces.\n\nThe organization two years ago in London of an International Committee\non Moral Training, the cordial hearing given this committee by the National\nEducation Association a year ago, the special investigation of the problem of\nsystematic moral instruction in public schools undertaken by the Association,\nfor which a generous appropriation was made, the establishment of an executive\noffice in Chicago by the International Committee, and the employment of a\nnumber of experts gathering statistics as to the best work being done along\nthe line of moral training in the schools of eight European countries, indicate\nan awakening of interest in the subject greater than at any previous time\nin the history of education in this country.\nAn old argument, but one which is usually maintained with much vigor\nwhenever the question of moral instruction is up for discussion, is this: The\norganization of the school and the various branches of study included in its\ncurriculum are pregnant with moral content; some even go so far as to say\nwith religious ideas and implications. In fact, one writer in a discussion of\nthe subject says :\nEach study and each experience has its roots in the infinite. There is no subject in\nthe curriculum, there is no relation in the life of the school which is not packed with potential divinity, and which may not make for morality.\n\nThis reminds one of that beautiful little story of the flower in the crannied\nwall. But alas ! most teachers see only the primrose by the river's brim.\nUnless we are going to get closer to the problem of moral instruction than\nsimply to consider the implications of morality which are supposed to lie in the\nschool organization and the curriculum, we shall but follow the course of\nprevious discussions of the subject in teachers' conventions; namely, tarry\na few minutes over the question in this great gathering of teachers and then\n'*like a man beholding his natural face in a glass\" go our way and straightway forget what manner of discussion it was. Something more definite, more\nconcrete than the \"potential divinity in things\" is necessary in order that\npublic -school instruction may issue in moral character. Nor would it be\nprofitable for us to spend time defending the public school against criticism\nfor lack of moral instruction or disclaiming responsibility for moral training\non the ground that the school controls but about one-eighth of the child's\ntime. We do great things along other and less important lines of instruction\nthru the public schools. Why should we not accomplish much along moral\nlines ? The only valid excuse, if any, which might be offered would be the\nfact that we are forced by the logic of events to teach morals apart from religious\ninstruction. But there is a way around this. While the state has forbidden\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nWORK\n\n565\n\nreligious instruction — ^which practically means the use of the Bible as a textbook— it has not taken a stand against religion as such, nor the use of religious\nappeal,\nA child responds to an appeal to his religious consciousness much more\nreadily than to his moral instincts. I have again and again had children before\nme who were guilty of lying or stealing and have attempted to awaken in\nthem a strong feeling of moral responsibility and guilt, only to be met with\nan armed and stubborn indifference; but a simple turn from the moral to\nthe religious aspect of the deed, from the abstract, ethical principle to the\noffended love and justice of a Supreme Being, rarely fails to bring forth an\nemotional response, a confession of guilt, and a sense of humility which furnish\na basis for a new start. Is this teaching religion ? If it is I would that every\nteacher might be guilty of it. But there is large room for moral instruction\nin a field in which the religious motive functions but indirectly or not at all. I\nrefer to instruction in sex, sanitary, and health knowledge, in social manners\nand amenities, in the field of sport, etc.\nThat which reaches the child thru his experience is tenfold more a part of\nhim than that which comes to him thru mere ideas or sensory stimulus. One\nmoral experience is worth a score of formal lessons in morality.\nOne of the boys in our garden class stole radishes from another boy's\ngarden and was caught in the act by two or three of his companions. All of the\ngardeners were at once assembled ; the boy and his case were set before them.\nA motion was made that the boy forfeit his garden. It was one of the best\nin the plot, but by his deed he had forfeited his right to its ownership. The\nmotion was unanimously carried. When the assembly was asked if there was\nany further business concerning the matter, a motion was made that this boy\nbe required to weed all of the other gardens. This motion was not entertained\nby the chair, but would no doubt have carried if a vote had been taken on it:\nFirst, because, on account of recent rains the gardens were weedy; second,\nbecause of natural laziness in relation to such work as weeding gardens;\nand third, because the thief was an unpopular boy.\nSoon after the walls and ceilings of one of the boys' cottages in our Orphanage had been decorated, a boy made with a nail an ugly scratch about ten\nfeet long thru the paint on the wall of one of the dormitories. He was reported\nat once and brought to the ofl&ce by other boys of the cottage with the request\nthat he be \"everlastingly licked.\" But they were soon convinced that there\nwas no connection between his offense and a ''licking.\" They were then\ngiven some instruction as to principles of punishment with special reference\nto the fact that punishment should bear a natural relation to the offense and\nthat it should, when possible, take the form of an indeterminate sentence. The\nmatter was referred back to the boys for further deliberation . The decision\nreached and presented the following day was that the boy should sleep in the\nattic and go to bed in the dark until such a time as it was thought safe for him\nto return to the dormitory. He was kept sleeping in the attic for about six weeks.\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nSeveral interesting inferences may be drawn from such instances as these:\nFirst, that children are capable of rational action upon moral questions;\nsecond, that it is unsafe to give absolute authority into their hands as has been\nattempted in some of the city school-government schemes; third, that participation ingovernment under proper restriction is an essential factor in the\ntraining of the future citizens of a democracy; fourth, helping to discipline\nand govern others promotes self-government, for not one case of stealing\nfrom gardens has been reported, or, to our knowledge, occurred since this\ncase, which happened three years ago. The damage to the wall was repaired\nand no similar case of vandalism in the cottage has occurred for about the\nsame period.\nEach new boy coming into the cottage comes up against a moral leverage\nwith respect to certain home-making refinements and industrial standards\nwhich he cannot resist. He is seized and shaped to the molds by forces\nwhich he cannot withstand. The same may be true with respect to moral\nstandards in any school if -the teacher works wisely and diligently to establish\nthem.\nPublic sentiment may become as potent a factor for moral uplift among\nchildren as among adults. Almost unlimited possibilities for good lie in it,\nbut it is comparatively a neglected field in school discipline. Two of my\nchildren attended a high school in Massachusetts where there was almost no\ncheating or cribbing and what little existed, was frowned down upon by the\nstudents — the tone of the school was against it. Later on they attended a\nhigh school in another state where there was no sentiment against cribbing,\nand the practice was very prevalent. I am confident if the garden thief and\nthe cottage vandal had been dealt with as individuals only, other similar\ncases would have followed no matter what the punishment might have been.\nThe first step in the movement for moral instruction in the schools is the\nmaking of a place for it on the regular program. Until this is done it will be to\nlittle purpose that we devote time in teachers' meetings to a discussion of the\nsubject. It is about as reasonable to expect spelling or arithmetic to receive\nsufficient attention thru indirect instruction and incidental attention or application, as to assume that moral instruction will be effectually imparted thru\nthe observance of the regular school virtues such as silence, order, punctuality,\netc., and the so-called moral content of the various branches of the curriculum.\nDirect as well as indirect instruction in morals should be given in our\npublic schools. The fear of making a moral lesson or application too direct\nor too obvious has become a fetich with many teachers, and the result often\nis that no moral instruction whatever is given. The three following cases\nwhich have come within my experience are typical of many other similar\nones. William — an undersized fourteen-year-old boy — ^when asked why he\nwas so small for his age, told me he could not account for his lack of physical\ndevelopment and vigor unless it was due to the smoking of cigarettes from\nabout seven years of age until brought to the Orphanage School. He said\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nWORK\n\n567\n\nhe did not know the habit would injure him. He is a good boy, trustworthy\nand well disposed, and would no doubt never have formed the habit had he\nbeen properly instructed,\nLaura, now fourteen years of age, brought with her a vulgar bowery song\nthree years ago when she entered the school, which she immediately proceeded to teach to the other little girls. The song was brought to the office\nby an older girl. The child showed little knowledge of the meaning of the\nsong when questioned about it, dropped it at once when instructed concerning\nit, and is now one of the most refined girls in the school.\nKenneth, at fifteen years of age, told me what a hard struggle he had had\nto break up the habit of self-abuse after my first conference with the boys on\nthe subject some three years before, also that he had not known the practice\nwas wrong or would work injury to him until so instructed.\nSchool nurses and settlement workers find in thousands of homes deplorable\nignorance concerning dietary, sanitation, and the care of children and the sick,\nresulting in ill-health and a high mortality rate. So may teachers find among\nschool children such distressing ignorance concerning morals as results every\nyear in a record of juvenile delinquency, vice, and crime, all of which could be\ngreatly reduced by proper instruction.\n\nDISCUSSION\nFassett a. Cotton, state superintendent of public instruction, Indiana. — In the discussion of the paper I shall confine my remarks to the consideration of two points: the\nteacher the greatest factor in the school, and the nature of school work. These will .be\nconsidered as factors in moral training.\nThe greatest factor in any school is the teacher. Indeed, the entire success of the\nschool as an institution depends upon this factor. The greatest problem in connection\nwith school education has always been to secure competent teachers, and this will always\nbe the greatest problem.\nThe qualities that make for success in teaching are exactly the same as those required\nfor success in any calling. These are: (i) Personality; that is, the quality of being somebody, oneself, and at the same time recognizing that there are others. It carries with it\nthe ability to meet people and to take part in the affairs of the community. An ideal\nteacher presupposes the highest standard of morality. In discussing this standard it must\nbe remembered that the real teacher is always more, much more, than a mere instructor.\nWhile consciously imparting knowledge the teacher is unconsciously teaching infinitely\nmore than the mere facts involved in the subjects in hand. Imitation is one of the strongest\nfactors in education. All unconsciously the children take on the physical bearing of the\nteacher, his manner of speech, his mode of dress, his ways of thinking, his very character.\nThe teacher becomes a model of the children whether he would or no. It is not suflScient\nthen that he be a good instructor merely. He must possess that subtle something called\npersonality which by its very presence teaches.\nRecognizing this as true, the people, almost as a matter of fact» havp come to set up a\nhigher standard of conduct for teachers than for others. This is perfectly proper. A\nteacher's conduct is the evidence of his character; therefore the necessity of genuineness\nin the teacher, who is the guide, the inspiration, the source of the life of the school, cannot be\noverestimated.\nThe school will be just what the teacher is— it can be no more.\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nThe last chapter in Glimpses of Child Nature, a Httle book written by the author of\nJean Mitchell's School, describes six types of teachers. There is the profuse and gushing\nlittle entertainer who doesn't know the difference between a nursery and a school. There\nis the snappish, ironical, sarcastic, suspicious tyrant who seems to think the chief end of\nteaching is to humiliate the children. There is the nervous, energetic, worried teacher,\nsometimes really sincere, but wearing herself and her pupils out. There is the self-satisfied,\nplacid, deliberate, lazy teacher. There is the \"best disciphnarian in the city,\" who has\nno time to waste in teaching. Then, there is the genuine, womanly woman, with the\nmissionary spirit, with a genius born to teach, with a personality whose presence brings\nsunshine, whose words cheer, and whose smile is a benediction. We have seen all of them.\nWhat a misfortune it is that the children must come under the influence of the first five !\nWhat a misfortune that all children cannot enjoy the presence of the sixth type ! The\nteacher makes the school what it is— a joy or a sorrow to childhood. We must have\nscholarship in our schools; but with it we must have men and women. The teacher owes\nit to himself and his pupils to be just as true, just as cheerful, just as genuine as possible\nevery day.\n(2) Scholarship, the knowledge of the subjects he is to teach or of the things he is to\ndo. A teacher's knowledge of a subject is quite comprehensive. It includes a knowledge\nof the facts themselves, a knowledge of the things that make the facts a subject, a knowledge of the nature of the mind that is to learn the facts, and a knowledge of all the conditions under which the facts are to be learned.\n(3) Skill in presentation, or the ability to do things. This carries with it the power\nto take the initiative in school work. Combining these three qualities there should be the\nsimple common-sense that enables one to adjust himself to any and all conditions that\nmay arise.\nWith these qualities present a great deal may be done in the way of teaching moraHty.\nBut this can only be done by teaching eternal principles or right conduct. It is a question\nof making each individual realize completely the \" ethical self.\" This involves the question\nof personality already referred to. He only can be moral who, in every act he does, is\nconscious that there are others. Acts are moral, immoral, and unmoral, and education\nshould make each individual able to discriminate.\nPersons able to discriminate can be developed, and this, I take it, is the work of the\nteacher in the realm of morality. But this must be done largely thru living. The daily\nconcrete acts are to be the means; the people cannot be legislated into being moral.\nFor example, temperance cannot be taught by showing pictures of alcohol-inflamed\nstomachs. Temperance is a broader, subtler thing than is indicated in so-called \"scientific temperance.\" The story of Daniel's right living is a better temperance lesson on the\npositive side than all the negative lessons that can ever be taught. Morality must be\ngrown by feeding upon positive fundamental truths.\nThe child ought to be taught to use his senses in nature that he may take on habits\nof observation. He is to be taught to express in one way and another what he has observed\nthat he may get skill in doing things and habits of industry. Out of such experience comes\ngood judgment, which is also habit, and is the very essence of morality. By constantly\npracticing those things which he would do and be, one builds into himself, by a sort of\nhuman immanence, the character he would possess. The man who learns to get things\njust right and true in the physical world and whom nothing else satisfies cannot be a bad\nman, so closely do exactness and uprightness run together. Indeed, physical and spiritual\ntraining are so closely related that separate consideration is almost impossible. It is\nrecognized that doing things physically carries with the doing exactly the same growth of\ncharacter or moral power that doing things spiritually does.\nToo much attention cannot be given to the moral training of children. Indeed, it is\nagreed that the supreme end of all education is manhood and womanhood, and that all\nsubjects taught and all things done in the school are but means to this end.\nChildren are\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nIN THE\n\nGRADES\n\n569\n\nto be trained so that thought and act will withstand automatically every temptation.\nA\njudgment that cannot err is the only positive safeguard in life. President Eliot says:\nThe school should teach every child, by precept, by example, and by every illustration\nits reading can supply that the supreme attainment for any individual is vigor and loveliness\nof character. Industry, persistence, veracity in word and act, gentleness, and disinterestedness should be made to thrive and blossom during school life in the hearts of the children\nwho bring these virtues from their homes well started, and should be planted and tended\nin the less fortunate children. Furthermore, the pupils should be taught that what is\nvirtue in one human being is virtue in any group of human beings, large or small — a\nvillage, a city, or a nation; that the ethical principles which should govern an empire are\nprecisely the same as those which should govern an individual; and that selfishness, greed,\nfalseness, brutality, and ferocity are as hateful and degrading in a multitude as they are\nin a single savage.\nAfter all, the surest way for a boy to be somebody is for him to learn to do something\nwell. The dominant instinct of childhood is that of action. The healthful child must be\ndoing something, and all of education in the home and school could be narrowed down to^\nskillful direction of this energy. No child is naturally bad, but the child who is very much\nalive may shortly develop wrong tendencies if he is not directed in right channels. The\nsolution of the problem lies in the utilization of all home and industrial experience to build\ninto the child habits of industry.\nThe boy and the girl must be taught to do things for their salvation. A system of\neducation that leaves one without the power to undertake and accomplish things in life is\nworse than worthless. The parent jvho permits his boys and girls to grow up without\nteaching them to help themselves, is, to say the least, very unkind to them, and this unkindness may easily shade into criminal neglect.\nIf this nation is to endure all of the people must be educated. They must be intelligent, temperate, industrious, skillful and constantly employed if they are to be prosperous\nand happy.\nThese are the qualities that belong to real education.\n\nMATHEMATICS\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY, INDIANA\n\nIN THE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nGRADES\n\nBLOOMINGTON,\n\nINDIANA\n\nMathematics is a universal subject of study. It has long had a very\nprominent place in the curricula of elementary, secondary, and higher schools.\nIt has had more time than any other subject, unless it be language. The\ntime and energy given to it speak eloquently of its value. The place of mathematics inthe school course is in no danger. The friends of the subject, however, can do good service by calling attention to the reasons why it is in the\ncourse of study, to a better arrangement of its material in the curriculum, and\nto improved methods of teaching it. The course of study will be more reasonable and the teaching more rational if both are based upon the nature of the\nsubject taught.\nIn general, a subject has no place in a course of study unless it furnishes\nthe student with useful knowledge and also contributes to his culture. Mathematics justifies itself as a subject of school study on both of these grounds.\nIt would be difficult to find any subject more closely related to every-day\nlife than elementary mathematics. The child does not live long until he feels\nthe need of quantifying and numbering his experiences. He must know the\ncommon mathematical experiences of his fellows in order to be on good terms\niwith them.\nA careful analysis shows that but few of the experiences of\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nlife are wholly free from mathematical notions. Should all mathematical ideas\nbe eliminated, factories would be closed, commerce destroyed, and business\nstopped. Such simple matters as telling the time, or buying four pounds of\nsugar, would be entirely impossible. A subject so closely connected with the\ncommon every-day affairs of men must ever be a matter of school study.\nOn the side of culture, mathematics is able to do some things for the student\nbetter than they can be done by any other subject. Being a pure science,\nthe science of necessary conclusions, it early introduces the learner to organized\nknowledge, to logical thinking, and to necessary inferences. In mathematics\nconclusions are not made because they are pleasing or desirable, but because\nthey are inevitable. The nature of mathematics is such as to train the student\n•away from the formation of conclusions to buy gold-bricks of any style. If\nthe mathematical type of thinking were more common, the get-rich-quick\nconcerns would be less common. The delusion of 50 per cent, dividends\non stock that cost 10 per cent, cannot long remain in the mind of the man\nwho thinks mathematically.\nThe mathematical form of thinking is of great importance. It is fundamental, for it has been developed in every civilization. It may be described\nas consisting of three parts: first, the careful observation of facts; second, the\napplication to these facts of known principles; and third, the making of the\ninference that facts and principles compel. No one ignorant of this form of\nthought is either safe or educated.\nThe nature of mathematics is such that it compels attention. No one\ncan master its secrets unless he gives himself wholly to the task. The immature\nstudent soon finds that wool gathering in mathematical work is costly. In\nadding a column of figures, if the mind wanders at the haK-way point, the\npenalty of doing it all over is immediately assessed and collected. In long\ndivision, the least wavering at the moment that the quotient figure is about to be\ndetermined is disastrous. It means going back and doing it all over again.\nThis happens everywhere in mathematics. For every act of inattention the\npenalty is immediate and certain. The certainty of the penalty soon brings\nrespect for the law, and the student begins to resist the pull of outside forces.\nHe learns to attend.\nThe course in mathematics for the grades should be formed so as to meet\nthe needs of the child by contributing knowledge that he ought to know, and by\ngiving power that he should have. The great fundamental storehouse of\nmathematics is arithmetic. It is at the bottom historically, logically, and\npsychologically. From the necessity of the case it must form the main part\nof the grade course in mathematics. The grade course should be made for\nthe grades and not for the high school. For this reason formal algebra and\ngeometry have no place in the grade course. The algebra of the equation and\nmuch concrete geometry should be in the course. There is no longer any good\nreason why either teacher or pupil should shy at an equation or dodge a simple\ngeometrical fact. It should be remembered that mathematics is in the singular\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nGRADES\n\n571\n\nnumber. No definite boundaries separate its subjects. Arithmetic, algebra,\nand geometry overlap and interlace. Much of arithmetic becomes easy and\nintensely interesting by the use of the equation or by the application of some\nsimple concrete geometry. In some of our best textbooks both of these ideas\nare included, but generally in a supplement or in separate chapters. These\nideas should be embodied in the arithmetic as an integral part of it.\nMuch of the fundamental part of arithmetic must be remembered. The\nreasoning of the later parts is greatly hindered unless there is the material for\nreason in the memory. No power of the mind is more active in the early school\nlife than the memory. During the first four years of school life, normal\nchildren take delight in exercising this faculty. The course in arithmetic\nshould use these years for gaining mastery of counting, and of all the fundamental relations of numbers. In many of the best schools of Europe, nothing\nbeyond the fundamental operations, except the simplest sort of work with\nfractions, is attempted. In many of our schools we have been too ambitious\nand have attempted work entirely too difficult. It would be far better to make\nthe arithmetic of the first four years fit more closely to the nature and needs\nof the child.\nUpon his entrance to school, indeed, several years earlier, the child has\nneed of numbers and derives keen pleasure from multiplying his number\nexperiences. Number opens for him a new soul window and gives him a\nwider outlook. Work with number should therefore begin in the first grade.\nIf argument for this statement is needed, one finds it in the experience of\nPestalozzi and in the success of thousands of his disciples. It has been urged\nin opposition that the time during the first and second years of school fife\ncould be used to better advantage in doing other things. This may be true,\nbut the better things have not yet been found. The task of finding a substitute\nfor number work that will prove more interesting, and give more valuable\nreturns, is so hard that a thoughtful man will hardly undertake it.\nIn the first and second grades the work should center about counting and\nnumber applications to very simple experiences. In some schools this work\nis made incidental. The objection to such a program is that it generally\nbecomes accidental, and nothing of value is accomplished.\nThe work of the first two years should include systematic exercises in\ncounting by ones, twos, and threes, forward and backward, acquaintance with\nnumber symbols to at least 100, and the number combinations involved in the\nexperiences common to this age. It need not be said that most of this work\nshould be concrete. In the counting, however, the child soon gets away from\nthe need of actual things, and counts from the sheer joy that the rhythm in the\ncounting gives. The child should have the number symbols, because they\ngive him needed tools and make it easier for him to be kept busy rationally.\nIn the third and fourth years counting should be extended to include counting\nby nines, tables of the fundamental operations learned, the commonly used\nfacts of our system of weights and measures mastered, skill gained in speedy\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nand accurate addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, mastery of\nthe meaning and use of the few commonly occurring fractions attained, and\nthe ability gained to apply the tool, mathematics, to the simple problems\nof buying, selling, and measuring. Incidentally, and not accidentally, thru\nthe first few years, acquaintance should be formed with the common geometric\nforms, these simple properties learned, and number applied in determining easy\nboundaries, areas, and contents. The interest of the child is so closely related\nto physical activity, that a large part of the mathematical material of the first\nfour years should come thru the work that the child does. Many of the\nproblems that he solves should be made from data that he himself has gathered.\nThis data may come from his other studies, from measurements that he has\nbeen directed to make, and from experiences at home, at the grocery, or in the\nshop. Whatever relates number to the experiences of life will help in keeping\nup the interest.\nWith the fifth school year the more formal side of arithmetic should be\nbegun. The child has now reached a stage in his development when he can\nbegin to appreciate more formal statements and sustain interest in more\ncomplicated reasonings. The transition should be gradual. The more\ncomplicated problems should be seen to arise easily from the experiences of\nhome, farm, shop, and business.\nThe work of the last four years of school in the grades should include\nfractions, common and decimal, percentage as used in profit and loss, dividends, assessments, taxes, gains in wealth, population, etc., simple interest,\nwith principal, time, and rate given, ratio and simple proportion, mensuration\napplied to all commonly occurring forms, square and cube root by factoring,\nsquare root formally, problems of analysis, and sufficient algebra to insure the\neasy use of the equation. The obsolete and needless parts of arithmetic should\nbe omitted. Many of the recent textbooks have done well in omissions.\nPerhaps none of them has quite succeeded in getting rid of all the useless lumber\nof the past. There are sufficient fields of present-day arithmetical application\nto use all the school time of the child. Giving time to the dead things of the\npast is not only needless, but very harmful. Our system of weights and\nmeasures is bad enough at its best. All obsolete and unusual units should be\nomitted. Such tables as Apothecary and Troy are for the druggist and the\njeweler, and have no place in school study. The addition of several numbers,\neach consisting of miles, furlongs, rods, yards, feet, and inches, is never required\noutside f)f an arithmetic, and it should not be required there. Long problems\nrequiring reductions thru three or four units are simply useless refinements of\ncruelty, and should be relegated at once to the junk-pile of oblivion.\nGreatest common divisor by long division has no application outside of a\nbook, and besides, no pupil in the grades can comprehend it. It should be\nomitted and the factoring method alone taught. The same is true of least\ncommon multiple. Its applications are simple, and the factoring method is\nsufficient. In fractions much time could be saved by limiting the work to\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nGRADES\n\n573\n\nfractions of frequent occurrence. Entirely too much time is spent in reducing\nfractions to uncommon denominators. In percentage and interest most of the\nindirect cases are of but Httle practical importance. They should not be\ntreated arithmetically, but should be handled by means of the equation. In\nthis way they become interesting, easily understood and readily retained.\nSuch applications of percentage as involve fractional parts of bonds and\nshares of stock and the inverse case of commission and brokerage should be\nomitted. Compound and annual interest and partial payments, except\nin very simple form, should be omitted. The subject of exchange, as usually\npresented, is far more complicated than the reality. Only its simple business\nside should be presented. Square root has little application and cube root\nstill less. Omit the latter entirely and teach the former as simply as possible.\nOther subjects that should be omitted are circulating decimals, true discount,\nequation of payments, complicated problems, partnership, compound proportion, and all business problems which do not conform to present usage.\nThe course should be planned and organized with the following very\ndefinite ends in view :\na) Accuracy and reasonable speed in the performance of all fundamental operations.\nb) Power to add or subtract mentally any two numbers less than one hundred.\nc) Skill and ease in the use of short cuts, especially those involving the use of aliquot\nparts of one hundred.\nd) Complete mastery of simple fractions in all useful relations.\ne) Absolute mastery of the use of the decimal point in all operations with decimals.\n/) Acquaintance with business forms and customs, as found in stores, in shops, in\nbanks and on farms, and ability to use mathematics in answering questions that arise in\nthese various forms of business.\ng) A good acquaintance with the simple equation and the habit of using it in all\narithmetical problems where its use is advantageous.\nh) The mastery of the common useful facts of geometry which may be attained by\nconcrete or inductive methods.\ni) Skill in straight thinking in the presence of complicated data.\n\nHowever valuable the study of mathematics may be, and however perfect\nthe course of study, the best results will not be attained unless there be a good\nteacher. The teacher is always the most important factor in the school life of\nthe child. Buildings, apparatus, textbooks, and course of study may all be\nehminated, but as long as there is teacher and child, good educational results\nare possible.\nA very essential equipment of the teacher is wide knowledge of mathematics. He who knows arithmetic only, does not even know that. Arithmetic\nis a part of the science of mathematics that is not seen in its beauty and bearing\nunless it is looked at from the vantage-point of a more advanced part of the\nsubject.\nAlgebra and geometry throw much light upon arithmetic;, because they\nhave their roots in it, and because their elements are a part of it. Wide knowledge of mathematics enables the teacher to judge the relative values of different\ntopics, to see the logical structure of the whole subject, to anticipate and prepare\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nfor difficulties, to recognize the recurrence of old truths in new dress, to be\nfertile in illustrations, and to grade the presentation to the needs of the class.\nIt is a mistake, often repeated, to suppose that wide knowledge will cause the\nteacher to teach over the heads of his pupils. Over-the-head teaching is\nusually a cloak for dense ignorance of the subject. The teacher has not yet\nbeen found who has stood before his class embarrassed because he knew too\nmuch about his subject.\nThe teacher needs some pedagogy of mathematics. He needs to re-think\nhis arithmetic with a view of teaching it. He needs also to be able to put\nhimself in the place of the learner. This requires considerable knowledge of\nchild psychology. The ordinary pedagogical preparation required of all\nteachers is the foundation for the mathematical teacher. His particular\npreparation consists in fitting his psychology to the subject of mathematics,\nparticularly to arithmetic.\nThe early part of arithmetic must of necessity be concrete and inductive.\nTo be interesting it must be connected with familiar experiences. The child,\nhowever, soon gains the power of abstracting number from objects and finds\nkeen delight in dealing with number apart from objects. There is a time when\nit is necessary to connect some sort of a story with five. The teacher who\ncontinues this number story-telling very long, not only does an extremely\nsilly thing, but a very harmful thing as well. Growth is toward the abstract\nand the symbol. This growth is greatly retarded and may be entirely stopped\nby continuing too long with the concrete. The guide here, as elsewhere,\nmust be the judgment founded on common-sense.\nIn the more advanced parts of arithmetic the problem is the most important\nfactor in the development of the student. It is the exercise ground for the\nmathematical form of thinking. The teacher should see to it that the problem\nyields all its worth to the student. He should teach the student to attack the\nproblem in the following systematic way:\na) Read the problem and thereby get in mind all the given relations and the unknown\nthings to be determined.\nh) Think — that is call up in mind the mathematical principles needed and decide\nhow they are to be applied.\nc) Make a symbolical statement of the solution.\nd) Make the required calculations and verify.\n\nGood teaching will lead the student to apply this form of solution to all\nproblems.\nThere is no better whetstone of wit than mental arithmetic. Good teaching\nwill restore mental arithmetic to the place of honor and power that it once held.\nIt cultivates mental alertness, quick and accurate thinking, and the most\ndirect method of attack. If a few minutes each day were spent in mental\narithmetic thruout the grade work, much better results would be attained.\nFinally, good teaching requires time, care, and patience. Ideas are not\nfixed in a moment.\nThey must have time to germinate.\nCare must be taken\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmemJ\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nIN THE\n\nGRADES\n\n575\n\nin cultivating the ideas, so that vigorous growth may be possible. Patience\nis needed to enable the teacher frequently to step aside and wait, for in mathematics the purpose of the teacher is to make himself useless to the student.\nDISCUSSION\nI. C. McNeill, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tenn. — In discussing the question of numbers, or arithmetic in the primary grades, a working-basis must be assumed or\nagreed upon. I take it that as to what should be taught there is a wide difiference of\nopinion. The legal age at which children may enter school is a variable factor in the different states. Hence, what may be required or advised for children in Tennessee, where\nthe legal age for entering school is six years, would be too strong for the children of Wisconsin, or any other state with similar laws, where children may enter while they are still\ntender infants.\nFor the reason suggested, the standard of requirements cannot be uniform in the various states and it is unwise to attempt to make it so. Time spent upon a discussion of\nthe practical side of the extent of the work in the lowest grades is not well spent in this\nAssociation.\nThe course of study in the elementary grades should be framed to make the attack\nfrom the concrete side. When the sensational element has entered the minds of the\nchildren, it should be kept alive by use. The aim to make pupils become quick, accurate,\nand self-reliant in dealing with the elementary arithmetical tools, addition, subtraction,\nmultiplication, and division, should characterize the work. In arithmetic, as in other\nlines of study, percepts, concepts, and necessary relations are strengthened by vigorous\nbut rational use. The pupils who become free in the processes are not bound in attacking\nnew and more complicated concrete relations as they appear in succession in a well-planned\ncourse.\nAs to the plan of the study of primary numbers the question is not so complicated.\nThe movement of the mind in grasping primary number ideas and the relation between\nthem is a problem of rational method. Any method to be of value must rest upon the\ncapacity of the pupils taught and a knowledge of how the mind works in making a union\nbetween the thing and the symbol used to represent it, as well as how relations between\nquantities or numbers are firmly and correctly established.\nThere is often a great waste in elementary number work because some teachers, who\nare not imbued with the fundamental conceptions of numbers and arithmetical relations,\nfail to stimulate the pupils in a way which will cause them to make the initial attack with\nsufficient vigor to accomplish something in each new lesson. Partially understanding\nthe subject, the teacher, imbued with the idea that arithmetic is a fad, does not see the end\nto be reached from the beginning. Her pupils \"mark time\" and in the course of events\nreformers ( ?) with no regard for the needs of the children attempt to banish number work\nfrom the primary grades.\nA few \"old-time\" principles which should bring about conscious and habitual reactions are:\nThe idea must precede its s)nnbol.\nClose observation makes correct comparison possible.\nSense impressions precede thought relations.\nRational movement proceeds from the known to the related unknown; from the\nsimple to the complex; and from the concrete to the abstract.\nFirst impressions must be clear, distinct, and vivid in order to leave correct mental\nimages by which later impressions may be apperceived.\nThe first problem should look to the last thru all that come between:\nThe development of each section of work should furnish a foundation upon which the\nnew mental images that immediately follow may stand.\nA constantly increasing demand upon the pupils' mental activity should go hand in\nhand with his progressive gain in power.\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nHow to prepare the lesson is the most important question to the pupils. They cannot\nwork intelligently unless they understand the aim of each day's study. The function of\nthe teacher is to guide activity. Learning is the pupil's act. Before an intelligent assignment of a lesson can be made the teacher must consider carefully just what steps are new\nand how far the pupils are prepared by what they already know for the advanced work.\nIn assigning the lesson the teacher should impress upon the pupils the particular end in\nview; and should make sure that they understand just what they are to accomplish and by\nwhat plans and devices they may best succeed. The next day's recitation will test the\nunderstanding of such directions and the faithfulness of a class in following them.\nIn determining the pupils' preparation to begin a new line of work the skilled teacher\nwill approach the learners on their highest plane of old work, directly related to the new\nmaterial to be considered. If they move from this position with ease and freedom, it is\ngood evidence that the lower phases of the subject are well organized in their minds. If\nthey do not show a mastery here, it is well to descend to the next lower phase, or to a place\nwhere they are able to stand firm.\nDiagrams are of great value in teaching fractions and all other relations in which the\nspacial element may enter. As a rule, it is a good plan to leave diagrams on the board for\nconstant use until the pupils can readily visualize them. When the diagrams can be held\nin the minds without too much eflFort, it is not helpful to attention or study to keep them\nbefore the pupils. In their study it is of great value to have pupils picture or represent new\nconditions in diagrams. Mensuration is not comprehended until pupils, thru practice\nand test, perceive the relations.\nExplanations should always be given in simple, direct sentences. It is sometimes a\ngood plan to have one pupil tell the story of a problem in part and then have another complete the statement of the process by which the correct result is reached.\nWhen, by questioning or being shown, the backward pupils have learned how to\ndispose of the material in hand, they should be called upon to show that they can take all\nthe steps leading to the correct end. A good test is to change the condition somewhat\nand then ask for a solution. In bringing a pupil to an understanding of a problem or a\nprinciple the learner must always go back to what was known as a starting-point.\nAs we look ahead to plan what should cause effort to move without loss of time or\nwastQ of energy, the question: What is to be done with this day's lesson in elementary\narithmetic ? becomes both practical and philosophical.\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Gilbert B. Morrison, principal, William McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nFirst Vice-President — H. H. Cully, principal, Glenville High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nSecond Vice-President — Fletcher\nDurrell, Department of Mathematics, Lawrenceville\nLawrenceville, N. J.\nSecretary — Solomon Weimer, assistant principal, Cenplal High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\nSchool,\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, June 30\nThe Department of Secondary Education met at Epworth Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church, Cleveland, at 2:30 p.m.\nPresident Gilbert B. Morrison read an address on \"The High-School Situation.\"\nJ. Remsen Bishop, principal East High School, Detroit, Mich., presented a paper on\n\"A Shifting of Ideals Respecting the Efficiency of Formal Culture Studies for All Pupils.\"\nThis paper was discussed by George D. Pettee, principal. University School, Cleveland,\nOhio, and David S. Snedden, Teachers College, New York, N. Y.\n\"How Shall We Assist Our Pupils When and Only When They Need It?\" was the\nsubject of a paper by H. E. Kratz, superintendent of schools, Calumet, Mich.\nThe discussion of this paper was opened by W. H.- Holmes, superintendent of schools,\nWesterly, R. I. General discussion followed.\nSECOND SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July i\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Technical Education to\nconsider the topic: \"The Cosmopolitan High-School Curriculum.\" This was presented\nfrom the standpoint of colleges of engineering by W. T. Magruder, professor of mechanical\nengineering, Ohio State University, Columbus; from the standpoint of the high school by\nSpencer R. Smith, principal of Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago.\nThe discussion was introduced by Wells L. Griswold, principal of Rayen High School,\nYoungstown, Ohio.\nUpon motion of Spencer R. Smith, the following resolution was adopted:\nResolved, That a commission of seven be named by the Department of Secondary\nEducation to make a study of the conditions surrounding our city high schools with a view\nto the development of a rational system of constants, the reorganization of the electives on\nthe basis of study value, and the preparation of a curriculum that may be considered basal\nin the organization of a system of study for the cosmopolitan high school.\nFurther, that this commission co-operate with a similar committee from the Department of Technical Education and with such other bodies as may be interested in the work\nof secondary schools.\nAnd, further, that this commission be herewith empowered to invite the co-operation\nof other organizations thru invitation to appoint committees of conference.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nMorning,\n\nJuly 2\n\nThe department met in Epworth Memorial Church, at 9:30 A. M.\nA paper on \"School Athletics\" was read by Malcolm Kenneth Gordon, St. Paul's\nSchool, Concord, N. H.\nAs a part of the discussion of this topic the report of a committee\nto the Board of School Commissioners of Indianapolis was read by its chairman, C. E\nEmerich, Indianapolis.\nGeneral discussion followed.\nThe report of the Committee on a Six- Year Course was presented by Eugene W.\nLyttle, inspector. State Education Department, Albany, New York. Aft»r reading the\nreport, Mr. Lyttle moved its adoption, which was carried unanimously.\n577\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nOn motion of Mr. Stuart the committee was continued in order that it might make\nfurther investigation and report later.\nE. W. Lyttle. — It became apparent from the discussions yesterday that the highschool principals here assembled strongly favor the cosmopolitan rather than the differentiated high school. The arguments advanced were founded not on theory simply but\non facts and thoughtful experience. Fundamentally our high schools are political, moral,\nand social agencies. Incidentally they should train for vocation; but their largest function is training for life. Separation into technical, business, and preparatory high schools\ninevitably encourages class distinctions, causes loss of social sympathy, and is not conducive to good scholarship. Moreover differentiated schools make it far more difficult to\ncorrect mistakes, while differentiated courses render such corrections easy. Differentiated\nhigh schools also cause great loss of the students' time in travel to and fro. In view of these\nconsiderations, I have been asked by many principals to introduce the following resolution:\nResolved, That it is the sense of the Secondary Department of the National Education\nAssociation that the building of differentiated high schools should be discouraged and\nthat the introduction of differentiated courses in all large high schools should be encouraged.\nThe resolution was unanimously adopted.\nThe Committee on Nomination, consisting of the following: Edward L. Harris, Chairman, W. H. Stuart, E. W. Coy, reported as follows:\nPresident, J. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111.\nFirst Vice-President, S, A. Underwood, principal of Westfort High School, Kansas\nCity, Mo.\nSecond Vice-President, Wm. H. Smiley, principal. East Side High School, Denver, Colo,\nSecretary, Solomon Weimer, assistant principal, Central High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nThe report of the committee was adopted.\nThe department then adjourned to meet in round-table conferences in the afternoon.\nSolomon Weimer, Secretary\n\nROUND-TABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nMathematics:\nLeader, H. E. Slaught, professor of mathematics, the University of\nChicago.\nThe following program was presented:\n1. The Teaching of Algebra in Its Relation to the Present Educational Trend — Thomas\nK. McKiNNEY, professor of mathematics, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.\nDiscussion by John C. Stone, associate professor of mathematics, State Normal\nCollege, Ypsilanti, Mich.\n2. The Teaching of Geometry in Its Relation to the Present Educational Trend — William\nBetz, teacher of mathematics. East High School, Rochester, N. Y.\nDiscussion by Richard S. Beardsley, teacher of mathematics, Englewood High\nSchool, Chicago, 111.\nIt was moved and carried that the chair appoint a committee to combine the various\nsyllabi on geometry into one.\nAllen H. Hitchcock, Secretary\nForeign Languages: Leader, Ernest Wolf, teacher of German, McKinley High School,\nSt, Louis, Mo.\nThe following program was presented:\n1. Objective Aids in the Teaching of Modern Languages.\nPaper by Mr. Wolf.\nDiscussion byAdolph Kramer, teacher of German, South High School, Cleveland, Ohio ,\n2, The Teaching of Ancient Languages by Modern Methods — ^W, L, Carr, teacher of\nancient languages, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, Ind,; Julia Benson,\nteacher of Latin, Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo,\nEnglish: Leader, Ernest C. Noyes, teacher of English, High School, Pittsburg, Pa.\nPapers were presented as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSITUATION\n\n579\n\n1. Ideals versus Realities in High-School English — Mr. Noyes;\nSara Van Metre,\nManual Training High School, Kansas City, Mo.\n2. Some Practical Problems in the Teaching of English — Alfred M. Hitchock, teacher\nof English, High School, Hartford, Conn.; Genevieve Apgar, teacher of English,\nThe Teachers College, St. Louis, Mo.\nGeneral discussion followed.\nMilton Frye, Secretary\nScience: Leader, Milo H. Stuart, principal of Cleveland High School, St, Paul, Minn.\nPapers were presented upon the topic: The Laboratory Notebook — ^What Should\nIt Contain and How Should It Be Made ? as follows:\nPhysics — ^William M. Butler, St. Louis, Mo.\nBotany — Milo H. Stuart, St. Paul, Minn.\nZoology — Tracy H. Holmes, Chicago, 111.\nGeneral discussion followed each paper.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nGILBERT\n\nB.\n\nMORRISON,\n\nAND\n\nErnest E. Rau, Secretary\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nPRINCIPAL\n\nSITUATION\n\nOF MCKINLEY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nThe secondary school on account of its position in our educational system,\nits intimate relation with the elementary school on one side, and the college on\nthe other, and on account of the demands put upon it as a fitting school for\nlife, has become an arena of diverse opinions and ideas. These ideas embody\nsocial, pedagogical, and economic conditions which make the high school the\nmain center for departure and differentiation.\nOur opportunities were never so great as they are now — opportunities\nwhich come from the willingness of the people to be taxed for high-school\npurposes. This willingness is expressing itself chiefly in school buildings\nwhich mark great improvement in convenience, sanitation, and architectural\neffectiveness, and an attempt even to make them monumental in their appearance is not infrequent. With the universal consent of the people to be taxed\nfor whatever is necessary for the support of the high school, has come the\narchitect who has employed his talent in giving us buildings more convenient\nand more beautiful than we have ever known before. We have passed into\nwhat we may properly call the era of monumental schoolhouses. But there\nis still room for improvement.\nThe architect, exposed as he is to the temptation of emphasizing architectural effectiveness, has neglected certain well-known physical laws which, if\nobserved, would supply to our buildings perfectly pure air. In the great\nimprovement in ventilation which the past twenty years have witnessed, the\npoint of bringing to the classrooms pure warm air in sufficient quantity has\nbeen reached, but it has not been properly distributed and utilized. Owing\nto this failure, we are still breathing vitiated air, highly diluted' with fresh air,\ninstead of utihzing the fresh air in an unmixed statCi Within the past few years\nthe principles of ventilation have been appHed in the Capitol building at\nWashington, D. C, and within the past year in k church in St. Louis, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "580\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nA systematic study of this question by this department might, it seems to me, do\nmuch toward stimulating a general interest in the direction of a much-needed\nimprovement. I would suggest therefore the appointment of a competent\ncommittee to investigate this need.\nThe general situation in our high schools justifies a conservative optimism.\nConsidering the vast increase in population, the correspondingly larger enrollment, the growing tendency to specialize, the extension outward of the course\nof study adding many new studies to the curriculum, and the large number of\nteachers needed to meet these growing demands, the quality of the work is\nprobably as good as could reasonably be expected. We are, I think, safe in\nsaying that our schools are better today than at any previous time in the\nhistory of this country. But this optimism should not blind us to our faults.\nSpeaking generally, I would say that notwithstanding our careful grading\nand our complex machinery of organization, excellent as they are in their\nway, the improvement in teaching has not kept pace with the improvement\nin buildings. It must be confessed that the schools of today lack the vitalizing\nleaven of individuality. The school buildings of the past could bear no comparison with those of the present. This has been an achievement of wealth\nand architecture, but we find no such achievement in pedagogy. While good\nteaching may be found in certain places, we have an army of teachers, many\nof them college graduates, drawing a moderate salary, going through with\nthe purely conventional processes of assigning lessons, hearing them, giving\nexaminations, and measuring their standards by the number of pupils they\nfail to pass, teachers who are giving much attention to their subjects and little\nattention to their pupils. But where are our great teachers of today ? Where\nare our Comeniuses, our Pestalozzis, our Froebels, or even our David Pages\nand our Horace Manns ?\nThe conditions at the present time are, it seems to me, rather unfavorable\nto the development of the most effective teaching. The present social standard\nby which merit is measured by wealth has, to a considerable extent, permeated\nthe schools and it has come to be the popular belief that the cost of a school\nis the measure of its efficiency. The crystallization of our schools into great\nsystems has a tendency to reduce schools and school men to a dead level\nof characterless uniformity. We have in our schools thousands of teachers\ndoing lifeless routine work because of their love for wife and babies, and their\nfear of the steam roller — teachers who, with the proper encouragement and\nfreedom, would become really efficient forces.\nPassing now from these general reflections on those fundamental conditions\nwhich form the real background of our work, permit me to refer briefly to some\nof the questions which are at the present time calling for solution, some of\nwhich will occupy the time of the excellent program which we have before us.\nIn the past few years athletics have occupied much time and care and\nconditions have, on the whole, been much improved. The solution has been\nsought chiefly through the Interscholastic League.\nOn the value of this\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmenlJ\n\nTHE HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSITUATION\n\nmeans of managing athletics opinion is divided, but the weight of argument\nand opinion, as indicated by the answers to a questionnaire sent out last September, seems to be on the side of confining athletics to the home field.\nAnother question now engaging the attention of thinking principals and\nteachers is that of the class recitation — ^whether it has not to some extent S8i\nbecome an agency for examination rather than one for teaching and for assisting\npupils when and only when they need it. The aim of education is to place the\npupil in an atmosphere favorable to his natural growth, with conditions favorable not only for receiving needed help but also for the proper stimuli for selfhelp. In full view of this aim the recitation is on the witness stand to answer\nas to its real efficiency and proper function, and as to how much of the pupil's\ntime in school it should claim.\nThe problem of overcrowded courses has been, since the outward extension\nof the curriculum was forced upon the schools by the progress of the times,\none which has caused no little concern in the minds of those who had been\ntaught to believe that certain formal culture studies were necessary to all\npupils seeking an education. The complete and correct answer to this problem\nhas not been reached, but there is an opinion rapidly gaining headway that\nno study necessarily has any exclusive claim to culture value, and that any\nstudy, or piece of work, may have this value if pursued in the proper way and\nin the proper spirit. The best thought seems now to be that a liberal education\ndoes not consist in so much of this or that, but in the state of mind which a\npiece of work inculcates, not so much in the value which the knowledge of\nlanguage, mathematics, science, or manual training possesses per se, as in the\nmental attitude which results from their pursuit. This thought ascribes to a\nliberal education proper inclinations as well as useful knowledge — an inclination to read, an inclination to study, an inclination to work, an inclination to\ndo right and to be just, an inclination to live and let live, an inclination toward\nefficient service to self and to others. With this view of an education and of\nculture, the difficulties arising from a crowded course of study disappear. The\ncase is no longer one of overloading, but one of proper selection, of adaptation\nto the needs of the varying tastes and powers of the individual pupils.\nPermit me at this time to call your attention to the condition of music as\nit exists in the high schools of this country. Answers to questions on the\nsubject reveal considerable diversity of theory and practice, ahd there is a\ngeneral feeling that it is not what it should be. In a few cities it is made compulsory and is chiefly confined to routine chorus singing of songs learned by\nrote; in others it is not required of boys; in others it is made optional, taught\nin classes and graded. Now, important questions arise here. Music being a\nfine art of a refining and uplifting character, should it not be made universal\nand carried into the soul of every boy and girl ? If so, can if be done ? If\na boy can sing and doesn't want to sing, should he be made to sing? If so,\nwhat will be the nature of the soul product ? If a boy can't sing and wants\nto sing, should he be allowed to sing ? If so, what effect will it have on the\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsouls of those who listen to him ? If a boy can't sing and doesn't want to give\ndaily demonstration of the fact, should he be made to do so ? Should a pupil\nwho doesn't sing be compelled to sit and listen to others sing when he wants to\nstudy ? Is the assumption that he is absorbing soul nourishment under these\nconditions sound ? If a teacher of music can not keep the absorbers in order\nwhile the singers pour in, should other teachers of the school be called in to\nhold the boy? What is the general effect of this on the school? Should\nmusic conditions in our schools be maintained which only one teacher in a\nthousand can properly meet? Or should our requirements be made to fit\nwhat music teachers have demonstrated their ability to do ? Why should a\npublic-school teacher be called upon to pursue a method entirely different\nfrom that which he practices in his private classes ? Is the aim of high school\nmusic for spectacular purposes, or for the development of the pupils ? Is it\nthe proper function of the public school to teach music to those who want it as\nother branches are taught ? If not, why not ? These are a few of the questions which should be carefully considered and answered, and I would respectfully suggest that a committee of five be appointed to investigate the music\nsituation and report at the next meeting.\nBut the most important problem which now confronts the high schools\nof this country is that of industrial education. On this question, I have\nexpressed my views in a recent article in the Manual Training Magazine and\nI here quote a few extracts:\nIt is now becoming evident from the widespread discussion of industrial education\nfrom many sources that this country is looking to it for other purposes than that of general\neducation. Associations for the promotion of industrial education have been formed.\nComplaints that the public schools are still too mediaeval in their methods are heard from\ncertain quarters. Many schools are making their appearance: \"Trade Schools,\" \"Technical Schools,\" \"Foundations,\" \"Arts and Crafts Schools,\" \"Industrial Schools,\" \"Textile\nSchools,\" \"Poor Boys' Schools,\" \"Manual Labor Schools,\" \"Grade School Manual Training Schools,\" \"Manual Training High Schools,\" etc., etc., are being built by enthusiastic\nmillionaires. These schools represent an endless variety of types each revealing the\npoint of view of its founder. Some claim that a school to have any value should be fully\nequipped for technical instruction; others that technical training is worse than useless. A\ncertain class holds that all book learning should be limited strictly to what a boy needs in\nthe shop. Another class, that theory and practice should go hand in hand. A few still\nbelieve that no manual training in school is essential, even for those who will follow mechanical pursuits, Hblding that the humanities \"make men,\" and that a man will pick up his\ntrade when he needs it. But the belief that manual training in some form has come to be\nan essential in public education is becoming almost universal.\nNow, in\"'each of these views there should be'a grain of truth common to all the rest.\nWe should be able, if we can discern this common element, to get a perspective view\nenabling us to foresee the relation of industrial education to the high school of the future.\nIt seems to me that this element is not difficult to find and that it may be expressed in very\nsimple terms. I believe it might read something like this: Every American boy is entitled\nto all the learning he is capable of taking. This learning should be both mental and manual\nand should be made as practical as possible. In other words he should, to the extent of\nhis ability, come to his own in the heritage of the theoretical knowledge of the race in so far\nas he can by training]be taught to embody this knowledge in purposeful practice.\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSITU ATION\n\n583\n\nThis conception of the problem calls for great breadth and flexibility in our schools\nand in our curriculums. If we are to make it possible for every boy to receive his birthright, the flexibility and versatility of our schools must be commensurate with the endless\ndiversity of talent and opportunity. The boy who can go no farther than the eight elementary grades should have along with his three R's all the manual training of the practical\nsort that can be worked,into a well-balanced curriculum. If the limitations placed upon\nhim by poverty or a paucity of natural endowments condition him to a life of manual labor,\nthen that labor should be made as skillful as possible; for this reason manual training of\nthe plainest sort should be offered through the grades. It should consist of those simple\nfundamental processes which underhe the mechanical trades and should so far as time and\nthe powers of the pupils will permit be carried forward in the artistic spirit. So far as it\ngoes it should be in the direction of community industry. Differences in talent should be\nrecognized from the start and each boy's work adapted to his powers. If he is dull in books\nand unable to keep up with his class let him do what he can and give him more of the manual\ntraining. If he shows no promise of skill in the use of tools give him less manual training\nand more books. Find the boy and then proceed to build upon him; and in dealing with\nhim keep close to the border line between what he knows and what he does not know— •\nbetween what he can do and what he can not do. It is the discovery of this line and constantly keeping it in view that constitutes good teaching. Boys treated in this manner\nthrough the elementary schools will be able to earn an honest living in factory, shop, counting house, or department store.\nWhen the boy who by reason of ability and opportunity reaches the high school the\nessential nature of the process well begun in the grades should not change. It is still a^\nprocess of keeping to the border line between what he can do and what he can not do, still\na process of proper selection and adaptation. This adaptation will be made possible\nthru intelligent diflferentiation. Fortunately this differentiation will not mean revolution. It will only mean a careful study of the past development of our schools, and of\nthe present demands. The suggestion of the introduction of the industrial or trade school\nidea into our high school is not new if we consider the question from a generic point of view.\nEver since the establishment of public high schools in this country about seventy years ago\nthey have been undergoing change and this change has always been one of differentiation\nand specialization of function. Even the names which have been given to different groups\nof studies called \"courses\" indicate clearly enough that these groups from which pupils of\ndifferent bent may choose are intended for different purposes, and these purposes are\neconomic. Latin and Greek were at first placed in the curriculum because they were\nsupposed to fit students for service in the learned professions. Science was introduced to\nmeet the demands of an era of scientific activity and invention. The commercial studies,\ntypewriting, bookkeeping, stenography, and office routine were added to the curriculum\nin answer to the demands of trade and commerce.\nWith the growth of large cities came manual training to supply the motor activity\nof which the absence of country life had deprived our boys, and to counteract the one-sided\ninfluences of an education exclusively bookish. These facts in the history of secondary\neducation furnished but one answer to the question as to whether the demand for industrial education should be met in the high school. It remains only to ascertain just what\nshall be the nature of this, the next differentiation. In reality the problem is not so difficult\nas it appears, inasmuch as the manual training already in our best high schools furnishes\nthe kind of training needed — a training which certainly contains the underlying principles\nof many industries. We have only to add to the courses we now have by including more\nof those processes employed in the various trades. The selection of these processes wall\nhave to be carefully made with the assistance of practical men representative of the industrial community. Along with these additions there should come a greater latitude and\nflexibility in making out individual programs for pupils of varying ability and inclination\n— a flexibility ranging between programs almost wholly academic to those almost exclusively\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmanual. All studies and exercises should be elective in the sense that principals and\ndirectors may give each individual boy what he needs and vi^hat he is able to receive, regardless of traditional standards. We must adjust our schools to the principle that it is just as\nnecessary and legitimate to help a boy to a trade as it is to help him to a profession — that\ntraining for citizenship is putting each and every boy at his best, and keeping him there\nas long as practicable.\n,\nThe highest and best type of secondary school is cosmopolitan, and contains under\none head all branches which have proved their right to a place in high-school curricula.\nThe new differentiation which will sooner or later be made that will provide a certain\namount of training for industrial ends will probably take place as others have done, and\nbecome an incorporate part of the school which will continue to retain its cosmopolitan\ncharacter still preserving a perfect social unity and equality between all classes of children\nregardless of the composition of their individual programs. That the problem of industrial education will be worked out in the high school seems certain: first, from the observed\ntendencies of the past to differentiate the work and to add to the curriculum in conformity\nto changing conditions; second, that the age of the pupils just passing from childhood to\nmanhood is most favorable to it— an age most suitable for those bodily exercises requiring\ndexterity and strength; and third, that the work is already begun in the well-chosen processes and exercises as now carried forward in finely equipped shops. The gradual addition of more shops, more equipment, more processes, and the granting of a larger flexibility inthe choice of work should solve the problem.\n\nA\n\nSHIFTING\nOF IDEALS\nOF FORMAL\nCULTURE\n\nRESPECTING\nTHE EFFICIENCY\nSTUDIES\nFOR\nALL\nPUPILS\n\nJ. REMSEN\n\nEASTERN\n\nBISHOP,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nDETROIT,\n\nMICH.\n\nAfter getting out of it, so as to be able to view it from an independent standpoint, Arthur Christopher Benson said:^\nFor a good many years I lived a busy and fairly successful life as a master at a big\npublic school. I will not dwell at length upon this, but I will say that I gained a great\ninterest in the science of education, and acquired profound misgivings as to the nature of\nthe intellectual process known by the name of secondary education. More and more I\nbegan to perceive that it is conducted on diffuse, detailed, unbusiness-like lines.\n\nMr. Benson's arraignment of English secondary education in a general\nway apphes to secondary education in this country. Having no recent pronouncements athand concerning our own secondary schools, perhaps we may\ntake President Hadley's words concerning our colleges as applying also to our\nsecondary schools :^\nThere is no question that the development (of the American College) was salutary,\nthat the American colleges in 1908 did larger and better work than they would have done\nif, like the English university of today, they had followed more conservatively the older\nlines; yet, still, we are in perpetual danger in three directions from over-specialization, from\ndilettantism, and from pedantry.\n\nCertainly, if we simply reproduced from generation to generation the\nculture attained, not adding or detracting, the result would be a Chinese\nuniformity. If cruelty and suffering, vice and crime could be eliminated in\nany scheme and that scheme made perpetual, no one could find fault. But\n» \"From a College Window: The Point of View.\"\n* Speech at Bryn Mawr Commencement, June 7, 1908.\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF\n\nFORMAL\n\nCULTURE\n\nSTUDIES\n\n585\n\nman is only at the best relatively free from physical and moral ills; by change\nalone he seems to progress. To stop change would be to cut him off from\nthe hope of something better. It is advisable not to make unchangeable gods\nof anything. Latin and Greek, that delighted, satisfied, and to some extent\ntrained, aesthetically and morally, a large part of the people at one time, lose,\nin time, their vital force and must be replaced by something containing what\nseems to me a different form of vital force.\nA rhythmic movement is one of Nature's mysterious methods. Each\ngeneration of men must pass, in part consciously but for the most part unconsciously,' through the cycle of the race's experience. Then each generation\nadds something to that experience and to some extent determines what the\nexperience of the succeeding generation will be. True education makes the\npupil more significant. To do so, it must evidently be sufficiently reminiscent\nof the past, vitally related to the present, and in a developmental attitude toward\nthe future.\nIt is not unnatural that the instruction of children in the lore of the past\nshould have seemed the best method of educating them. Education was at\nfirst principally, one might almost say, only, concerned with a leisure, or at any\nrate, privileged class. There was no such idea as yet conceived as that of\nattempting equality of intellectual opportunity. Education was a means\nby which parents transmitted to their children the privileges and advantages\nwhich they themselves had wrested from the mass of the people or which\nthey had inherited. If education was to remain a mean toward this one end,\nno better material could be found than the literature of preceding civilizations. This literature was the crowning and permanent glory of the past —\nthe sole surviving effect that had in it the possibility of going on unchanged\nforever. To study it and absorb its spirit was to put off provincialism for the\ntime at least, and to join the great band of those who have viewed from a great\nheight the panorama of humanity in all its hopes, aspirations, and achievements.\nWhen education came to be viewed in a different light, i. e., not as a means\nto preserve privilege for the few but to extend opportunity to all, irrespective\nof rank at birth, the old means was found wanting. Many of those, in fact the\nfar greater part of them, who were to be educated were now without inherited\nwealth or the position that commands in inscrutable ways a certain financial\nsupport. At a comparatively early age these young people must stand behind\nthe counter or at the bench and make a living by manual labor of some sort;\nthere was no escape from this. Consequently, when the traditional material\nwas offered, it was practically refused. A few kept at school; the rest left at\nan early age. The state was supporting a sham; for this education was\npretending, at common cost, to equalize opportunity. In actual fact, it was\ngiving at pubhc expense to those able, or who could be compelled to pay for\nit, what before they had paid for. The mass of the community remained\nlittle affected. Those who had advocated universal education as the at-lastdiscovered panacea grew uneasy and lukewarm.\nThe defect was not at first\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nclear, but it soon became evident that true education for the mass of men\nmust be vitally related to present-day activities.\nIn the development of the educational program it is natural for the same\nwarring forces to appear that are at work thruout our political and social\nfabric. Democracy, all over the world, but especially in America, is today\nconfronted with what possibly may be its final problem. By subtle but effective means a leisure class founded upon special privileges or wealth, or more\noften upon a combination of these things, has been formed and maintained\nin every community of considerable size, at some time in its history. The\ndemocratic ideal, now voicing itself with greater insistency every year, would\nwrest from the privileged class its most permanent asset — the privilege of\ntransmitting its most distinguishing characteristics to its natural heirs and of\npreventing the natural heirs of other classes from acquiring these characteristics.\nIf we refuse the holders of wealth and privilege — the leisure class — the vantage\nground of intellectual cleavage, we threaten the existence of that class. It is\nself-evident and not necessary to prove that all so-called higher education was\nat first jealously fashioned in such manner as to exclude those who had to\naim, from childhood, at wage-earning skill.\nWhen, after vague beginnings, the extraordinary device of universal\neducation for all the adolescent young of this nation issued as a full-fledged\nexperiment, the old material of intellectual and aesthetic training, the heritage\nfrom the dominion of the privileged few and the practical slavery of the many,\nbeing all that existed, was used. Latin, Greek, mathematics, and a modicum\nof science, with English in some makeshift style, formed the course of study\noffered to all young Americans who had completed the elementary grades.\nThe leisure class, dimly perceiving that their privileges were threatened, tightened the barriers into the colleges and watched the result — and a strange result\nit has been.\nThe college primarily stood for the production of a leisure class. The\nideals of a democracy call for a different aim in education, and these ideals,\nto triumph, must absorb or eliminate other aims. The aim of the college,\nas first constituted, and the aim of democracy are fundamentally adverse and,\nto some extent, mutually destructive. The leisure-class idea permits college\nteachers to trade on custom, caste, the assumed and guarded privileges of\ncliques, and other influences diametrically opposed to the underlying principles\nof democracy. To yield to these influences would be to abandon the democratic ideal. Our fathers — ^we ourselves until now — have been slow to realize\nthis dilemma or, at any rate, have been slow to acknowledge it.\nThe ideals of democracy are not to be abandoned without further struggle,\nand today the fight centers on public secondary education. Deny the opportunity for continuity in the college of all work in the secondary school of\nrecognized value, and you at once create privilege or caste. The manualtraining high school as distinct from the high school pure and simple, if it\ninvolves a limitation of possibilities for continuity of work in higher institutions\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF FORMAL\n\nCULTURE\n\nSTUDIES\n\n587\n\nthat have full recognition as colleges, should not be encouraged by any upholder\nof democratic ideals. The only safety for the democratic scheme is the removal\nof all barriers, with caution in the introduction into the course of material\nbeyond the scope of the means at hand and the time at the disposal of the\npupils.\nThe world of necessity, as it grows older, accumulates too large a mass of\nmemorized material; some of this must at times be sloughed off, now in this\nway, now in that. It is probably not too rash to assert that public opinion, or\nthe portion of it enlightened on this point, does not now sustain the claims of any\nsubject of study on disciplinary grounds alone. The element of sustained\nattention to orderly sequence, regularly recurring, is necessary to the mastery\nof any bodies of related facts such as are properly subjects of study. The\npart of the Universe which we inhabit is so constituted that anything in it is\nimmediately and more or less logically related to many other things. Everything init involves, more remotely, a vast number of things. The investigation\nof anything can be made disciplinary if pursued from the standpoint of its\ngeneral relations; if pursued from the standpoint of the investigator's needs\nand interests, it is practical. More and more are we coming to believe that\nsubjects to be taught to the normal, ordinary adolescent must combine these\nqualities, or the attempt to teach him be comparatively ineffectual. If either,\nthe practical element should predominate. PubHc opinion has veered away\nfrom what had been accepted upon the mere assertion of intellectual ascetics —\nthat the very absence of interest, when subjects of investigation are presented\nupon abstract or general grounds, argues only a necessity to force an apparent\ninterest or consign the pupil to intellectual perdition.\nWhen all is said, formal culture studies resolve themselves into Latin and\nGreek. Our art heritage and to a great extent our heritage of speculation of\nall sorts is Greek; our heritage of poHtical organization and of elaborate\nsystematizing of human relations is Roman. For a reason not far to seek,\nit was true, up to four hundred years ago, that no one could be a thoroly\ncultured person without a knowledge of Latin. All the books of wisdom were\nwritten in that language; the church knew no other tongue as an official\nlanguage. The vernacular everywhere seemed to have in itself no elegance\nand permanence. Latin writings were translated into it merely for convenience\nbut without any idea that the translation would have any lasting literary value.\nSo fixed become men's habits, especially in what concerns the training of\nthe young, that the rise of a genuine and intrinsically noble literature in French,\nEnglish, and German, altho this later literature contained the significant\nmaterial of former hterature, had apparently no effect upon the accepted\nmethods of nurturing or attempting to nurture the minds of the young men\nwho belonged to the privileged class of the European nations.- I mean that\nthe fact of Shakespeare's having written Macbeth made it none the less imperative that a young Englishman should have read the Hercules Fur ens of Seneca.\nThe Romans themselves were not so hidebound.\nThe study of Greek declined\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin Rome after Rome itself had produced a native, if not an original literature.\nThe German showed himself of the same temperament, in this regard, as the\nEnglishman. He still labored partially to master ancient drama when his\nown inspired masters of poetry and poetic philosophy had given him native\nmaterial as good in quahty and infinitely more suited to his type of mind and\nto his physical environment. The French held Latin in closer relation to\nthemselves, both linguistically and in inherited traits of character. The\nimpress of the Roman on the Gaul was indelible; on the Anglo-Saxon and on\nthe Teuton only such as his obstinacy chose to keep it.\nUnless Latin and Greek,^ with all their close relation to our past development, can show a certain and sufficiently intimate relation to our present life,\nthat causes them to have a sufficient element of immediate, practical interest\nand value, they must go into the limbo where reside Hebrew, Old Romance\nlanguages. Old High German, etc., etc. If geometry and algebra cannot\nrelate themselves intelligently to immediate natural interests, some other\nclassification of mathematical facts must and will be found that will do so.\nAlgebra that tells about the heads of whales will be reserved for those who are\nzoologically inclined. The rest of us will solve problems concerning the value\nof food rations, the facts of physical science, and other matters that at least\nhave some natural appeal to our interest in the result of the solution.\nWhen the process of cutting loose from the old regime of secondary education had begun, it was seen that ideals respecting the efficiency of formal\nculture studies for all pupils had radically shifted. There seemed to be a\nwidespread feeling that such efficiency had been experimentally proved to\nhave been fancied and never real. Interest, founded upon actual environment and continually broadening its own environment, and this broadening\nof environment again widening the scope of interest, this noble and generous\nprocess is first, last, and all the time the only process universally applicable that\nwill induce all normal minds to undergo training and enrichment.\nOnly general faults have to be guarded against: according to Benson —\ndiffuseness, too much detail, unbusiness-like method; according to Hadley —\noverspecialization, dilettantism, and pedantry.\nAnd this question, large as it is, is involved with far larger considerations.\nOut of the seething cauldron of modern life may be emerging not a new principle\nin conception but a new principle in actual acceptance. May it not be true that\nwe now believe that every human being, as a sentient creature born into our\ncompanionship, must be protected from the greed of his fellows — ^w^hether it\nbe greed for superior wealth or superior aesthetic environment; in other words,\nthat upon the race devolves the solemn duty to provide first for the completest possible development of every child from the hour of birth to that of\ndeath under the best possible conditions, before natural advantages of individ»^,The great labor and fine acumen expended upon the language and literature of the classics has produced\nresults that bring the science of these tongues into the category of the exact sciences. Perhaps the study of them,\nor of one of them, should be offered as an alternative for one of the natural sciences.\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF\n\nFORMAL\n\nCULTURE\n\nSTUDIES\n\n589\n\niials are given opportunity to develop and assert their acquisitive power ? Race\ncharity, supreme, triumphant, is perhaps to take the place of all private\nbenevolence and in its exercise exert the wisdom of the ages, enlightened\nwith the new discovery, a sacrificing love capable of the greatest sacrifice\nof all — that of a natural advantage over one's fellows.\nThe colleges will follow suit by accepting for entrance such part of the\nsecondary work as they may choose, leaving the secondary curriculum to the\nskill and conscience of those whose business it is to fashion high-school work\nto the needs of each community which the school serves. All other subjects\nmust perforce be begun in the college — all this will be a matter for the skill\nand conscience of boards of overseers, trustees, regents, or whatever they may\nbe called.\nIt is a forbidding but natural phenomenon of American life that there\nshould have been formed an educational clique, consisting of those who had\nbeen classically trained with the intention of giving instruction in the classics.\nThis clique is difficult of entrance and has been hedged about by such artificial\nbarriers as the German degree and the cant language developed by daily use\nof the grammatical and rhetorical phraseology of classical research. The\nmembers are in awe of their own learning, which is considerable, and selfishly\ndetermined to hold their privileged position which, despite modern trends,\nthey still possess. It matters not to them that the majority of the human\nrace have no desire and no capacity for the study of dead languages. A love\nof the human race transcending the love of certain graceful and interesting\nthings that can be made to environ the life of a portion of that race is a conception beyond the narrow^ souls of these people. They devise subtle methods\nby which the elect (those with interest and capacity for classical study) are\nselected and invested with certain privileges, or with a certain prestige which\nis no less real for being an ingenious fabrication. Through a strange t)Tanny\ncalled college (or university) domination, they still force the schools to do\ntheir will, at the peril of having the pupils of the schools refused entrance to\nthe opportunities for advanced study. ^\nThe purpose of this paper being to deal wjth tendencies, theories, movements of the Zeitgeist, and other such intangible aspects of the ideal, it would be\nforeign to our purpose to mention schemes and panaceas proposed to set at\nrest the educational questionings, and thru this, the social unrest of our\nday. There is much promise in such schemes as the co-operation plan proposed byDean Snyder of Cincinnati, whereby half the time in alternate weeks\nis given by pupils of schools above the elementary, over fourteen years of age,\nto work, under sanitary conditions, in the actual industries and businesses of\nthe community. In this scheme, every young man and young woman is a\nproducer, an acquirer of practical skill, a subject of developing agencies of\n' In this they are no greater sinners than their mathematical and scientific brethren; but the example ol\ntyranny over secondary schools was set by the classical men and indicates their presumptuous attitude toward\nheir fellow-men outside their sacred clique.\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe purely intellectual type— all at the same time. There is at least great\npromise in such courageous attempts to grapple with the problem.\nIt is not surprising that even the onus of having been inconsistent must be\nborne by some who are advocating a frank relegation of formal culture studies\nto the same plane as all studies. Loyalty to the old gods is not a crime; nor\nis it a crime to abandon the old gods to their fate when the new gods have\nplainly supplanted them. There is enough modern material, well digested\nand of sufficiently broad interest, to make a course of study for nearly every\ntype of mind. To supplant any of this material with antiquated subjects is to\nsacrifice reality to an idea, which should recommend itself to Americans\nleast of all peoples.\nDISCUSSION\nDavid S. Snedden, Teachers College, Columbia University. — I take no exceptions\nto the excellent paper and the able discussion. I wish only to emphasize some of the points\nbrought out. The American people have always been disposed to support cordially all\nefforts at secondary education. But this association should formulate a better and more\ncomprehensive definition of secondary education. As I see it, secondary education is\ndeveloping on a very great scale and its content is being greatly modified. We should\ncall all kinds of the education of youth in the adolescent period \"secondary,\" and make\nno such distinction as \"vocational,\" \"industrial,\" \"technical,\" \"manual training,\" \"trade\nschools, \" etc. Make your courses, their content and quantity, fit the need of the individual\npupil whether that course shall extend over two, four, or six years. Let the boy have a\nchance to develop himself.\nIt is the right time now, in my judgment, for the American schoolmaster to assert himself and break loose from the traditional lines of education. We should all get together and\ncut loose from college domination and all other domination.\nLouis P. JocELYN, Ann Arbor, Mich. — I am sorry to see no college man defend Latin\nand Greek from the attacks made upon them today. I, myself, was slow to take up their\ndefense, as my especial line is mathematics, but, as secretary of the Schoolmasters' Club\nof Michigan, I feel that some reply should be made. In my judgment Latin and Greek are\ndeclining because of the intense teaching of bare forms and omitting the literature of these\ntongues. Teachers of physics should take warning from the fate of Latin and Greek or\nthat subject will meet a similar fate. Too much time is being spent upon the technical\npart of the subject, while the phenomena of nature are overlooked. The same is true of\nbiology and all other sciences. When I was a boy we used to ramble through the woods\nand find life in its natural state and environment, but now it has become a wearisome looking through microscopes and making notebooks. The pendulum has swung too far against\nLatin and Greek in some quarters. There is a feeling all over the world that Latin is a\ngood thing. I believe the good, hard subjects of*mathematics, Greek, and Latin are important and necessary to mind development. The planting of a pea and watching it grow\ndoes not always teach the lesson expected. The Indians watched corn grow for centuries\nwithout developing mentally. Do not make the mistake of making everything easy for a\nchild.\nHe should have some hard subjects to tackle.\nIt is true, however, that thousands of boys could be saved every year by giving them\nsomething they can do, but I would suggest that not all boys should be put into manualtraining courses. Some must be left to become future teachers of mathematics and other\nsubjects.\nIn regard to the second paper — ^the percentage of failures in the McKinley High\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\nWE\n\nASSIST\n\nOUR\n\nPUPILS/\n\n591\n\nSchool is certainly very low. It must mean superior management on the part of its able\nprincipal to secure a result of but 7 per cent, of failures.\nI wish that all men who teach were fathers. I became a much better teacher after\nI had a child of my own. A father sees in every child somebody's darling and treats the\nchild with greater sympathy and better understanding.\nMr. Cobalt, Hamilton, Ohio. — ^We are all gratified, I am sure, to know that there\nare high schools where the percentage of failures is so low as that at the McKinley High\nSchool. Where such results are attained, there must be some unusually fortunate conditions for pupils and teachers. Much may be accounted for in heredity and environment.\nMany pupils reach their limitations in grammar-school work and cannot successfully do\nhigh-school work. Some pupils go to high school who should not, and necessarily fail in\ntheir effort. Sometimes failures occur because of inefl5cient instruction, due to large classes.\nTeachers who have thirty, forty, or even fifty pupils in a class obviously cannot do good\nwork, nor can a teacher keep up a high grade of instruction through more than five or six\nperiods in a day. Every teacher should have at least one rest period to devote to deficient\npupils and laggards, as is done in Springfield, Massachusetts. In the Woodward High\nSchool, Cincinnati, two or three extra teachers are employed who give their time wholly to\ndelinquent pupils, with excellent results.\nMr. Cook, of Pennsylvania. — There is too large a number of failures in the first\nyear of high school. It seems to me that more attention should be given to incoming classes\n— explaining to them more fully how to take up the work, using the recitation in part as a\nstudy period and showing them how to study.\nri;ERBERT C. Wood, East High School, Cleveland. — It might be of interest to know\nof an experiment in one of the Cleveland high schools to ascertain from the pupils themselves their opinion of the reasons for failure in the high schools. A series of questions was\nsubmitted to the pupils, and one of these questions related to the cause of failure. Ninety\nper cent, answered that it was because they did not study hard enough. The remaining 10\nper cent, attributed it to ill-health and other causes. It may seem a little ungracious for me to\nspeak of the percentage of failures in this high school the past year; but I will venture to\nstate a fact which may seem unusual: while no special methods have been resorted to to\nbring up delinquent pupils, less than 6 per cent, failed during the past year. Now that the\nschool board has made special provision to care for these backward pupils, perhaps there\nwill be no failures next year.\nWells L. Griswold, superintendent of schools, Youngstown, Ohio. — The way to\ndeal with backward pupils is for each teacher to have the time to care for her own delinquent pupils. It is not true, at any rate, that every pupil should pass every subject in each\nof the four years, and that there should be no failures. Such results would tend to lower\nstandards and weaken scholarship. Going over a subject a second time is not always a\nbad thing. In fact, it is sometimes the very best thing that could happen to the pupil, and\nteaches him thoroness and application.\n\nHOW\n\nSHALL\nH.\n\nE.\n\nWE\n\nKRATZ,\n\nASSIST OUR PUPILS WHEN\nWHEN THEY NEED IT?\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCALUMET,\n\nAND\n\nONLY\n\nMICH.\n\nOur topic for discussion was originally worded as follows : Do you believe\nthat the method of class recitation, generally in vogue in Qur high schools,\nneglects the individual needs of pupils and is in any way responsible for the\nmany failures to pass in their studies ? Are pupils usually assisted when and\nonly when they need it ? If not, what is the remedy ?\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIt is evident that the Committee on Program did not intend that the writer\nof this paper should simply give his opinions and conclusions, but that he should\nalso ascertain how representative high schools were attempting to solve this\nproblem. With this in view, a \" questionnaire \" was sent to sixteen representative high schools, chiefly located in the Middle West, asking for the percentage\nof failures; whether they were increasing or decreasing; the causes of such\nfailures ; and the measures taken to remedy them ; the proportion of time\ndevoted to class and individual instruction; how \"drowning pupils\" were\ntreated; how and to what extent individual instruction was utilized, and what\nefforts given to training pupils into right habits of study.\nThe percentages of failures as given in these re; lies averaged 22 in all\nsubjects, with an average of 28 in algebra; 24 in geometry; 23 in Latin; 20 in\nchemistry, English, French, and physics; 18 in German and history.\nFrom one of the largest high schools in the West came a very carefully compiled summary of failures according to grades, and as it fairly represents conditions generally, its summary is quoted:\nThe percentage of failures in all subjects in ninth grade is 31 . i ; in tenth\ngrade 21.4; in eleventh grade 19.6; in twelfth grade 13.2. The average\npercentage of failures in all the grades in this high school is 23 .5.\nIn this same school the leading causes of failures are : first, indifference,\nreaching an average of 32.8 per cent, of those who fail; second, incapacity,\nwith an average of 24 . 6 per cent. ; third, poor preparation, with an average of\n24.3 per cent.; and fourth, ill-health, with an average of 16.9 per cent.\nAmong other causes, that of \"improper habits of study\" is frequently\nmentioned. \"Lack of concentration,\" \"not taught to think for themselves,\"\n\"lack of thoroness,\" \"too little parental co-operation,\" \"too little home study,\"\n\"too much society,\" \"doubled work,\" \"classes too large,\" \"teachers failing\nto reach pupils in the right way,\" are other causes mentioned.\nThe means made use of to reduce the number of failures are not novel, but\nthere is evidenced a feeling of growing responsibility for such failures and a\ngreater desire to lessen them. Nearly all the replies indicate that chief reliance\nin bringing up backward pupils is placed upon individual help, and that this\nhelp is given before or after school. Some schools provide open periods for\nconsultation. A few feel at liberty to provide for some individual instruction\nin the time usually devoted to class instruction. There are also indications\nthat more attention is given to the formation of right habits of study, by studying\nat times with the pupils in the preparation of an advance lesson and making\nout programs for home study, and that teachers are more alive to the need of\ncareful study of the slow pupil, his habits, environment, tastes, ambitions, and\nideals.\nA comment from a leading high -school principal in reply to the question\nas to measures taken to reduce failures we wish to quote, because it raises the\nquery as to what is the wisest attitude in treatment of high-school pupils.\nWill the somewhat exacting and unsympathetic attitude manifested result\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\nWE\n\nASSIST\n\nOUR\n\nPUPILS\n\n^\n\n593\n\nin the greatest good to the greatest number? We quote, \"We have no pet\nscheme, method, or panacea; yet, I have no hesitation in affirming that we\nare using sustained and systematic efforts to save the waste of inefficient effort,\nbut rather by the method of elimination and by directing the student to more\npromising fields of activity than by wasting the energies of the teaching force\nupon incapacity.\"\nThe replies to the question concerning the proportion of program time\ndevoted to class and individual instruction indicate that, outside of laboratories,\nclass instruction monopolizes more than nine-tenths of the school hours.\nThe time devoted daily to individual work outside of school hours averages\nabout one hour. Some schools set aside a half -hour for individual instruction\nbefore the opening session and the same time after closing in the afternoon.\nThe replies to the following question are varied and interesting: In class\ninstruction, when you discover that a pupil is beyond his depth, do you keep\nthe rest of the class waiting until you help your ''drowning pupil\" ashore, or\ndefer the helping process until later ? If the latter, when and how do you give\nhelp?\nThe general practice is to defer the helping process until later. The following are characteristic replies : \"Let the drowning pupil sink after a reasonable\neffort at rescue.\" \"Let him drown and help him out afterward.\" \"Indeed\nI often keep the class waiting to show them how to help a drowning person\nashore — thereby showing the class that the danger of drowning was not so\ngreat as it seemed. Fear or timidity is often the cause of not 'getting on swimmingly.'\" \"The secret of presenting a subject lies in getting the student's\npoint of view and then base your exposition on the facts he already has at his\ncommand. Frequently this is merely a matter of review of fundamental\nprinciples temporarily lost sight of by the student, but which, if rapidly run\nover by the teacher, will set him on his feet again and he who thought he was\ndrowning is enabled to wade out without further assistance.\"\nCompare the sympathetic tone of this last statement with the one which\nfollows. \"I don't Hke this figure of speech that puts the responsibility of\nsaving individuals with such tremendous emphasis upon the teacher. The\nclass is the unit to be saved. Responsibility of the individual to his little social\ngroup is the feeling that has educated mankind. Pride in emulating the\nstrongest and best in your class is what saves you; one must feel that one\ncannot get left behind, and that one deserves to get left behind, if he cannot\nsave himself.\"\nAn extreme form of individual instruction was presented in question eight\nas follows : In the recitation period, instead of conducting a class recitation on\nthe lesson previously prepared, how frequently do you assign a lesson in advance\nfor immediate preparation and then devote your whole period to bringing up\npupils in arrears by means of individual instruction ?\nThis plan met with very general criticism, but those w^ho criticized most\nseverely, labored under the misapprehension that this individual instruction\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLSecondary\n\nwas to be made a regular and frequent feature of the daily program, when it\nis only intended to be used on such occasions when pupils plainly need individual help. A leading principal says:\nI believe that more opportunities might be profitably offered by the state along other\nthan strictly academic lines, that would invite application where the task fits capacity.\nThis would draw off from classes many whose presence now swamps scholarly standards.\nEducation of every sort should be for those who have a real desire for it. I believe it time\nto cease over-anxiety concerning those who are now encouraged to rest content with the\nstrenuous efforts made in their behalf by teachers.\n\nNumerous commendations from those who have tried the plan are given,\nlike the following: ''In attacking a new subject, I find it very profitable;\"\n\"The plan needs close watching, but is advantageous;\" \"It benefits the slowpupil;\" \"It enables me to see pupils at work, to observe their methods, aptitudes,\ndifficulties, the actual amount of work a certain assignment requires for various\npupils. The pupils reveal themselves in their attitude toward their work;\"\n\" I seldom find a pupil who cannot catch up if he has the right kind of individual\nhelp from the teacher ;\" \"The exact difficulty of the pupil is better appreciated\nby the teacher. The teacher's personal force is increased by direct contact\nwith the pupil. The pupil is made to feel his own individual responsibility\nfor the lesson. This feeling is sometimes lost in large classes. From close\npersonal contact a closer sympathy prevails between pupil and teacher.\"\nBut the most conclusive answer as to the advantages of individual instruction in lessening failures comes from the McKinley High School, St. Louis.\nA summary of failures by subjects is furnished,' which covers eight semesters.\nThe percentage of failures the first semester of this record shows an average\nfor the entire high school of 16.55 per cent. The last semester, four years\nlater, shows an average of only 7 . 5 per cent, of failures, or a decrease in four\nyears of over 9 per cent.\nThis remarkable reduction to less than one-half the former failures, according to the positive statement of the principal, \"is largely due to individual\ninstruction and a constant effort to help the weaker pupils.\" When it is recalled\nthat the average of failures in the high schools generally reaches 22 per cent, or\nthree times the percentage of failures where these more helpful measures are\nutilized, is it not evident that a vigorous protest should be made against this\nunnecessary slaughter of high-school pupils?\nThe replies to the question. What plans are you utilizing to train your\npupils into right habits of study ? do not present convincing evidence that this\nimportant field of work is being sufficiently cultivated. Many answers indicate\nthat there is a crying need to train pupils into better study habits, but very\nlittle systematic effort is directed to this end. A few give talks on value of\nconcentration, and on the habits of study of successful business and professional men. This very brief summary of replies received suggests some com- '\nments which we wish to make in concluding this paper.\n» See summary of failures in McKinley High School to be printed at close of this paper.\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\nWE\n\nASSIST\n\nOUR\n\nPUPILS?\n\n595\n\nWe recognize that the number of failures in high-school studies must varygreatly, but we firmly believe that the present average of 22 per cent, of failures\nis excessive. This means that nearly one-fourth of the work done in our high\nschools is so imperfectly done that it must be repeated. Such waste of effort\nin business would be regarded as ruinous.\nThe principal causey of failures according to the replies are indifference,\nincapacity, poor preparation, and ill-health. A few call attention to improper\nhabits of study, lack of thoroness, not taught to think for themselves, too much\nsociety, too little parental co-operation, too little home study, irregular attendance, etc. These causes are well known and various remedies have been\napplied, but the percentages of failures are still excessive.\nFrom this investigation, as well as from various other sources, we are led\nto believe that one of the most profitable fields to cultivate in reducing failures\nis that of individual instruction, and connected with it, more systematic training to develop right habits of study. Our investigations disclose a generous\ngiving of individual help to backward pupils on the part of some high-school\nteachers, but in nearly every instance it is given outside of school hours, either\nbefore or after the regular sessions and largely at the expense of the teacher's\ntime and strength. The strange feature about it is that so much v^alue is\nattached to this individual work and. yet it has so little recognition in the\nschool hours and so little provision for its utilization.\nIt seems to be quite generally held that the class is everything and the\nindividual nothing. Every energy of the teacher is bent toward acquiring\nskill in handling of classes. The limited amount of professional training,\ngiven high-school teachers, is exclusively directed to the development of class\ninstruction, while individual training is ignored.\nWe heartily indorse Dr. Harris' views in regard to the inspiring influences,\nthe superior advantages, of class instruction, yet as a means of rounding up\nbackward pupils, a work that must occasionally be done in order to secure those\nsuperior class results, there is no other factor so potent as wise and skillful\nindi idual instruction.\nEveryone is familiar with the fact that the pace of the pupil who is under\nwise individual instruction is often twice as rapid as that of a large class. In\nindividual instruction the exact reaction can be brought about, the exact adjustment can be realized which sets the backward pupil on his feet, gives him\nconfidence and strength, and makes possible a double-quick movement which\nregains for him his lost rank in the class.\nBut the objection is raised that the plan of individual instruction sacrifices\nmuch of class instruction and cannot therefore be introduced. Individual\ninstruction is only to be utilized when the emergency arises, and that emergency\narises when pupils are floundering beyond their depth. The teacher is the\nwise diagnostician, varying the daily instruction according to symptoms and\nnot administering a fixed amount of mental pabulum according to unvarying\nclass instruction methods.\nWe believe that such emphasis has been placed\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\non class instruction, that teachers outside of the laboratories generally regard\nit their duty to devote all the school hours to such instruction. Somehow class\ninstruction has been invested with miraculous powers. Set it in motion and\nit will save all the pupils worth saving. It must have exclusive right of way\nduring all the school hours. Apologies must be offered whenever there is the\nleast divergence from this program. There is too common an impression\namong teachers that if class instruction has been skillfully administered, they\nhave done their full duty and no criticisms can be justly made for a large number of failures.\nBut some teachers are so impressed with the value of this individual\ninstruction that they provide for it outside of school hours at heavy cost to\nthemselves in time, effort, and strength. Why not give it recognition in the\nprogram, and to the extent needed ? Why frown upon its occasional and wise\nuse in schools ? Why not include individual instruction, sparingly administered ifyou wish, in the legitimate means for lessening failures and thus make\nit the duty of the teachers to plan wisely and carefully for such work ?\nThere is a special technique which applies in individual instruction. So\nmany teachers in their replies raised the theoretical objection that it develops\ndependence, indolence, etc. Is not that the fault of the manner of giving such\ninstruction? Class instruction can be -so presented that it will also develop\ndependence. In order to succeed with individual instruction, the teacher\nmust know thoroly each of his pupils as an individual and not as a part of a\nclass. He must discover each pupil's weakness and take the initiative in giving\naid. That aid must be given by the development method. ''The weak pupil\nis strengthened by helping him to help himself; direct instruction is forbidden.\"\nSuch individual instruction instead of fostering dependence and indolence\nfosters confidence and energy and contributes to greater efficiency in class\ninstruction.\nWe plead for a fuller recognition of the merits of individual instruction in\nthe plans of high-school teaching, because it will afford better opportunities\nto backward pupils to recover lost ground, and provide better facilities for\nmuch-needed training in better habits of study.\nFrom extended investigations into the habits of study of pupils, we are\nconvinced that even in high schools the percentage of failures could be materially reduced by wise training in the art of study. There are heavy losses from\nunconscious mind-wandering, from lack of concentration, from memorizing\nwords without grasping their meaning or seeing their application, from\ninability to distinguish essentials from nonessentials, from failure to think\nout relations between facts as they are acquired, from neglect to work out\nhelpful outlines of the important facts, from failure to test degree of mastery\nof facts by thoro self-questioning.\nThe art of study is one of the greatest arts, and its mastery, or failure to\nmaster it, is fraught with momentous consequences to the pupil. There are\nthose right beginnings, or ways of approach, which lead the pupil on to con-\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\n597\n\nWE ASSISl^ OUR PUPILS/\n\nscious power and mastery, and there are those misguided and futile efforts\nwhich end only in weariness and defeat. How a pupil studies is a matter of\nmuch greater moment than what he studies. Habits cling thruout Hfe and\nshape it. Knowledge is often carelessly gained and easily lost. For a pupil\nto form bad habits*of study, to drop into habits of dawdling over a subject, to\nfail to develop his powers of concentration, is to render subsequent school life\na drudgery instead of an inspiration, and bars the doors to intellectual pursuits\nafter school days have passed.\nAnd yet we have conducted class recitation as if knowledge, subject-matter,\nwas the chief aim. Tests in recitation are all directed to ascertain how much\nthe pupil knows of a subject, or perhaps more correctly, to a discovery of\nhow much of the language of the textbook has been memorized, while the\nmore vital process of how he gained his knowledge is ignored.\nWe believe a little freer and wiser use of individual instruction will afford\nbetter opportunities for the much-needed tra,ining in the art of study and that\nsuch training will lessen the number of failures.\nSUMMARY\n\nOF\n\nINFERENCES\n\nAND\n\nCONCLUSIONS\n\n1. That the average number of failures in our high school is excessive.\nFifteen per cent, is a better standard than that of 22 per cent.\n2. That while the number of failures is decreasing slowly the decreasing\nprocess should be hastened.\n3. That the chief causes of failures are indifference, incapacity, poor preparation, ill-health, and bad habits of study.\n4. That one of the causes which contribute to the many failures is a vigorous elimination of the backward pupils for fear their presence will ** swamp\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOF\n\nFAILURES\n\nMCKINLEY HIGH SCHOOL,\nAND ENTIRE SCHOOL\n\nST. LOUIS,\n\nBY DEPARTMENTS,\n8-59\n\n1904\nI90SH5\n2nd\nT.\n16. 55\nEntire School\nDepartments:\nBusiness\nHistory\nGreek\nLatin\nEnglish\nFrench\nGerman\nSpanish\nDomestic Science . . .\nManual Training . . .\nMechanical Drawing\nMathematics\nBotany\nChemistry\n......\nPhysics\nPhysiology\nPhysiography\n\nistT.\n1397\n12.4\n159\n\n14.2\n2435\n\n16.55\n2ndT.\n\n7-3\n21.69\n8.2I\nII.\n10.69\n\n16.36\n14-3\n\n27-39\n0.0\n12.25\n18.79\n\n14 96\n0.0\n\n234\n0.84\n\n6.1\n0.00\n4.2\n14.65\n29.60\n\n2.90\n7.0\n11-59\n22.40\n\n18.50\n27.64\n\n22.75\n\n18.03\n23.62\n19.05\n9-5°\n\n0.0\n\n14.30\n7.20\n\n9.90\n\n23.19\n17. 1\n1.72\n25.6\n2.21\n\n11.84\nistT.\n7-79\n14-7\n16.67\n0.0\n14-14\n20.30\n7-36\nI5-I\n0.0\n22.13\n0.00\n3-42\n23.61\n10.79\n1534\n\n1906-7\n\n2nd T.\n\n5-45\n9.90\n6.13\nII. II\n16.31\n9.06\n\nist T.\n7-83\n\n6.39\nand\nT.\n\nist T.1907-8\n2nd T.\n\n18.95\n1.48\n484\n19.09\n2.23\n7-5°\n\n0.0\n\n0.00\n\n4 34\n10.00\n18.66\n8.19\n7.09\n14-29\n15-38\n2.47\n2.30\n0.82\n3-73\n\n14- 33\n23.04\n\n7.27\n10.69\n17.84\n2.48\n5.60\n\n17-31\n\n6.42\n2.09\n13-58\n8.02\n10.77\n5.90.\n1-54\n5-16\n0.00\n12.20\n8.76\n\n10.81\n\n13.00\n14-41\n\n7-39\n\n0.00\n\n3-03\n\n11.88\n0.53\n12.06\n2.92\n8.24\n\n0.00\n\n5-17\n-70\n0.00\n9.70\n\n0.00\n\n5-73\n1.97\n3-26\n14-65\n6.00\n\n952\n\n3-52\n\nscholarly standards.\"\nThere is also manifest a lack of sympathy for\n4.60the slow\npupils and an unfair assumption that these are either indolent or incapable.\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n5. That individual instruction, as an occasional supplement to class\ninstruction, has no formal recognition in school hours, but that some teachers\nvalue it so highly in the rounding-up of slow or belated pupils that they generously devote time and strength to it outside of school hours.\n6. That the correction of bad habits of study thru a freer use of individual\ninstruction is a crying need which if properly met will greatly reduce the number of failures.\n7. That there is ground for the belief that the method of class recitation,\ngenerally in vogue in our high schools, neglects at times the individual needs\nof our pupils, and that a freer and wiser use of individual instruction just when\nneeded would materially lessen the present large number of failures.\nDISCUSSION\nW. H. Holmes, Jr., superintendent of schools, Westerly, R. I. — I agree heartily with\nall that Superintendent Kratz has said. His excellent paper is a protest against machine\nteaching. It is a plea for intelligent teaching — teaching that recognizes individual differences, and individual needs. It is a protest against education by elimination; it is a plea\nfor education by ministration. Mr. Kratz makes an earnest plea for helping pupils to\nhelp themselves. He advocates individual instruction as an aid to class instruction. Now,\nindividual instruction will not accomplish the impossible. It will not make brilliant students\nout of slow and stupid boys and girls; but it will often do something far better — it will put\nhope and courage into the hearts of such boys and girls and lead them to realize the power\nthat is within them. Our school work has been too largely based upon the discipline of\nfailure. It should and can be based on the discipline of success. An education that \"hits\nthe mark\" provides an opportunity for every child to win success up to the full extent of\nhis ability, however meager his ability may be. In order to furnish such an education we\nmust adjust our teaching ahd our courses to the needs of the individual pupils. We are\nrunning wild just now over industrial training, and there is need enough of such training;\nbut after all has been said and done, we must come back to the fundamental principle that\ntraining of any kind, industrial or otherwise, must be based largely upon the power to\ninterpret the printed page. We, in the high schools especially, must teach the boys and girls\nto master the language of books; we must teach them to study; to get the thought out of\nits verbal husk, and make it their own. This must always be our chief business. Now,\nthe means devised to do this work is class teaching. Class teaching is a very economical\ndevice, and it has done fairly well for the majority of school pupils; but it has left a large\nminority hopelessly stranded. There is sufl&cient evidence to prove that the greater\nnumber of these boys and girls could have been saved by intelligent individual teaching.\nSuperintendent Kratz has told us that the average percentage of failures in all grades of\nthe high school is twenty-two. In the high school of my home town where class-individual\nteaching has been employed for the past four years, the percentage of failure is 7.3, a\ndifference of 14 per cent, in favor of individual instruction. Superintendent Kratz reports\n3 1. 1 per cent, of failures in the first-year class of the high schools. The high school of\nwhich I am speaking reports 10.7 per cent, for this year, a difiference of 20 per cent, in\nfavor of individual teaching. In the second-, third-, and fourth-year classes, Superintendent\nKratz reports the percentages of failures as 21 . 4, 19. 6, and 13 . 2 respectively, against 5 . i,\n9.4, and 2.1 for the corresponding years in the high school using individual instruction, a\nmarked difiference in each year in favor of individual teaching.\nIn his conclusions Superintendent Kratz states that 15 per cent, of failures is a better\nstandard than 22 per cent. We have a little over 7 per cent, in our high school. As I\nhave said, individual instruction will not accomplish the impossible.\nIt will not do much\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUMS\n\n599\n\nfor the cigarette fiend. It will not do much for the boy or girl who is socially inclined.\nIt will, however, often accomplish a great deal for the so-called lazy pupil. I have in mind\none such pupil in our high school. The teacher said of that boy, \"I won't work for him,\nif he won't work for me.\" She was led to look at the matter in a little different light.\nShe called the boy to her side day after day and worked with him, not for him, until he\nbegan to pick up and work for himself. Now many a lazy pupil can be redeemed in\nthis way. Furthermore, individual teaching will do much for the slow pupil. This type\nof pupil has always been, and still is, rather a misfit in our schools. He is often slow\nbecause he thinks, and real thinking takes time. He finds some point that he cannot understand. This point must be made clear before he can go ahead. The ordinary class recitation makes no provision for such cases, so the slow pupil often gets far behind the class,\nsimply because his individual need is not met. Class instruction magnifies superficial\nmemorizing.\nIt minimizes real thinking.\nAgain, individual teaching will aid the weak pupil. Some months ago I heard a recitation in first-year algebra in a large city high school. The class, as a whole, was a very\ngood one. One pupil, however, seemed especially weak. This girl had not mastered the\nrule for expanding (a + &)7. For ten minutes of a thirty-five minute period, the teacher\nkept the pupil at blackboard with absolutely no result. The rest of the class looked idly\non for a few minutes, then grew restless, bored, and finally pained, as the pupil at the\nboard showed her discomfiture. How much better it would have been if this teacher,\ndirectly upon discovering the pupil's weakness, had excused her from further recitation\non the point. Then at some individual period, when the class was profitable employed,\naid could have been given in the best possible manner.\nClass individual-instruction, as I know it, had its origin at Batavia, N. Y., and Superintendent John Kennedy and his teachers deserve the thanks of the entire country for giving\nto pedagogy an exemplification of rational teaching. Under this plan the class recitation\nis a time for the teacher either to teach the class or to test the class. It is not a time to\nteach one or two pupils some point that all the others know. The individual period is a\nsupervised study period for the class. During this time the pupils study on advance work,\nwhile the teacher works silently at her desk with individual pupils who need her aid. This\nsupervised study period is one of the most valuable phases of class-individual instruction.\nIn closing I venture the assertion that we can aid needy pupils effectively, only by a\nwise and generous use of individual teaching.\n\nTHE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUMS FROM\nTHE STANDPOINT OF COLLEGES OF ENGINEERING\n\nWILLIAM\n\nT.\n\nMAGRUDER,\nPROFESSOR\nOF MECHANICAL\nENGINEERING,\nSTATE UNIVERSITY,\nCOLUMBUS,\nOHIO\n\nOHIO\n\nThe American system of public instruction represents the movement\ntoward which the national educational systems of all the great nations of the\nworld are tending. That such a system is desirable in any nation is no longer\na subject for debate; and that it is necessary in a republic is beyond question\nof opposition.\nThe statement that children of school age should have the opportunity to\nbe educated at the public expense is no longer only an axiom in civics, good\ngovernment, and good morals. It now has the authority pertaining to legal\ndecisions. The argument for public-school education is based upon the necessity for the proper training of the child for the position which he will be required\nfill as a citizen in the community in virtue of his birth in the republic.\n\nL\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "6oO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nHence the necesssity for the education of the child in self-preservation, selfsupport, and in his civic duties as a good citizen. If this be true, and logical,\nit follows that every system of education should include those studies which\nwill tend to make him a good citizen, which will teach him how to weigh evidence, todiscuss public questions, and to decide right from wrong, and which\nwill cause him to vote intelligently and with the exercise of both a public and\na private conscience. The day is passed when votes can be changed by\nempty harangues, by oratorical appeals to passion, and by calumny and\nslander. Today, the voter is educated and demands a good reason for changing\nhis opinion and indicating it on an Australian ballot. The scheme of studies\nwhich the pupil pursues should be such as to teach him how to preserve himself in both moral and physical health. The invalid and the dyspeptic are\nseldom good citizens, no matter how exemplary their conduct as men. The\ncurriculum which he follows should be such as to train him to become selfsupporting, so that he will not be a charge upon the community. It cannot\nbe gainsaid that a hungry citizen, or the man or woman whose stomach has\nbeen filled with food purchased with ill-gotten income is a poor voter and\ntherefore a menace to society.\nWhat then should be the character of the program of studies to be offered\nby a cosmopolitan high school, and from which suitable curriculums can be\nformed ?\n1. It should be American and national and should not ape European\nmethods or customs. There is no good reason why we should not obtain many\nexcellent suggestions from foreign countries, and especially from Germany,\nthe \"land of the schoolmaster,\" but we should take little or nothing bodily.\nEach feature suggested should be most carefully considered in the light of our\nown conditions and be modified and adapted to meet our needs. What may\nbe admirably suited for Germans in Germany, may not be necessarily the best\nfor Americans.\n2. It should be democratic and suited to the needs of each and every\ncitizen of the repubHc. Being free, it should enable even the poorest child to\nobtain the education which he may desire and which his mental abilities require.\nInstead of tending to class distinctions based solely upon the service rendered\nand the abihty of some progenitor, it should permit the lowliest to obtain the\neducation which will fit his personality for the life of greatest usefulness and\nservice in the community, while allowing the drone and society butterfly to fall\nout along the educational wayside.\n3. It should be of high-school grade. This means that it should not\ninclude studies of grammar-school grade; nor should it essay to do the work\nof the college and the university. If a change must be made in the length of\nthe high-school course, let the division be made at the sixth grade, giving six\nyears to elementary education, six years to secondary, and six years to collegiate\nand professional training for the well-educated and cultured individual. Then,\nif more studies or more matter must be included, let the salaries of our teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nTHE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUMS\n\n6oi\n\nbe made larger so as to enable principals and schoolboards to employ teachers\nmore capable of imparting knowledge and of educating the child to think\nmore intensively. To add two years to the present twelve years of primary\nand secondary education is to duplicate the work of the colleges and to cater to\nthe wishes or whims of the few at the expense of the many. If a municipal\nhigh school of collegiate grade is desired, why not call a spade a spade and\nlet the so-called \"people's college\" be a genuine municipal college and not a\nhalf-and-half affair? The term, \"people's college,\" savors of the demagog,\ninfers that it is for the many, while the present collegiate institutions are for\nthe few. As a matter of fact, both colleges and high schools at present offer\ncurriculums suited to and taken by, only the very few of the school population.\n4. In each of the curriculums into which the program of studies may be\ndivided, should be included the fundamentals of all high-school education\nand all those things which are needed for good citizenship. These include {a)\na working knowledge of the English language, including composition and\nrhetoric, ability to spell and punctuate, to compose an essay whose meaning\nshall be clear, and to write a plain business letter in intelligible terms. It\nmay be said that many professors and college graduates cannot meet this\nrequirement; if so, so much the worse for their elementary and secondary\nschool training and for their carelessness in diction and writing. It has been\nproven conclusively at Northwestern University that everyone can learn to\npunctuate, and that although large numbers of high-school graduates enter\ncollege deficient in spelling, yet less than i per cent, are really bad spellers\nand possibly deserve to belong to the \"cannot-learn-to-spell\" class. I believe\nthat if those who do not really try to learn were eliminated, even this small\npercentage would be very much smaller. It is lack of effort to observe and\nto concentrate the attention which is the cause of many mistakes in the boy's\nspelling and arithmetic, and later in his daily work.\nh) United States history, including the history of the political parties.\nThere is no reason why the history of our nation and government should\nnot be enthusiastically studied by high -school scholars, provided they are\nskillfully taught. Here is one place where we can quite properly follow German\npractice and teach the history of our country and our people. But it should\nbe done with intelligence and truthfulness, and a breadth of national\ncharacter.\nc) Civics, or the knowledge which should be required for citizenship and\nbefore one was allowed to vote as a citizen. If I am correctly informed, the\nignorant and stay-at-home voter is more to be feared in this country than the\none who can be voted in blocks-of-five.\nd) The elements of commercial customs, banking, and business law for all\nhigh-school boys and girls, so that they will be less at the mercy of the unscrupulous sharper when forced to decide for themselves in matters pertaining to\neveryday business affairs.\nWhy continue our fatahstic practice of making our\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwidows and our orphans pay large tuition fees in the school of experience so\nthat we may be known as the business man of the family ?\ne) Assuming a working knowledge of arithmetic capable of rapid and\naccurate use to have been acquired in the elementary school, all high-school\ncurriculums should include a one-year course in both concrete and demonstrative geometry. Few people appreciate the utility of geometry to men and\nwomen in business, in housekeeping, dressmaking, upholstering, and. gardening, to say nothing of engineering and the sciences. Its most valuable feature\nis the practice it demands in imaginative thought and in logical demonstration.\nAs such it is an excellent prerequisite for economics. It should always precede\nalgebra by a half-year.\n/) In our efforts to be non-sectarian in all matters pertaining to ethics,\nmorals, and religion, we have gone to the other extreme, and omit everything\nthat is positive and dogmatic. We no longer tell a child that \"lying is sinful,\"\nand stop there. We must use a softer term and say that ''lying is wrong\"\nand then must add apologetically that \"it does not pay,\" and that \"honesty\nis the best policy.\" In many schools, judging by their output, the Bible is\nunknown even as a sample of English literature, and the ignorance of it\namong college students as a \"mine of English undefiled\" is pitiable and sad.\ng) As each child has senses to be developed besides those of seeing and\nhearing, an elementary course in manual training should be required of all\nboys, and in domestic science of all girls. The course for the boys should\ninclude at least carpentry, and joinery, and possibly wood-turning. The\ncourse for the girls should include plain household cooking and plain domestic\nsewing. Both sexes should be taught to draw for both the artistic and practical\nbenefit to be derived therefrom. By drawing, I do not mean the making of\npictures. Why continue to train the eyes of our children and possibly their\nears, and let their sense of touch and muscular adjustments remain untrained?\nEvery child needs to have his hands trained to do something, and especially\nat the gawky age of the first year of the high school. From the point of view\nof national economics, the training of the hand should no longer be so wastefully neglected. We have recently had a meeting at Washington of the\ngovernors of the states of the union with the object in view of training our\npeople to preserve and conserve our national resources. Not a word was\nsaid about directing and training the latent energies of the millions of hands\nof the young people of the country so that they would know how to conserve\nthese priceless national inheritances. \"Woodman, spare that tree\" appeals\nto our sentiment, but who is there who will teach the woodman how to use\nthe lumber cut from the last tree felled so that he can spare this one, or to cut\nthis one at the right time in its life, and without wasting the best part in stumpage, and without splitting the log ?\n5. Curriculums in sufficient variety should be provided as will meet the\nneeds of all children who are mentally capable of receiving a high-school\neducation.\nUntil this is done, in no sense is the high school cosmopolitan.\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUMS\n\n603\n\nFor economic reasons, it can be assumed that, practically speaking, the cosmopolitan high school is metropolitan and is not to be found in agricultural\ndistricts, or in villages and small towns or cities; that the cosmopolitan high\nschool is indicative of the tastes, talents, and business of its community; that\nwhile it is intensely democratic, it is expressive of the republican form of\ngovernment in education; that it is American and non-sectional; that it is the\ndepartment store in education, supplying all needs under one roof and with\na comprehensive character of goods suited to the pocket-book of the taxpayer.\nIn the cosmopolitan high school, the courses of study should be so numerous\nthat students having all kinds of minds should be tempted to enter the open\ndoor of opportunity, should be guided in the selection each of his own mental\nnourishment, and should continue for four years to enjoy its invigorating\nfreshness.\nAt least this is what it should be in theory.\nThe classical high school, the boys' high school, the girls' high school, the\nLatin school, and the manual training high school are English or European,\nsectional and class names, and tend to divide the children by sexual or artificial\nlines whenever they are not housed under one roof. One of the objects of\npublic-school education is the elimination of class feeling in the youth of the\nnation. Each new evolution from the private schools of the earlier half of\nthe last century has been an effort in this direction. Their titles tell what\nthey stand for. The classical, modern language, EngHsh, commercial, manual\ntraining, and the various hyphenated science curriculums are all well and\ngood for the few, but it is evident that they do not attract the many. We\nnow hear and conjure with the term cosmopolitan meaning universal and comprehensive. Itis a goal toward which we are travelling educationally. What\nwe need in our elementary and secondary schools are additional curriculums\nwhich are intended for the masses and not suited solely to the tastes and\npleasures of the classes. It is all well enough to try to eliminate any class\nfeeling among those high-school scholars who are sent to the cosmopolitan\nhigh school, but what about those boys and girls who see in the present curriculums, with possibly the exceptions of the curriculums in manual training\nand domestic science, nothing suited to their wishes, tastes, and needs ? Verily,\nwe have eliminated class feeling, by eliminating the class of students who\nmight have any feehng in the matter.\nBulletin No. j/p, of the Bureau of Education, by Professor Edward L.\nThorndike, shows the terrible results of this elimination, and that it is more\nsevere in the East where private schools still flourish, and in towns and cities\nwhere there is a live demand for industrial workers. In fifty-three cities, an\naverage of only 38 per cent, of the children who were in the three lowest\ngrades reach the eighth grade, and in forty-four cities, only 8 per cent,\nreach the senior year of the high school. In other words, if a man had\ntwelve children the probability is that one of them would reach the last year of\nthe high-school curriculum, provided he lived in the average city. If he lived\nin a college town, two or even three might get through the high school.\nBut\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nif he lived in an industrial center, such as Boston, Baltimore, St. Louis, Philadel hia, Cincinnati, only one child in every twenty to one in one hundred would\ngo through the high school. If, for example, in New York state, only 50\nper cent, get beyond the fifth grade, only 30 per cent, get beyond the grammar\nschool and only 8 per cent, get into college and only 2 per cent., or less, get\nthrough college, it would seem to indicate that there was something wrong\nsomewhere in our educational system, and that it had gone to seed in academic\npods rather than bear fruit of economic, industrial, and social value. We used\nto divide school and college youths into those who go and those who are\nsent. This division leaves out the largest class of all, namely, those who are\neliminated.\nWhat we therefore need in our cosmopolitan high school in addition to\nour present curriculums are two groups of curriculums suited to the needs of\nboys and girls who belong tx) the majority rather than to the minority. I\nwould therefore advocate most earnestly the addition of industrial, domestic,\nand commercial courses which should be of real value to the child and to the\ncommunity, which should supplement the elementary courses in manual\ntraining and domestic science, and which should make all life richer as well\nas more effective. I am much in favor of trade schools, as we find them in\nGermany, Switzerland, and France, for the manufacture of the well-trained\nand skilled industrialist, and such as are so well trained at the Milwaukee\nPublic Trade Schools. But excellent as the trade school is in all things pertaining to the trade, it tempts the boy to leave the regular school and learn\nonly the trade and allied subjects. Trade education alone is not a preparation\nfor life ; it is life itself. Instead of the trade school where only technical information isacquired, and instead of the school having only the old-time classical\ncurriculum, we should compromise the matter and in the cosmopolitan highschool curriculums should combine the fundamental courses given above with\neducation for certain of the trades, for domestic life, for commercial positions,\nand for clerical work. We have at last learned that we cannot cast all children\nin the classical mold of a classical education, no matter how good it may be\nfor the few. We should be permitted to cast a large number in an industrial\nmold and have them educated in English composition and rhetoric. United\nStates history, civics and government, commercial customs and practices,\ngeometry and good morals, in addition to their special training in some branch\nof industry. By so doing, the colleges will receive a larger number of applicants for admission ; the engineering and technical schools will be able to get\nyoung men who are already trained in one or more of the engineering trades\nand know what they want before entering the college ; the manufacturers will\nhave a larger supply of skilled and educated workmen ; the working classes\nwill be better off in every way, and life for them will be sweeter and less of a\ndaily round of drudgery and toil unmixed with everything which does not\npertain to their work, and both the industrial efficiency and the social efficiency\nof the Nation will be improved,\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUMS\n\n605\n\nWhat I would urge upon all persons interested in secondary and technical\neducation are:\n1. That high-school graduates shall have had a sane training, free from all\nfoolishness, frills, fraternities, and frequent frivolities, and yet full of the fresh\njoyousness of youth, intensive with hard study and harder play, and in which\na memory-era rn of facts and fancies has not been made to take the place of a\nmind trained for use and for straight and accurate thinking.\n2. That they shall have been recruited from all classes of society and have\nbeen given an opportunity for mental development, irrespective of their individual differences due to parentage and early environment, but based on their\nnative capacity, aptitude for study, and prospective occupation.\n3. That all \"snap\" courses and poorly and imperfectly developed courses\nshall be either eliminated or valued at their true rating, so that four years of\nsecondary training of acceptable quality and amount shall entitle the highschool scholar to his diploma, irrespective of the line or lines in which his\nwork has been done.\n4. That the student shall have made an honest effort to discover himself\nand to learn for what purpose he is in the world. The indefiniteness of the\naim of many boys accounts for their inability to do anything and do it well; and\n5. That the teachers shall have tried systematically to develop the child's\ncapabilities and interests, intellectual, moral, patriotic, aesthetic, manual,\nand constructive.\nNow that the requirements for admission of our best colleges of engineering and of our technical schools are in most cases the equivalent of the academic\nor classical department of the same institution, the high-school boy who decides\nto go to an engineering or technical school cannot be rightfully accused of\nhunting an easy way into college. When publishers of college textbooks boldly\nadvertise that in a certain cosmopolitan textbook on physics ''the more severe\ncourse necessary to engineers is printed in smaller t)rpe,\" and when college\nprofessors of mathematics openly state that they have a higher standard for\npassing a man in the college of engineering than in the college of letters, it\nmust be self-evident that the engineering college is calling upon the highschool teachers for their best material and choicest output, and that the college\nteacher and the high-school teacher are ahke responsible for the molding of\nthe character and the mind of those who later will decide momentous problems\nin the movements of the armies of peace and of war. It is a fearful responsibility to decide the destiny and happiness of the lives of thousands of human\nbeings, but the training in high school and college of the mind of the man\nwho is to be the power for good or for evil in the community is none the less\nresponsible.\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nTHE\nSPENCER\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nR. SMITH, PRINCIPAL,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nWENDELL\n\nPHILLIPS\n\nHIGH\n\n[Secondary\n\nCURRICULUM\nSCHOOL,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe educational situation is one of great unrest. Recent utterances of\nstudents of social phases of life, the cry for the recognition of vocational\nsubjects in college-entrance requirements, the demand for industrial and\ntechnical education, are but di^erent expressions of a cry for the freeing of\nour youth from the mummy cloths of tradition, that they may breathe the free\nair of present-day life. England, France, and Germany have heard the\ncry. What are the conditions ?\n1. According to the report of the Commissioner of Education for the\nschool year, 1905-6, there were in attendance upon the public secondary\nschools of the United States 0.88 per cent, of the whole population or 3. 118\nper cent, of the estimate'd school population of 23,792,723 between five and\neighteen years of age. Of these 11.82 per cent, were graduated and less\nthan 4 per cent, entered the colleges or universities, while 8 . 6 per cent, claim\nto be in preparation for college. Should the curriculum of the public high\nschool be constructed for the 4 per cent, who go to the university, or for the\n96 per cent, who are dependent on the high school for their life training ?\n2. In our largest cities there is a large and varying foreign element that\nmust needs be adopted into our life and must be prepared for citizenship.\nThe children of these people are in our high schools in large numbers. In\nthe Wendell Phillips High School in Chicago during the school year of 1905-6\nthere were children whose fathers were bom in over thirty different countries,\nand this year the school counts about twenty-five. Does not this matter of\nnationality, with its consequent hereditary traits and tendencies, become\nan important factor in the development of a cosmopolitan high-school curriculum ?\n3. The report of the United States Census for 1900 shows that of those\nten years of age and over in gainful occupations in the ten largest cities 5 . 255\nper cent, are in professional service (under professional service are included\nactors, architects, electricians, engineers [civil, etc.], government officials, etc.);\nwhile 25.656 per cent, do domestic or personal service, 29.918 per cent,\nfollow in trade or transportation, and 38.412 per cent, are in manufacturing\nand mechanical pursuits, (i) Does our curriculum fit the 95 per cent, in\nother than professional service? -or has it in mind the 5 per cent, only?\n4. The college and the university control the high school. A cursory\nstudy of the index for fifteen and fractional years of the leading secondary\neducational magazine shows 214 entries under college-entrance requirements\nor some relation of the college to the secondary or high school. Then follow\n173 entries under English — which no one disputes; this is followed by 160\nentries under classics, including both Greek and Latin, while science must\nbe satisfied with 98 entries, mathematics 66, modern languages 51, commercial education 21, civics 16, industrial education 3. The topic \"Basis\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] THE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n607\n\nof an Efficient Education — Culture or Vocation\" has 3 entries. The relation\nof the pupil to the school and the community must be satisfied with 16 entries\nrelating largely to discipline and morals, 14 to athletics, 10 each to coeducation, and high school and society, 5 to fraternities. School buildings in this\nday of the development of school architecture occupy 3 entries.\n5. The Commissioner of Education in the report referred to above shows\nthat 50. 24 per cent, of the pupils in our public high schools are taking Latin\nwhile but 8.85 per cent, take French and 20.96 per cent, take German, with\nno report for Spanish. Algebra — replete with theory and sterile in concreteness — occupies the attention of 58.05 per cent, of our children and geometry\n28.50 per cent., while studying physics we find 15. 27 per cent., chemistry\n6.52 per cent., physical geography 20.97 per cent., physiology 20.36 per cent.\nThe biological science, so important in life and nature-study, is not honored\nwith mention. History (other than United States) — {note the parenthesis!)—\nis studied by 42.39 per cent., while civics receives the attention of but 17.48\nper cent. We find no statistics for the different vocational subjects and\nmust be satisfied with the statement that 95,000 are pursuing commercial\nsubjects in our public high schools, and that 50,595 were in manual and\nindustrial schools, both public and private.\n6. That some idea of the trend of secondary education in our cosmopolitan high schools today may be derived, a study has been made of the\ncurricula of the high schools of fifty of the largest cities. No account is taken\nof commercial, technical and manual- training high schools in this report.\nCONSTANTS\n\nWe find that the fifty require at least two years of English for graduation,\nof these 5 require two and one-half years, while 44 require three years and\n38 four years of English. In mathematics 47 require algebra, while 41\nrequire geometry and 9 require solid geometry — with 3 registering arithmetic\nfor half of first year as required. In science 9 require physiology, 15 physics,\n4 chemistry, 6 physical geography, 8 botany. Eighteen require United States\nhistory, 16 ancient history, while 6 name Roman history and 7 English history.\nSix require civics, 8 elocution one to two periods a week, and 1 1 require physical\ntraining 3 or 4 years twice a week. Nine require music once a week, and 12\nfree-hand drawing one to two times a week.\nWhile no public high school names Latin as a permanent constant, still\nas an optional with German or French or some other subject, as a constant\nin a given course of study, we shall find from two to four years of Latin effectively a constant in many of our schools. This is confirmed by the further\nfact noted above that 50 . 24 per cent, of the pupils in the public high school\nwere studying Latin in 1 905-1 906.\nELECTIVES\n\nFifty schools offer Latin as an elective, either as an optional with another\nstudy, or elective by course or year, or as a general elective.\nOf these 4\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondar\n\noffer but three years of Latin. Greek is offered by forty schools, 4 offer\nfour years, 29 three years and 7 two years, and offered as Latin, either as a\ngeneral, a course, an optional, or by the year elective. Forty-four schools\noffer German; 32 for four years, 9 for three years, 3 for two years; while 48\noffer French, of which 14 offer two years and 17 each three years and four years,\nSpanish is offered by 18 schools from two to four years, optional four; 3 offer\nSpanish in the ninth and tenth grades, while 7 offer it in the eleventh and\ntwelfth grades. Three schools offer algebra as an elective while 10 offer plane\ngeometry in the second to fourth years, and 37 solid geometry in the third and\nfourth years of which 23 by courses. Trigonometry is offered by 43 schools,\nphysics by 41 schools, chemistry by 48, physiology by 29, botany by 33,\nzoology by 37, physiography by 39.\nA closer examination shows that 10 schools offer but half a year in physiology, 7a half-year in botany, 5 but half a year in physiology, and that with\nthe exception of chemistry and physics which are confined to the third and\nfourth years, these sciences may be found as electives offered variously in\nany one of the four years as the schools may elect. Five schools offering\ntwo years of physics save the day. Query: Is the value of a science offered\nin the first year the same as that offered in the fourth year ? Is it a wonder\nthat, in transferring, pupils discover differences, oftentimes to their\nsorrow ?\nIn the historical studies we find the same chaotic condition. American,\nmediaeval, and English history may be taken in any of the four years and in\nseveral schools are offered as half-year subjects. Ancient history stands\nforth as a full-year subject and offered in the first, second, or third year in\n38 schools; economics for a half-year by 30 schools. Psychology — save the\nday 1— is offered in the fourth year only ; by 7 schools for the full year and by\n2 schools for a half-year.\nIn the vocational subjects we find the same conditions of chaos and different evaluation. For example, the pupil may choose his school and thereby\ntake his commercial geography in the first, or second, or third, or fourth year;\nand so with commercial law. Nine schools offer but half a year of commercial\ngeography, and all courses in commercial law occupy half a year. Twentynine schools offer two years of bookkeeping and 16 one year, ranging from\nthe first to the fourth year; while 9 offer one year in stenography, 28 two years,\n4 three years, and 3 four years. In domestic science we find 7 schools offering four years at one period a week; 2 two years, two periods a week; and 3\none year at three periods a week.\nWhen you consider that any or all of these subjects are either optional or\nelective by course, by the year, or is a general elective, you can see into what a\ndelightful position one is placed who would attempt to bring into orderly form\nthis chaotic mass. To say that botany or physiology, history, American,\nmediaeval, or English, or the commercial subjects may occupy a position in any\none of the four years and have the same power of mental development or\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "H\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n609\n\nthe same quality of product is not only illogical but absolutely absurd. But\nhere is a condition.\n7. We are now led to another most vital condition, a condition that has\ncaused much anxiety and has been the source of most violent criticism of the\npublic schools: the elimination of pupils during the several years of our high\nschool, especially in the first year or ninth grade.\nProfessor Thorndike has just published through the Bureau of Education The Elimination of Pupils from School, in which he estimates that 27\nper cent, of pupils entering the schools of 23 cities investigated continue to\nthe ninth grade, 17 per cent, to the tenth grade, 12 per cent, to the eleventh\ngrade, and 8 per cent, to the twelfth grade ; while 37 per cent, entering high\nschool do not continue to the second year, 29 . 4 per cent, of second year do not\ncontinue to the third year, and 33 . 3 per cent, of third year do not continue\nto the fourth year. When we compare with those entering high school we\nfind the final result in the fact that but 13 per cent, enter first year of the high\nschool, 10 per cent, second year, but 5 per cent, enter third year, and but 4\nper cent, enter fourth year. From the conclusions reached by Professor\nThorndike I make the following quotation:\nThe high school, which attracts so many, holds so few. Something in the mental or\nsocial and economic status of the pupil who enters the high schools is at fault. The fact\nthat the elimination is so great in the first year of the high school gives evidence that a large\nshare of the fault lies with the kind of education given in the high schools. One can hardly\nsuppose that very many of the parents who send children on to the high school do so with\nno expectation of keeping them there over a year, or that a large number of pupils who\ncomplete the elementary-school course and make a trial of the high school are so stupid\nor uninterested in being educated that they had better be got rid of in the first year.\n\nA study has been made within two years of the causes of such elimination\nin the Chicago high schools. It was the purpose of the writer to make a\npersonal examination of the data secured by the committee appointed by\nthe Board of Education, but before he was able to take time for such study,\nMr. Ralph Blount of the Robert A. Waller High School, a member of the\ncommittee, published some findings from the data received. This paper\nshows that 34 per cent, of the ninth -grade pupils either had dropped out or\ndid not intend to return the following September. Mr. Blount's study leads\nhim to believe \"that failure in study is the major cause of leaving\" — covered\nin many cases by \"leaving ostensibly to go to work.\" With Mr. Blount's\npermission I am submitting a table (appearing on the following page) made\nby him, such table being \"corrected by the aid of impressions not subject to\ntabulation, derived from ;he report made by the teachers.\"\nThis is very interesting and gives much food for reflection and speculation.\nOf course the 9 percent, that move from the city, the 2 per c'ent. that are\ntransferred are not necessarily of \"the lost.\" The 3 per cent, that go to\nprivate schools are still in pursuit of training and about them we need not\nworry.\nOf those that fall by the wayside because of sickness, we have cause\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nReasons for Leaving\nRemoval from city\nTransfer to other schools\nSickness\nMiscellaneous causes\nBusiness colleges\nOther private schools\nTo work:\nNecessary\nPupil's\nFailure taste\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n.09\n\nSchool IN Ninth Grade— Chicago High Schools\nPer cent.\n■15\n.02\n.04•03\n\n■03\n\nLoss\n\nPractically\nnot\nExclusive of number leaving be'\ncause obliged to work, 28 per\n1\ncent.\n,\nInclusive of number leaving because\npreventable\nobliged to v^ork, 44 per cent.\n'\nInclusive of number leaving because ^\\\nobliged to work, 72 per cent.\n' Preventable\nExclusive of number leaving because\n\\\nobliged to work, 56 per cent.\n\n1\n\n.16\n.08\n.40\n\n1\n\nto think. Are we, through lack of study of ventilation and sanitation in the\nschool and home, through ill-taught physiology and hygiene, through inattention to the enforcement of the laws of health as we come into contact with\nthese young people, through inattention to the physical condition of the child\nin his relation to his studies, in the smallest possible way responsible for this\ncondition ? Can we assist the parents ? Or is this condition caused at times by\nthe change of environment, too heavy, ill-timed, and ill-adapted studies causing\nnervous strain ? Time will not allow discussion of the relation of the elementary to the high school in preparation of the young pupil for the great change\nto take place, nor of the facts underlying the passing into manhood and womanhood, which if properly understood by the teacher would stop many harsh\nwords, heartache, and consequent breakdown.\nThe business college is credited with but 3 per cent., but account is not\ntaken, of course, of those who step into business colleges directly from the\nelementary school. Those who would go to business college can be assisted\nand saved to the public high schools by more practical development of the\ncommercial courses, by more wide-awake, concrete instruction, and by an\nattempt to acquire positions for those young people, who ought to be far\nbetter equipped than those who come from the hothouses. Why should\nnot every city high school organize a bureau of employment, not only for\nthose who may be graduated from its vocational courses, but for such as are\nunable to remain in school unless they are able to secure employment ? Why\nmay it not be possible to secure positions for worthy young men for part time\nin our leading business houses, in minor positions as newspaper carriers, as\nmessengers, etc ? May we not save a large number of this 24 per cent. ?\nThe 40 per cent, that go down in the table as failures, what of them?\nWhat of the whole 34 per cent, of which this 40 per cent, is a part ? What\nof the 25,000 children between 14 and 16 in Massachusetts alone, who are\neither at work or are idle? And Principal Bogan of the Lane Technical\nHigh School of Chicago tells us that the last school census of Chicago revealed\n8,000 boys and girls between 14 and 16, not in school and not at work. While\nhere there may be one seeming incompetent, and there one so lazy that nothing\ncan seemingly develop interest, try him — give him something to do; create\na deeper interest; develop greater enthusiasm; form for him a more definite\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCOSMOFOLITAN\n\nHIGH^CHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n6ii\n\npurpose in life. If we would learn *'to put the whole boy in school,\" \"arouse\nall his native energy by offering a complete and blended expression of all his\nactive intellectual and motive- powers through a long series of occupations —\nhealthy and vigorous in body, clear in thought, and ready in execution.\"\nTHE\n\nREMEDY\n\n\"School is life,\" says Professor Dewey. The curriculum of the city\nhigh school should be typical of the city in all its interests and activities.\nWith Dr. Dewey I believe that there should be no segregation but that we\nshould have the wider high school because, as he says,\nThe wider high school relieves many of the difficulties in the adequate treatment of\nthe individual as an individual. It brings the individual into a wider sphere of contacts\nand thus makes it possible to test him and his capacities more thoroughly. The need is\n.... for a region of opportunities large enough and balanced enough to meet the individual on his every side and provide for him that which is necessary to arouse and direct,\n.... Our task is on the one hand to select and adjust the studies with reference to the\nnature of the individual thus discovered and on the other hand to order and group them so\nthat they shall most definitely and systematically represent the chief lines of social endeavor\nand social achievement.\n\nSo every city high school should first of all give that which the 96 per\ncent, of the earning population demand and then should offer the 4 per cent,\nits demand for college preparation.\nIt is not necessary, here, to declaim the merits of the industrial training.\nMassachusetts and Wisconsin have taken steps in the inauguration of a\nmovement that promises to be most effective. The National Society for\nthe Promotion of Industrial Education, too, in its two great meetings and in\nits literature has developed a deep interest and has sought not only the sympathy but the active participation in its discussion and the organization of\nits plan, of the representatives of labor and of capital and of those interested\nin social work and in the training of our boys and girls. However, while\nit, as a rule, desires to organize these schools as a part of the public- school\nsystem, it does not wish them to be an inseparable part of the public school\nas now organized but rather a new organization, within the old. In speaking of the movement to organize separate agricultural high schools, Professor\nDavenport, Dean of the College of Agriculture, University of IlHnois, says,\n\"We cannot segregate and make an educational cleavage at the line of occupations except to the common peril.\"\nAnd Professor Frederick Bolton, well known for his work on the schools\nof Germany, sounds the alarm:\nA separate class of high schools must not be allowed to spring up. Just as sure as\nthey do, they will breed social distinctions and cause stratifications in society. It has been\nour boast that children of all nationalities, occupations, and creeds enter our schoolroom\ndoors and emerge together — American citizens\nIf we wish to promote true democracy and avoid artificial distinctions we must see to it that \\te have only one class of public\nschools and that including every subject worthy of consjdefation and open on equal terms\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto every boy and girl in the community\nThe one who argues for the establishment\nof a separate system of agricultural high schools, or separate industrial high schools is\nwittingly or unwittingly an enemy to our present high schools and to true democracy.\n\nEvery city high school, then, should offer not only such studies as are needed\nas a preparation to professional life in its various phases but all such vocational\nsubjects:— either commercial or industrial — as may be needed by the youth\nof the given city. This does not mean wide-open election but rather the\ndevelopment of a series of suggestive parallel courses of study similar to\nthe St. Louis system but even broader in its scope so that it may meet the\ndemands of the individual pupil in his particular environment.\nSuperintendent Chancellor in his last book. Motives, Ideas and Values\nin Education, has struck the keynote, it seems to me, when he demands, as\nconstants, play, nature-study, and the vernacular, with music and drawing as\nminor constants.\nIn this connection I desire to emphasize the necessity of physical culture\nfor our city-bred, yes, flat-bred boys and girls. No one should be excused\ntherefrom unless physically disabled and each one should be obliged to take\nnot less than two periods in the gymnasium a week ; daily would be far better\nthan the two periods. Physiology should be a constant in this day of hygienic\ncarelessness if not of ignorance. The Commissioner of Education reports\n20 . 36 per cent, as taking physiology while 50 . 24 per cent, take Latin. Verily\nthe physical ''know thyself\" needs promulgation as well as the \"know thyself\" of Socrates.\nTo this I would add American history and civics. You will note that\nAmerican history is omitted entirely from the report of the Commissioner of\nEducation and that but eighteen of the fifty schools report courses in American\nhistory as constants and as an elective it is offered in connection with civics\nand in some cases is but a half-year subject, while civics in the Commissioner\nof Education report is interesting but 17.48 per cent.\nA short time ago I strolled over to the small park in which was situated\nthe Douglas monument. Curiosity took me to the grated iron door in the\nbase of the monument. I looked in upon the sarcophagus to read at its\nbase:\n\"jTe// my children to obey the laws and uphold the constitution\"\nWith the above facts before us, the irony of the situation is apparent.\nFurther, bear in mind that methods of presentation should be more adapted\nto the present-day mode of life. The spirit of the modern should enliven the\nteacher of the text. Mr. Partridge of the New York Board of Education has\nrighteously inveighed against the course in Enghsh masterpieces based on\nthe college-entrance requirements. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle quotes him\nas saying:\nCollege professors select the literature to be read and studied. Burke and DeQuincy\nand Addison are not nourishing food for us. There is no natural selection of reading. It is\n4bsurd for a college board to select the reading for all the schools of the country.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n613\n\neffect of it is the absurdity of reducing the reading of literature to its lowest term. Instead\nof promoting a love for literature, our high-school experts have fallen into the ridiculous\nposition of promoting a distaste for it. Why cannot our experts devise English studies\nthat will cultivate literary appreciation ? Why need we be so afraid of finding out what a\nboy likes ? Our high schools fail of developing literary appreciation, and they fail because\nthey have bound literature with a syllabus that insists upon an over-minute consideration\nof detail.\n\nThe author of the pages given to the English course in the curriculum of\nHorace Mann School, part i, page 8, says:\nThe English work of the upper two years is restricted both in subject-matter and in\nmethod of treatment by the College Entrance Board. The English Department of the\nschool feels that to this extent its course in English is inferior to a course more liberal in\nsubject-matter and less technical in methods.\n\n''The trail of the serpent is over them all \" — and the spirit of traditionalism\nprevails. Even in the mathematics of the high school — algebra and geometry\n— it is only recently that a tendency to concrete teaching has been shown.\nWhat boy has not balked at the ''fool's bridge,\" or at some algebraic theory ?\nWhy can we not have more applied mathematics and not relegate \"doing\nthings\" mathematically to the shop and to the technical school? Much of\nour high-school mathematics is like the whitened meat the fond mother offers\nher boy after she has sucked all the juice therefrom. Blessed be drudgery!\nYes, when you can see why.\nIt must not be that certain lines of study whether humanistic or scientific\nare alone sufficient for the development of the varying powers, but whether\nit is the aim to make our young men and young women so efficient that they\nwill be able to take their places in a world that makes each pull not only his\nown weight but be a true helper in the crew to which he belongs, able to pull\nwith the others.\nTime is not sufficient to develop the curriculum of a cosmopolitan high\nschool. One person cannot do it. The report of the Committee of Ten\nmarked a step in the evolution of the high-school course of study. Fifteen\nyears have passed. The elective scheme has been tried. A new cry is heard.\nAll honor is due this famous report and its makers; an enormous good has\nbeen the result. We are moving. Conditions are changing. Is not the\ntime ripe for another commission, a commission of those immediately interested\nin public high schools, to collect data along the lines already suggested, and\nwith this data in hand to develop a curriculum that shall meet the demands\nof the youth of today and thereby save to himself and to his generation many\na boy who is relegated to the most menial task, when he might be fitted for\nthe higher spheres of labor ? Then let us make our boast of universal education true by upbuilding every boy and girl. Let us make thoroly honorable in the sight of all Gvtry position in life, because there is a light seen by\nall, a culture born not of mediaevalism but out of the present with its magnificent possibilities, a culture that recognizes that to carve a mantel or a\nchest, to construct a telephone system, to design a pattern for wall decoration,\n\nft:\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6 14\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto weave from raw material a copy of an Indian blanket in all its rich colorings,\nis as great as the skill needed to solve an intricate problem in algebra or to\nread the story of Odysseus from the original Greek. Not only is the skill\nequal, the amount of brain-force equal, but what is even more, an interest\nis often present that is in itself educative in value.\nThis can be but a preliminary study. The problem is before us. Is\nnot the day here — prophesied by Dr. Oscar Riddle of the University of Chicago:\nOne day .... our educators will awaken to the fact that education bears some relation to the creative labor of man and further that the productive citizen is demanding a\nschool that is for him and for us, not for the progressive reincubation of mediaeval linguistic\nnest eggs which are so commonly the pride of the pedagogue.\nDISCUSSION\nWells L. Griswold, principal of Rayen School, Youngstown, Ohio. — The question\nof educational policy which this country has up for discussion and if possible for solution\ntoday is that of education for efficiency. There is no pointed argument concerning the\ntraditional high school. It is established and is here to stay. The shop practice which\nhas limited the number of apprentices, the trouble which manufacturers have had in finding competent^ mechanics and foremen, combined with the difficulties which the schools\nhave experienced in the attempt which this country has made to crowd upon all classes a\nliberal education, has resulted in a well-defined and justified public santiment for educational opportunities of an industrial character. The question, so far as it affects secondary\neducation, is, shall we have trade schools, industrial or technical schools, or shall we develop\ncosmopolitan high schools ?\nUndoubtedly the cosmopolitan high school should be encouraged. All high schools\nshould be cosmopolitan, or as nearly so as the size of the community in which they are\nlocated will permit. That is, they should include in their program of studies all the subjects of the traditional school and in addition they should make ample provision for business courses, for manual training, shop work, domestic science, and for the elements of\nthose trades which are characteristic of the local communities. The ideal must be to meet\nall the demands of their constituencies for secondary school training. In very large cities\nthere may be room for trade or technical schools, or for Latin schools, but even then the\nbest interests will be conserved if the cosmopolitan high schools predominate. In these\ngeneral schools all classes meet on a common level. It is of great advantage to the children\nof the rich and ruling classes to mingle with those who come from the homes of poorer\nparents and it is of inestimable value to the children of the poor and uncultured to meet and\nmingle with those from homes of culture and means. If separate schools are provided for\nthose who seek a general and liberal education and for those who wish to become industrial\nworkers, the choice of occupation must be made at an early age, and often long before the\npupil has had the experience to choose wisely. Many of those who come to profit most\nby education for culture and general power would have chosen an exclusively industrial\ntraining had they made the final choice at entering high school. In the cosmopolitan high\nschool, courses can be selected in such a way that the boy or girl will ultimately find his\nplace, and this can be done without limiting his opportunity of choice. This equal chance\nto choose the education which leads to greatest opportunity which is the heritage of the\nlaborer's son, as well as of the child of fortune, must not be impaired.\nIndustrial education and all education for efficiency must be provided for in this democratic country. The problem of harmonizing education for culture and power with education for industrial efficiency and of giving an equal opportunity to all without ultimately\nimpairing the power of the poorer classes to choose the best will be most wisely determined\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] THE\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n615\n\noutside of very large cities by adding industrial and business courses to the high-school\nprogram rather than by establishing trade schools.\nLouis C. Monin, dean of Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, 111. — Colleges\nmust necessarily look to secondary schools for their students; where else could they\nobtain them ? But they should not dictate to them in the matter of preparation. The trouble\nwith pupils entering the Armour Institute of Technology is not a lack of knowledge but\nthe lack of ability to apply what they know. They have not learned to think properly.\nPreparation is not so much in what has been studied as in how it has been studied. There\nshould be greater uniformity in the subject-matter. At the Los Angeles meeting last year a\ncommission of seven was appointed from the technical department with the hope that a\nsimilar committee should be appointed from your department to co-operate in formulating\nmore uniform entrance requirements to technical colleges. We should get together on\nessential things. Let us have the broadest kind of high school. Call it what you may,\nonly let it do well what it undertakes to do.\nE. W. Lyttle, inspector, New York State Department of Education. — The high school\nhas before it a diiScult problem. It is required to do two things — to have two ends in\nview: the prepiration for college and the preparation for life. Doubtless numbers will be\nincreased and b^ys will be kept in the high school longer by introducing industrial courses.\nMany leave schoDl, strangely enough, because they cannot afford the expense. In some\nschools it costs $50 or more for each graduate at commencement.\nIs not that a shame ?\nWe need constants in our course of study. We should find out what these constants\nshould be and than notify the colleges that they must be satisfied with tests in these subjects. Colleges, in a large degree, are responsible for overloading our courses of study.\nPaul Kreuzpointner, chairman of the Committee on Industrial Education, American\nFoundry-Men's Association, Altoona, Pa. — -I speak as an industrial man rather than as a\nprofessional teacher. And yet I speak as a teacher — a teacher of apprentices, journeymen,\nand messenger boys whom I have taught for a generation for the pleasure it affords me.\nA farmer cannot sow wheat, cotton, and sugar in the same soil by the same methods of\nplanting and cultivation and expect uniformly successful results. This is what it seems\nto me your cosmopolitan high schools are undertaking to do. You stand in your own\nlight, if you advocate the cosmopolitan high schools and expect through such schools to\nmeet the demands of the times. Separate this work, classify the schools into classical and\ntechnical, with separate sets of teachers, take out manual-training schools, technical schools,\nand schools of commerce. They may be under the same roof but should be independent\nof each other.\nDavid S. Snedden, Teachers College, New York. — I want to go a step farther. The\ntraditional system is eight years elementary and four years high school, making the pupil\nabout eighteen years old when he graduates from the secondary school. A large part of\nthe high-school boys come from the wage-earning classes. These cannot afford to keep\ntheir sons in school until they are eighteen years old. The course of work for such should be\nplanned to enable them to complete it in two years of high-school study. A four-year course\nshould be maintained for such as can afford to remain in school and for such as are going to\nhigher institutions of learning. Sixteen years is about the age when banks and stores\nand industries wish to take boys and they would then find ready employment and would\neasily adapt themselves to the duties required of them.\nThe question remains, What shall we give such boys for the two years they are to spend\nin the high school ? The first year's work ought not to be the same as for those who take\na full four-years' course in preparation for college. And yet these two years need not\nnecessarily be industrial; they might be made largely cultural.\nGilbert B. Morrison, principal of McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo. — I am\nvery anxious to speak a few words in an effort to clear up some false impressions which\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nseem to have been made with reference to the cosmopolitan high school. A little review\nof the history of the high school in this country will tend to show how the present stage\nof secondary education, particularly that form which we call \"cosmopolitan\" such as the\nWilliam McKinley High School of St. Louis, has come to pass. For a long time science\nhad no place in the Boston High School, and when it was introduced, its pupils were not\nallowed to mingle with the aristocratic classes of the old school, and two auditoriums were\nbuilt so that these two classes of students need not meet on socially equal terms. Progress was slow because of the prejudice of the old school against this modern innovation,\nbut gradually the new idea gained in favor. The same opposition, however, against the\nmanual training and industrial education in all forms was encountered. At first separate\nbuildings seemed to be necessary in order to have a free hand and to place the new\nexperiment entirely in the hands of its friends in order to insure its success. But we are\npassing tha stage now and are entering upon a saner plan. Prejudice is removed and all\ninterests are working in harmony. It is no violation of courtesy to make personal mention\nof the St. Louis School.\nSuperintendent Soldan was a conservative man, guarding the school carefully against\nfads and fancies, and for a long time he opposed the introduction of industrial education,\nbut on the Board of Education was C. M. Woodward, the \"father of industrial education,\" and an earnest contender for the introduction of technical work in the schools. The\nresults of these two contending interests, so ably championed on both sides, was the St.\nLouis idea of the cosmopolitan high school where all phases of industrial education and\ncultural studies are found under the same roof and the same management. We find by\nthis method that we can more nearly meet the need of the individual pupil and can shift\nhim from one course to another if he finds out, and we find out, that he has made a mistake\nin his choice. This shifting can be done without shock or loss of time in most instances,\npermitting him to remain in the same school and to retain his friends and associates, thus\npreserving the social unity, to my mind very much to be desired. I have been in St. Louis\nlong enough to learn the merits of the school and to appreciate its advantages.\nThe Board of Education is so thoroughly satisfied with the McKinley High School\nidea that the new high school, the \"Louis Soldan School,\" which is to cost $800,000 is to\nbe like it in scope and requirement. We can change courses of study, but buildings stand\nfor all times. It is highly important then that when these great and expensive high schools\nare constructed, they should be properly equipped for carrying forward the work along\nlines that are likely to be permanent. I feel strongly on this question and express myself\nin strong terms because my convictions are strong. The principal of such a school need not\nbe an expert in all things. Such a man is an impossibility. But he should be a man of\ngood judgment who will select experts for heads of departments and exercise a wise guidance and supervision of all departments.\nThis plan of differentiating between departments in the same school instead of differentiating between schools themselves will in its own time take care of the question of the\nestablishment of industrial education, a demand for which seems now to be engaging\nuniversal attention. The addition of more shops, more processes, and a greater flexibility in pupils' courses enabling them to take more manual training and less academic\nwork should solve the new problem of industrial education; while at the same time all the\nacademic excellence of the present courses will be retained for those who wish to keep the\nhighway to a general education.\n\nSCHOOL\nMALCOLM\n\nATHLETICS:\n\nWHAT THEY\nSHOULD BE\n\nKENNETH\n\nST. PAUL'S\n\nGORDON,\n\nARE;\n\nWHAT\n\nTHEY\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCONCORD,\n\nN. H.\n\nEducators throughout the land are at last beginning to consider the athletic\nquestion in its true light, namely, as a great factor in education.\nWe have\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSCHOOL\n\nATHLETICS\n\n617\n\nbeen brought face to face with conditions which, if allowed to run their course\nmuch longer, will of necessity produce positive harm to the youth of the country,\nto the college man, and, finally, to the social and moral standards of the nation.\nBy an abnormal development of athletics in precisely the wrong channels,\nby placing them in a commercial position, and by sadly neglecting the great\nmass of boys for the benefit of a few, we, the schools in general and the colleges\nin particular, have now begun to reap as we have sown. It is an educational\nquestion, for whether we view it from the side of the child, the youth, or the\nman, we see in every phase of life the elements of early training, and if play is\nthe inalienable right of the child, he should be given the chance to play, and\nhe must be taught to play in such a way as to develop in him the qualities of\nleadership and manliness, otherwise it is not too much to say that our national\nintegrity in moral, social, and financial ways is in danger of being lowered.\nSport and athletics in America, I am sorry to say, are vastly different\nterms. Sport is play, not work. Athletics as practiced in general are too\nstrenuous, too spectacular, and too exclusive. We are not an athletic nation —\nfar from it. We talk athletics but there is too much \" grand stand \" and too little\nactual participation in games. Athletics should be a means to a higher end;\nwe have reduced them to a commercial and advertising basis. The plan of\nusing them as an invigorating influence on mind and body has not been worked\nout. Speaking generally, the harmonious development of all parts of the body\nalike has been neglected by the school; and the college has no power to correct\nthe evil. CommerciaHsm, vast expenses of teams, multitudes of rules governing play and ehgibihty of players have well-nigh ruined some of our best games,\nso that the masses cannot play them. The individual prizes and the false\nadulation — often of unworthy students — the developing of star athletics, the\nstriving for records, and lastly the most serious abuse, the strenuous rivalry\nwith other schools, have eliminated play from the life of most schools and\nhave reduced athletics to a cut-and-dried work for the few who are expected\nto pose as champions for their school and to work as though eternity depended\nupon their winning. As a nation we strive for records, and only the few who\napproach perfection are athletic, and we do not, as a rule, play for the love of\nplaying.\nWe may be wildly excited over a great inter-collegiate contest where twentytwo men are struggling before the eyes of thousands of spectators, or we may\nbe one of thousands to view a professional base ball game, but these spectacular\nperformances with their enormous gate receipts do not make our people\nathletic, but on the contrary they debase athletics. We are not an athletic\nnation as compared with Germany, where, for instance, the annual Turn\nfestivals at Frankfort produce 20,000 active athletes in the field and there is\nno grandstand. These men love the sport and they exercise for that reason.\nEngland is an athletic nation where the masses play cricket or football the\nyear round and the women walk miles for the love of it. Every park and\ncommon is crowded, during the late afternoon and during the long twilights,\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwith the happiest peasantry in the world; they have learned the value of athletics which we have yet to master. We may produce a star who can throw the\nhammer a few inches farther than their best man, but they can produce one\nhundred athletes to our one, when it comes to a count. They learn it young,\nand never having gone to excess they keep to it late in life.\nThat inter-scholastic contests produce stars I admit, but when it is done\nat the expense of the great mass of boys, is it beneficial ? Ninety per cent, of\nthe boys are expected to sit around and cheer in order to support their team.\nThey march and sing at command, and their exercise is to cheer and yell for\nAlma Mater! These 90 per cent, also have to pay the enormous bills for\ncoaching, training, and traveling, etc. This is their contribution to athletics.\nSport is thus lost sight of: the winning of the game is the only end in view.\nThe team must win. And the few poor fellows that compose the team are\ntold that the honor of their school is at stake. They are coached to the limit\nof the rules and too often beyond the spirit of the rules, they are trained to the\nminute, bandaged, and rubbed. Is this play ? Is this sport ? Then add to\nall this nonsense the unwholesome notoriety in the papers, the coming in\ncontact with the low sporting element, the temptation to unfairness in the\nexcitement of fierce contests, and of commercialism in various ways, to say\nnothing of the physical harm caused by the strain of these contests between\nyoung boys, and especially between teams from day schools where the proper\npreparation is necessarily lacking, and we have a fair sample of our American\nschool athletics. The foremost professional trainer of athletes of our generation— Mike Murphy — said a few years ago that \"more fine athletics had been\nspoiled than developed, between the ages of fifteen and eighteen, by fierce\nschool competition carried to excess.\"\nBut if the nation as a whole is not athletic, a school which has the club\nsystem in good working order is athletic, because all the boys are competing\nnaturally, not by compulsion, for if the facilities are adequate the multitude\nplays, and what is more pays only for what it gets; there are no idlers, no\nenforced marching or cheering, no notoriety, and no commercialism.\nIn order to insure general exercise for all boys ample play grounds, skating\nrinks, and an adequate gymnasium have to be provided and facilities for\nrowing, all on a large scale; and a diversified system of games the year round\nmust be presented so as to attract all boys naturally.\nThe boy thus gets his exercise, but coupled with the development of his\nbody are other requirements which must be suppHed, such as sportsmanship,\nhealthy rivalry, unselfishness, and the training of character in general. These\nare developed in the multitude by local club competition, where every boy\nfrom oldest to youngest plays with his equals. Each boy should consider it\nhis right to demand of a school the chance to play any and all games in proportion to his strength, and a school which does not give him this chance is\nnot only faUing short in mere physical training, but is neglecting to grasp one\nof the most obvious and most important elements of character building.\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nSCHOOL\n\nATHLETICS\n\n619\n\nThe game is a means of bringing out the best features of athletics. All\nwill admit that its functions are lost when it is made a mere spectacular performance. Rules upon rules are evolved to prop it up, so that the game is no\nfun^ but becomes a formality and hard work. The blame for this may be\njustly placed on the colleges, whose graduate bodies have made the game a\npiece of business, but where schools have to win inter-scholastic contests, they\ntoo must bear part of the blame. Indeed, I firmly beheve that if fifty of the\nlarger schools of the country should now adopt the club system in its entirety,\nthe game would, to a great extent, assume its former and natural functions, for\nclub contests improve the game because boys will play it for the love of the\nsport, and the series of contests lessens the importance of the winning and\nthereby develops sportsmanship.\nIf the high schools of the country could acquire grounds sufficient for such\na system then we should see at once the greatest athletic revolution, hundreds\nof thousands would soon be playing games and our country would not only\nbecome athletic, but by the broader development of the boys' characters we\nshould see a moral and social improvement in the nation at large.\nThe boy at play is in his natural element — so to speak. To deprive him of\ndeveloping this side of his nature is to do him a great injustice. A boy is by\nnature cruel; by environment he is what the school makes him. While we\nconsider health as the main end of athletics, we must not lose sight of the fact\nth^at in acquiring this health the boy must be taught to play for a higher motive\nthan the winning of a prize. If we neglect the masses for the chosen few we\nfall short of our duty. We must give each and every boy the same advantages to play. This is not done where inter-scholastic contests are highly\ndeveloped.\nA school should encourage team games such as football, baseball, rowing,\netc., rather than allow the more individual games to have first place, for in\nteam games a boy's character shows up in a truer way than in any other phase\nof school life. A boy of low moral character will not ring true in a team game\nand a selfish one seldom helps team work, which teaches a boy to work with\nhis fellows and to fcrget himself. Profanity and unfairness crop out in games\nquicker than elsewhere. All these advantages and disadvantages must be\nfollowed up or checked. Teachers, not professional coaches, must be in the\ngames with the boys. In playing with boys as an equal a man has open before\nhim a field for influencing the boy of which one who has not tried it has no\nconception.\nThe club system, where many teachers mingle with many teams, is here\nat its best, for not twenty or thirty boys but practically a whole school is taught\nthe true value of the game and is developed in all other wholesome ways, and\nby the intimate relations between teachers and boys, the game, boys and\nteachers are helped and the school is doing its duty by its boys.\nSpecializing in athletics, as in any other field, tends to narrowness. A boy\nis taught and coached along one line. His muscles are not developed equally.\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nISecondary\n\nIf he be a good jumper he is made to jump until he breaks the record and\nhis sport is turned into work. Individual prizes are also a menace. The club\nsystem in a school takes care of both these dangers. A boy is interested in\nseveral branches of sport and is not likely to carry any one to excess, for the\ntendency is to develop an all-round athlete since one's fellows demand his\nservice in many fields. At St. Paul's School individual prizes are few and\nlittle thought of in team games. Over one hundred boys row hard from January to June, and the only outward reward is to have the names of the winning\ncrews carved upon tablets which are placed in the gymnasium. The same is\nthe case in football and hockey. Athletics if taught in the right way have a\nfar higher end than a cup or medal.\nThe boy's character is bound to be influenced by athletics. Our national\ntendency to get the better of our fellows is a worthy one so long as we all\ngive the square deal, but when a boy is taught that a material prize is always\nbefore him and that the goal may be attained by fair means or foul, is it not\nnatural for him to pursue the same tactics when, as a man, he enters the game\nof life, be it financial or social? During the formative years from ten\nto eighteen a boy is molded by his environment. Thus the school has this\nresponsibility, not the college.\nLastly, the fierce rivalry engendered by inter-scholastic contests is a\ndistinct evil to which we can no longer be blinded. Leaving out its pernicious\ninfluence on the mass of boys who have to follow the team, such as idle associates, betting, rowdyism in various forms, and financial extravagance, this\nrivalry is harmful to the schools. Of course it produces elements of courage\nand if held within bounds it may do as much positive good, but boys are not\nmen, they cannot be expected to withstand the temptations to which they are\nexposed. Where one team is coached to acquit themselves as gentlemen, win\nor lose, ten are allowed to go into a contest with little of this preparation and in\nthe heat of conflict the desire to win is too much for them. The wild applause\nof their followers and the notoriety gained in the sporting columns of the press\ndrive the contestants to extremes which kill sport, lower morals, and often\npermanently injure a good athlete physically.\nIf this is not considered an important educational question, then we are\nblind to the development of the moral and physical side of our boys. The\nschool is the only place to meet and correct the evil. The college cannot do it.\nHaving been asked to outline the athletic system at St. Paul's School, I\nmay be pardoned if I conclude this paper with a short description of the\nworking out of the club system, by taking our plan at St. Paul's. I do so\nbecause, nowhere in the country, I believe, is there a system so complete and\nfar-reaching, with traditions and associations which make it unique.\nTo begin with, there are two boat clubs, the Halcyon and the Shattuck\nboat clubs, founded in 1871, each having separate boat houses at Lake Penacook, a lake three miles long, situated a mile and a half from the school. It is\nan ideal place for rowing and very beautiful.\nEach club has five eights on the\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSCHOOL\n\nATHLETICS\n\n621\n\nwater and the ninety-odd boys go to the \"Pond\" as we say, in four-horse\nbarges. Every boy in the school belongs to one club or the other, brothers\nand sons of alumni of course going into the club of the family, while the other\nnew boys are chosen in order of size From the hour a boy enters a club his\nloyalty is never shaken.\nDuring the long winter about one hundred and fifty boys are rowing in the\ngymnasium and going through the various exercises, but after the ice leaves\nLake Penacook the crews are sifted down to ten eights and substitutes. Besides\nthese larger crews there are six fours of the Lower School training too, and\nthese small boys row three series of short races on the school pond back of\nthe gymnasium, so that we may say there are one hundred and twenty boys\nrowing from January to June.\nFor all sports except rowing, the school is divided into three parts, and\nevery boy belongs to one of the three athletic clubs. The Isthmian and Old\nHundred clubs were founded in 1859 and the Delphian in 1888. Like the\nboat clubs the membership in these clubs is numerically equal, and sons of\nalumni go into their father's club. In football, hockey, and track games these\nclubs compete, and until recently in cricket.\nEach club has six regularly organized football teams in training all the fall.\nThe entire coaching is done by masters who work strenuously for the clubs.\nNo matches with schools could possibly produce more healthy rivalry and\nintense interest than the contests between the first elevens of the clubs. Each\nteam plays a series of three games with its respective rivals, thus we have\neighteen elevens playing in all nearly forty matches, and this does not include\nthe various scrub games between houses, etc. This means practice every day\nfor teams not in matches, and nowhere in the country will one see a more\nanimated sight than that at the Lower Grounds when early in the season before\nthe various squads are thinned out, over two hundred boys are working hard, to\nsay nothing of many others who are kicking balls about, or playing tennis, or\npracticing on the track. I may say there are no idlers or spectators; all are\ndoing something. If any one would see the club system at its best let him\nvisit the Lower Grounds during October, and I think he will be convinced that\nfor a large school, at least, the club system solves the athletic question.\nThere is no material reward for all this work either. Only the first elevens\nof each club have their names carved in their club room in the Athletic House —\nan honor which the small boys look forward to, and the old boys look back with\npride. Club spirit is so strong that every boy feels it his duty to play for his\nclub, no matter what team he makes. Often sixth form boys are playing on\nthird elevens shoulder to shoulder with third formers.\nThe same general play exists in hockey. This, the grandest of all winter\nsports, is at its best in our climate. With over one hundred .days of skating,\nwith our eight or ten rinks swept or planed every day, is it not natural for our\nboys to be enthusiastic hockey players, when they have but to step out of the\ngymnasium, or rather skate house, onto the ice ? The club system here\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfurnishes twenty-one or more regularly organized teams with their series of\nthree games each; in addition to these games there are numerous matches\nbetween houses, dormitories, etc.\nIn track games the clubs enter large teams for the Anniversary sports in\nJune. The training for these games is done chiefly by the various captains\nand by several masters who devote much time to the clubs. The fall handicap\ngames this year had 296 entries. These are valuable in bringing out material\nfor the regular games in the spring.\nOne may wonder how there is any play time left for other sports, but with\nthe exception of the crews most of the boys are at the Lower Grounds an'd\nthe eighteen or twenty tennis courts are crowded to excess while other boys\nplay golf, canoe — there are sixty canoes at present — race hare and hounds\nin the fall, snowshoe and coast in winter, work in the gymnasium or play\nracquets and squash. Except for the first team contests in football and hockey\nand for the annual boat races there are no spectacular attractions. The\nboys prefer to play than to look at others play.\nAll this goes to prove that the club system is a success at St. Paul's and\nour health record bears out this theory, for it is said that during the past thirty\nyears St. Paul's has had a better health record than West Point or the Naval\nAcademy where each student is supposed to be physically perfect.\nIf it is admitted that the system produces in its results the greatest physical\nbenefit to the greatest number, it is also true that it develops a high degree of\nsportsmanship and creates ties, among boys, that last for life. Often captains\nof opposing teams or crews are roommates. This makes no difference in the\nathletic struggle, but it tends to create that unique quality of generosity and\ngood feeling that prevails when the contest is over.\nThe system also develops that valuable characteristic — leadership, for the\ncaptains of every team are responsible for the success of their fellows, and\nwhen I say that there are all told seventy-three captaincies under our system,\nyou may be sure that leadership and responsibiHty are widely developed as\nfactors of a boy's education. An interesting fact is that a vast number of our\nalumni keep their athletics during after years. Their love of true sport imbibed\nwhile at St. Paul's stands by them, and St. Paul's is represented widely all\nover the country in the sports of those who have left college, and this is attributed\nto the school's policy of encouraging in the multitude a love of sport for sport's\nsake.\nDISCUSSION\nC. E, Emmerich, Indianapolis, Ind., read the report to the Board of School Commissioners ofIndianapolis of a committee of which he was chairman, as follows:\nYour committee to whom was referred the question of athletics between the two high\nschools and also between our high schools and those outside the city, respectfully begs\nto present the following report:\nIt seems to us that no one would question the value of well-regulated physical training,\nand also it seems that no thoughtful person would fail to see the evils inherent in the prevailing type of school athletics.\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nATHLETICS\n\n623\n\nThe defects of the present system may be roughly classified under three heads: (a) from\nthe pedagogical point of view; {h) from the physical side; (c) from the ethical standpoint.\nUnder (a) may be presented:\n1. The value of athletics as at present in vogue is disproportionate to the cost in time\nof players and of teachers who supervise them.\n2. The burden of managing the finances of the game is too great.\n3. There is too much tension developed among the pupils in general before a decisive\ngame, which results in inefficiency in studies.\nUnder (6), the physical side, may be included:\n1. Too few of the boys are actively engaged in athletics. General interest is centered\nin developing a team which will win.\n2. Those boys who do take an active part in athletics are the ones who least need\nphysical culture.\n3. At present there is danger of serious injury to players, particularly in football,\nthrough the efforts of a rival team to cripple a good player in order to weaken his team that\nthey may win.\n4. High-school boys will not train properly and are frequently injured permanently\nby overstrain.\n5. When trained at his best the boy of high-school age is too immature physically for\nsome of the games as played at present.\nUnder (c) — the ethical standpoint:\n1. Athletics should develop games, not contests.\n2. At present, teams compete with other teams over whose physical and ethical\nstatus we have no control.\n3. Games as now played tend to create bad feeling between schools. Sport for sport's\nsake is replaced by the spirit of contest, and where large numbers are concerned the mob\nspirit may arise.\n4. There is at present a tendency to estimate the quality of a school by athletic contests won.\n5. The character of a portion of the following of athletic contests is of so low a type\nthat it tends to demoralize the game. While this sort of following is small in numbers its\ninfluence is unduly great and is practically outside the control of school authorities.\n6. The public generally looks upon a winning team as a successful team; hence, the\ncoach is tempted to introduce questionable practices to develop a team which will win at\nany cost.\n7. The hero worship accorded the prominent athlete by pupils, press, and public tends\nto give him an altogether false notion of his own real importance.\n8. The earnings of the games constitute a temptation toward commercialism in sport.\nIn view of these facts, your committee therefore recommends that after December i\nof the present year no more competitive games be played under the auspices of the school\nbetween pupils of the two high schools.\nYour committee also considers it inadvisable that games be played between pupils\nof our high schools and pupils of high schools outside of the city.\nThe committee believes that it is advisable that pupils take part in the state athletic\nmeet.\nWhile your committee is opposed to contests between different high schools, it is just\nas strongly in favor of all well-regulated classes or teams within each individual school.\nBoys in a large city need special outlet for their surplus physical energy; this fact school\nauthorities should recognize. There is nowadays very little home labor. If neither the\nhome nor the school provides physical recreation boys are likely to find in the streets the\nphysical activity denied them at home or in school. This inevitably leads to questionable\npractices and uncertain morals.\nAthletics, within each school should be encouraged. The situation really demands,\nwhen we can afford it, that there should be a man in each high school whose whole time\nshould be devoted to the physical welfare of the boys of the school. He should be something more than a teacher of gymnastics; he should be in sympathy with boys and be able\nto bring out the best in them; he should supervise their gymnastic training and conduct\ntheir sports on the athletic field.\nExperience has shown that games within a school will increase active participation\nfrom 500 per cent, to 1,000 per cent. By proper classification on the basis of age, size, and\nexperience, every boy can be brought into active participation in healthy games in which\nthe spirit is one of emulation instead of strife.\nIn the meantime each school should endeavor to meet the situation by its teachers\ngiving such time out of school as they are able to spare for such purposes.\nThe public generally must come to a realization of the fact that the city conditions\nhave brought upon us new problems peculiar to this condition, which demand effective\nphy.sical training not only of a few but of all pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nLouis P. Jocelyn, Ann Arbor, Mich. — It is better to control athletics than to\nabolish. In the public schools of Michigan we have complete control of athletic matters.\nA state league is formed governed by teachers and this has been very successful. No\nteam can participate unless it has lived up to the rules. To be eligible one must have\ncarried ten hours the preceding term and twelve hours the current term. No professional coaches are employed. While coaches are hired they have no authority over the\nteam, to arrange games, etc. The governing board have all authority and arrange\nschedules. Moreover a teacher always accompanies the team out of town and if a boy\nvisits the saloon or otherwise corniucts himself in a disorderly manner he is removed from\nthe team. At Ann Arbor we require all first- and second-year pupils and advise all the\nothers to take gymnasium work. We divide the school into classes and have contests\nbetween these classes.\nGirls also have friendly contests among themselves.\nMr. Giles, Marion, Ind., chairman of the State Athletic Association. — In Indiana\nwe provide that a pupil shall carry fifteen hours both the preceding and current year. The\nstate board of control has entire charge, and we can now say that athletics are clean.\nThere is one exception that I would make to Michigan methods — namely, that of interclass contests. Class spirit runs too high in small schools and is very objectionable. It is\nhard to control when fostered and you never know when you have it down. A club system\nis better. Other Indiana cities are in sympathy with the movement in Indianapolis, and\nare eagerly watching the outcome of the new arrangement. If successful that plan will be\nadopted in other Indiana cities. The development of class spirit leads to class rushes and\nclass fights.\nMr. Regard, Indiana. — There is danger when high-school boys travel all over the\nstate in athletic contests. When not permitted to go under the name of their school they\nform independent teams and go on their own responsibility without the restraining influences of a teacher. Two years ago I saw a team from a representative city marching\nthrough the streets and in and out of saloons stirring up the town and attracting everybody's attention. Teachers need to be on hand all the time and prevent such unseemly\nexhibitions.\nMr. Cook, Hamilton, O. — Ohio too has had her troubles in inter-high-school athletics.\nThe state is now thoroughly organized and matters are in hand. The state is divided in\nfour sections: northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast. I am chairman of the\nsouthwest district. Our regulations provide that no team can leave town without some\nteacher. This, with other good rules, has been tried for the last two years with good\nresults. Our boys under these restrictions have conducted themselves in an orderly manner. Everybody is required to be up on fifteen-hour-per-week work without the fads and\nfrills. Athletics are in the high school to stay and they must be properly controlled. But\nI differ from some of you. I believe in inter-high-school contests. Class contests lead to\nconflicts, struggles, and disgraceful class rushes sometimes. All this is of course in imitation\nof the colleges as were the objectionable high-school fraternities which in this state are\nhappily outlawed if the present law is not declared unconstitutional.\nC. E. Rose, Boise, Idaho. — I think out in Idaho we are fully up to date in athletic\nmatters. The conditions outlined in the paper are largely ideal. Not one school in a hundred could care for physical training as St. Paul's does. But all such matters should be\nregulated as well as circumstances allow. Control is much better than prohibition. In\nour school we add some moral conditions to the requirements for the team. No one who\nsmokes or drinks is eligible.\n,\nSpencer R. Smith, Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago. — In Chicago, we go\nIndiana one better and require that a pupil shall carry sixteen hours work in both past year\nand current year, to be eligible to the team.\nOne year ago the control of athletics was\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "SIX-YEAR\n\nDepartment)\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\ntaken from the league entirely and placed in the hands of the principals. Instead of\nthe seven or eight games scheduled formerly hy the students, only three or four were\narranged for. We allow but one game annually outside of the city. No prizes were\noffered. The game was played purely for sport. So far as I know both the faculty and\nthe boys of the Wendell Phillips High School were satisfied with the plan. But other high\nschools refused to play us in the future on these conditions and we are forced to go back to\nthe old regime if we are to play other schools.\nAs principal of the high school, I desire to have these matters under good control. But\nI want to see a larger number'interested and benefited by physical training. For instance,\nin the Wendell Phillips High School only eighty out of one thousand seven hundred are\nactively interested in athletic sports. What attention should we give to the other one\nthousand six hundred ? We have recently planned for a field day for this large number.\nThis last field day was the third we have had and from four to six hundred of the student\nbody participated in these events. While what I am about to say may be considered a\ndigression, still it seems to me to be at least an indirect outcome of our field day in its development of the proper school spirit. At the close of the class day exercises in June, 1908,\nwith proper ceremonies, we raised the class flag together with the flag of our country.\nThis was done with perfect sympathy of the lower classes and with no spirit or disposition\nto interfere on their part as the flag of 1908 was raised with \"Old Glory.\" This is an\neffort to dignify the class colors.\nI believe that we should take athletics under our control for physical reasons. Pupils\nare not always honest in revealing their true physical condition and often enter a contest at\nthe instigation of their fellows and sometimes even at the suggestion of their own parents\nwhen they are not in fit condition.\n\nREPORT\nBY\n\nEUGENE\n\nW.\n\nOF\nLYTTLE,\n\nTHE\nCOMMITTEE ON\nCOURSE OF STUDY\nINSPECTOR UNIVERSITY\nCHAIRMAN\n\nOF\n\nSIX-YEAR\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nIn 1893, the Committee of Ten representing subcommittees of ninety,\nchosen for the most part from secondary and higher institutions, presented its\nreport on secondary-school studies.\nSo far at least as public high schools were concerned, that report was\nvaluable mainly as establishing ideals, and ideals only for those subjects then\ndeemed acceptable for college preparation. No report at all was made on such\nsubjects as music, drawing, commercial, manual, and physical training. From\nthat report we quote one sentence. \" Any one who reads these nine reports\nconsecutively will be struck with the fact that all these bodies of experts desire\nto have the elements of their several subjects taught earlier than they now are.\"\nEleven years later, at the St. Louis Exposition, it became painfully evident\nthat the United States was almost the only considerable civilized nation that\nprolonged its system of elementary education to eight or nine years.\nSince 1900 two of the most progressive nations of the world, France and\nJapan, have revised their national programs and both have virtually^limited\nthe term of elementary study to six years.\nIn 1905, at a meeting of the secondary department of the National Educational Association held at Asbury Park, it was voted to appoint a standing com-\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmittee on Six- Year Courses of High-School Study, of which committee Gilbert\nB. Morrison, principal of the WilHam McKinley High School, St. Louis, was\nchairman. That committee reported at Los Angeles in 1907 (see pp. 705-10,\nLos Angeles, Volume oj Proceedings).\n[Synopsis]\nThe question of dividing the twelve years of the public-school course equally between\nthe elementary and the secondary school presents a twofold aspect: The first is educational\nor pedagogic; the second is economic. On the pedagogical side, while not unanimous,\nthe trend of competent opinion is strongly toward such a division. The reasons for a sixyear course are:\nFirst, It would give the pupils the advantage of being taught by teachers specially\ntrained for the different branches, the gain coming from the better teaching that results\nfrom the adaptation of the teacher to the work for which he is best fitted and for which he\nhas made special preparation.\nSecond, The departmental plan extended downward to the seventh and eighth grades\nwould give the children the advantage of daily contact with several personalities, instead\nof that all-day association with one teacher which often breeds an abnormal psychic atmosphere.\nThird, It would give the pupils the advantage of laboratories in which elementary\nscience might be begun earlier than at present.\nFourth, If in the high school, the manual training shops could be employed to start\nseventh and eighth grade pupils in this work without sending them ofif to another school\nin another part of the city.\nFifth, The modern languages could be begun earlier and continued longer than at\npresent, making it possible to learn the languages by natural and direct methods.\nSixth, It would mitigate the present abruptness of the transition from the elementarx\nschools, and check the loss of pupils at this critical period. The object of a six-year course\nis not to save time but to secure better adaptation and more natural growth, fitting the pupils\nbetter both for the high school and for college.\nSeventh, It would cause more pupils to enter the ninth grade as it would remove what\nis now regarded by parents as a natural stopping-place.\nEighth, Six-year courses would make the system more self-consistent as shown by\nexperience in the schools of Germany and England.\nNinth, It would give the pupil more time to prepare for college.\nTenth, It would do much toward solving the problem of the outward extension of the\ncourse of study and the crowded curriculum.\nThe economic aspect is not so favorable inasmuch as high schools are more expensive\nthan elementary schools. But the difference in it would not be great. The economic\nobjection will yield when the change is generally believed to be a necessity. The tax payers\ncheerfully provide the necessities at any cost.\nG. B. Morrison, Chairman\nWilson Farrand\nEdward Rynearson\nJ. H. Francis\nA. B. Graham\nCommittee\n\nIt is well to note that within the present year, Mr. J. Edward Swanstrom,\nfor some time president of the Board of Education in Brooklyn, and later a\nmember of the Board of Education of Greater New York, published in the\nBrooklyn Eagle an argument for the adoption of the six-year course of elemen-\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIX-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\n627\n\ntary study to be followed by three years of work in the lower high schools plus\nthree years in the upper grade or specialized high schools. In that article Mr.\nSwanstrom argues forcibly that his plan would not only increase the educational efficiency of the schools but would be highly economical for the city of\nGreater New York.\nAt least ten cities in the United States, for several years, have employed the\nproposed six-year division and believe it to be more economical.\nWorking along the lines indicated by growing educational opinion, your\npresent committee has decided as follows:\n1. To outline what may reasonably be required of pupils at the end of the sixth school\nyear as essential to a preparation for high-school work.\n2. To suggest for the seventh and eighth grades a minimum practicable course of\nstudy based on the experience and practice of the civilized world, to consume perhaps\n70 per cent, of the pupils' time and to advise for the other 30 per cent., those elective\nwhich the best pedagogic thought and practice approve.\n3. To recommend further careful investigation in regard to fixing points for vocational\ndifferentiation in accordance with local conditions and individual characteristics.\n4. To recommend that promotions be by units of work accomplished rather than by\nyears, thereby permitting the shortening or the lengthening of the time in which the course,\nnominally of six years, may be completed by pupils of varying ability.\nI.\n\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE EXPECTED\n\nOF PUPILS\nAGE\n\nAT THE\n\nEND\n\nOF THE\n\nSIXTH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nYEAR\n\n12-13 ?\n\nA. Reading. — Pupils should be able to get the thought and express the thought in\nsimple narrative prose and poetry, such as Robinson Crusoe and Paul Revere's Ride.\nB. Spelling. — They should be able to spell correctly 90 per cent, of the words commonly used in their home and school vocabulary.\nC. Writing. — They should be able to write legibly and with fair rapidity.\nD. Composition. — (i) They should be able to compose and write a business or social\nletter, in conventional form, on a simple assigned topic that properly comes within the\nexperience of children of their age. (2) They should be able to compose and write short\ndescriptions and narrative on simple themes appealing to the natural interests of children\nand falling within their experience.\nE. Arithmetic. — (i) They should be thoroughly familiar with number combinations (i-ioo) in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. (2) They should\nbe able to solve easy two-step problems in arithmetic involving fundamental operation.\n(3) They should be able to read and write readily integers and decimals to six places. (4)\nThey should be able to solve easy one-step problems involving common and decimal fractions. (5) They should have some knowledge of percentage and its simplest applications\nto profit and loss and to simple interest.\nF. Geography. — They should have a general knowledge of (i) The oceans and continents, their relative size and locations; (2) Of the principal countries, their peoples and\nproducts, with a somewhat detailed study of the United States and its possessions; (3)\nOf the great river and mountain systems, specially those of North America, South America,\nEurope, and Asia; (4) Of 50 to 100 of the principal cities of the world, their location,\npeculiar characteristics, commercial, industrial, and artistic features of -special interest;\n(5) Of the great trade routes.\nG. Other subjects. — With the aim of starting as many lines of interest as possible,\npupils during the first six years, should have instruction in drawing, music, morals, elementary science or nature-study, history, literature, calisthenics, constructive and illus-\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntrative hand work; but instruction in these subjects should be directed with the aim of\ndeveloping habits of observation, power to think and power to do, rather than with the aim\nof imparting information of definite amount.\nII.\n\nSUGGESTED LIST OF STUDIES\nFOR PUPILS\nOF THE SEVENTH\nAND EIGHTH\nGRADES,\nPERIODS 30 MINUTES.\nRequired subjects\nPeriods weekly\nEnglish, including spelling, literature, composition, grammar\n. . 6 to 8\nArithmetic with concrete geometry and algebra\n5\nGeography and history\n5 to 7\nMusic\n2\nDrawing\nPhysical Training (required of those whose physical condition needs\n\n2\n\nit as corrective; optional for others) ^\nElectives:\n\n2\n\nManual Training\nScience\nForeign languages (for each one given)\n\n3\n3\n5\n\nIt will be seen that the above list presents simply suggestions from which\nvarying courses of study may be worked out, and correlated with courses now\ngiven in our high schools.\nYour committee makes no claims for infallibility nor for superior insight\nor foresight. It presents these suggestions as the results of a year's faithful\nstudy of the problems before us all. It invites the fullest and freest discussion\non the part of all educational bodies during the coming year that we may all gain\nmore light. It respectfully requests that the work of the committee be continued.\nE. W. Lyttle, Chairman\nE. W. Coy\nOliver P. Cornman\nT. A. MoTT\nJ. H. Van Sickle\nJ. Stanley Brown\nJohn H. Denbigh\n\nROUND-TABLE\nA.\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\nTHOMAS\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nOF ALGEBRA IN ITS RELATION\nEDUCATIONAL\nTREND\n\nK. MC KINNEY,\n\nCommiUee\n\nPROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS,\nMIDDLETON,\nCONN.\n\nTO THE\n\nWESLEY\n\nPRESENT\n\nAN UNIVERSITY\n\nNo subject more earnestly engages the attention of teachers of mathematics than does\nalgebra. It is the most important as well as the most difficult subject to teach in the range\nof elementary mathematics. The difficulty to make the subject attractive has done much\nto hasten the change from the old regime of required mathematics in the freshman and\nsophomore years in college to the present elective system.\nThe dissatisfaction felt by pupils\n« John H. Denbigh, Morris High School, agrees to the report with the single exception of that on\nphysical training which he would require of all\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ALGEBRA\n\nwas often shared by the corps of instructors. This situation, explicitly or tacitly recognized,\nhas challenged the teachers and masters of algebra to consider anew the best presentation\nof the subject.\nThe purpose of the discussion which follows is to point out certain forces which appear\nto be shaping the course of instruction in elementary algebra as indicated by recent texts.\nThere is no attempt to make the discussion exhaustive nor to consider minutely details of\narrangement or exposition. It attempts only to trace in merest outline the present situation and to point out certain tendencies which have assumed sufficient definiteness to be\nsignificant as to the present trend in elementary algebra.\nAlmost the whole of mathematics has been refounded in the last five or six decades.\nThis has been done largely by European mathematicians in continuation of the work of\nCauchy, Riemann, and Weierstrass.\nOn the side of analysis, the wide and rapidly growing domain of function theory bears\nwitness to the necessity and the power of precise definition and exact logic in mathematical\nthought. As a foundation for this theory it was necessary to reconstruct the number system,\nto make explicit the meaning and the limitation of the fundamental operations of analysis,\nto give accurate definition to basal concepts, and to make definite all notions relating to\ninfinite processes, particularly the notion of limit.\nThe first English treatise on algebra with which I am acquainted to show in a marked\nway the influence of this reformulation of the foundations of analysis is the Text Book 0}\nAlgebra by Professor Chrystal (1886-89). I^ this treatise the operations of ordinary\nalgebra are developed in conformity with the three so-called \"fundamental laws\" of algebra, as formulated by Gregory, DeMorgan, Hamilton, and others. In Part I is to be\nfound, recast and rearranged, much of the matter in the ordinary college text. In Part II\nProfessor Chrystal addresses himself confessedly to the task of preparing an appropriate\nintroduction to \"Infinitesimal Analysis\" and, in particular, to the \"Theory of Function,\"\nThe textbook was followed after an interval of nearly ten years by Professor Chrystal's\nIntroduction to Algebra, designed in part as a preparation for the reading of his larger\ntreatise. The Introduction may be characterized by its careful reference of the operations\nof algebra to the \"fundamental laws;\" by its thoro treatment of equations; and by its\nearly and extensive use of the graph. The feature here emphasized is the clear light into\nwhich it brings the principles of algebra involved in the several topics treated.\nAs continuing this aspect of algebra the college text by Professor Fine (1905) may be\nmentioned. Its indebtedness to Chrystal is acknowledged. It aims to develop the theory\nof algebraic processes in an elementary manner but connectedly and rigorously. The first\npart is an elegant development of the number concept, which the author, with pardonable\noptimism, believes will be attractive to the college student. The second part aims to give\na course in algebra, satisfactory from the theoretical standpoint, with a minimum departure from the order and matter of the usual text.\nThese texts have been mentioned with no thought of disparagement to the texts of other\nauthors, nor is it intended to imply that the notable points of the texts referred to are confined to those just given. The purpose is to call attention to the trend in our texts of algebra to improve the statement and exposition of algebraic theory and these references are\nmade to give definiteness and emphasis to this feature.\nAmong elementary texts there is likewise strong evidence of a purpose to bring the\ndevelopment into line with the modern theory of algebra. While not every elementary\nalgebra has been an improvement in this respect over all its predecessors yet we are justified, think,\nI\nin saying that the advance along this line in the last two or three decades has\nbeen marked. The improvement in theory has enhanced the cultural value of the subject\nand added to its clearness and simplicity. But when the subject is given its ultimate simplicity\nand logical generality in abstract form it loses in attractiveness to the immatur9 mind.\nThere is a strong and growing tendency to develop the concrete side of elementary\n\nIk\n\nalgebra.\n\nThis tendency is referred to in various phrases;\n\nsuch as \"emphasizing the\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\npractical side of algebra;\" \"correlating algebra with its principle applications in mechanics,\nphysics, chemistry;\" \"developing the subject in close touch with the affairs of daily life,\nenriching its content, multiplying its relations, and adding to its human interest.\" It is\nnot intended to say that these expressions refer to the same phase of this tendency but rather\nthat it is the one tendency viewed in several aspects that gives rise to these several descriptions.\nThis tendency has been accentuated by the great increase in the relative importance\nof the physical sciences in the secondary schools and colleges, in the last three or four\ndecades. The complaint of physicists and chemists that students trained in the abstract\nsymbolism of algebra so frequently failed absolutely in the simple concrete problems of\nelementary science was, in the main, well founded. This was recognized in some elementary\ntexts by the addition of problems taken from mechanics and physics. The influence of\ntechnical schools has been in the same direction. They demand of the student a usable\nknowledge of algebra, questions of purely theoretic interest being subordinate.\nPedagogical influence has re-enforced this tendency. It is insisted that algebra is\nabstract, its concepts and processes consequently possessing wide generality. And because\nof this abstractness and generality the subject is difficult for the young mind to grasp.\nConsequently from this source there is a cry for the particular, for the concrete, the interesting. Awaken first of all the pupil's interest in the subject by dealing with the problems\nin which he is concerned. To the same end has tended the movement for the correlation of\nmathematics and the elementary physical sciences. This movement has made itself profoundly felt under the leadership of Klein in Germany, of Perry in England, and of Moore\nin this country. In this connection may be mentioned the so-called \"laboratory method.\"\nAccording to Professor Young (The Teaching of Mathematics, pp. 100-4) this method\n\"proposes that the experimental origin of mathematics be fully recognized; that the student\nbe led to feel the need of the mathematical tool through some material experiment he has\nmade or thing he has done,\" It goes furtherand proposes \"that mathematics and physics\nbe organized into one coherent whole the most extreme form of the proposition being that\nthe reorganization be so thoro as to recognize in the secondary school no distinction\nbetween mathematics and its principal applications.\"\nThese several forces bearing on the teaching of algebra have influenced profoundly\nrecent elementary texts. So far as my observation goes the indications are that these forces\nwill continue to press in the same direction.\nThese then are the two main doctrines influencing today the development of elementary\nalgebra; the one emphasizing algebraic theory, the other, for various reasons, the concrete\nfield with which algebra may concern itself.\nThe dispute between the partisans of these two theories has been warm at times. In\nfact it has not infrequently seemed from the debate alone that the theories were mutually\nand absolutely exclusive. The earnestness of the debate may be taken as a measure of the\nestimated importance of the issues at stake. But in this controversy we have no interest\nother than to point that a process of adjustment seems to be in progress whereby the\nclaims of opposing parties may be reasonably satisfied. This means, of necessity, some\nconcessions by conflicting interests.\nThe nature of this adjustment, as I conceive it, is on this wise: Formal demonstration\nfor the beginner is reduced to a minimum. Not until he has acquired some familiarity\nwith a considerable number of algebraic concepts and processes is the formal side of the\nsubject to be emphasized. Principles and methods are unfolded and explained by means\nof simple concrete examples. These may be taken from arithmetic, or geometry, or the\nelementary physical sciences, or statistics. The essential feature is that they be such as\nto appeal to the interest and understanding of the beginner and as to illustrate and enforce\nalgebraic principles. The sect, the graph and other devices may be used to visualize or to\nsuggest algebraic relations and methods. In the solution and discussion of these problems\nthe logical aspect of the subject is illustrated and emphasized, losing thereby something\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nALGEBRA\n\n631\n\nin abstractness and consequent reach but gaining in sharpness, utility, and attractiveness\nto the beginner. On the other hand while the concrete side of algebra may be stressed for\nthe beginner, it seems to be recognized that problem solving for its own sake, as an end in\nitself, is not the main purpose of algebra. A collection of problems, however interesting or\nuseful, is not necessarily, ipso facto, a treatise on algebra. It is only as by proper devices\nthey are used \"to body forth\" the theory of algebra that they assume their full role in elementary work.\nAn elementary algebra has just come to hand which develops the subject on the basis\nof the three so-called \"fundamental laws\" more nearly after the fashion of Chrystal's\nIntroduction than does any other elementary text with which I am acquainted, and may,\ntherefore, be classed with texts giving due prominence to the theoretical aspect of the\nsubject. A notable feature of the text is the conscious effort to derive, illustrate, and enforce\nthese \"laws\" and their immediate consequences in a concrete way. The illustrative\nexamples are taken mainly from arithmetic and geometry, but the fact and the manner of\ntheir use exemplifies the point here emphasized; viz., the full and clear realization, whether\nthe bias be toward the theoretical side or the practical that the best method of approach\nfor the beginner is through and by means of the particular and the concrete. It is not here\nimplied that this principle is new in either pedagogy or mathematics; it is the emphasis\nplaced upon it which requires reference to it here.\nIt is difficult to trace this adjustment in detail in recent treatises on elementary algebra,\npartly because it is worked out in different ways in different texts and partly because it is\nnot permissible in a paper like this to refer to a text in which the adjustment is worked out\nin a particular way and thus avoid an extended description. There are some features,\nnevertheless, to which attention may be called. It must be premised, however, that the\nfeatures mentioned do not appear for the first time in recent texts. Again, it is rather the\nemphasis laid on them which entitles them to a place in this discussion.\n1. Algebra developed from arithmetic. — Much care is taken that algebra shall groweasily and naturally out of arithmetic. Not only has algebra encroached on the old\ndomain of arithmetic but the authority of arithmetic to lay down the rules for the combination of algebraic symbols is recognized. Certain portions of arithmetic are worked over\nin terms of algebraic symbols to give the student confidence with the new apparatus.\nFurther, the various operations in a solution already familiar to the beginner can be easily\nexhibited by means of a formula. The pupil is thus early led to use the apparatus of algebra with assurance and to feel that its purpose, in part, is to throw a clearer light on subjects with which he is already somewhat familiar.\n2. Topics omitted or postponed. — Certain topics which because of their abstract character are difficult for beginners, or which by their nature have little immediate application,\nare omitted or postponed. Slight stress is laid on the highest common factor by Euclid's\nmethod, factoring by means of the factor theorem, cube root and complicated surd and\nradical expressions, complex numbers, the binomial theorem with fractional or negative\nexponents. Elementary texts are to be found in which some or most of these are omitted.\nA wholesome influence has been exerted by the report of the committee of the American\nMathematical Society on college-entrance requirements in algebra toward simplicity and a\nmore rational arrangement of topics.\n3. The equation. — In a recent text taken at random from the shelf and containing\nabout six hundred pages, more than two hundred are devoted explicitly to the subject of\nequations. This does not include cases in which the equation enters incidentally. Yet\nthis allotment of space is regarded by the author as so slight a departure from the established rule as to require no mention in his preface. It is greater, however,- than the average\nin American elementary texts. In one or two foreign texts examined this proportion is\ngreatly exceeded. There is, also, evidence of a disposition to subordinate all other topics\nto the equation. This procedure readily permits the concrete side of algebra to become\nprominent from the beginning and disposes automatically of a number of vexed ques-\n\nL\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntions on the arrangement of topics and the extent to which they shall be developed.\nIt is well adapted to a preliminary discussion to be followed by a treatment emphasizing\nmore fully the formal side of the subject.\n4. The graph. — The graph is recognized as an important aid in elementary algebra\nboth in the solution of problems and in illustrating and enforcing the idea of functional\nrelation. To the pupil it visualizes certain algebraic operations and suggests to him the\nclose interrelation of algebra and geometry, thus aiding materially in the correlation of\nthese two subjects. It has won a permanent place in elementary algebra. Not only so,\nbut in proportion as the significance of the concept of functionality for elementary mathematics ismore fully and clearly recognized, as it certainly will be, the graph is destined to\nplay an increasingly important role in elementary algebra.\n5. Correlation of algebra and physics. — To what extent correlation of elementary\nmathematics and the physical sciences will be carried out it is difficult to say. Whether\nsome scheme such as that worked out by the committee of the Central Association of Science\nand Mathematics Teachers will ultimately find favor, the texts examined do not permit\nus to predict. However, recent elementary texts on algebra, with rare exception, keep\ntheory in close touch with elementary mechanics and physics. Five years ago just the\nopposite was true. The necessary definitions and explanations from these sciences occupy\nbut little space. The increase in the number of interesting and useful problems is very\ngreat. The tendency, I conclude, is to admit them into good and regular standing, on the\nsame footing as other problems, with only such remark as may be necessary for the explanation of the problems themselves.\nIn conclusion, reference has been made to the report of the committee of the American\nMathematical Society on college-entrance requirements. This report will bear careful\nstudy both for what it gives and for what it omits. Its guiding principle, as I infer, is:\nTeach fewer things, more fundamental things, in a more concrete and intelligible way.\nIn the remark that the report should be revised every ten years an important principle is\nrecognized: viz., that elementary subjects and desirable methods and correlations in elementary instruction change with the progress of knowledge. Klein calls it the law of historical postponement, in consequence of which a domain which originally was certainly\nnot elementary, nevertheless, by improved presentation, becomes in due course elementary.\nObviously, too, elementary subjects may wane in importance both with respect to the\ntheoretical aspect of the subject and with respect to utility in the practical affairs of life.\nThe present tendency, I think, is to recognize this principle in the elementary instruction in algebra, and to recast and readjust in the light of the knowledge and the needs of\ntoday. This is in harmony with the trend in other countries, in England, in Germany,\nand in France. Many, if not most, subjects and methods in algebra are easily understood\nin their simpler cases and applications. Whether the topics of algebra shall be taken in a\nconventional order and developed to the usual extent, or whether selection shall be made\nfrom a wider range with the limitation to what is really elementary in these subjects, and\nwith a possibly increased interest and usefulness, is a question which authors of elementary\ntexts, generally, seem to deal with somewhat gingerly. The situation is, however, worthy\nof study and there is, 1 believe, evidence of a tendency to examine it more exhaustively.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn C. Stone, associate professor of mathematics. State Normal College, Ypsilanti,\nMich. — Today the high school is not merely a fitting school for college but a finishing\nschool for a large mass of students that are to go out to take up the world's work. With\nthis new concept of the function of the school and of the various studies of the curriculum\nhave come the questions : \"What is this study for ? What will it do for the student ? \" That\nis, the present tendency in education is to make each study function in the life of the student\n— to make it lead to something.\nThe old time school-master who shields himself behind\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "u\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nALGEBRA\n\n633\n\nthe screen of formal discipline or who yields to the demands of the examiner is fast becoming extinct. He will soon be classified among those of the tree-dwelling age or at least as\na cave-dweller\nYielding, then, to the demand of the times, some great changes have taken place in\nthe teaching of algebra. On the side of the subject, there has been a growing tendency to\nmake it scientific, to lay a foundation for it, to show how all the processes are but the working out of certain fundamental principles. Thus, for example, the student sees that the\nfour fundamental processes are based upon certain \"fundamental laws of number,\" that\nall transformations of equations are based upon certain axioms, that new concepts of number, or new kinds of number, arise when the narrower concept of the number known in\narithmetic has been extended and generalized. Thus negative number arises from a\ngeneralization of the notion of subtraction, surds and imaginaries from generalization of\ncertain other processes, etc.\nThe greatest improvement, however, has not come about by an attempt to make the\nsubject scientific, but from our study of the child, a knowledge of the laws of mental\ngrowth, and our new concept of the function of the school.\nThe matter in any subject is now looked upon more from the standpoint of the student\nthan from the su'bject, and even our teaching of mathematics is beginning to conform itself\nto psychological laws. We are making our algebra grow out of our arithmetic. In fact,\nat first it is but literal arithmetic. The first work is developed more inductively. We are\nmaking greater use of concrete material. We are leading the student to see the meaning\nof what he is doing and its use in work that is to come — the formulae of the industries, the\nsciences, and in the statement of problems.\nTo make the work concrete and attractive — to make the subject function with the\nindividual and thus make it a course that may be justified by our present standards, I fear\nthat some have overemphasized the problem side of the subject. I do not believe that the\npower to solve problems is the greatest aim of the course in elementary algebra. Few\nproblems that arise in the world's work require an algebraic solution or are even made\nsimpler by it. We are seeking rather to form a habit of thinking in general numbers. The\nsolution of a problem, it is true, furnishes drill in using general number in analysis, and\nin the statements of the relations that exist among the magnitudes involved, but they are\na means, not an end. The power to interpret fully the meaning of the general numbers of\na formula or of an identity is of greater value than the power to solve a problem.\nTeachers and writers of textbooks err, too, in conceiving that the cry of the scientist\nthat the pupil can not use his algebra when he comes to the physical sciences may be stilled\nby the insertion of problems from those sciences. We are not seeking to make automatons\nby drilling upon problems of a certain class that may arise in certain courses, but are seeking rather so to develop the habit of thinking in general number that the conditions of a\nproblem may be expressed in symbols, or that the formulae of the sciences may have a real\nmeaning. To develop power to use algebra in the sciences then, does not demand problems from that source, yet, as a drill in the interpretation of general number and symbols,\nthe formulae of the sciences furnish splendid examples. Such formulae help us to avoid\nthe danger of allowing the general number to become the very special number, x, y, or z.\nProblems, of course, have their use in bringing about this power to use general number,\nand if they are of the right kind they are full of interest. The first requisite of a good\nproblem, however, is that it be concrete — that is, that the student is able to image the\nmagnitudes involved and express the relations existing among them in terms of general\nnumbers and symbols. As a matter of interest and value they should largely be problems\nof which someone, somewhere, at sometime, might reasonably wish to know the answer,\nand not those of the \"hide-and-go-seek\" order that still characterize our textbooks —\nproblems, the answers of which must be known before the problems can be made.\nIn conclusion, then, we may say that we are seeking to make algebra function in the\nlife of the student — give him power to interpret broadly the general number in the formulae\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmet in the industrial world and in science, or to use it in analyzing a problem and stating\nthe relations among the magnitudes as a conditional equation. Besides this, we are so to\nteach the subject that it may have a certain cultural value by leading the student to see\nthe limitations upon which certain laws depend, and the result of generalizing other concepts.\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\nWILLIAM\n\nOF GEOMETRY IN ITS RELATION\nEDUCATIONAL\nTREND\nBETZ,\n\nEAST\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nROCHESTER,\n\nTO THE PRESENT\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nA few months ago the principal of a well-known normal school said to me: \"The\nteaching of geometry has become stale. Something must be done to put new life into it.\"\nThis remark struck the very keynote of the present reform movement. That one has a\nright to speak of a reform movement in the teaching of mathematics, must be evident to\nany but a very indiflferent observer. Nor is this agitation in favor of better teaching confined to our own country, and its effects are felt in colleges, universities, secondary and\nprimary schools, with almost equal force. It is unnecessary to recite, before an audience\nlike this, all the details of its origin and progress. Many of those here present could do\nthat more impressively. It is sufficient to say that since Professor E. H. Moore's memorable address, in December, 1902, on \"The Foundations of Mathematics,\" an ever increasing number of teachers have become actively interested in the pedagogy of mathematics.\nThis is proved by the large number of associations of teachers of mathematics and science\norganized within the past five years, and by the numerous papers and reports published\nin that time.\nA vigorous battle has been going on between the radical and the conservative schools,\nbetween individualism and dogmatism. By this time the smoke of battle has cleared away\nsufficiently to warrant a diagnosis of the case and, perhaps, a prognosis for the future.\nNow, at the very outset, it is proper to ask: Is there any real need of a reform movement ? For, to justify its existence, we must be able to point out sufficiently weighty\ncauses. This, I think, can easily be done. Aside from the general reason of progress in\nevery department of human thought and activity, some four or five additional factors are\ncontributing to the state of affairs we are now considering.\n1. In the first place, modern industrialism, with its demand for tangible success, has\nled to a great outcry for more practical school work. There is an increasing contempt of\n\"mere theory.\" This feeling finds its expression in the establishment of trade and technical schools such as this beautiful city has the privilege of possessing. Geometry, as\nusually taught, furnishes a welcome target to the utilitarian educator. As a result, there is\na growing fear that we may drift too far from the ideal of liberal culture and that the\ndirect bread-winning power of a subject may be made the sole criterion of its usefulness.\n2. Our large cities, the natural centers of industry, are also becoming great centers\nof population. Naturally, the struggle for existence is becoming keener. Many parents\nare now sending their children to the high school to fit them, in the briefest possible time,\nfor a more comfortable life than they themselves enjoy. This has made the high-school\npopulation more diversified than ever before and the demands imposed upon the schools\nhave gfown more numerous from year to year. For the first time in history, secondary\neducation is truly democratic. But it cannot be denied that the assimilation of so much\nraw material from homes giving no cultural impulses, and of so many students having no\nintention of entering higher institutions of learning, is one of the most serious problems of\nthe high school.\n3. More far-reaching than these changes of ideal and environment have been certain\nrevolutions in school curricula and methods of instruction. The natural sciences have\nrisen from comparative obscurity into great prominence. Their inductive method of\ninvestigation is considered by many as the great panacea for all our troubles. The influence of the laboratory method is undeniable.\nIt is reacting, for example, on the teaching\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nGEOMETRY\n\n635\n\nof history and the languages. In so far as it insists on self-reliance and definiteness of\nresults and is productive of greater interest, it is excellent. But it lengthens school hours,\ncalls for costly equipment, and demands much outside work on the part of pupil and\nteacher.\n4. It would be diflficult, moreover, to overestimate the effect of the \"new education.\"\nIts fundamental precept that all work must be arranged psychologically and adapted strictly\nto the child's power of comprehension, is eminently sound. But it has also given us the\nenriched curriculum and the doctrine of interest which replaces all objective standards\nby the subjective attitude of the child. Unquestionably this means at once a distinct advance and a very real source of danger. The complaint is not infrequent that in many\ncases the young are learning to depend too much on the inspirational powers of the teacher,\nthat all real difficulties are carefully avoided, and that the very aim of all true education —\nto develop a strong character and to create self-activity and initiative — is thereby defeated.\nDuring the past five years we have heard much of the social function of the school. A\nprominent professor kindly informed us that until exercises in spelling, mental arithmetic,\nand formal grammar should have become merely incidental and subsidiary, the highwater mark in teaching would not have been reached. It is exaggerations of this sort that\nrob many otherwise excellent ideas of their legitimate influence and place upon them the\nstigma of the faddist.\n5. Last, not least, I must refer to the molding power of recent researches in the\ndomain of pure mathematics. The labors of men like Pasch, Peano, Veronese, Hilbert,\nKlein, Russell, and others, are making it clear that the subject of rigor in geometry is one\nof extreme delicacy. It appears that our text-books are full of hidden assumptions and\nthat their usual boast of rigorous presentation is ludicrous.\nStanding in the very midst of this whirlpool of conflicting forces and tendencies the\nconscientious teacher of mathematics feels vaguely, though instinctively, that his subject\nis in need of repair. His feeling is one of unenviable uncertainty. The new situation\nmakes great demands on his training. He does not know how to steer clear of Scylla and\nCharybdis, how to modernize and revitalize his subject in the face of the many obstacles\nthat beset his way, not the least of which is represented by the inexorable requirements of\nexamining boards.\nIs there any way out of the difficulty ? As in all similar cases, a compromise would\nseem to be the natural outcome. Perhaps, by noting first the readjustments that have\nalready taken place, we may secure a clearer vision of our future course.\nThe old inflexible schedule of studies is giving way to a more liberal curriculum. This\nis a direct outgrowth of the doctrine of interest and of the new function of the high school\nas the people's university. Here alsO lies a great danger. Mathematics is one of the\n\"hard\" school subjects, and when it i's placed in competition with other easier and more\nattractive subjects, the pupil naturally follows the line of least resistance. As a college\npresident happily phrased it, he \" abandons the Jerusalem of the calculus for the Jericho\nof economics.\" It has become a witticism that water does not flow down hill as smoothly\nas the delighted student picks his way through a long list of electives. In this connection\nthe following passage, taken from the third report of the Association of Mathematical\nTeachers in New England (Boston, 1906), will be of interest:\n\"That pupils and their parents are not awake to the importance of mathematics was\nshown conclusively by questions put to the principals of the Boston High schools in which\nthe elective system is in force. In the English High and in the Roxbury High 25 per\ncent, of the entering class are taking no mathematics whatsoever. In the South Boston\nHigh 28 per cent, of the pupils have not made a year of algebra or geometry. In the\nGirls' High 53 per cent, of the first-year pupils, in selecting their studies,- chose to take no\nmathematics— 287 out of 544 girls; and in the East Boston High 165 out of 239 pupils in\nthe entering class, or 69 per cent., are studying no mathematics.\"\nOf far greater interest and importance are the efforts that have been progressing for\nsome time to modify the compartment system in the teaching ot mathematics by which\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nalgebra is placed in the first year, and geometry in the second. While he is studying\ngeometry, the student promptly forgets his algebra, and during the third year he loses both\nalgebra and geometry. Then, in the fourth year, we try to revive his interest by going\nover the same ground a second time. There is a great waste of energy in all this. I cannot\nregard the introduction of \"non-preparatory\" courses as a complete solution of this difl&culty, even if such courses were possible in all schools.\nThe various correlation and fusion plans advocated so far have not been tested sufficiently to warrant their general adoption. In 1902, Professor E. H. Moore designated the\nunification of pure and applied mathematics as the fundamental problem. Mr. John C.\nPackard, a year later, predicted the formation of a new subject known as \"everyday\nmathematics,\" by the fusion of physics, manual training, algebra, and geometry. This\nconstitutes the very heart of the Perry movement. The practical realization of this scheme\nproved more difficult than was anticipated. So far as I know, it has been tried only in\nschools of unusua! equipment, and even there has been only moderately successful. One\nimpartial observer, after a careful inspection of the schools where this sort of correlation\nseemed to work particularly well, reported that the good results were due not to the plans as\nsuch, but to the consummate skill of the teachers who, in his opinion, could have made\nalmost any plan a success. Mr. F. T. Jones of University School, Cleveland, expressed\nhimself similarly a few years ago. The most significant utterance on this point is Professor\nG. W. Myers' report in The School Review^ October, 1907, to which I must refer.\nAlthough these experiments have not produced the results expected of them, they have\nby no means been useless. They have shown the teachers of mathematics their limitations,\nhave awakened an interest in applied mathematics, and have greatly enriched our problem\nliterature.\nMore promising than these forms of external correlation have been certain more\nrecent attempts to secure a closer internal union of the various branches of pure mathematics. These efforts are still confined to a few high schools and colleges. So far as it is\nsafe to draw conclusions from a very limited experience, the indications are that here lies\nour only hope of overcoming the compartment system.\nI trust that I have now established the necessity and the actuality of a reform movement in the teaching of mathematics. We must proceed to consider what will be the probable outcome of the struggle so far as geometry is concerned. It is safe to say that whatever changes will occur, they will all be in the direction of greater interest, more applied\nwork, and fewer technicalities. It is also certain that the teacher of geometry must revise\nhis aim, readjust the subject-matter, and modernize his methods.\nThe one-sided theory of mental discipline, in the elementary course, must go. The\nover-insistence on discipline for its own sake has done incalculable harm to the interests\nof mathematics. It is well that we are beginning to realize this. The report of the New\nEngland Association mentioned above contains this lament:\n\"The general impression is abroad that mathematics is of little practical value, and\nthe result has been its neglect and the consequent loss of mathematical power on the part\nof the pupils.\"\nOurs is not the calm repose of the Greek philosopher. Our civilization craves\naction, and a subject that loses contact with life is doomed.\nIt is a mistake to suppose that the high school can distinguish sharply between rational\ngeometry and intuitive geometry. Their separation at this stage of the pupil's development\nis neither possible nor desirable, as Professor Jofin Dewey has pointed out. In fact, what\nis rational geometry ? The content of this conception is far from absolute. Says Professor Moore:\n\"The teacher is teaching the subject for the benefit of the students, and it must be\nadmitted that beginners in the study of demonstrative geometry cannot appreciate the\nvery delicate considerations involved in the thoroughly abstract science. Indeed, one may\nconjecture that, had it not been for the brilliant success of Euclid in his effort to organize\ninto a formally deductive system the geometric treasures of his times, the advent of the\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nGEOMETRY\n\n637\n\nreign of science in the modern sense might not have been so long deferred. Shall we then\nhold that in the schools the teaching of demonstrative geometry should be reformed in\nsuch a way as to take account of all the wonderful discoveries which have been made —\nmany even recently — in the domain of abstract geometry ? .... To make reforms of\nthis kind, would it not be to repeat more gloriously the error of those followers of Euclid\nwho fixed his Elements as a textbook for elementary instruction in geometry over two thousand years ago ?\"\nLet us be perfectly honest about this matter. Let us give up that meaningless pretense\nof teaching rigorous geometry to boys and girls of fourteen or fifteen.\nIs it not true that we are trying to crowd into a single year more material than the\nyoung student can possibly absorb ? Think of the many definitions, the 160 propositions,\nthe numerous corollaries and originals called for by the usual course. We can secure a\nmechanical repetition of these things, but do they become part of the pupil's mental armature ? Should we not eliminate all that is not absolutely essential ?\nI know of no better criterion for this process than Professor Klein's definition of elementary mathematics: \"In all domains of mathematics those parts are to be called elementary which can be understood by a pupil of average ability without long continued\nspecial study.\"\nIn the light of this eminently sensible definition, advanced by one of the greatest of\nliving mathematicians, we can afford to omit those things which experience has proved to\nbe of little or no value. There is a growing conviction that to this class of material belongs\nthe whole subject of limits and incommensurables. Many secondary teachers, both here\nand abroad, have long been of this opinion. For information on this point, I may refer\nto the reports of the New York High-School Teachers* Association, of the New England\nAssociation, and the Central Association. It is a great pleasure to note that even the\ncolleges are indorsing this view. In a paper published in School Science and Mathematics\nProfessor H. E. Hawkes of Yale University says:\n\"During ten years' experience in teaching geometry to students who have been in\ngeneral carefully prepared by the best of teachers, I do not believe I have met a dozen who\nunderstood the theory of limits. This is not the fault of the students, nor of the teachers,\nnor entirely of the textbooks. The difficulty lies in the fact that we are trying to do something that can't be done\nFrom every point of view that I am able to take, the\ntheory of limits in elementary teaching seems a failure. If both secondary and college\nteachers suddenly discover that they agree on this point, the rest is simple.\"\nProfessor G. A. Miller writes:\n\"It has become the fashion of textbook writers to call especial attention to the rigor\nof their presentation. Fortunately these claims are generally unsubstantiated. There\nare few things that would give more definite proof of the perfect unsuitableness of an elementary textbook than the fact that every step in the presentation was rigorous.\"\nThe time gained by such omissions could be devoted to the more significant topics,\nand would enable us to introduce at least a few interesting and valuable applications. The\nyoung student should not be expected merely to review formulas and recite theorems\ndiscovered ages ago. He has a perfect right to ask what it is all for. Fortunately, the\ngeometry teacher, if he will take the necessary pains, need not fear this inquiry.\nThe desideratum seems to be such a judicious mixture of theory and practice that\ncomplete oblivion will settle on the definition according to which \"mathematics is the\nscience in which we do not know what we are talking about and do not care whether what\nwe say about it is true.\"\nNow I grant that the elimination of nonessentials is a serious matter, if left entirely to\nthe judgment of the individual teacher. Each teacher is more or less of a hobbyist. I\ntherefore suggest that the various provisional syllabi now at our disposal be submitted to a\nnew committee of ten which is to work out a national geometry syllabus. I do not see\nwhy such a syllabus, if compiled with the greatest care by representative men, men in close\ntouch with the colleges and the secondary schools, should not exert the same unifying\ninfluence that has characterized the publications of former committees of the National\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nEducation Association. This national syllabus should be revised periodically, possibly\nevery ten years. It should contain a carefully graded list of theorems. It should also give\na discussion of disputed definitions, terms and symbols, and should offer advice as to\nmethods of procedure.\nThis brings me to my last topic. More seems to have been written in the past five\nyears on the pedagogy of mathematics, than during the preceding five decades. This is\nvery reassuring. When many prominent mathematicians can devote so much of their\nenergy to the interests of elementary mathematics, better times are surely coming.\nIt is encouraging that we are gradually seeking emancipation from textbooks, that the\nteacher really teaches. The genetic method and the laboratory mode are receiving their\ndue amount of attention. There is an attempt to make the pupil a discoverer, to replace\nthe reproductive attitude by a creative spirit. We are securing a better balance between\noral and written recitation. Text-books, too, are improving in arrangement and quality\nof material.\nIn short, there is progress all along the line.\nIn conclusion I would say that the present situation, more than ever before, demands\na real teacher, a teacher of broad scientific and pedagogic attainments, who, in spite of\nmany unavoidable disappointments, knows how to preserve his optimism. Never -in the\nhistory of the world have the opportunities for sound training been greater, never has the\nabsolutely unique importance of mathematics been more generally recognized, nor has\nthere been more mutual sympathy and co-operation.\nMany years ago an ardent admirer of our noble science, a romantic poet now almost\nforgotten, wrote these admonishing and inspiring words: \"The true mathematician is an\nenthusiast, per se. Without enthusiasm, no mathematics. The life of the gods is mathematics. All divine messengers must be mathematicians.\"\nDISCUSSION\nRichard S*. Beardsley, Englewood High School, Chicago, III. — The success of a\ncourse in geometry depends greatly upon the interest and encouragement the pupil receives\nduring the first two weeks. I well remember when I first began to study geometry\nhow hard it was for me to see just what the author was aiming at, and how my classmates\nremarked that a great deal of effort seemed to be wasted on proving various statements\nthat anyone could see were true. As an illustration, you probably remember that some\ntextbooks on geometry start out with the proposition that all straight angles are equal.\nHalf of the beginning pupils who attempt to prove that proposition will miss the point of the\nargument on account of their liability to confuse the straight angle with the straight line.\nIt is my opinion that the first demonstrations in the textbook should be those dealing with\nthe equality of triangles.\nHowever, before the proving of theorems, I should have my pupils do a good mam\nthings in the way of drawing and construction. Mr. Squeers told Nicholas that after a\nboy was able to spell and define \"winder\" and \"clean\" he went and \"cleaned the winder.\"\nSo I should have my pupils learn isosceles triangle, equilateral triangle, right triangle,\nacute, right, obtuse, reflex angles, perpendicular, parallel, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon,\nby drawing them neatly on the board with a ruler and then labeUng them. Then they\nmight well be put in more permanent 'form on paper or cardboard. This construction\nwork gives the pupils much necessary information and starts them into their course with\nenthusiasm. I might add at this point that instruction in spelling at this stage would save\nmany a painful twinge when examination time rolls around.\nAn excellent teacher at the Englewood High School tells his pupils at the beginning\nof their work that geometry should teach them many things concerning the relations of\nlines and angles, etc., and that it also should teach them a method of proof. By the time\nhis pupils have had him as teacher for a half-year, they realize the truth of his statement.\nThe same man told me that he believed that the probleihs of construction which art-\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF GEOMETRY\n\nusually placed at the end of a book or chapter of theorems might very well come at the\nbeginning of the chapter, or else right along with the theorems to which they are most\nclosely related.\nThe subject of incommensurables and limits I should omit from the first year's work\nor postpone until the chapter on regular polygons, which is studied during the last quarter\nof the year that is devoted to plane geometry.\nI wonder if any of the teachers assembled here ever had any difficulty teaching their\npupils the proposition that if two variables are always equal and each approaches a limit,\ntheir limits are equal. The best and simplest proof I know of is given in Milne's Academic\nAlgebra. In their values the variables are but one. A variable can approach but one\nlimit, hence it is the common limit of the two variables. I should indeed be glad to own\na national geometry syllabus, and I should not consider it any infringement upon my liberties. should\nI\nbe glad to know what the best teachers consider essential.\nMr. Betz says that he does not approve of the fusion, in the high school, of the various\ncourses in pure and applied mathematics, and I agree with him. I feel that fusion would\nlead to confusion. I also approve of the closer union of the branches of pure mathematics,\nso that the student may have his attention called constantly to the essentials of each subject. One of the criticisms aimed at the present school curriculum is that we lack in concentration. But by occasionally bringing into the geometry magnitudes of a, 6, or m\nunits, the pupil will learn to apply his geometrical knowledge and review his algebraic and\narithmetical rules at the same time. To do so may make a lesson less prosaic and anchor\nsome useful fact in the pupil's mind.\nAs in other subjects, the success of a course in geometry depends more upon the teacher\nthan any other circumstance. It is in the teacher's power to make geometry as dry as\nE^zekiel's valley of dry bones. On the other hand, the teacher has the opportunity to put\nvim into the work, to keep every pupil busy thinking and doing during the whole lesson\nperiod, and to interest them in hunting for new and original proofs.\nEnthusiasm is a very pervasive quality; and if the teacher shows activity and spirit, it\nwill be readily reflected in the attitude of the pupils toward their work. The principal\npurpose of this great association of teachers is to create and preserve a spirit of enthusiasm.\nI came here hoping to do my little part. I shall carry away much more than I brought.\nAs each individual in a bed of live coals helps to keep its neighbors in a glow, so may we\nencourage each other to do our work next year with new zeal.\nFletcher Durell, mathematical master in Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville,\nNew Jersey. — Two movements or tendencies are noticeable in current secondary mathematical education: (i) the movement which demands that such instruction be more\n\"practical,\" i.e., confer a greater and more direct bread-winning power on the pupil; (2) a\ndemand that mathematical truths be imparted in a way to give greater cultural value, this\nlatter taking the special form of a demand for greater precision in mathematical definitions,\nand greater rigor and generality in mathematical demonstrations.\nThese two tendencies are but local manifestations of general movements at work\nthroughout educational practice and study as a whole. People at large are insisting more\nand more emphatically that secondary and higher education give the pupil a greater, or at\nleast a plainer and clearer \"direct bread-winning power.\" The latest expression of this\nview is the demand for a system of agricultural high schools throughout the land, distinct\nfrom the public-school system as a whole.\nIt is also insisted that education have a not less, but greater, cultural value. Voices are\nraised in warning that by changing education into something mainly technical we shall\nlose more than we shall gain. Make the pupil a man, say they, before you make him a\nworkman. Teach the child how to make a living, but at the same time do not fail to teach\nhim how to live.\nThe problem before us as teachers of secondary mathematics, therefore, is the same\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nas that before the educational world in general; viz., to develop each of the above tvi^o\nfunctions of education in a more explicit and povirerful form, and if possible to combine\nthem closely.\nThe suggestion I would like to make is that, in order ultimately to make education\nimpart both of these classes of utilities in the time at our command and without greatl}increased expense, in ways adapted to various callings and situations, it is important to\nmake a thorough study of the principles of utility, with a view to the discovery of morefundamental and inclusive ones than are now in current use. We need principles of utility\nwhich include narrow concrete utilitarian values and broad humanizing values as special\ncases. For instance, we usually think that we are teaching an important practical application of geometry when we teach the pupil to use the properties of similar triangles to\nmeasure the height of a tree by comparing its shadow with the shadow of a post of known\nheight. Yet how many of us, or how many of our pupils who have learned the above process,\nhave ever had occasion to measure the height of a tree, steeple, or other object by this\nmethod, or have ever earned a loaf of bread by so doing ?\nOn the other hand, there is contained in the above illustration a principle of utility\nof fundamental and omnipresent importance but one which scarcely ever receives explicit\nattention. This is the principle of the value of an adapted auxiliary quantity in measuring\nanother quantity or in obtaining any desired result. This principle is constantly used in\nthe logical and cultural side of mathematics, as well as on its technical side; as also in cultural life and technical work of all kinds.\nOther like principles of utility, which seem to be of more fundamental significance in\neducation than prevalent ones, might be mentioned, but enough has been said, perhaps,\nto make clear what I have in mind. A philosophy, science, and art of utility and practicability are desirable before some of the current experiments in education are carried\ntoo far.\nPerhaps mathematics, because of the explicitness of its concepts, the exactness of its\nmethods, and its freedom from entangling relations, is the best starting-point and experiment-ground for such an investigation.\n\nB.\nOBJECTIVE\nERNST\n\nFOREIGN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nAIDS IN TEACHING\n\nMODERN\n\nL. WOLF, 'TEACHER OF GERMAN, WILLIAM\nSCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nMC KINLEY\n\nHIGH\n\nThe reform movement, which for more than forty years has been the subject of discussion at meetings of this character, has, in my estimation, exercised a most beneficial\nand wholesome influence upon the theory and practice of teaching modern languages.\nBreymann's Bibliography of the Reform Literature contains more than two thousand\ntitles of books and magazine articles which appeared in print between the years 1876 and\n1905, not counting the reviews, and replies, and not counting the papers presented at\nteachers' conferences, countless in numbers.\nThis cannot be surprising to those who realize the importance of the subject. \"Die\nganze Menschheit erst ist der wahre Mensch,\" says Goethe (\"The whole of mankind\nonly is truly man\"). There is not a nation in the world but has a lesson to teach us well\nworth our learning; there is not a problem confronting the human race today, at the solution of which superior minds in all civilized countries are not working.\nThe merits of the reform movement would be inestimable even if it had not accomplished anything else but to arouse the teachers from the lethargy into which they had\nfallen, and to save them from stagnation and from slavishly following the path on which\ntradition was leading them.\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ OBJECTIVE\n\nAIDS\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\n641\n\nAs a result, we have now a different aim before us, viz.: a practical mastery of the\nforeign language, a mastery which, as far as possible, should approach or resemble that of\nthe mastery of the mother-tongue; we now aim at teaching our pupils to speak, to write,\nand, above all things, to read books, as they read books in their mother-tongue.\nPronunciation is taught systematically thruout the course, particularly in the\nbeginning; a new science, that of phonetics, has been put in the service of the teacher.\nCharts, representing the organs of speech and their position in producing the different\nsounds, facilitate the teaching of pronunciation. . Our ideas in regard to the teaching of\ngrammar have been modified. We no longer study grammar for its own sake as a \"mental gymnastic,\" but only as a means of better using and understanding the written and\nspoken language, as a means to an end, an indispensable one, but not as the end itself.\nGrammar is no longer the queen dominating the course from beginning to end, but it has\nbeen assigned to the useful but, relatively, modest position of a house maid.\nThe ability to use the foreign language is no longer looked upon as a matter to be\ndespised; in fact the colloquial part of the language is taught before the literary.\nReformers have taught us that the real intrinsic difficulty in learning a foreign language lies in having to master its vocabulary. This may sound like a truism. But reformers, rightfully, claim it as a new discovery.\nGreat attention is now given to the foreign country and the history of its people,\ntheir manners and customs, their ideas and ideals, their government and their institutions. In selecting reading matter, this aspect receives most careful consideration. In\nconnection herewith objective aids of great variety are used. They materially assist in\nrestricting the use of the mother-tongue to a minimum during the foreign-language recitation. It is this latter proposition which has caused the fiercest struggle because it is\nleast understood. We may look upon translating from four different view-points, viz,,\nas a method of teaching English, as a mental discipline, as a test for comprehension, and,\nfinally, as a method of teaching a foreign language.\nReformers admit that the comparing of two languages is an excellent practice in\nEnglish for the advanced student in college, but not for the schoolboy; they point to the\nGreeks and say \" Greek literature takes such a high place in the world's literature, but the\nGreeks knew nothing of the practice of translating;\" reformers say \"You cannot teach\ntwo languages at once, any more than you can teach swimming and walking upon stilts,\nat the same time.\" But translating is also an excellent mental discipline; reformers\nadmit it, adding, however, that their way of teaching affords equally fine opportunities.\nMost reformers accept translating as an aid to comprehension and as a test for comprehension, provided, it is not made the rule but the exception.\nTranslating, however, as a method of teaching is, generally, rejected by reformers.\nThe first reason advanced is \"Translating cannot be the aim of instruction.\" The pupil\n'should learn to read in the foreign tongue as in his own, i.e., to take in the gist of a sentence\nwithout paying much attention to the individual word, as he reads English books, he should\nlearn to associate the foreign word with the thing for which it stands as a symbol. But this\ndemand is not new.\nIn the report of the Committee of Ten, appointed at the meeting of the National\nEducational Association in 1892, the committee demand that \"ultimately the student\nshould be enabled to read French and German without the interposition of English.\"\nBagster Collins, in his book. The Teaching of German in Secondary Schools, says, \"The\nIimportance that translation has assumed in modern language work is, to* a great extent,\ntraditional; the method of teaching the ancient languages was slavishly copied;\" and,\n[at some other place, he says, \"We wish the technique of translation to fall 'into disuse as\nisoon as possible, for, if practiced too long, it will ever be a hindrance to his really knowling a language.\"\nProfessor Grandgent says, \"You will find that during the last year the greater part\njf your instruction can be imparted in the language you are studying.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nProfessor Edward S. Joynes says, \"It is clear that our students should learn to read\nwithout translation. No one has ever read any foreign literature who has read it only\nthrough a translation — his own or any other. No reading is adequate until it can be understood at first hand, and in the form of the original.\"\nI believe I may consider this first objection of the reformers against translating as well\nsupported by safe and sane testimony.\nTranslating cannot be the aim of instruction.\nThe second argument against translating is \"Translating is an art, altogether too\ndifficult to be practiced by school children, and possible only to those who have a ready\ncommand of both languages.\"\nTranslation is the most convenient way of explaining the meaning of a text, especially\nif the text is provided with a vocabulary. But is it not an illusion to assume that with these\nvocabularies, an essential part of the work is done by the student ? Are these vocabularies\nanything but a new variety of the old familiar interlinear translations ?\nA translation must give the whole truth of the original and nothing but the truth; it\nmust at the same time be idiomatic English — that is to say, it must not read like a translation. Assuming this to be attainable by our boys and girls — how about harmony and\nmodulation and •hythm ?\nTranslation, when fairly adequate, implies an almost equal command of the two languages. And even a good translation always remains open to criticism, because few English\nwords embrace the full meaning of the corresponding foreign equivalents, so-called equivalents; no matter how good a translation, there always remains something that is untranslated, because it is untranslatable. Men who have penetrated deep into the spirit of the\ngreat writers and into the nature of language study, have given their verdicts against the\nadvisability and even against the possibility of translating.\nWilhelm von Humboldt, poet, scholar, statesman, friend of Schiller and Goethe,\nwrote \"Translating appears to me to be absolutely an attempt to solve an impossible task;\n-for every translator will see his boat wrecked on one of these two reefs : either at the expense\nof good taste and of his native tongue, he will adhere too closely to the original, or, at the\nexpense of the original, he will adhere too closely to the peculiarities of his native tongue.\nA medium is not only difficult but downright (geradezu) impossible.\"\nMeasuring a language by the standard of another must lead to disastrous results,\nand reformers have only reached the logical conclusion, when they keep the two languages\nisolated.\nThe third reason against translating is this, \"It is not economical.\" To establish\na permanent association between the foreign word and the object represented by it, must,\nit seems to me, be the aim constantly before our eyes. How can we hope to attain it if\nwe spend one-half, perhaps more, of our time in teaching our students to do precisely that\nwhich prevents their ultimately establishing this association.\nOn the other hand, if instruction is carried on entirely in the foreign language, the\nstudent will learn German or French during the full recitation period. Professor von Jagemann has figured out that the amount of German a student will hear in each recitation\nover and above the text itself, during the school year, is equal to from one thousand to two\nthousand pages of reading.\nIt is hardly necessary to dwell at length on the character of translations offered by\nour pupils, if they are honestly obtained. It is neither German nor English, and \"thinking in this hybrid tongue day after day must be educationally demoralizing.\" But fortunately, translating can be avoided and, herewith, I have reached my last argument against\ntranslating, i.e., \"Translating is unnecessary; something better may be put in place of it.\"\nDas ist die klarste Kritik von der Welt,\nWenn neben das, was ihm missfallt,\n— Geibel.\nEiner was eigenes, bess'res stellt.\nLanguage — as I have said before — must be associated with the ideas of which it is the\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] OBJECTIVE\n\nAIDS\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\n643\n\nexpression; from the very beginning this habit must be cultivated. It is easy enough\nto see how it may be done with the elementary and concrete part of the vocabulary by\nobjects, models, actions, pictures. The vocabulary of the classroom, the common acts\nof school life, the use of the senses, almost all adjectives and their comparison, numerals,\nall classes of pronouns, prepositions, and a large number of verbs may be acquired by\nobject lessons. The thing and the word, if suflficient practice is given, call each other\nup as readily as a ball rebounds from the cushion of a billiard table. The younger the\nstudent the more he is, naturally, interested in the concrete: the greater his interest, the\ngreater will be his attention, the more readily his memory will retain what he has learned.\nBut these exercises also afford ample scope for the practice of declensions and conjugation.\nWhen the vocabulary of the classroom becomes exhausted, we must take recourse to\nmodels and pictures. The variety of models and pictures now offered by the European\npublishing houses is so great that I must refrain from enumerating any. When the\nhabit of question and answer has become familiar, we may apply it to any text read.\nThere are those who speak slightingly of all conversational exercises, claiming that the\nability to speak a foreign language is an accomplishment of little value. The capacity to\nexpress one's thoughts freely and directly in another tongue demands considerable intellectual activity; the effort to attain it affords far more \"training\" than excessive occupation\nwith grammar; but the value of conversational exercises as a means of instruction is far\ngreater; in a minimum of time they give a maximum of practice. Furthermore, the\nbeauties of literary style can only be felt by their distinction from the talk of everyday life.\nCan anyone appreciate the simple grandeur of the language of the English Bible, who does\nnot know how English-speaking people commonly express themselves ? It is not saying\ntoo much if it is affirmed that the literary language is to a certain extent a dead language.\nAs already indicated, by asking questions on the text, the teacher can assure himself\nwhether the student has understood its true meaning or not; but this will not suffice;\npictures will materially assist him in explaining the unfamiliar words; they take the place\nof a dictionary. These pictures, however, serve another purpose, viz., they create the\nproper atmosphere in the class room. The mountain scenery of Switzerland, the feudal\ncastle, its exterior and its interior, the pictures of the Swiss people — on exhibition before\nyou — will at once put the class that is reading Tell in the proper attitude of mind.\nI had well-founded hopes, at the time when I accepted the honor of appearing here\nbefore you, that this exhibit would be more complete. Mr. Rathmann, the assistant\nsuperintendent and director of the School Museum at St. Louis and the New York importers, Lemcke and Buechner, were intensely interested in the exhibit and proniised\nme their most liberal support. Unfortunately, however, the place of this meeting had not\nbeen decided upon, and, consequently, it would have been unwise to provide for an extensive exhibit. Otherwise, I might have been able to show you charts for pronunciation,\nmodels and pictures representing an elementary vocabulary', maps and charts and pictures\nof geographical and historical character. There is not a person of note, not a place, not a\nbuilding to which any historical interest is attached of which not good, even artistic, pictures\nat a reasonable price may be obtained. Of course, we must not lose sight of the fact that,\nhard as we may try, we cannot succeed in excluding English from the minds of our students;\nfurthermore, that it is not impossible that the direct association may be established after\nthe text has been translated. By the further treatment of the lesson in German, English\nmay be made to recede more and more, many assert. I also admit that translating may\nbe legitimately resorted to as an occasional aid to comprehension, or, as an occasional test\nof comprehension.\nPersonally, I always feel I am committing a crime when I use English in my work,\nand that I might have avoided it if I had possessed greater skill.\nThe last word on the subject, however, I am well aware, has not been spoken. Teachers\nall over the world are bending their efforts toward the solution of the problem, and I trust\nthe day is not far aM'ay when we shall feel, in this country, as one of the members of the\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nModern Language Association of England felt, who concluded his remarks at the last\nJanuary meeting with these words, \"Let it suffice to say that the members present were\nwith very few exceptions thoroughly in favor of the reform method and that the reformers\nrealized once more how much their methods and their aims were misunderstood, and\nvowed that they would shout them from the housetops until even the deaf should hear.\"\n\nTHE\nADOLPH\n\nPOSITION\nKROMER,\n\nOF\n\nTEACHER\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nIN\n\nOF\n\nSOUTH\n\nGERMAN,\n\nLANGUAGE-INSTRUCTION\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nOHIO\n\nUp to about the third quarter of the last century grammar, as a rule, occupied the\ncenter in all language-instruction. To master a foreign language was to master its grammar and in the study of a foreign language the part of speech was the basal unit, not the\nsentence. The elements were given, the whole was to be created largely by mechanical\ncomposition. The result was the conglomeration of words into often meanixigless sentences. The resultant of such instruction was rather the understanding of the laws of\nthe language than the power of using the language readily.\nNow in the last quarter of the last century there began a movement with new ideals,\nnew aims. A mighty contest between old and new followed. We are still contending, but\nwe are able to distinguish clearly lasting good results of the victorious new movement.\nAnd one of these is the changed position of grammar in language-instruction. The\nliving language is now the direct aim, no more merely its ingenious mechanism. The\nliving language, at least to a reasonable degree, is to be mastered. No longer does it suffice\nsimply to have a deep insight into the structure of the foreign idiom — the new movement\nemphasizes the ability to master it. Before, knowledge of the language was emphasized.\nNow, the ability to use it.\nIs this position justifiable ? Who should doubt it ? Systematic education lies between\ntwo boundaries. The one boundary is formed by a line of developed forces, abilities and\nnatural appetencies. This line is the basis of instruction. The other boundary is formed by\nthe aim of education. Instruction and education move from the former toward the latter.\nIntelligence and experience, quickened by the congenial warmth of the human heart, determine the materials and the means best suited for the realization of the aim of education,\nas well as the sequence of their presentation.\nViewed in this way one thing seems to be particularly striking, being in sharp contrast\nwith the older method; namely, that the teacher, the. bearer of that intelligence, is the central\nfigure. In giving the teacher this position the modern language movement shows that it\nis conscious of the truth which Quintilian expresses so tersely: \" Viva vox alit plenius.'^\nWhile this position is not directly connected with thq theme in question here still it\ngives valuable hints, and forms a b.asis for likewise valuable inferences.\nBut let us return to the given basis of instruction. The appetencies mentioned\nhere are natural desires to know, to do, to master. These desires are directed toward\nunits, or things that appear as units, not toward component parts that, too, are not directly\nobjects of sense perception. So in language, the learner will never ask to be taught grammatical phenomena. The learner will ask to be taught Latin, German, etc. Nor does he\ncome without a feeling of competency in this matter. Unconsciously, he bases his demands\non the natural power of assimilation through vivid impressions. Thousands have acquired\nlanguage by sheer force of assimilation. Our country in this matter presents a fine objectlesson.\nNeither can grammatical knowledge be set down as the direct aim of education. The\nknowledge of grammar cannot be and is not directly used in life; it has no direct connection\neven with real life; it cannot be made an ultimate aim. To know only the grammar-side\nof the language is to know nothing of its beauty, or of its wealth\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nANCIENT\n\nLANGUAGES\n\n645\n\nBut to use a language correctly, intelligently, fluently will ever be a sign of real culture.\nAnd grammar can only in so far be important as it is able to help the learner to these\nqualities of language. It never is a conditio sine qua non — it will always be an important\nmeans to a greater end.\nThis new method of acquiring the language is eminently practical. It does not overlook the necessities of everyday life, nor the simplicity of everyday language. But there\nis no desire here to emphasize these two things especially.\nWill it be further necessary to state expressly that the structural knowledge of the\nnew language is to be gotten inductively ? Hardly. But would such a course be practical ?\nCertainly.\nThe deductive method of language-instruction retards acquaintance with the simpler\nlanguage forms. Grammar and the live language, at least as far as material and aim are\nconsidered, become too independent of each other; the logical aspect of language receives\ntoo much attention; translation is too widely resorted to, rather as a means to make grammatical rules clear than to give fluency, correctness, and naturalness to discourse in the\nnew idiom.\n' The inductive method avoids these drawbacks of the older method by placing connected\ndiscourse before the learner. Forms of words are recognized as means of thought-expression, even the meaning of the word becomes clearer in the light of its proper context.\nTranslation is restricted to a wholesome minimum. The psychological nature of languages receives its due of attention. Since grammar is based on language units, sentence,\nparagraph, stanza, story, etc., it can not lose its connection with the language-material.\nThis, again, means that only the necessary amount of grammar (frequency and importance determine necessity) be presented.\nThis method of instruction is in keeping with the ways of nature itself. Born into\na multiplicity of things, we come through analysis to the proper insight of them.\nOne thing more calls for special mention: the reform-movement never accomplished\nits work by a break. The coherency of things remained established. TWfe reform is simply\na new order of things, a new articulation of materials, a shifting of emphasis.\nThere were times when the cry \"Away with grammar\" could be heard in large\nassemblies, but the conservative element remained calm. The stern sense of duty checked\nthe fever of mere innovation, and made the finding of a rational basis and a natural method\npossible.\nSo in the new order of things, grammar no more holds a dangerous monopoly. Neither\nnatural appetencies nor sane teleological reasons would admit of it. Facts, that each new\nday presents, give their approbation for the new secondary position of grammar.\nThe reform movement has greatly benefited language-instruction.\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nW.\n\nCARR,\n\nL.\n\nHEAD\n\nOF ANCIENT\nOF\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF LATIN\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\nBY MODERN\n\nAND GREEK,\nINDIANA,\n\nSHORTRIDGE\n\nMETHODS\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe modern ideal in the study and teaching of ancient languages is scientific simplicity.\nIt was a desire for simplicity that began over a generation ago to produce our now universally-used first books, annotated texts, and selected vocabularies, supplanting the\nbare texts and unabridged lexicons with which our grandfathers began their study of the\nclassics. Simplicity, concentration, definiteness, the elimination of nonessentials are the\nthemes of numerous articles in the professional journals, and many books even are being\nissued, dealing with different phases of the subject, such as vocabulary or syntax, but all\npointing in the same direction. The authors of the hundred-and-one First Latin Books\nnow on the market agree in their desire to secure simplicity, even if they fail to agree in\nany other respect.\n\nII.\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nBut all attempts at simplification, to be efifective and not result in mere superficiality,\nmust be based on scientific principles. Text-book makers and class-room teachers must\nsee to it that their short-cuts square with the facts and must not be carried away with a\nlaudable desire \"to make the rough places plain.\" Genuine scholarship and the scientific\npoint of view are needed, and needed in beginners' work as well as in university courses.\nIn this scientific age a rational statement of the facts of a language in our textbooks and a\nscientific attitude on the part of our teachers will aid greatly in keeping the classics in favor\nalong side of the laboratory sciences. And a true scientific attitude will not only secure a\ngreater respect for our work, but is the only means by which the much-to-be-desired simplification can be successfully effected. True scholarship and effective pedagogical method\ndo not conflict. The results of historical and comparative study in philology have already\naided greatly in the simplification of language study. For example, the recognition of\nSanskrit as a sister language of Greek and Latin in the great Indo-European family has\npractically solved the complicated problem of the Latin ablative, by showing its threefold\nnature. The classification of ablative constructions as separative, sociative, and locative\nis implicit in all modern grammars and should be more widely employed in all elementary\nwork.\nThe problem placed before the student in his first year is purely linguistic. This is\nonly slightly less true in his second and the succeeding years of secondary Latin or Greek.\nAntiquities, history, and even literary appreciation are not of first importance. These\nare incidental and may be obtained in more economical ways, while the chief aim should\nbe a conscious study of language for language's own sake — for the sake of clearer thinking\nand a more intelligent use of one's own mother tongue.\nIn this paper, therefore, I shall deal only with some of the purely linguistic problems,\nmore particularly syntax, though I am not unmindful of the excellent results of historical,\narchaeological, and antiquarian studies, by which work in the classics has been so greatly\nenriched. More particularly still, I shall consider the problem of case and mood constructions in Caesac, the first real foreign-language reading undertaken by the vast majority\nof our pupils. The taking up of Caesar is the young scientist's first \"field trip\" and his\nfirst opportunity to test the knowledge he has gained in the first year's work. And it is\njust here that the most skilful guidance is needed to save him on the one .hand from the\nnotion that language is a purely mechanical and artificial sort of thing, to be worked out by\nthe puzzle method, or, on the other hand, from the equally fatal idea that language is absolutely lawless and he had best consider the whole affair a guessing contest, first and last.\nThe question is, \"How much syntax shall be taught to pupils in Caesar ?\" My answer is,\n\"Teach all there is there, hut no more.\" Whatever else will result from a detailed study\nof a given author, such as I am here suggesting, the pupil will be shown what constructions\nto learn, and the teacher will be shown what not to teach. At this point in his work the\npupil knows or should know a case form when he sees it. He knows or should know that\na nominative case is used either as a subject or predicate. , Can he be helped to an equally\nsure knowledge of the only slightly more difficult uses of the other cases ? The chief\ndanger is that he will become confused and needlessly alarmed. I have had pupils and\nteachers, too, for that matter, estimate the number of different case constructions which the}\nrather expected to find in a given book of Caesar as high as 150. It is just here that an outand-out laboratory method, namely an observation of the facts presented in the text being\nread, a classification of those facts, and deductions therefrom, is a plan which the writer\nhas found most effective with pupils who have already gained the elements of a language.\nThe exhibition and preservation of these classifications in chart form has served to make\nthe work more definite and concrete. Such a treatment of case constructions as is herewith\npresented (see table, p. 647) furnishes the pupil with all the grammar necessary for case\nconstructions in the passage under consideration, and furthermore, what has been found\nsufficient for any such passage, with only minor changes, will be found sufficient for all the\npupil's work in the language.\n\nWith the forest thus cleared of imaginary foes of unknown\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nDepartment]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ANCIENT\n\nLANGUAGES\n\ns I\n\n<\ng o\nV3\n\n<\n\nII\n\n^s\n\nSj\n\n> ft\n\nII\n\nS-s\n\no s.l^\n\n2 \"\n\nI\n\nl-H\n\nrt\n\n3\n\nS\n\n5\n\n5\n\n^ui\n\nvO\n\nQ\n\nO»^\n, a S o\n\n^ a\n5\n\n-S\n\nK\n\nin (u\n\nu o\n\n(U O\n\np p ^ —\n\n^6\n\no U\n\no 0\n\nM a O\n\n' 1 ft\n\n«.£\n\n\"1\n\n■ tn\n\n- I\n\ntJ\n\n»\n\n.2\n\nUl ft\n\n^\n\no\n\n%\n\nQ\n\nP\n\nin\n\nvo\n\ng\n\n.§\n\n1^\nM 3\n\nb .-s\n\nrt.ti\n\n5< «\nfli_: iJ A i-i i\n\n-3^\n£ .3 .S « os£:^\ns\n\n^ <^ >^ rt\n\nia ^S11\n\n1^\n\nl^H3.a\n\n■G-S\n\"^ S » ft\nS i2 <u SJ c/5*' S\n\n•s\nC5 U2\n\n'\n\nJN.\n\n^\n\nHS\nI I I I I I I I M I I II foI e8\naj\n\nI— I\n\nw N fo \"* in\\0 00 O>0 M coioO\\«\nC/2^>\n\n/-v\n\ng.§8^\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncase constructions, the pupil can go calmly about his work, surrounded by such old friends\nas nominative subjects and accusative objects and the almost equally well defined uses\nof the other cases.\nThis table of case constructions is an attempt to reproduce in type a wall or blackboard chart which I invariably have the pupils help me make up for at least one book of\nCaesar, There are several points of which I wish to speak. To begin with, this scheme,\nwith its seven columns, is the graphic form in which I seek to have the pupils think of the\ncase uses. I have chosen to present the facts for Book III in this discussion, among other\nreasons, because no vocatives or true locatives occur, and because the order in which the\nconstructions in each column happen to appear in this book are almost ideal. The totals\nare not essential and are added here only as items of interest. The formula employed,\nfor example, \" Genitives in Caesar III express the Whole, Possession, etc.,\" seems to me\nless confusing to the pupil than to speak of a genitive as partitive or possessive. In fact, I\ntry to get the pupil to take up every substantive in the first two or three chapters and then\nto tell just what idea the case form actually does express. When he has told that he has\nnamed the construction. Opinions often differ, and the traditional categories are not\nalways forthcoming. So much the worse for the categories ! However, influenced by the\ntechnical terms met with in the first year's work and by the notes and grammar references\nin the text book, the pupils come to sufl&cient agreement to start the chart, which then grows\nunder our hands as we proceed, new categories being added as they seem to be needed.\nThe chart herewith presented is a finished product of class-room work, with the exception\nof the totals, which are my own addition. These totals are the result of somewhat arbitrary\nclassification in many instances.\nIn class work the pupils are shown that if a construction is only placed in the proper\ncolumn that is often the best that can be done. It is easy thus to show how one construction merges into another, and how one construction grows out of another. Here, too, is\nillustrated the fact that the categories we employ are not always due to fundamental classifications inthe one language but may have their practical value only because of a diff'erence\nof idiom in the two languages. Examples of this sort are ablatives expressing agency, or\npoint of view, both clearly separative to the Roman consciousness, as is shown by the\nregular use of the separative prepositions; but our English idiom requires \"by\" for agency\nand \"at\" or \"on\" for point of view, hence the practical value of separate categories for\nthese constructions. Another case in point is the objective genitive here given as a separate\nconstruction, because in English this idea is so frequently expressed by the use of the prepositions \"for,\" \"to,\" \"toward\" (direction words), \"love for one's country,\" for example.\nOn the other hand, the subjective genitive is regularly translated, as is the genitive of\npossession, by the prepositional phrase with \"of,\" or the English possessive case, and thus\nrequires no special mention. Again, ablatives expressing accompaniment, means, description, manner, attendant circumstance, and even the ablative absolute may nearly always\nbe best translated by the use of the English preposition \"with.\" I know no better way to\nimpress the essential unity of the several constructions within such a group than by \"ringing the changes\" up and down the column, using English examples, such as the following\n(see the next to the last column of Table) :\nHe came with a friend (accompaniment).\nHe came walking with a cane (means).\nHe came with great speed (manner).\nHe is a man with great influence (description).\nFurther, such examples as: \"He came with my consent,\" or \"with his books strapped\ntogether,\" or even ''with his books lost,\" (really without his books, and equal to \"his books\nhaving been lost\") show the easy transition from the slightly associative construction of\nattendant circumstance to the ablative \"absolute\" construction. The other two constructions in this column, route or way by which, and degree of difference are easily seen to be\ndeveloped from means and might well be given as (o) and (6) under that head.\nHowever.\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTWO-YEAR\n\nPUPIL\n\n649\n\nthe effort is to avoid too great complication, and a word of explanation in passing is all that\nis needed to justify the present grouping. Similarly, in the accusative column, degree\n(how much), duration of time (how long), and extent of space (how far), in reality the same\nthing, are here given separately, because it is important for the pupil in each instance to\nrecognize the specific idea which the case expresses.\nWithout going farther into details, let me call attention to some of the suggestive\nfacts shown in the chart. There are 1,449 substantives in the 29 chapters of the book.\nThere are 41 different constructions as here classified. All these appear in the first 23\nchapters, and 18 of them in the first chapter alone (see the first column). These 18 are,\nof course, the more common constructions and, as a matter of fact, are the ones to which\n1,279 of the 1,449 substantives (or 88 per cent.) are to be referred. These oft-repeated\nconstructions, the pupil can easily see, are eminently worth his acquaintance and on the\nother hand the rarer constructions can be easily impressed as they appear because of their\nvery rareness.\nThe reassuring thing about such a plan is that, with only slight changes in detail, it\nwill work equally well for any book in Caesar or, for that matter, for any other Latin reading. Passages of equal length in Cicero have even fewer constructions. I have even used\nthis same chart with Greek classes, the from-ablatives, of course, becoming genitives, and\nthe with- and in-ablatives, datives. In the remaining three books of Caesar only eleven\nother constructions are to be found, making a total of 52 for the four books usually read.\nBy a similar method all the uses of the subjunctive can be shown on a single page.\nThe subjunctive in independent clauses does not occur in Caesar I-IV, and the scheme\nresolves itself into a classification of clauses which have their verbs in the subjunctive.\nThe first division is between the fundamental ideas expressed by mood: volition, anticipation, possibility, etc., and the various kinds of facts. Within these groups further classification ismade according to the form and function of the clauses.\n\nWHAT\nJULIA\n\nP.\n\nCAN\n\nBENSON,\n\nWE DO FOR THE\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF LATIN,\n\nTWO-YEAR\n\nYEATMAN\n\nHIGH\n\nPUPIL?\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS\n\nTo some of us who eagerly frequent doctor and sage and hear great argument\nabout the purpose and methods of teaching Latin in the secondary schools it seems that\none important point is usually ignored; this is that the large majority of those who enter\nhigh school spend only one or two years there. Unhappily there is no room for difference\nof opinion with regard to the large number of pupils who drop out of high school after\nbut one or two years. Up to this time very little special cognizance has been taken of\nthese pupils in the planning of the Latin course, yet these are the very ones, perhaps,\nwho should be considered with greatest care. Very, very few of them will ever again do\nany systematic studying. In view of this the little time they have with us seems so\ninfinitely precious that it would be appalling to feel that a fifth of that time were nearly\nthrown away.\nIn order to determine, if possible, why we do not despair, let us ask ourselves what\nwe may hope to give in a two-years' course. A knowledge of Roman life and literature ?\nIn its best form, the sense of kinship which can be gained alone by the study of the language which is the outgrowth of that life? Yes. For all else — the complete series of\nhistorical events and the philosophy of them, we cannot hope to give in two-years' time\nwhat the history teacher can do in a few months. Is it possible in this period to enable\npupils to read Latin fluently, or with pleasure ? Certainly the brightest ones will be able\nto reach Caesar with a fair degree of ease, yet we would not hope that even they would be\nable to translate Cicero, Horace or Virgil without difficulty and further study.\nViewed from these two aspects of general information and ease in reading, two years\nof study seem to yield small returns. What then can be our justification for it ? Shall we\ncontent ourselves with the glib phrase \"Latin gives such excellent mental discipline?\"\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn these latter days the glitter has quite gone from this one useful specious tenet of Classicists. Far from diminishing the value of Latin, the newer point of view makes it greater\nin relation to other subjects in the curriculum than it was when the doctrine of general\ndiscipline held sway, for this reason: While we deny that the specific can function as the\ngeneral in unrelated groups, it is conceded that in related ones it does. Herein lies the\nenhanced value of Latin. Before, Latin, along with other languages, shared in common\nwith many other subjects the general claim that its study would give valuable training in\ngeneral memory, reason and judgment, inductive and deductive. Now we make the unhesitating claim that our work operates to any extent only in its own group, viz.: language;\n. yet how strong a claim this leaves us can be appreciated readily if a thought be given to the\nimportant part played in life by language. The whole world at all times is a woman —\nwhen it thinks it speaks. Written and spoken expression is the natural consequent\nof thought. That subject which gives power and variety to this indispensable means of\nself-expression and communication has surely no mean place in the list of educative\nsubjects.\nWhile this claim is justly made for any language, it seems not too much to assert that\ninasmuch as language is based on thought-relationship, that language which reveals this\nrelationship most clearly is of greatest value. Undeniably an inflected one makes this\nrevelation in a more illuminating way than does an uninflected one. Its very nature\nforces the pupil into conscious realization of the value of each separate thought in relation\nto the others. Because of its influence on English, Latin stands high in the list of studies\nfor these short-course pupils under consideration.\nAgain and again we hear teachers of higher classes in science and mathematics, as\nwell as literature, say that they prefer the Latin pupils, because, to quote their words'\n\"The Latin pupils know how to read English. They can get the thought out of difficult\npassages in which the other pupils flounder helplessly.\" In addition to being better able\nto grasp the thought of another, our pupils are certainly better able to give a clear statement of their own ideas — have a larger and more discriminating vocabulary and greater\nfaciUty of expression. An article on oratory by Senator Hoar, published in the June\nScribner's of 1901, may prove interesting in discussing the value of Latin for English.\nHe says, \"In my opinion, the two most important things that a young man can do to make\nhimself a good public speaker are: first, constant and careful written translations from\nLatin or Greek into English: and second, practice in a good debating society.\" He\ngoes on to point out that nearly all the famous English orators have given much attention\nto careful translations from Latin into English and that Cicero devoted much attention\nto translations from Greek into Latin. He declares the value of translation is very\ndiff'erent from that of original work.\nThe explanation which Senator Hoar gives for his statement that the value of translating from Latin into English, in getting command of good English expression, can hardly\nbe overrated, is in substance as follows: The explanation is not far to seek. You have\nin Latin the best instrument for the most precise and most perfect expression of thought.\nHaving got the idea into your mind with the precision, accuracy and beauty of the Latin\nexpression, you are to get its equivalent in English. Suppose you have knowledge of no\nlanguage but your own. The thought comes to you in the mysterious way in which\nthoughts are born, and struggles for expression. If the phrase that occurs to you does not\nexactly fit the thought, you are almost certain, especially in speaking or in rapid composition, to modify the thought to fit the phrase. Your sentence commands you, not you\nthe sentence. But the conscientious translator has no such refuge. He is confronted by\nthe inexorable original. He must try and try again until he has the exact thought\nexpressed in the English equivalent. This is not enough. He must get an English expression which will equal as near as may be the dignity and beauty of the original. This\npractice will soon give him command of the great riches of his own noble English tongue,\nwill add beauty to his style and cause the process of thought itself to grow easier.\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTWO-YEAR\n\nPUPIL\n\n65I\n\nFortunately for the purpose of teaching language-structures the interdependence of\nwords is forced upon the first-year pupil with every Latin sentence he forms. Nowhere in\nthe course is it so important to have instructors of thorough training along the grammatical\nside of Latin. Only such an one can teach the underlying thought of case and mood, thus\nunifying what might else seem to be arbitrary sets of rules. For example: appreciation\nof the adverb form of the ablative and the adjective use of the genitive will aid immensely\nin the use of these cases. The subjunctive, too, may be robbed of maay of its horrors if\nthe basic thought which underlies the mood be made familiar to the pupils. Though the\nforce of individual words may be better understood, unless they be combined in the best\nform of English expression we shall have neglected a very important part of our task. No\ntranslation of the simplest sentence should be accepted unless it is expressed in good\nEnglish, idiomatic English if need be.\nIt may perhaps be feared that, in laying so much stress on language-structure and\ntranslation during the first year, both interest and the work in forms will suffer. This\nneed not be so. It is not diflficult to arouse enthusiasm in pupils for good English expression, even while working with disconnected sentences. As to forms, the absolutely indispensable part of our first-year work, they and interest can surely be combined. Each teacher\nwill find his own method the best for him. There is, however, a sine qua non, which is\nthat the teacher shall with all his heart believe that the teaching of Latin is at least as worthwhile as the teaching of the other high-school subjects and shall come before his pupils as\nif he had something for them worth their best attention. The first-year pupils come into\nthe Latin class with minds filled with the lesson they have just recited, or with the coaversation which they have just shared on their way to the Latin room. If an apparently\nuninterested teacher sits or rises before them there is certainly no quickening of their Latin\ninterest. This teacher calls perhaps on one pupil for the translation of a sentence, on the\nnext for another sentence, and so on. In this way perhaps half of the recitktion will have\npassed and some of the pupils will as yet have taken no part. We may hazard a guess\nthat many of that half are still wool-gathering, giving just sufficient attention to know\nwhen their names are called. Let us now suppose that an alert teacher, filled with love\nfor his work and conscious of its value, is before the class. Let him give a rapid fire of\nquestions which can be answered in a word or two. In a moment every pupil is aroused.\nLatin consciousness awakens and all are in a fair way to receive benefit from the entire\nlesson, instead of some small part of it.\nIf the work of the first year is to be done thoroly — and if it be not so done all is\nlost — we must go over the same matter again and again. How urgent then the necessity\nfor variety in presentation This is especially true in the drill on forms. To illustrate:\nA declension may be recited in toto by one pupil, or one may be asked for the nominative,\nthe next for the genitive, and so on. Or the Latin case-ending may be given and the\npupil required to give the name of the case, or vice versa. A number of the class may be\nsent to the board and required to write the same declension or tense, as a comparative\ntest of speed and accuracy. One may line up the pupils like an old-fashioned spelling\nmatch and have a rapid review on forms There are a hundred different ways of achieving variety in the presentation of the regular, fundamental work, and the interest which\nfollows is sure to bring greater attention. Just here it may very well be asked whether\nwe shall devote all our energies to teaching the structure of the language and felicitous\ntranslation, depending only on our varied presentation of the pure subject-matter to insure\nthe interest necessary to good work, or shall we reinforce these devices with some attention\nto history, archaeological matters, too. The experience of many Latin teachers seems\nto show that a reasonable amount of time spent in dealing with matters ,of general interest\nimproves rather than lessens the character of the harder, more definite work.\nAmong these different devices for arousing interest none is more vitalizing than training\nin intelligent reading aloud of the original and the translation of it from the spoken Latin.\nThose teachers who say they have no time for such things — that it takes all their time to\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nbeat in the necessary facts — are surely giving up the greatest time-saver in the whole system of education; viz., interest.\nIn the reading of Caesar, the chief diflSculty lies in the long, complex sentences.\nWhile their mastery is essential to success in Latin, this mastery is also of great importance\nin English, whether in English literature or in the study of other subjects written in English.\nThe question arises as to the best method of gaining command over these inverted sentences. One method is that of direct attack — the careful study of subordinate clauses one\nby one — devoting entire lessons to the consideration of the different kinds and their combination, without scattering our energies at that time by attention to translation of aught\nelse, save as it bears upon the matter in hand. If in connection with work of this sort we,\nfor a time, make a careful analysis of each involved sentence met, we may hope to see our\ntroubles rapidly grow less.\nIt seems reasonable to make our prose work of such a character that it will aid in\novercoming the chief diflficulties our pupils have to meet at the time when they are meeting\nthefn. A glance at prose books designed for second-year work will show how little some\nof them do this. While the Caesar students are struggling with indirect discourse, indirect\nquestion and command, various- constructions of purpose, etc., many prose books offer\nwork on ethical datives, constructions with interest and refert and other points quite\nbeyond the second-year pupils' need or comprehension. Practical experience proves that\nthe pupils are willing and interested in working on prose that will help them in understanding the Latin with which they are concerned, while none but the hopelessly linguistic care for discussion of abstruse points which have but little practical bearing on the\nrest of their work.\nLet us then adapt our prose to our pupils* needs.\nAs in the first -year work, nothing but a good degree of excellence should be allowed in\nthe translations. Pupils are not slow to admit that only good English can be regarded as\na translation of good Latin. If the Latin were faulty imperfect English might be satisfactory, but in rendering Caesar's clear and concise style nothing but clear and concise\nEnglish can be adequate.\nWe would probably agree that the habit of having translations often written on the\nboard is perhaps the best means of improving the pupils' style. When written out before\ntheir eyes, they realize faulty structure and expression far better than from the spoken word.\nAs in the first-year work so here variety of presentation proves interest-promoting.\nIf we begin with the review one day, let us then, next day, begin with the advance lesson\nor with rapid work on forms or constructions. If the pupils one day translate the review\nfrom* hearing the Latin read, the next day let them read the Latin intelligently with intelligent expression, or write the Latin from dictation. We all know dozens of ways of varying\nthe monotony, but do we remember to use them ?\n*'\nCollateral work is of decided importance in the Caesar year. With some classes notebooks on particular points of interest prove useful. The building of bridges and enginesof-war, the making of maps, etc., rarely fail to be successful in improving the general\ntone of the work.\nSome study of Caesar's life I should count as most important, since a sympathetic\nattitude toward the author works wonders. Throughout we take for granted that balance\nis maintained and that we remember always that our main purpose is the study of the\nlanguage for itself and for its illuminating influence on all language.\nWe claim for the two-year course some gain in culture, fair facility in reading Caesar,\nbut chiefly such an increased sense of language-structure as will operate in any and\nall other languages and be capable of expansion along its own line, if opportunity\naffords.\nWill the four-year pupil be better or worse for having the teaching during his first\ntwo years directed toward this latter end ? Better, some of us believe, for the average\nstudent will then enter upon the study of Cicero with ability to gain the thoughts from even\ninvolved Latin sentences — with strength and skill in overcoming structural diflSculties.\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "IDEALS\n\nDepartment)\n\nVERSUS\n\nREALITIES\n\nWith these difficulties fairly mastered, we can expect of them appreciation of Cicero's wonderful literary style and the poetic thought of Virgil, \"the lord of language.\"\nNow, indeed, our task is not merely one of interest but of joy, for now in truth we are\nready to read Latin for Latin's sake, to appreciate the beauty of literary form and the\nmelody of golden speech.\nIt is safe to say that nearly every pupil who has been well trained during the first years\nwill delight in Cicero and Virgil. If they go on into college Latin they probably will find not\nmerely an inspiration for youth but a solace in old age.\nTo sum up th& various points brought up in the discussion, the chief value of Latin\nfor the large number who study only for one or two years is a strengthened sense of language-structure. This is of unquestioned value in English. An alert teacher can find\nmeans to add variety and interest to the sterner aspect of the work and attain the end\nof creating a stronger language sense. The teaching calculated to do this will prove\nvaluable as well during the whole course of pure Latin. The four-year pupil therefore\ndoes not lose, the two-year pupil gains immensely by a recognition of conditions and an\nadaptation of work to fit them. Fairness and economy seem to argue for some such\nadaptation.\n\nC.\nIDEALS\nERNEST\n\nVERSUS\n\nC. NOYES,\n\nENGLISH\n\nREALITIES\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF ENGLISH,\n\nIN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nNORMAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nENGLISH\nPITTSBURG,\n\nPA.\n\nOut of the discussion and experiment that have accompanied the growth of interest\nin English as a school subject, there has now come substantial agreement concerning\nideals and aims in literature and composition. None will deny that, in general, the\naims of English teaching are to arouse love of literature and to cultivate habits of thoughtful reading. In particular they are to bring pupils into such vital contact with great works\nof literature that they shall gain not only intellectual understanding of these books —\nknowledge, but also spiritual comprehension — power. Literature should be presented so\nthat it shall instill knowledge of human life and of human nature, nourish imagination and\nthe sense of beauty, foster noble ideals of character, confer power to think and power to\nfeel — in short, give general culture to both mind and soul. The third aim universally\naccepted is the development of the power to speak and write clear, correct, idiomatic\nEnglish. Our ideals in English study, then, will be attained only when every boy and\ngirl under our charge shall acquire a love of literature, shall appropriate the treasures\nof thought and feeling hidden in the books studied, and shall gain proficiency in the use\nof his mother tongue.\nSurely these ideals are not too high: yet how far are they from the realities! Highschool graduates are not set apart from the rest of the community by a peculiar love of\nliterature or by unusual thoroughness in reading. To be sure, assimilation of the spiritual\ncontent of books cannot be measured; but even grasp of the more easily gained intellectual\ncontent is far from universal. Of the deficiencies in speech and writing shown by the highschool graduate we hear continually. There is a wide gap between our ideals and the\nrealities about us.\nNevertheless, this discrepancy between our aims and our attainments is no cause for\ndiscouragement. Though our ideals may not be realized for every pupil, yet a larger\nnumber every year do learn to love literature and to get from it what it has to teach them;\nand a college professor has recently attributed to the study of English composition in the\nschools the unprecedented quantity of good English now being written. It must be remembered that it is the faults of our teaching that attract attention; the merits pass unnoticed.\nMoreover, the last decade has unquestionably seen such improvement both in the quality\nand the quantity of our results as to give us great encouragement.\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nYet the progress that has been made should be only an additional incentive to\nvigorous pursuit of our ideals. Our course will be more intelligently directed if we pause\nto consider the causes of the difference between our ambitions and our achievements.\nThese may be grouped under two heads: those that are inherent in the conditions and those\nthat are capable of removal.\nAmong those that are irremovable may be named three: the poor quality of a considerable part of our raw material; the antagonistic influences of the outside world; and\nthe fact that by their nature, ideals cannot be completely realized.\nIt must be granted that not every boy and girl is capable of acquiring love and appreciation for literature. By nature some are so destitute of the germs of imagination, so\nmaterial in mind, so dull of soul, that every effort to make them sensible of the beauties of\nliterature falls upon barren ground. A silk purse cannot be made out of a sow's ear.\nThough the proportion of those spiritually deficient is still small, it is becoming larger\neach year.\nSecondly, the ideals and practices of the outside world are opposed to the ideals of\nEnglish teaching. In the majority of homes literature is not valued, and inferior, not to\nsay worthless, reading abounds, while the language of the street and of the daily paper\nconstantly corrupts the pupil's expression. Furthermore, outside of academic circles,\nspiritual culture such as literature affords is neither understood nor valued, for it does not\nlead to popular success. The seed sown in school is soon choked by the unsympathetic\ninfluences of a materialistic age.\nIn the third place, our ideals would not be ideals if we could reach them completely.\nBy definition, ideals must be in advance of realities. Consequently, failure to reach the\nrdeal is inevitable.\nHowever, setting aside these ineradicable difficulties, we find opposed to the realization\nof our aims several ills that are not beyond remedy. Briefly enumerated, the more important\nof the evils that can be removed are : too large classes, too much work assigned to teachers,\nand a variety of errors in instruction.\nThough in any subject large classes are a distinct disadvantage, this is especially true\nof English. Success in English teaching depends upon personal contact between teacher\nand pupil and upon attention to individual needs which differ widely in the same class.\nWith classes of more than twenty-five the teacher's personality is spread out too thin and\nadaptation of the instruction to individuals is reduced to the lowest terms.\nAkin to the harm caused by large classes is that which results from the assignment of\ntoo much work to the teacher. That the proper preparation of a lesson in English demands\nmore time than that of lessons in other subjects; that the teaching of a class in English\nwith the enthusiasm necessary to the highest success uses up more nervous energy than the\nless exhausting methods employed in other subjects; that the correction of composition\nimposes upon the teacher of English a task of the most exacting nature for which there is\nno equivalent in other subjects: these are facts generally conceded by teachers of all\nbranches. And yet the Powers that make out schedules and assign classes usually give\nthe teachers of English the same number of classes and the same number of pupils as the\nteachers of other subjects. Usually, I say, for I know of one school — may the number of\nits kind increase 1— where English teachers are given one period a day fewer than other\nteachers.\nAs a result of the prevalent failure of the authorities to recognize the difficulty of the\nEnglish-teacher's work, he is forced to choose between two evils. Either, sacrificing the\nhours he needs for recreation and self-culture to the demands of work whose quantity\ncrushes vitality and deadens the spirit, he must become a lifeless drudge; or, retaining\nhis vigor and his enthusiasm at all hazards, he must leave undone much that needs to be\ndone for his classes. Of the two evils the latter is the less. Better, at anv cost, a live\nteacher full of enthusiasm, than a jaded and spiritless hack, destitute of all power for giving\ninspiration.\nAs a remedy for this overloading of teachers may we suggest the adoption by\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nIDEALS\n\nVERSUS\n\nREALITIES\n\n655\n\nhigh schools of the plan, followed in the colleges, by which teachers of English have\nassistants to relieve them of the drudgery of correcting mechanical details, in order that they\nmay give their time to more important work. When this is done and when time for individual conferences over written work is allowed, we may, indeed, feel that we are\nappioaching ideal conditions.\nMore than any other cause, the two evils — large classes and overworked teachers —\nare responsible for the defects of our English teaching. To these are directly traceable\nmany of the errors in instruction which form a third reason for failure to reach the ideal.\nThe common errors in instruction are the effect of too ambitious courses, of the\ninfluence of examinations, of unfit teachers, and of the failure to keep in view the great\naims of English teaching. The laudable desire to give our classes as much as possible\nfrom the vast riches of our subject causes us to crowd too much into four years. All\nknowledge is not our province. A few books well considered, without haste and with time\nallowed for the fixing of impressions, are better than many books and a mass of literary\nhistory only half assimilated. This is not a plea for such intensive study as by its misguided\nthoroughness leads to disgust — heaven forbid! — but a warning against hurried work that\ntends to confusion. Of course, there should be extensive reading, the wider the better;\nbut what is needed in our courses of study is simplicity. When the attempt is made to\ncover too much ground, the true ends of literary study are obscured. Culture is a plant\nof slow growth.\nIn composition, the same attempt to do too much appears. The function of the\nsecondary school is to teach the elements of good writing; but in recent years much attention\nhas been given to the details of structure pertaining to difficult literary forms, in a vain\neffort to produce literary artists. When our pupils can spell, punctuate, paragraph, and\ncompose sentences properly, then and not till then will it be time for us to try to make them\ninto authors. Here, again, I do not wish to be misunderstood. Instruction in the elements\nof literary structure is valuable both for developing a sense of form and for arousing interest,\nthe chief essential to success in composition; but such analysis of literary forms is carried\nto great extremes.\nNe quid nimis should be one of our watchwords.\nThe influence of examinations is a pregnant source of evil. Literary culture — a\nspiritual process — cannot be measured. It is entirely distinct from hterary knowledge —\nthe acquirement of facts — which can be measured. Since examinations are necessary and\nsince they must be based upon knowledge, the temptation is almost irresistible to exalt\nfacts in teaching to the neglect of spiritual values. To this evil may be ascribed much of\nthe dulness and prosiness of English teaching. \"The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth\nlife.\" The only remedy apparent is a resolute determination on the part of the teacher to\nkeep examinations and the preparation for them in the background.\nThough there are fewer unfit teachers of English today than at any time past, the old\nnotion that anyone can teach English is not yet extinct. In fact, the teacher of literature\nshould be chosen more carefully than any other, for in no other subject does so much\ndepend upon personality. A mere drill-master, however effective as a teacher of Latin\nor mathematics, cannot succeed with English. Sensitiveness to spiritual values, wide and\ndeep culture, spontaneity, adaptabiUty, and a sympathetic nature are essentials for the\nteacher of literature. When these qualifications are lacking, there can be no hope for\nreaching the ideal.\nThe teacher who has these qualities needs to keep upon his guard lest they be destroyed\nby the deadening effect of routine. Contact with life, life in the real world and life in the\nworld of books, must constantly replenish his powers of inspiration. To teach writing\nwell, he must himself write. From working under pressure that prevents growth and\nrefreshment, many a teacher, at first fit, loses life and becomes unfit.\nAll the errors in instruction may be reduced in the last analysis to one: the failure to\nkeep in view the great aims of English teaching. If love of literature and power of expression were the ends to which everything were subordinated, our courses would be simpler,\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nexaminations would take a secondary place, and teachers would be both chosen for the\npower to secure these ends and aided to increase that power.\nIn spite of adverse conditions, great strides have been made in the teaching of English.\nImperfect as our results have been, they have compelled the recognition of the fundamental\nplace of English in the curriculum. That the opportunities afforded by this recognition\nmay not be slighted, it now remains to improve the conditions under which English shall\nbe taught. This is the next step. When the size of classes shall be limited to twentyfive at most, when the duties of the English teacher shall be reduced to correspond with\nthose of other teachers, when throughout the length and breadth of the course attention\nshall be always focused upon the true goals of all English study — noble impression and\nworthy expre'^sion; then and only then may we lift realities close to ideals.\nIDEALS\n\nVERSUS\n\nSARA\n\nMETRE,\n\nVAN\n\nREALITIES\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nKANSAS\n\nENGLISH\nCITY,\n\nMO.\n\nThe teacher of English frequently indulges himself in the pleasurable dream that\nthere may be in a class before him a possible Charles Lamb or Jane Austen, a Carlyle or\nGeorge Eliot, a Tennyson or Mrs. Browning; while in fact there are several Josh Billingses,\nmany Sis Hopkinses, and scores of youthful Mrs. Malaprops and Tony Lumpkins. How\nto convert a Sis Hopkins into a correctly speaking future president of a mothers' union,\na Tony Lumpkin into a clear-thinking American citizen, a Mrs. Malaprop into an enthusiastic student of a Thomas R. Lounsbury is the real problem of the teacher of English,\nThe methods for solving this problem are the reading of classics and the writing of essays;\nor, the comprehension of another's thought, and the expression of one's own thought.\nYet it frequently happens that average pupils do neither one nor the other with readiness\nand skill. Some reasons for this failure have been named in the preceding paper. However, the character of the reading done by many pupils, and the difficulty of being definite\nin English, make up greatly for this discrepancy between our aim and their achievement.\nIf all our pupils loved their language with half the zeal they love their country; if all\nloved good literature; if all loved to write painstakingly, how happily pupils and teacher\nmight travel on in the path of attainment ! But this is ideal: we have to do with the actual.\nIn the first place, the slovenly pronunciation and careless orthography of many indicate\nthe slight consideration given to the language. In the next place, the majority do not love\nto read good literature, especially college requirements in English, The girl whose favorite\nnoveUst is \"The Duchess\" does not take, kindly to the realism of George Eliot; the boy\nwhose favorite poem is \"Casey at the Bat\" does not perceive at once the lofty seriousness\nof \"Lycidas\" or \"II Penseroso.\" The true nature of literature is unknown; that its basis\nis experience seems preposterous; that the everyday could have any association with the\nimagination is ridiculous; why the classics are called the \" humanities\" is not reaUzed, But\nif we can make the pupil feel that what Aristotle said of tragedy is true of all great literature\n— it purifies; if we can make him feel that in the portrayal of sorrow our own self-pity and\nself-love are merged into a great broad sympathy with all humanity, we shall have done\nsomething to make repellant the temporary, the individual, in favor of the permanent and\nuniversal.\nThe many-sidedness of literature presents difficulties to the pupil and the teacher as\nwell. It appeals in so many ways that to be definite is almost impossible. Yet if we keep\nin mind the leading aim of literary study-love of literature — we do well to avoid the mechanical side and look to its larger aspects. What we do desire is that the pupil take to heart\nthe universal,' unchanging thought or condition. With all the skill we possess, we lead the\npupil to grasp the thought. But most teachers, I dare say, have been impressed with \"the\ninfinite capacity of the human mind to withstand the introduction of knowledge.\" Nevertheless, clear, definite, intellectual conceptions must be insisted upon, or else the English\nhour will be looked upon as one requiring little mental effort. On the other hand, the\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmeutJ\n\nIDEALS\n\nVERSUS\n\nREALITIES\n\n657\n\nhighest appeal, the spiritual, is beyond definite expression. But if our teaching be sincere\nand we ourselves are thoroughly impressed with the classic, our faith should be sufficient to\nbelieve that the heart of the average youth has been touched and his spirit cleansed and\nfortified.\nIt is with poetry that we have the greatest difficulty. The lack of imagination on the\npart of many and the fallacy as to its uselessness are responsible for this. On one occasion\na pupil of mine was greatly surprised to find that Shelley's poem, \"The Cloud,\" was scientifically true. He said he did not know that poets had any sense. When I ask for the\ncentral thought or main idea of a somewhat familiar lyric, the almost invariable response\nis, \"It hasn't any.\" But if we can get the pupil to believe that under certain conditions\none who does not speak poetry has, as Gilbert K. Chesterton declares, an impediment in\nhis speech, we shall have its essence faintly revealed to him. For the rest, the fine spiritual\nappeal which every great poem does make must be left to work its own way to the consciousness of the pupil.\nAnd if it fails, it fails.\nBut this is a practical age and demands a tangible result for time expended. This,\ntogether with examinations in literature, causes us to rush where angels fear to tread and\ndo much technical teaching altogether hostile to the spirit of the great masterpieces. Also,\nin our attempt to combine thoroness with vitality, it would seem that I, at least, make\ndistressing blunders. After teaching the Idylls of the King to an unusually responsive\nclass, I asked some question concerning ideals of character portrayed, when a boy, to\nwhom the rest nodded a smiling approval, said, \"Too many family quarrels to suit me.\"\nWe can never be wholly sure of the impression a pupil is gaining. In reading a girl's\ncharacter sketch of Lady Macbeth, I found at the beginning of her theme this sentence:\n\"Lady Macbeth, tho a horribly wicked woman, was a good wife.\"\nWhy teach literature ? To give the pupil ideals; to furnish him standards by which\nto judge other books; to make him finer in thought and wider in sympathy. However, the\ntest of what we do is found in the kinds of books the pupil reads — during vacation. Even\nthough he does procure for the most part trash, if our teaching cause him \"compunctious\nvisi tings\" at his preferring to gossip with stable boys instead of talking with kings and\nqueens we shall not have done ill.\nIn teaching composition, we must give pupils a desire to express themselves. The\ngreater part of our work is aiding them in the expression of their own thought. They have\nmany ideas; the study of literature has furnished ideals. Here however, there are two\nsides upon which to labor — the mechanical side and the joy-of-expression side. Shall I constantly admonish them concerning spelling, grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and\nlogical structure ? Shall I hold up to them as models the simplicity of Franklin, the\nreserve of Thackeray ? Or shall I encourage them to be specific, to be exuberant, telling\nthem that \"speech is morning to the mind,\" and that a full page of written English is the\none thing worth while ?\nThe teacher who has the power to stimulate his pupils to that point where each shall\ntake pleasure and have happiness in giving expression to his own thought has an ideal condition. Itis natural to youth to speak out. The newness of life, the joy of living are\nstimuli to speech. But the point at which it is best to dampen the ardor of unrestrained\n\"flow of soul\" in favor of unity, emphasis, and coherance requires infinite tact and consummate skill. The youth, unwilling to entertain these minor considerations, resolves to\nwrite no more. Practice control by law ? He will none of it ! Notwithstanding our firm\nconviction that form should be subordinated to soul, the most exuberant passages fail to\nplease when Josh Billings spelling and Sis Hopkins grammar meet the eye. This is the\ncall of the schoolmaster.\nBut what of the pupil without a theme ? the boy who hates English but loves forging\nor physics ? Formerly I had an appealing speech ready for this type; now I do differently.\nI am not at all angry at him for his contemptuous opinion of English, but I make him angry\nand cause him to write under emotional stress. This begets fluency — and a written exer-\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncise. I hold this method to be quite legitimate provided it be done \"in conscience and\ntender heart.\"\nIt is true that the correction of these papers leaves little time for reading or recreation.\nBut since it is the part of wisdom to meet conditions as they are, it becomes necessary for\nthe teacher to evolve a plan by which the work may be done economically. Then, on the\nprinciple that the whole is greater than any of its parts, the theme should be read solely for its\nsubjectmatter; next, for the one point emphasized in the assignment. It may be, for instance,\nunity. Whatever it is, the comment on the back of the paper should have reference to\nthis one thing, I explain to pupils that it is impossible to mark all errors. Moreover\none thing at a time makes for more definite progress. In this manner, all exercises may be\nhandled in a way conducive to the pupil's progress and the teacher's continued usefulness.\nFinally, if we believe that in education, the most essential virtue is ideals of\ncharacter, nowhere can this be more forcibly instilled than in the study of literature;\nif we believe with many that in writing the all-important requisite is a model for imitation, then the unconscious followers of Josh Billings, Sis Hopkins, and Mrs. Malaprop\nwill have to play consciously \"the sedulous ape\" to the great masters. But the pupil\nmust not be permitted to stop here; he must add to what he borrows, and, eventually,\nwho shall say that ideals may not become realities ?\n\nSOME\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nALPRED\n\nM.\n\nTEACHER\n\nHITCHCOCK,\n\nIN THE\n\nOF ENGLISH,\n\nTEACHING\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF ENGLISH\nHARTFORX),\n\nCONN.\n\nOf the 2,336 who in 1905 took the College-entrance Board examinations in English,\nless than 43 per cent, attained a grade of 60. That same year reports from seventeen\nprominent colleges revealed that approximately 20 per cent, of the freshmen were \"careless or ill-trained in the use of grammatical and clear English.\" From the business world\ncomes testimony not a whit more pleasing. No matter where we turn, evidence is\nabundant. Boys and girls cannot spell, cannot punctuate; they write crude, bungling\nEnglish.\nWho is to blame ?\nHow would it do to point to the material put of which we are expected to make masters\nof expression ? It is not, much of it, the best conceivable. Truly these young people who\ncrowd our schools — hundreds today where but a few years ago there were fifties — are a\nheterogeneous multitude, representing many grades of ability. How true it is that most of\nthem, not the foreign-born a'one, steep in lawless speech, bad English, from the time they\nleave the cradle. In common with the rest of us they breathe an atmosphere of haste,\nsuperficiality, low ideals. And so we might go on and on, till checked at last, it may be,\nby the thought that all this, whether we like it or dislike it, is beyond our control; we cannot\nchange it. Nor do I believe that any of us care to point to it as an important explanation\nof failure. The blame should not rest upon the boys and girls, who remain, after all,\nessentially as God intended them to be; nor upon the times, for it is a first duty to adapt\ninstruction to the needs of the times.\nWe must accept things as they are.\nRather would I hold responsible, in some measure at least, the very colleges complaining so loudly. Entrance requirements as stated in the catalogue are reasonable, I think;\nbut how shall we characterize the papers springing from them ? One examiner calls for\nan essay of some length contrasting two periods of history. What is the difference between\na door and a gate? asks a second, and How does poetry difi\"er from prose? Explain\n\"proper/' in the expression \"O proper stuff!\" asks a third, and Write for twenty minutes\non Society in Venice in Shylock's Day. These, indeed, are extremes The typical test\nin composition calls for straight-away narration — reproduction, that is, condensed reproduction, pages to be crowded into lines at a rate of speed — at Yale six hundred words an\nhour — which is clearly impossible when writing to scale. I do not know which is more\nvexatious, the wide range of possible questions, or the unreasonable rate of speed; but this\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nENGLISH\n\n659\n\nis evident: the teacher preparing candidates for eight or ten different colleges must\nstep lively.\nUnquestionably too, I think, should the responsibility be borne in part by the grammar\nschools. Here, however, let us speak guardedly. We little understand how much greater\nthan our own are the problems of the lower grades. Yet at times the thought will come\nthat if the course of study were simpler, if this extra and that could be eliminated, time\nmight be found for more effective drill in spelling, grammar, composition. Possibly, there\nare wicked moments when we think that if the entire tribe of supplementary readers were\nto be exterminated, and the heavier classics weeded from the masterpiece course; if there\nwere to be a partial return to the old-fashioned drill in oral expression, a few selections\nbeing read over and over, reasonable repetition supplanting the debilitating process of\nskimming, pupils would come to us with fresher minds, keener memories.\nBut let us hasten to admit that an important source of the disorder lies nearer home.\nIn attempting to meet the demands of the colleges and the business world, the secondary\nschool has broadened its curriculum again and again. It has been forced to adopt a\ncomplex elective system. Correlation and co-operation have been largely displaced by\nthe departmental idea. Ambitious instructors follow single lines of work. There is not\ntime for these trained specialists to accomplish all that the times demand; there is not boy\nenough, girl enough, to go round. Each instructor works prodigiously in his own narrow\ntrench. Consequently expression, by nature an integral part of every study, is commonly\nneglected. Language tinkering has gone out of fashion; broken English is supposed to\nbelong ex{ lusively to the repair shop known as the department of English. With what\neffect upon the pupil ? Good English is unnecessary at home, of course; unnecessary in\nschool, save for a few hours each week, when it must be put on to satisfy the finicky\nteacher of English, and during these few hours, time is devoted mainly to the study of\nliterature, not to practice in composition.\nBut let us again narrow the circle. College and elementary school are in part to blame.\nThe general plan of the modern high school, with its rapidly increasing numbers, its everbroadening curriculum, its elective system, its corps of specialists, is, so far as training in\nexpression is concerned, baneful. Yet if we would find the main root of the evil, I believe\nit must be sought within the English department itself.\nNot long ago a certain committee received, from a large number of teachers of English,\nletters answering a few questions respectfully submitted. Embarrassing indeed is the confession, but let me blurt it forth: Comparatively few of these letters, the committee agreed,\nwere models, and some were unmistakably bad, perhaps inexcusably so, if it be remembered\nthat they were penned by those who should be expert. Expert they are, no doubt, along\ncertain lines, familiar it may be with English literature from Beowulf down. Yet it would\nseem that they lack the power to express themselves clearly and accurately. They are\nuntrained.\nBut not all are thus deficient.\n\"Miss A\n,\" a principal remarked recently, \"has\na charming personality. Her letters and her conversation reveal culture. But I am\nafraid she does not quite know what she is striving to accomplish with her classes, or if she\nknows, she is unable to devise a definite working plan. She is earnest, industrious, but her\nefforts seem poorly directed.\" Perhaps you agree that this characterization applies\nequally well to some whose names do not begin with A. \"Ability to write is one thing;\nquite another thing is the skill required to teach others to write.\nThere is yet a third class, not untrained like the first, nor aimless like the second.\nIndeed they are all aim and method. They know precisely what they wish, can put it\nfdown in black and white, and it looks exceedingly well; but what they think to accomplish\nis oftentimes cruelly inappropriate, and frequently impossible. In extefit and in character\ntheir courses of study are ideal rather than practical, useful, if at all, to the mature mind of\na university graduate.\nAre such characterizations too severe ? Then let me hasten to say that there is a\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfourth class, much larger it may be than I suspect, who always talk and write with accuracy,\nprecision ease, who never wander aimlessly, never attempt the mpossible, but have the\nability and the courage to plan and to execute that which is simple and practical. Yet I\npresume it is true that there are twenty skilled teachers of mathematics where there are ten\nskilled teachers of English, ten who can interest pupils in literary masterpieces where there\nare five who are successful in teaching the young to ta^k and write, and five thus successful\nwhere there is one who handles composition and literature with equal ease. This is so,\nI presume, for two reasons. First, our teachers are the product of a system of education\nin which, especially during the past twenty years, expression has received scant attention.\nThe bad pennies have come back to the mint. . Poor mothers make poor children; poor\n.children make poor mothers. The educational chain is endless. Second, even under\nfavorable circumstances, literary ability, or better the kind of ability needed for the English\nclass room must be, in the nature of things, rare.\nWe are failing, then, not because we lack industry — most teachers of English are\ntremendous workers earnest, faithful to the last degree — but because, in the composite, we\nare not sufficiently well trained; because, through lack of intelligent directing, so much of\nour energy goes to waste. Too many of us lack a plan, a method of attack, a line of progres ion, aclearly defined, reasonable purpose. And this leads to the important question,\nwhat constitutes a practical, effective course in composition? I think we all agree that\nthere should be such a course, just as definite as the course in literature, intimately connected with the study of literature yet not its slave, all but as definite, as carefully articulated,\nas the course in mathematics — definite, thorough, yet very simple, appropriate to the needs\nof plain John and plain Mary, recognizing that children are but children, who respond\nbest when interested yet are quick to recognize a master, and even prefer one who sets a\nreasonably difficult task, then has the courage to say, \"This is hard, but necessary; you can\ndo it and do it well, and — you must.\" Definite, simple, reasonably interesting, yet recognizing the necessity of hard, persistent drill; a minimum of theory, a maximum of practice:\nsuch, we agree, should be the general characteristics.\nBut to be specific. We may think of our course as an ascending spiral, in that it is\nsymmetrically progressive, carefully graduated from the simple to the more difficult; a\nspiral in that each year all four forms of expression find place. It is a spiral of written\ncompositions: short ones a paragraph or two in length, done in class room — spontaneous\nexpression; longer ones, each the work of an hour, done at home; once or twice a term\nan essay sufficiently long to call for some planning, inviting the pupil to produce a finished\nproduct, for him a masterpiece, something more than a skim of what lies on the mind's\nsurface.\nBut the spiral should be a double one, calling not only for written composition but for\noral. This is difficult to manage, we find, but it brings large returns. First comes story\ntelling; then easy tasks in explanation, with now and then a simple illustrated talk, the\npupil making himself clear through sketching on the blackboard; then class discussions\non interesting topics of the hour. Carefully trained along such lines, the pupil in time\nacquires the ability to stand before his mates and talk for a few minutes without embarrassment— a rare accomplishment.\nIt is a triple spiral. Our pupils should write many compositions. They should talk\nmany compositions. But drill of a third kind is needed: practice in planning compositions long and short which may never be written — co-operative work where, the subject\nhaving been previously assigned, the instructor, for the time being a mere clerk, jots down\non the board suggestions from this pupil and that, stopping now to strike out a topic challenged as irrelevant, now to combine, to re-arrange, to re-word, till there grows before the\neyes of all a structural plan, the product of the combined intelligence of the class.\nWritten composition, oral composition, the co-operative planning of compositions, and\none thing more, for the completed spiral is at least quadruple. I have left it to the last\nbecause just now it becomes exceedingly important.\nI refer to persistent drill in technical\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n66 1\n\naccuracy. Our boys and girls do not know how to use the dictionary intelligently. They\nmisspell and mispronounce common words. Their sentences are ungrammatical, or if\ngrammatical, then clumsy. They do not know how to punctuate. All these matters\nrequire special attention. Scolding amounts to nothing. Dabs of red ink accomplish\nlittle. An occasional blackboard demonstration is more eflfectual, yet this is insufficient.\nYou agree, I trust, that in our day and generation as never before, we need special exercises,\nscores of them, home-made for the most part, to be used over and over again, with seniors\nand juniors as well as with pupils of the first two years. If we would have good spelling,\nwe must teach spelling; if we would have neat sentences, correctly punctuated, we must\ninvent exercises affording practice in careful sentence structure. Skill in such matters\nwill not come — to the present generation, at any rate — through much writing. Practice\nin writing — a reasonable amount; practice in talking — an unusual amount; practice in\nplanning; but above all, and until we are clear of our present embarrassment, a seemingly\nunreasonable amount of drill in technical accuracy, — in spelling, pronunciation, grammar,\nsentence structure: these four kinds of work, I am sure, ^re the essentials to training in the\nscience and art of expression.\nAnd now to return to our starting point. Problems of practical interest in the teaching of English: what are they? First, how can we convince the colleges that there are\nways of testing powers of expression which do not induce unprofitable methods of preparation for examination ? Second, how can we, without offending, suggest to those in charge\nof elementary schools that perhaps if less were attempted more would be accomplished ?\nThird, how best can we impress upon those who direct the work in secondary schools that\nto eradicate careless, shiftless expression, all hands must combine in determined, co-operative effort ? Fourth, what is the surest way of recruiting our ranks with strong, sensible,\nskilled instructors, competent to lay out a practical course and adhere to it through thick and\nthin?\nThe first of these problems is already half solved. Few things of greater significance\nmark the past year as one of progress in educational matters than that our leading colleges,\nconvinced that something is wrong, have been investigating, conferring with one another\nand with the secondary schools, looking towards reform. The second problem, too, is\nslowly solving. The tide is turning; the process of simplifying, yet stiffening, the curriculum has begun. The third problem — -well, perhaps I have been too severe. There is,\nof course, a degree of correlation and co-operation in many schools — not all that could be\ndesired, but possibly all that should be expected under the present trying conditions. And\nthe fourth problem ? Do I feel the last foot of firm ground giving way beneath me ? Is\nthe average teacher of composition far more competent than I have imagined? Is the\nsupposition that a great deal of hit-or-miss, planless work is being carried on a correct one,\nor merely a reflection of what I have practiced in my own class room ? If I am wrong\non all four points, there is serious cause for alarm. The Golden Age will soon be here and\nwe shall all be thrown out of employment; for in the Golden Age there will be no teachers\nof composition, since there will be no need of them.\n\nPRACTICAL\nGENEVIEVE\n\nAPGAR,\n\nPROBLEMS\nTEACHERS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nThe problems in the teaching of English are many, and there is not one of them that\nis not thoroughly practical. Moreover, they are all of immediate importance. Hence\narises a difficulty in selecting problems to bring to a consideration of the National Education\nAssociation Round Table. Such a selection must be based upon individual experience\nand upon individual study of conditions in the schools.\nIn connection with the teaching of literature I would raise two questions. The first\nof these is, How far does the study of literature as taught fail of its possibilities in cultural\nefifect ? The acquaintance which the present high-school graduate has with English classics\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nis very much broader than that had by the high-school graduate of twenty years ago;\nwhether his intelligent appreciation of those many works is any deeper than that of the\nearlier graduate I very much doubt. This extensive rather than intensive study doubtless\nfosters in the youth an alert and receptive disposition. Such a result may be expected\nfrom the democratic character of our educational system. Yet in the attaining of this\nresult we must not sacrifice the highest mission of the study of literature. That \"higher\nspiritual sensitiveness\" which is a mark of true culture should be at least dawning upon\nthe young man or woman who has had the interpretation of life and nature as found in\nliterature opened to him by the earnest, whole-souled teacher of literature.\nThe second question is this: What are we losing by not giving a definite place in the\nhigh-school course to a systematic study of that branch of English literature known as\nAmerican literature ? In American public schools we are training for life in the American\ndemocracy; we are teaching American conditions of the past and of the present, and are\nfostering American ideals for the future. The literature of a people is the record of that\npeople's thoughts and feelings. Yet do we realize that our high-school graduate of today\nhas a very much more intelligent and a very much wider grasp upon English literature —\nboth its individual classics and the history of its development — than he has upon American\nliterature? Surely in American reading, American themes should predominate. The\nelementary schools do read a number of selections from American authors, but this is not\nsufficient for an intimate acquaintance with American literature. What of American literature my experience has found in the schools has been scattered and not grouped together\nin one whole, so as to show the relation of one part to another; thus much effectiveness\nhas been lost.\nIn general, the results attained in the teaching of literature in the high school are\nbetter than those attained in composition. For this fact three reasons may be given.\nFirst, literature came into the course later than composition, and there has been no preestablished hostile attitude toward literature to be removed. Composition as formerly\ntaught won little favor from the pupils upon whom it was inflicted. Second, in the study\nof literature thought-activity is initiated by a strong stimulus of an entertaining sort, so\nthat interest is more easily aroused; while in the study of composition thought-activity\nis initiated by a stimulus usually less strong, so that interest is aroused with greater\ndifficulty, and yet interest is all essential, for writing tends toward the production of\noriginal creative work. Third, the successful teaching of composition is a much more\ndifficult task than the successful teaching of literature.\nIt is composition, then, that furnishes the gravest problems in the teaching of secondary\nEnglish today. Results in this work are more apparent in their efficiency or non-efficiency\nthan are the results in literature, and these results, as actually tested, are found wanting.\nTo spare ourselves the mortification of knowing that our graduates murder the English\nlanguage, it is incumbent upon us never to cease a constant, painstaking, and patient\nattack upon errors while we have the pupils with us. Eternal vigilance in both oral and\nwritten expression is the price that must be .paid for coveted results.\nOral expression has come to its own in the primary grades, but has still much to conquer in the grammar and high-school grades. Scrappy answers to questions instead of\ntopical recitations, in a general effort to save time because of the crowded curriculum, has\nsubordinated the graces of story-telling and of speech. It is only too evident that our pupils\nhave a wan, thin vocabulary, and that they speak in undeveloped thought-units with lack\nof power to relate two or three thoughts. Yet our ideal for them is that they should have\nsteady, unhalting, full expression, with the ability to make statements in adequate terms,\nand that they should have vivid impressions and distinct conceptions so that there may be\nknowledge \"on tap\" for expression. Careful training in oral expression, especially\nthrough topical recitation, should, then, be given in the upper grades and through the high\nschool.\nWe fail to secure help that we might obtain by co-operation between the teachers of the\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN\n\nENGLISH\n\n663\n\nseventh and eighth grades, and those of the ninth and tenth grades. Consultations between these two groups of teachers would tend to lead the grammar-grade teachers to\nappreciate more fully the significance of their work, and it would show to the high-school\nteachers exactly what they might expect by way of an assured foundation upon which to\nbuild, so that there would be no time or worry lost over the adjustment of work at the\nbeginning of the high-school course. It might, too, lead superintendents and makers of\ncourses of study to see the harm that they are doing by so crowding the curriculum in\nthe grammar grades that, with their own confession, they are pushing the art of composition to the wall, hoping that the art may be acquired ''incidentally.\"\nCo-operation is needed, too, not only between the upper grammar -grade teachers and\nthe teachers of the first high-school work in English, but it is needed among the teachers\nof ail the departments in the high school. Inaccuracies in spelling and punctuation, and\nfaulty expression should not and need not be tolerated for a moment in any written work.\nThis attack upon faulty English need make the teachers in other departments than that of\nEnglish no additional work; the chief weight of the burden may be borne by the English\ndepartment, if the other departments will but be keenly interested in the matter, and refer\npupils submitting papers faulty in English to the English department. A method may be\nadopted of referring such papers that will place but a small task upon the teachers of other\ndepartments; it will place the burden where it belongs — upon the teachers of English. But\nit becomes necessary that the teachers of English be given time to do this individual work.\nIt is only by individual work that the desired end can be attained. General class\ninstruction will, in this work, often fail to hit where it is most needed. Without the personal touch the work will be in vain.\nThe more I handle written work from high-school pupils and from girls and boys\njust out of high school the more the belief grows upon me that we are neglecting one means\nof obtaining clearcut, forceful expression; that means is a study of English grammar in the\nupper high-school grades. Faulty sentence-structure often arises because the pupil's sense\nof the form of the sentence has not been fully developed. To clear up a rambling, wordy,\nor vaguely stated sentence we must call to our aid two things: clear, logical thinking, and\nadequate expression. But the expression will not be adequate unless clearness of syntactical relations exists between its parts. The relations that exist between thought-processes\nand thought-expression must be studied. English grammar is analytical, and not to any\nextent concordant and inflectional, and therefore the study that the elementary schools\nput upon it must of necessity be altogether inadequate.\nIf a special study of grammar is taken up during the first two years of the high-school\ncourse, the work fails of its purpose. The pupils are of about the same degree of immaturity as those of the seventh and eighth grades, and so cannot take up the study from a\npoint of view materially different from that from which it has already been presented. Hence\ninterest is slight and results inconsequential. The earlier high-school work should be\nsufiiciently different from the English work just preceding the high-school course for the\npupil to feel that he is progressing. But while the study of English grammar is not fitted\nto ninth- and tenth-grade work, it will prove very fruitful in the eleventh or the twelfth\ngrade, where the pupils are more mature, where they may be made to feel the need of the\nstudy, and where the majority of them have a knowledge of Latin sufficient to form the\nbasis for a comparison between an analytical language like English and an inflectional\nlanguage like Latin.\nThe problems surely are perplexing, but the perplexity carries with it interest, and\nthere will be joy in the solution. Moreover, the w^ork of teaching English is of great importance. The socializing of the individual is incomplete without the results gained from this\nstudy; the acquaintance with literature that brings to the individual through imagined\nexperiences knowledge and ideas that he has had no means of acquiring through actual\nexperience; and the ready use of spoken and written language, an imperative social need.\nHence encouragement comes to us in the greatness, as well as in the interest, of our task,\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand satisfaction shall come as, facing problems squarely and solving them sanely, we meet\nwith increasing effectiveness of results.\n\nD.\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nViriLLIAM M. BUTLER,\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nSCIENCE LABORATORY\nCONTAIN?\n\nASSISTANT PRINCIPAL AND HEAD OF PHYSICS\nHIGH\nSCHOOL,\nST, LOUIS,\nMO.\n\nNOTEBOOK\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nYEATMAN\n\nAn adequate answer to this question cannot be given until we have a well-defined\nidea of the aims and purposes of the study of physics in the high school.\nLike other portions of high-school work, the physics laboratory notebook is only one\nof the means employed in the development of the mind of the growing boy or girl, who\ntakes up this subject as an important portion of his school curriculum.\nAs we regard physics in the St. Louis high schools, its purpose is to stimulate the interest of the student in the natural physical phenomena about him and to give him a more\nintelligent understanding of his physical environment; to promote careful and systematic\nobservation, and to train the student in drawing logical conclusions from observed facts\ngathered from experiment; to teach correct interpretation of both written and oral instructions; to enable the student to interpret correctly the results of experimental work and to\napply mathematical formulae to physical results; to secure clear and concise expression in\ngood English; to give facility in the handling of apparatus; to foster and encourage initiative on the part of pupils in the solution of problems and in the mastering of new conditions.\nTo make possible the highest degree of success in these important matters, we believe in\nleaving the student free as far as possible from the necessity of doing much writing during\nthe actual progress of the experiment in the laboratory.\nHence in planning out the details of an experiment, we adjust matters so that the\nstudent need only make \"rough notes\" in the laboratory, which are submitted to the instructor at the time for inspection, correction if need be, and final approval.\nFor approval, a self -inking rubber stamp is employed, so that little time is needed,\nif the results are satisfactory. Then the student is supplied with a sheet of suitable paper,\nand proceeds to \"write up\" his experiment with the information given him by the printed\ndirections, by his rough notes, and his own recollection of what he had done.\nWhen he again comes to the instructor, he presents with the work, as now carefully\nwritten up, the original rough notes, which bear the approval stamp of the instructor.\nWhen this requirement is complied with, there is little opportunity for \"copying,\"\nwhich would otherwise be a constant temptation to the weaker students.\nOur laboratories are well supplied with needful apparatus, so that even a class of 32\nstudents can be handled, and good work be secured, if matters are given that close attention which is the only means of insuring faithful and successful work from each student.\nThe laboratory notebook serves several ends, and each of these must be considered\nin deciding what the notebook should contain and how it should be prepared.\nThe writer thinks it far better that the notebook should be prepared outside of the\nlaboratory, because greater care may then be given both to its contents and to its form.\nThe practice so often recommended of writing up the whole of the notebook during\nthe period occupied by the experiment seems to the author less successful, because it leads\nto hasty and careless work; it makes proper examination of the work by the instructor at\nthe time impracticable, except with very small classes; it inculcates the idea that \"home\nstudy\" is not needed, whereas quite the contrary is true.\nBy using loose sheets, as may be seen in the sample notebooks accompanying this\npaper, the instructor is enabled to take as much time as may be needed to give adequate\nattention to the special experiment in hand; meanwhile, the progress of the student is not\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nBOTANY\n\nNOTEBOOK\n\n665\n\ninterfered with, as he may have other sheets given him on w^hich to continue the work of\nlate experiments.\nThe laboratory notebook serves to the student as a record of work done; to the instructor as evidence of work rightly understood; to the college examiner as a proof both of the\nstudent's proficiency and of the character of the work which the particular school aims to\naccomplish.\nIt seems wise that the notebook should contain such information as will serve all of\nthese purposes, so that there is urgent need for the following points: (i) The title of the\nexperiment and a careful statement of its purpose; (2) A detailed list of the apparatus\nemployed in the actual work of the student; (3) A carefully made sketch of the \"set up\"\nemployed, this being of value, not for its artistic merits, but as an aid to a better understanding ofthe working details; (4) A brief but clear description of the work as performed\nby the student himself; (5) Tabulations, containing the measurements made, with explanations of any computations based upon them; (6) Carefully written-out answers to the\nquestions given in the \"discussion.\" As these test the student's mastery of the particular\nexperiment, success in interpreting them is perhaps the best guide to the student's comprehension ofwhat he has attempted.\nThe need of due attention to the first and second of these points will be readily apparent to any one who has tried to examine a notebook, when the work was not thoroly\nfamiliar in all of its details.\nProbably nothing contributes more to mastery of the experiment than the student's\nability to make a good sketch of the apparatus which has been employed, properly set up,\nso as to suggest to himself and others how the various portions were connected and used.\nToo often time is unduly wasted in making elaborate sketches, when simple outlines would\nhave been easier made and better understood.\nTo the writer of this paper the place occupied by Physics in our high schools cannot\nbe justified, unless it is used as one of our best means of securing excellent practice in the\nwriting of good, idiomatic English; hence the requirement for a brief but clear description of the work is important for the proper training of the student. It is also important\nfor the examiner of the work, as it enables him to understand what was done. True it is>\nthat the careless student is prone to \"copy\" the directions which he received, but this\nmust be sternly frowned down upon by his instructor. We tell our students that unless\ntheir work is made carefully descriptive of what was actually done, it will come back to be\nrewritten.\nWhat has been said of the tabulations needs little explanation, as all concur in this.\nMuch of the success of the student depends upon the care taken by the instructor to make\nhim realize that nothing is asked of him that he cannot readily do. Confidence of success\nis the surest encouragement to real success.\nTo us in St. Louis the \"discussion\" seems easily the most important portion of the\nwork. Questions are carefully elaborated to lead the student on, step by step, till one\nmay feel sure from his answers that the whole of the experiment has been mastered.\nMuch can be done to encourage the student whose work has not been fully completed,\nby returning his paper to be completed and then graded. I have found that those who\nfelt at first discouraged, brightened up at once, when they learned that they could finish the\nwork and get credit.\nBOTANY\n\nNOTEBOOK— WHAT IT SHOULD\nCONTAIN\nSHOULD BE MADE\nM.\n\nH.\n\nSTUART,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nCLEVELAND\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST.\n\nAND\nPAUL,\n\nHOW\n\nIT\n\nMINN.\n\nIt has been a long time since the English pljilosopher happened to observe, \"If a man\nwrite little he had need have a great memory;\" and further, \"Reading maketh a full man,\nconversation a ready man, and writing an exact man.\" Bacon is not to be censured for\nthis opinion.\nHe had never attended a modern American college.\nWe have the advantage\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof him in that way. He regarded that writing means the crystallization and accurate\nstatement of an observed fact, or the clear expression of one's own thought or fancy. But\nwe have observed the making of up-to-date notebooks. If not of their number, we have\nat least seen pupils listen to lectures, write up the line of thought hurriedly, copy bodily\nif at all possible, finish the odds and ends just in time to submit the notes to professors\nwho scarcely looked at them. The writers, when handing them in, could by no means\nhave given the contents of their own manuscripts. Contemplation, reflection, original\nthinking — these have no part in the rushing together of the material for many a notebook.\nOur science work, with all its opportunity for first-hand observation, has not escaped\nthe contagion. Drawings may be made from the microscope by people who have no conception oftheir significance. It is remarkable how much a pupil can sometimes show in\na book without corresponding knowledge in the brain. The idea that writing makes an\nexact man would have to be modified. Whole pages, whole books may be written without\nmaking a man either accurate or inaccurate, except as it helps form the general habit of\nslighting, without, in fact, affecting the mental life at all. When it's over — a sigh of relief;\nthe book is either thrown away or carefully put away, according to the disposition toward\nsaving, and never used again.\nNow this seems to me the one biggest mistake possible in this line of work. The\nprime object in the accumulation of notes is that the pupil may have a fund of information\nwhich is his own. The first absolute requirement ought to be that nothing be entered\nwhich is not understood. An unusually successful botany professor in one of the central\nstates counted for nothing the whole notebook of one of his students because, in questioning, he found one page which the writer could not explain. The same teacher would\nreadily excuse the omission of a part of the work when the rest was fully comprehended.\nThat is a natural consequence. A whole class cannot be expected each to understand\nthe same amount. Strict uniformity in notebook work is a sure destroyer of originality.\nWe have to lay aside our pride in having all our pupils present handsome manuscripts,\nperfectly complete, if we wish them genuine. We must leave display work out of the\nquestion.\nI believe that to make this attitude of honesty toward science prevail, our grading of\nnotes should be not so much on the amount of material presented as on the real effort\nand original investigation shown. It was an old geological professor trained under Agassiz,\nwho said of a pupil who had missed much of the term through illness: \"No, I shall not\ndiscount her. Half of that student's work is worth more than all of the average one.\nShe has the spirit of science.\"\nWe may not go quite so far, but it is certainly true that we cannot expect our pupils\nto put the spirit above the letter, if we grade by the letter. This may seem a digression,\nbut since the basis for grading is held in mind by the average pupil while he does his work,\nit has a rightful place under this subject.\nA thinking teacher will largely devise his own methods, but for discussion we suggest\nthe following. Let one part of the book be a careful, connected presentation of the laboratory work as the pupil understands it. It will consist of a great number of drawings\naccompanied with simple explanations, and of brief illustrated accounts of experiments in\nplant physiology. We are taking for granted that a book is used which is arranged for the\neasy removal or insertion of leaves. No subject should ever be considered completed, but\nshould be given a leaf to itself that the making of additions may be facilitated. Some of\nthe foundation work ought to be made so plain that every learner would understand it\nfully. Then after that place a premium on individual illustrations of the same, e.g., if\nthe green algae are being studied everyone ought to be able to know the type. It will then\nbe easy for the pupils to add other specimens of spirogyra, cladophora, edogonium, and the\nlike, as many as they can find. This can \"be done any time. The more we keep adding\nto the previous work the more cumulative value the course has, and the more real understanding imparts.\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBOTANY\n\nNOTEBOOK\n\n667\n\nTo make this part of the work practicable let the habit be formed of individual miscellaneous collecting of everything in the plant line, understood or not. There will come\na time in the study when all can be used. One illustration from a boy's own collection is\nworth a whole set of slides manufactured for him.\nThis laboratory part of the notes is constantly growing, capable of indefinite development, and yet is absolutely connected, scientific, and under the close supervision of the\ninstructor.\nSuppose for the other part, carried along at the same time, perhaps in the same book\nas the first, we consider a very old-fashioned thing, a journal, a simple diary of the natural\nobjects which the writer sees. It may seem unscientific, but it trains observation which\nis the first essential of a scientist. It may be elementary, but it has to do with that part of\nthe child nature which we need to retain. It is of incalculable benefit in giving a sense of\nexactly what happens in each season. Let it be a place to use every observation made on\na Saturday's outing.\nLet no one worry over the mixture if zoology and physical geography creep in hodgepodge with botany. They are apt to do that out of doors. Flowers do not object to the\nbirds singing above them; I think an old tree likes to harbor a squirrel; and as for the\nboy who can gather spirogyra and not see a peculiar stone close by, he will never make a\ngreat naturalist. Our neatly classified school learning is all too apt to be placed on a\nshelf, while our thoughts run riot in the medley which surrounds us.\nAn old farmer smiles at his boy who has studied microscopic forms and cannot tell\none tree from another. The boy smiles back secure in the belief that his is the superior\nknowledge. Let the observation department of our book broaden this view of the younger.\nLet it be counted no hindrance that he sees what he can not classify or explain. To know\nthe realm of interest beyond us is a liberal education in itself.\nIt is wonderful how this habit of note-making quickens observation. We may laugh\nat Walt Whitman as they tell us that when he sees a skunk he grabs pencil and paper and\npursues, but we know he has the spirit of a naturalist. Do you not think Hawthorne saw\nhaunted houses with a truer poetic conception than if he had not frequently recorded\ndescriptions of them in his Journal ? There is Frenssen, the German Dickens, who makes\nhis natural observations on human beings. You know how he will stop in the middle\nof a conversation, call for his notebook, and write down word for word some characteristic\nexpression just made by the other.\nThis is the kind of writing which does make an exact man. This, applied to botany,\nmakes that science touch life. This makes a notebook to which pupils will refer, and\nwhich they are apt to continue. We are all somewhat reminiscent. Whatever has touched\nour lives is dear to us. That is not egotism. It is the home instinct broadening to include\nnature.\nMine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond.\nMine the walnut slopes beyond.\nIf this feeling can be added to the life of a boy or girl it is close akin to a work of greatness.\nWe will say then, that with books adapted to the removal or insertion of leaves, we\nhave a large section devoted to connected laboratory work, supplemented as much as\npossible by original additions. We are supposing this to be just as closely connected and\nas thorough as the teacher can present and the pupil grasp.\nIn the second part, which may of course be entered in a separate book if preferred, is\na simple journal. There is nothing, from notes on a Saturday's hunt to a pertinent newspaper clipping, which we would debar. If a girl cares to enter a poem she likes, so much\nthe better.\nWe believe each of these lines of work will help the other. As scientists we are to\ntrain seers, people who see accurately through a microscope, who see broadly and sympathetically with their unaided eyes,\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Oscar J. Craig, president of University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nVice-President — William O. Thompson, president of State University of Ohio, Columbus, Ohio.\nSecretary — Lillian Gay Berry, Department of Latin, Indiana State University, Bloomington, Ind.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July i, 1908\nThe Department of Higher Education met in the Assembly Hall of Adelbert College\nat 9:30 A.M. President Oscar J. Craig, of the University of Montana, presided.\nThe first address was by President Craig on \"Liberal Education in the Twentieth\nCentury.\"\nDean Charles Fordyce, of Teachers College, University of Nebraska, presented a paper\non \"College Ethics.\" This paper was discussed by Chancellor Strong, of the University\nof Kansas; P. G. I^nowlton, of Fargo College, N. D.; J. W. Beeson, of Mississippi, and\nProfessor Connor of Iowa College.\nPresident Chas. F. Thwing, of Western . Reserve University, Cleveland, moved the\nadoption of the following resolution which was carried:\nResolved, That a committee be appointed to consider the question of calling a meeting\nof colleges and universities to consider ways and means of promoting their welfare in\norder to increase their influence, national and international. This committee shall report\nto this body at its next annual meeting.\nThe President appointed the following nominating committee:\nCharles Fordyce, dean of Teachers College, University of Nebraska.\nP. G. Knowlton of Fargo College, North Dakota.\nBlanche Zehring, Wells College, Aurora, N. Y.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nAfternoon,\n\nJuly\n\ni, 1908\n\nA paper was presented by Robert J. Aley, professor of mathematics, Indiana University, on \"The Care of Freshmen in Large Universities.\" The paper was discussed by\nC. P. Cary, state superintendent of schools, Wisconsin; P. G. Knowlton, of Fargo College,\nN. D., and Dean Charles Fordyce, University of Nebraska.\n\"The Relation of the Work of the Colleges to the Work of the Medical School,\"\nwas presented by William H. Crawford, president of Allegheny College. The paper was\ndiscussed by Robert J. Aley, of Indiana University, and David S. Snedden, of Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University.\nDavid S. Snedden, adjunct professor of educational administration. Teachers College,\nColumbia University, presented a paper on \"Pedagogical Departments in Colleges and\nUniversities.\"\nThe last paper, \"Some Avenues of Usefulness for Small Colleges,\" was presented by\nWallace N. Stearns, of Wesley College, afiiliated with the University of North Dakota.\nThe President appointed the following committee to consider the question involved\n669\nin President Thwing's resolution adopted the first\nsession:\nFrank Strong, chancellor of the University of Kansas.\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, president of the University of California.\nCharles W. Eliot, president of Harvard University\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report:\nFor President, Frank Strong, chancellor of the University of Kansas.\nFor Vice-President, William F. Book, professor of philosophy and education, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nFor Secretary, Anna Starr, Department of Botany, Oberlin College.\nThe report was adopted and the nominees declared elected.\nThe Department then\nadjourned.\nLillian Gay Berry, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nLIBERAL\nOSCAR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJ. CRAIG, PRESIDENT\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN THE\n\nOF THE\n\nTWENTIETH\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF MONTANA,\n\nCENTURY\nMISSOULA,\n\nMONT.\n\nThe thought of man is directed either to the future or to the past. The\npresent receives but scant consideration. In youth and early manhood our\nattention is engrossed with the future. Our waking hours are filled with\nplans for our future success and the dreams that come to us in sleep are vivid\nwith pictures of our anticipations. In old age it is the memories of the past\nthat furnish the pictures on which thought loves to dwell. The faces are the\nfaces of the long ago. We again feel the touch of the vanished hand. Scenes\nlong past are presented to our view. In the young the present is not worth\nconsideration when compared with the glorious future. To the aged the\npresent pales into insignificance when the mighty past is recalled. Nearness\nto great events usually brings lack of appreciation. When we are near a\nmountain, we do not realize its greatness. The vastness of the sea is shut\nout by the horizon. We are living in the most wonderful age the world has\never seen. We have witnessed some of the most marvelous developments in\nthe history of the human race, and yet we incline to recall the past or to ponder\non the future rather than to live in the immediate present and fully realize our\nsurroundings, our advantages, our duties, and our responsibiUties.\nThis is an age of activity and advancement. The one who succeeds will\ndo so because of his ability to enter into competition with others and win success\nby his own energy and acuteness. There is not a profession but has many\nfollowers. There is not an occupation that does not seem crowded. To\nsecure success it is not enough that a man is willing to plan, to work, and to\neconomize. Something more than mere thrift and attention to business is\nrequired. One must be able to take advantage of every circumstance. A\ncircumstance is so contrived that for one to take advantage of it, it must be\nunderstood. Usually things happen and afterward we know their meaning.\nWe must be able to give our interpretation at once. If we do not, someone\nelse grasps the situation, steps into our place and receives the benefits.\nNot only is it requisite of success that we are able to interpret the meaning\nof facts as they occur, but we must know what is Hkely to occur. The man who\nsucceeds must not only be equal to the emergency but he must be able to create\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nLIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n67I\n\nan emergency where none exists. Men are not so much the product of the\ntimes as the times are what men make them.\nIn this day of newspapers, periodicals, and magazines, it is a piece of\ninexcusable indolence to be uninformed on current events. The current\nevents of today become history tomorrow, so that he who grasps the present\nas it comes has also the immediate past at his command. There is but one\nway of foretelling the future and that is by understanding the relation of the\npast to the present. There is not an isolated fact in history. There is not an\nisolated current event. Every fact has a definite relation to some other fact\nas cause, effect, or corollary, and fortunate is he who understands this relation.\nFurthermore he who fails to grasp these relations is the one who fails to win.\nHe stops to wonder. He is surprised at the success of others and bewails his\nown bad luck. He firmly believes that malignant spirits have conspired against\nhim.\nHistory, economics, and sociology are receiving more attention today than\never before. Why ? Because men want light on present conditions that will\nhelp in the solution of important problems.\nToday not the ancient history of the steam engine is demanded, but the\nability to construct the most modern and approved forms and to suggest still\nfurther improvements ; not the story of how Franklin discovered the identity\nof lightning and electricity but the ability to construct the dynamo that will\ngenerate the most power or run the geatest number of fights at the least expense;\nnot how the subject of alchemy has developed into modern chemistry but how\nto conduct manufactures, prepare fertilizers, and compound pharmaceutical\nmixtures with the least possible waste. These things are only possible by\nknowing the present and so fully comprehending it as to turn all our knowledge\nto proper account in our daily lives.\nThe life and the preparation for the life of today differs from the life and\nthe preparation for the life of yesterday because our environment has changed.\nToday we have the locomotive and the automobile in the place of the stage\ncoach and the carryall of yesterday. The telegraph and the telephone have\ntaken the place of the pony express and the carrier pigeon. The needle has\nbeen displaced by the sewing machine and the sickle by the harvester. The\nfriction match has superseded the flint and steel and the electric light makes\nthe tallow candle cast a shadow. The typewriter and the Morthaler have\nrevolutionized correspondence and printing. This is an age of machinery.\nThe mine is worked by machinery. Travel is by means of machinery. The\nfarm is tilled by machinery. Goods are manufactured by machinery.\nClothing, food, tableware, furniture, timepieces, vehicles — all are made by\nmachinery.\nNot only in industrial lines but in every realm of human life and effort,\nour world of today differs from that of yesterday. The discoveries of Pasteur\nenable us to know some of the causes of decay in plants and animals. The\napplication of the results of these discoveries to surgical operations not only\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nhas enabled the surgeon to cure diseases that were known, but to find the\ncause of diseases not understood and to prescribe their treatment and their\nremedy. Today the wireless telegraphy of Marconi becomes a rival of the\nsystem of Morse and the airship of Santos Dumont, of the express train.\nUnder the X-ray opaque substances become transparent, and with the spectroscope we study the composition of the sun. There is not a science that the\nnineteenth century has not rewritten and revised.\nAstronomy, the oldest and the noblest of the sciences, has made wonderful\nprogress. The telescope has been supplanted by the spectroscope and we not\nonly study the shape and movements of the heavenly bodies, but we examine\ntheir composition and varied conditions. We have obtained new facts concerning planets, satellites, comets, and meteors, Mars and his moons, Saturn\nand his rings, and the whole range of astronomical knowledge.\nIn the science of chemistry, Daltons' theory of atoms is almost the only\nimportant principle discovered prior to the nineteenth century that is still used\nas a working theory. Organic and inorganic are no longer separate, for\norganic chemistry has become the chemistry of carbon compounds. The\nperiodic law of Mendeljeff combined with the molecular theory has given\nchemistry a new basis.\nIn physics the law of the correlation of forces and the law of the conservation\nof energy have been discovered. Light has been shown to be motion and heat\nlocated as the source of power.\nThe progress in biological science is marvelous in the extreme. The cell\ntheory with protoplasm as the physical basis of life; comparative anatomy;\nthe germ theory of disease; antiseptic surgery, and the general working theory\nof evolution — all originated in the nineteenth century.\nThe progress in historical investigation has kept pace with the advancement in other fields of learning. The finding of the Rosetta Stone revealed\nthe literary treasures of Egypt. The unearthing of the king's library at\nMinench threw much light on oriental history, that had been lost. The\nancient manuscripts that have been found give new light and assistance\nto those who would know more of the history of the Bible and those who\nwrote it.\nThe application of the historical method to the development of law marked\nan era in jurisprudence. This movement began about the beginning of the\nnineteenth century when the national codes of Prussia, France, and Austria\nwere in process of formation. Referring to this movement a celebrated member\nof the Institute of France has said, \"A new school grew up which with the most\nbrilliant success made law throw light on history and history throw light on\nlaw.\" And again the same gentleman is authority for the statement that\n\"the life and activity prevailing in the study of law, and the brilliant successes\nthat study has recently achieved, are due in a great part to the illustrious\nrepresentatives of the historical school.\"\nThe application of the historical method to political economy is of still\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nLIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n673\n\nlater date and may be called a product of the last quarter of the nineteenth\ncentury. When in 1876 a number of the distinguished men of Europe met\nin Paris to do honor to the memory of Adam Smith by celebrating the first\ncentennial of the pubhcation of The Wealth of Nation, it was found that several\nof these men were departing and had departed from the orthodox school of\nwhich Adam Smith had been the founder and Ricardo one of the leading\nexponents. If not discovered it was for the first time fully realized that a new\nschool had been instituted on the basis of the inductive philosophy — a school\nthat used historical facts as the source from which its inductions were made,\nrather than as illustrations to support its hypotheses — a school that recognized\nthat logic and philosophy are important elements in political economy, but that\nfacts are indispensable when dealing with the science of wealth. The new\nlife that this method infused into the subject, has been recognized by all, whether\nthey have adopted it or not. Yea, more, the whole realm of social, political, and\neconomic science has been put on a firm foundation.\nBut when the final record of the achievements of the nineteenth century is\nmade up, it will be found that the greatest achievements of all have been in\ndiscoveries in psychological science and the application of these discoveries\nto the problem of education.\nPsychological science is dependent on correct theories in chemistry, physics,\nphysiology, and other subjects. Logic and philosophy can dictate correct\nmethods only when the physical facts are known and understood. As long as\nthe world believed with Aristotle that the principal function of the brain was\nto secrete tears it was impossible to have any correct views of the relation\nbetween mind and body, although much of the philosophy of Aristotle is\naccepted today as ultimate truth. As long as the heart was regarded as the\nseat of emotions it was not possible to have a correct psychology of the\nsensibilities although the subject of logic was as complete at that time as\nit is today.\nThe discoveries of the nineteenth century concerning the functions of the\nbrain and the nervous system and the discoveries in psycho-physics and\nphysiological psychology that fix some of the relations between the mind and\nthe nervous system, coupled with discoveries in natural and physical science\nalready referred to, have enabled us to put the philosophy of education on a\nsure foundation.\nOur educational philosophy unfolds the laws of thought, points out the\nprinciples of mind growth and makes plain the purpose of education. It\ndetermines the content of the subject to be taught and points out how it may\nbe appHed in training the mind that is to be developed.\nHerbart has taught us that the moral element in education cannot be\nneglected. He has taught us that as individuals the measure of our excellence\nis the amount of helpfulness that we may contribute to the advancement of\nthe interests of others. Our excellence is not measured by the stores of knowledge we may possess; it is not measured by the aggrandizement of self,\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nbut it is measured by the good we may contribute to the uphft of\nmankind.\nThe education of the twentieth century must be an education for power\nand service and not for acquisition. It must be an education that promotes\nculture, the culture of the whole man in every attribute — moral, physical,\nand intellectual. Some educational systems have been defective in that they\nhave not tended to the cultivation and development of the whole man. As\nsomeone has quaintly put it, we have been living in only a part of our house,\nwith some of the best rooms unfurnished. True education tends to the\ndevelopment of every faculty of manhood and womanhood.\nThere is another element that the nineteenth century has developed that\nwill be, and is, an important factor in twentieth -century education. Hegel, in a\ncourse of lectures delivered in 1822, said: \"The eastern nations knew only\nthat one is free; the Greek and Roman world only that some are free, while\nwe know that all men, as men, are absolutely free.\" While the universal\napplication of this statement may be criticized it does contain this truth — that\nthe progress of modern civilization has usually tended to the freedom of the\nindividual. This tendency is general and applies equally well in politics, in\nreligion and in education. The Great Teacher announced this principle when\nhe declared, ''The Sabbath was made for man and not man for the Sabbath.\"\nGovernments are made for men, not men for governments. Governments\nare of advantage just in proportion as they advance the individual interest of\nthe people. Our government educates its citizens, not that they may be of use to\nthe state, but that they may be of use to themselves. The modern phrase is,\n''A government for the people and by the people.\" This individualism in\npolitics has given us a democratic government. A despotic government is a\nsimple affair. The despot decrees; the people obey. As individualism\nadvances, the government becomes more complex, for we must harmonize the\nwill of the many who compose the body politic. The Iron Chancellor has\nwell said: \"Whatever we would have in the state we must put in our schools.\"\nOur schools must train up men and women who will be able to solve the problems of democracy as they arise.\nOur institutions of higher education in the twentieth century must be safe\nand reliable leaders in all educational movements. They should be conservative to ihe extent that safety demands but aggressive and persistent in their\nadvance. They should stand for the highest degree of intellectual culture.\nThey should represent the best there is in the educational world. They\nshould be the exponent of the highest form of culture — that true culture which\nhas the intrinsic merit in itself, and whose purpose is to benefit the individual\nby enlarging his capacity for the enjoyment of knowledge, and the cultivation\nof those powers that will enable the individual to satisfy this increased capacity\nfor enjoyment. The power of self-development should be placed within the\nreach of every student who matriculates in our higher institutions. Selfdevelopment means self-enlargement, self-control, not merely intellectually\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nETHICS\n\n675\n\nbut in all the directions that tend to perfect manhood and perfect womanhood.\nThe institutions of higher education must have a moral tone that is healthful to the religion and morality of the state. They should attract to their\nneighborhoods those who seek pleasant homes and a refined community\nwhere intellectual gifts are at a premium. They should attract, for here\nshould be found the surroundings that tend to the growth and development\nof character without being contaminated by the greed of avarice or the frivolousness of so-called fashionable life.\nNotwithstanding the many and varied pursuits students must follow in\nafter life, all must be citizens. So, as varied as the work must be, through it\nall and in it all must permeate an atmosphere of freedom and of manhood.\nThose wlio go forth from our training must go forth stronger in every attribute\nthat belongs to manhood and womanhood, or the work of higher education\nis a failure. There is such an intimate relation between the intellectual and\nmoral faculties that it is impossible to submit one to the right kind of training\nwithout affecting the other in a favorable manner. The best product of the\nschools is marked by conscientiousness and stability of character. A man is\nliberally educated when he has such a command of his powers that he can\ncomplete work and turn from it knowing it is complete and that it will stand\ncomplete though all the critics combine against it. Liberal education gives a\nman control of himself. He knows his own capabilities and his own powers.\nHe knows his own limitations and in those limitations he possesses that selfconfidence that promotes success in all his undertakings. Liberal education\ntakes away the dictatorial spirit. It enlarges sympathy. It promotes toleration, represses selfishness, and by elevating the individual enlarges the horizon\nand gives a broader outlook on the world and on humanity.\nCOLLEGE\nCHAS. FORDYCE,\n\nDEAN\n\nETHICS\n\nOF TEACHERS COLLEGE,\nLINCOLN\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF NEBRASKA\n\nx\\ refreshing series of ethical waves has recently swept over our country,\nresulting in a purging of the commercial, political, and social atmosphere and\ncreating a new type of moral sense; the wording of this theme suggests, however, that the crusade against existing evils has penetrated less deeply unto\ncollegiate circles than into the arena of the business world. The phrase\n''college ethics\" seems to imply that the man so fortunate as to be registered in\na college, may be governed by ethical law unlike that outside the classic halls of\nlearning, that the Golden Rule does not apply to the gownsman in the same\nan.\nownsrmons\nt\nal\ns\ne\nh\ne\nt\nv\nt\nt\ne\na as y\nof our school a right to hope that the moral upheav\nHa\ntnoo th pa\ne\nl\ns\nt\na\ns\na\nthe evils in the busiennecies and polittic world may\nthat is at work to eradiesc\nIw\ni\nt\nen n ur igher\nist\ni\ne\ne\nr\ng\ns\no\ne\nu\nh\nl\no\nt\nl\ni o h\npreval\nto correct the incons\nau\ncoons\nar\ni\ng\nt\nng,\nng\nn\nof learni ? Should it not become-rocolmea;r that cheati is cheati\ninstitu\nm\ng\nr\noo\ng,\nng\nin\nthat steali is stealin\nor in the count\nwhethe in the classr\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwhether engaged in by the student or the civilian; that gambling is gambling,\nwhether indulged in by the sport on the New York race-track or by those\nmatriculated in the christian college ? Deceit, vandalism, theft, and murder\nare crimes, whether perpetrated by men and women in cap and gown or by\nthose in civiHan garb. The adjective '^ college\" before the word ''ethics\" does\nnot grant the student a freedom in conduct not conceded in the market place\nor in the church pew. Is it not time that the moral wave that has given business men a new sense of honor should sweep through the college halls, for\nout of these halls are the ethical issues of the commercial, social, and political\nworld ? It is significant that the leaders in almost every avenue of life are the\nmen and women who have had the good fortune to enjoy the blessings of\nhigher education; since these college-bred men hold most places of honor,\ntrust, and influence, it is imperative that the seats of learning should be dominated bythe best of moral forces. We should adopt the maxim of the Prussians that *' Whatever you would have appear in the life of a nation you must\nput into its schools.\"\nPresident Roosevelt has recently said:\nThe most characteristic work of the republic is that done by the teachers, for whatever\nour shortcomings as a nation may be, we have at least firmly grasped the fact that we cannot do our part in the difficult and important work of self-government, that we cannot rule\nand govern ourselves, unless we approach the task with developed minds and with that\nwhich counts for more — with trained characters.\n\nOur schools are the crucibles in which are elaborated by a mysterious alchemy\nthe forces that determine the ethical character of our common-wealth; to set\nup one code of morals for the college hall and another for the street, trains\nour citizens into a duplicity of life that all subsequent restraint fails to correct.\nThe four years of college life form habits from which the youth rarely breaks\naway in later years; if selfish in college, he is Hkely to be selfish through life;\nif his impulses are altrustic in college, he will have a deep interest in others\never afterward; if he cheats in the classroom, he paralyzes his conscience and\nlays the foundation for cheating in business; if he is good only when under the\nwatchful eye of a proctor, he is not likely to make a safe clerk with whom to\nintrust another's business; if he bets at the football game, he has laid the\nfundament for gambling anywhere and everywhere.\nThere is certainly no excuse for the laxity in morals thus found in our\ncolleges, for there is no place in the world so favorable for the development\nof a keen sense of duty as here; men in the contests of commercial fife are apt\nto make pecuniary rewards the goal of effort, but the man in quest of scientific\nand literary facts, seeks them independent of the warping effects of monetary\nreturns; the statesman is apt to be reduced to the level of the poHtician as a\nresult of inducements incident to securing office; but the student in search\nof historic truth is impressed with the fact that largeness of life and high\naltruistic motive rather than a greed for gain or office are the factors that have\ninscribed names on the roll of fame. A man successful in any profession is\napt to have all interests increasingly centering in a selfish life, but the student's\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "R\n\nDepartmentl\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nETHICS\n\n677\n\nmental and moral horizon continually enlarges as he learns that the good and\ngreat of all ages have devoted their energy to the service of others. It is true,\nas we should expect, that students as a rule have a high sense of honor; their\nethical life usually conforms to the highest criteria and there are reasons for\nbelieving that many of the evils in university circles are, at the outset, less a\nmatter of ethical dictate than of prevailing custom and sentiment; that many\nof their breaches of moral conduct are not the result of intentional wrongdoing, but rather of college usage; most of the evils mentioned are the outgrowth of a custom-warped judgment rather than of the heart — the issue of\npractices that have grown up in the athletic field and in other places where\nthere are, as yet, no well-defined rules of conduct.\nI am convinced that in many instances of supposed under-handedness in college\nathletics, the case is one of perverted vision rather than of moral obliquity. We need\nconstantly to remember that many things which to the faculty and the outsiders appear\npalpably dishonorable are not so regarded by the student, because he is in the grip of a\ncollective athletic sentiment of which others know but little. He is in need of enlightenment rather than of censure. He is a reminder that athletic tactics have not been adequately interpreted to college students in simple terms of right and wrong. The strategy, for\nexam.ple, by which a pitcher leads a runner on the bases to over-estimate his chances \"to\nget away\" is perfectly legitimate; but the strategy employed by the catcher who habitually\npulls the ball down as he catches it, and thus leads the umpire to call it a strike is dishonored.\nThe principle is perfectly clear; to practice deception on the umpire is to practice imposition on the opposing team. But how many students pause to make the distinction and how\noften has it been made clear to them ?i\n\nThe ethical difference in these two cases is not easily seen by students;\nthere is here, as in many other cases, need of enlightenment. If the students\ndo not see such distinctions, they are apt to accept the dictates of custom,\nwhich has in most instances grown up thru a laxness naturally arising\nfrom a strong temptation for each one to think that what the student body does\nis all right. Let one college community establish an annual \"shirt-tail parade\"\nor '* sneak-day\" and others will soon adopt these disgraceful ceremonies,\nwithout even weighing the moral effects on their scholastic life; let one team\nwin the day in the athletic field by a new species of strategem, whether honorable or dishonorable, the new tactics are likely to be incorporated in the maneuvers of other teams. It is a sort of accepted notion that to take advantage of\nan opposing team when the umpire is not looking, is justifiable. This practice\nis so common that it has almost become an established law. Indeed expert\ncheating often receives applause. Equally dishonorable are many of the\ncustoms in the classroom, where cribbing and other forms of deception go on\nunder the eye of the school authorities; students even maintain that it is no\nserious offense to cheat under the watchful eye of the proctor, claiming that\nwhere there is no confidence, cheating is no crime.\nThe need of a quickening of the conscience of student bodies, of a crusade\nagainst these low standards of conduct is everywhere felt, proof of which is\nevinced in the recent establishment of an International Committee on Moral\nC. A. Smith. Educational Review, igos, p. 389.\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nTraining. This committee of teachers and public-spirited men from various\ncountries was organized in London, a little over one year ago, for the purpose\nof studying the untoward moral tendencies in our schools and of devising, if\npossible, such means as will contribute to an improvement in methods of\nmoral instruction. The commission has already collected data throwing\nmuch light upon the causes of lax moral conditions. It finds, in general, that\ntoo little attention has been given by faculties and school authorities to the\nsubject of ethical standards; that in our higher institutions of learning, in\nparticular, there has been a gradual lessening of the grip on the deportment of\nthe student body; that faculties have too often been content to give students\nundue freedom in fraternities, in other organizations and on the athletic\nfield; that out of this freedom, evil customs have grown that are now so firmly\nentrenched that they are hard to control. The recent excitement in Parliament\nover the Educational Bill resulted not only from sectarian jealousy, but from\nan intense desire upon the part of the English people to establish a school\nlaw that may bring about such changes as will inculcate in their youth ideals\nfundamental to high moral character and a better citizenship. Great Britain,\nGermany, France, and Italy have, during the last decade, been giving more and\nmore attention to ethical instruction in their schools. Already a perceptible\nquickening of the public conscience is noticeable. Their public-school system,\nin particular, has shown an appreciable progress. This has come partly from\nformal systematic moral instruction, to which English schools are giving the\nfirst hour of each day and which has been a leading element in the teaching\nof most of the countries mentioned, and partly from the study of legends,\nbiography, and patriotic history which tend to free the student from sectarian\nbias given in religious instruction. Equally potent in these schools have been\nthe stimulating effect of the study of the masterpieces in literature where the\naesthetic and emotional side of man's life has been depicted with a view of\nemphasizing motives essential to ethical conduct.\nAmerican colleges demand first, a tightening of their grip in the matter of\ngeneral control. In their earlier history, our schools adopted the old English\nsystem by which they exercised a firm grasp upon the student body. This\nsystem became so burdened with petty restrictions that it grew more and more\nobjectionable to the governed until it has been practically abandoned, with no\nsubstitute; as a result, we are in many cases without any clearly defined method\nof procedure. The union of faculty with representatives of the student body is\ngiving desirable results in southern institutions and in many in the north.\nMost of the leaders among our students are mature men and women who are\nnot only students, but responsible citizens, worthy of confidence and ready to\nrespond to appeals to manliness and the sense of honor. Such have, probably,\na stronger influence over many of their companions than does the faculty\nitself. It is for the few thoughtless and more impulsive that disciplinary\nmeasures are created. The student-leaders are usually closely associated\nwith this disorderly minority whom they may easily check.\n\nThe writer's\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nETHICS\n\n679\n\nexperience of ten years as dean of one of our western colleges has led him to\nbelieve that fraternal organizations may be valuable agencies in matters of\ndiscipline, as they can exercise a wholesome influence over, at least, their own\nmembers. Doubtless every college officer has seen the wisdom of utilizing\nthese organized forces. Thru this co-operation with the students, much\nmay be done toward the establishment of a more wholesome set of regulations\nfor conduct on the athletic field, and in the matter of elevating the standard\nof authorship of papers in the classroom.\nThe writer is convinced that indolence and general dissipation of mental\npower are responsible for many of the evils above mentioned. Laziness\nweakens one morally as well as mentally; a loafer is incapable of ethical\ngrowth because his mental fiber is too dormant to assimilate moral nourishment; vigorous, persistent work of any sort begets concentration, self-reliance,\nand tenacity of purpose, all of which have a moral import. The principal\nvalue of athletics lies in the fact that nothing but the student's best efforts\nare tolerated on the field; such efforts have a reflex psychic influence of incalculable worth. A considerable percentage of our students do not go to college,\nbut are sent; they straggle into the institution with no serious intentions of\nwork; as a rule they come from opulent homes, dress attractively, and flit\nabout as society leaders; their example is deleterious to students of laudable\nintentions who are often thwarted from their course by these so-called society\nleaders. A large body of the students yield to the dissipations of loafing and\nof social life, neglect their studies, and then come up for examination unprepared, where the temptation for deception is strong. Three-fourths of the\ncheating in the classroom is, doubtless, created by a lack of preparation to\nmeet assigned tasks.\nFinally, let me say that the ultimate solution of this problem lies with the\nfaculty itself, for just as the foundation of the house asserts itself all the way\nfrom cellar to garret, so does the character of the faculty limit and determine\nthe atmosphere in which the student lives. \"As is the teacher so is the school,\"\nis an old proverb from whose truth we cannot escape. Philip of Macedon\nonce wrote to the great teacher Aristotle saying, \"I thank the gods profoundly\nfor giving me a son to inherit the splendid fortunes I have gained, but I thank\nthem more profoundly that they have given me that son in the lifetime of the\ngreat teacher. Aristotle, who alone can teach him how to maintain and extend\nhis splendid inheritance.\" The infamous Nero caused his beloved teacher\nSeneca to be put to death because, as he said, \"I hear at every step of my\nbloody career, his gentle, luring words in my ears.\" He thought that if the\nvoice of Seneca were stilled in death, this would arrest its disturbing warnings;\nbut found that the admonitions of a great teacher, even tho the voice be silent,\nlive on. If this be the force of a teacher, how important that our faculty be\nmade lip of men whose lives are worthy of such a place in ours. Many of our\ninstructors not only lend nothing to the upHft of the moral atmosphere of the\ninstitutions served, but rather detract from it. There is scarcely a college\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwhere there are not petty factions in which jealousy, selfishness, and unlawful\nambition lead them into measures to satisfy personal ends. The student-body\nsoon learns of these disgraceful conditions and are, many of them, drawn into\nthe unholy cliques to lend their aid to the contention. An atmosphere of general\ndissension is soon created and students, following the example of faculty, acquire\nthe habit of gratifying unlawful ambition at any cost. A teacher's power is\ninfinitely more in what he is, than what he teaches. \"How can I hear what\nyou say,\" said Emerson, \"when what you are is continually thundering in\nmy ears ?\" It is this contact of student life with that of the faculty that counts\nfor more than all else in the morals of our institutions. Really the strongest\nlessons that we teach are the lessons we do not teach, but those that emanate\nfrom our personality. As the apostles at Emmaus felt their hearts burn within\nthem as Christ spoke, so the student feels the life of a great, noble, and sympathetic teacher. History is replete with examples of such teachers, among them\nThomas Arnold of Rugby stands prominently. The secret of Arnold's marvelous\npower lay not in his superior academic training, but in the fact that his heart\nthrobbed with greatness and goodness which reached out, touched, and\nmolded the lives of his boys, whose sports and studies he shared. Mary\nLyon of Mt. Holyoke, by her consistent life, ever held before her young women\nthe ideals of a pure, noble womanhood; so completely were these ideals\ningrained in the lives of these students that they reflected them everywhere\nthey went in after life. It is this subtle influence of heart upon heart, and\nsoul upon soul that counts for ethics in the college halls, without which all\nformal instruction is worthless. Such has been the influence of Aristotle,\nPlato, Socrates, Aquinas, Erasmus, Savonarola, Pestalozzi, Arnold, Mary\nLyon, and a galaxy of others who have lived and taught down thru the\nages. With such teachers, the ethical life of our colleges vdll revive and send\nout such a moral force as will eliminate the evils of the commercial, political,\nand social world against which legislation is now directed.\nCARE\n\nOF FRESHMEN\n\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY,\n\nINDIANA\n\nIN LARGE\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nUNIVERSITIES\nBLOOMINGTON\n\nThe great interest in higher education by the state has resulted in a number\nof large and strong institutions. The commendable philanthropy of some\nof our wealthy citizens has greatly increased the strength and wealth of numerous privately endowed universities. The growing interest of the state and the\nincreasing philanthropy of wealth will soon give us larger, stronger, and\nbetter schools of higher learning. The big university is a permanent factor\nin our educational development. Its problems are many and must be faced\nbravely. The one that cries for immediate attention is the care of the freshmen .\nThe small college with its attendance of a few hundred has rendered service\nof untold value. No friend of education is insensible either to its past worth\nor its present importance.\nIt has planted the truth and held aloft the torch of\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCARE\n\nOF FRESHMEN\n\nIN LARGE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\n681\n\nlearning by sacrifices and with a devotion that must always claim the admiration of the world. Its endowment in money and its richer endowment, the\ndevotion of its alumni, insure its permanency. It will continue to be a molding\nand uplifting influence in education. Its history and its work will ennoble\nbecause of its spirit of devotion and sacrifice.\nThe great university and the small college are each strong. The large one\nwith its wealth may furnish Hbraries, laboratories, and famous research\ninvestigators as well as superior teachers. It can offer the student a wider\ntouch with men and life, and thus give a more cosmopolitan education. The\nsmall college may give the opportunity of close personal contact between\nstudent and professor. It can, because of its small student body, make its\nlife approximate very close to that of the family. The president and his\nfaculty may know personally all the students and thus be able to assist each\none in the friendly way that close acquaintance makes possible. The small\ncollege has great strength in its wise and unselfish devotion to the individual.\nThe great university in its struggle to keep a material equipment adequate\nfor the ever-increasing number of students has forgotten, at least in part, the\nneeds of the individual. All great schools were once small. In their greatness\nthe source of youthful strength should not be forgotten.\nIn any study of our educational problems, it must be remembered that the\nconditions are American, not German. Too often the American school is\nmodeled after the German type. The American freshman is not the equivalent\nof the first-year student in the German university, either in scholarship or age.\nThe German student has the advantage of at least two full years of very rigid\ndiscipline. Even with this advantage the freedom of the university is frequently\ntoo much for him. The failures are numerous, frequently being as high as\none-third the total number entering. The American entering student is\nmerely a freshman and in no sense ready for the bewildering freedom and\nutter lack of care that characterizes the German type of university. In\nGermany the equivalent of our freshman is still in the Realschule, or the\nGymnasium, under very close personal care and subjected to most rigid disciphne. The American university problem is to find means by which the\ndesirable freedom of the university may be properly united with disciphne and\npersonal, individual care for students during at least the first two years of their\ncollege Hfe. In most small colleges this problem does not exist, mainly\nbecause it has been kept solved. The large college must solve it rightly, or\nits ascendency is in danger.\nNo class of students deserves, or needs, so much care as the freshmen.\nThey are the raw material from which upper classmen and alumni are made.\n\nL\n\nThe university's first interest should be with them. In all great business\nenterprises high-priced skill is devoted to saving and utiHzing the raw material.\nIf this is necessary when dealing with dead matter, it is certainly far more\nnecessary when dealing with young men and women while they are in the rawmaterial stage. For their care the university should spare no necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nexpense. They need good teaching. They must have it if the interests begun\nin their high-school work are to be continued and new ones formed. The\nyoung doctor fresh from the research work for his thesis, or the fellow hearing\nclasses on the side while working for his degree are hardly the men to lead and\ninspire freshmen. Too often the university employs teachers for the firstyear classes who could neither secure nor hold places in a good secondary\nschool.\nIn grade work it has been recognized for years that the primary room must\nhave a superior teacher. Poor work there has bad effects that extend throughout the whole grade course. High-school men are beginnng to see that the\ncritical period in their work is the first year. Unless the work of the first year\nis of superior quality, the leakage is great and the quality of the last year's\nwork is not of the high grade that it should be. The freshman is simply the\nprimary child and the first-year high-school jchild grown older, but not much\ndifferent. Upon his entrance into college the freshman finds himself in a\nworld as new, strange, and bewildering as confronted him four years earlier\nwhen he crossed the threshold of the high school for the first time, or as met\nhis wide-eyed gaze twelve years before when with two score other little sixyear-olds he became for the first time a school boy. Much educational progress\nhas been from above downward. In the treatment of freshmen the upper\nschool should learn from those below it. It is certain that when the university\ngives the same careful thought to the care of its beginners as is now given by\nthe two schools below it to their beginners, the lot of the freshman will be greatly\nimproved and the whole student life enriched.\nThe first big element in the care of freshmen is money. If there is not\nmoney enough to provide for research work and for freshmen care, there\nshould be no hesitancy in devoting the money to the latter cause. Of course\nthe board of trustees should secure ample means for both purposes. Money\nshould be spent freely to secure good teachers. It is not enough to secure at a\nlarge salary a great scholar and a superior teacher for the head of the department. All the men who give instruction in the department should be scholars\nand more than that, they should be inspiring teachers. Such men cost money.\nSecondary schools recognize their value and are picking them up at salaries\nmuch greater than the universities have been accustomed to pay. The\npleasant fiction that there is greater honor in teaching in a college than in a\nhigh school is rapidly passing away and it will soon be impossible to get\ncollege teachers of first-rate quality except by paying first-rate salaries. For\nthe best results it is very desirable that the teaching-force of a department\nhave considerable permanency. Experience gives a point of vantage that the\nnew man must gain at the expense of his students. For permanence in the\nforce of a department there must be something more tangible than mere loyalty\nto the institution. Salaries must be made higher. The distance between the\nsalary of the head of the department and the men who do the teaching in the\ndepartment must be lessened.\nFive thousand dollars to the head and a\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCARE'jOF FRESHMEN\n\nIN^LARGE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\n683\n\nthousand dollars to the teacher in the department is a disparity that will produce dissatisfaction and result in inferior work.\nThe large university should make all its positions sufficiently attractive\nto secure and hold strong men. When the large university makes its instructors\nand assistant professors of as good quality as the professors in the small college,\nit has successfully met one of the strong arguments against size. If a student\nis sure of contact with a teacher either in the large or small school, the deciding\nfactors in his choice of a school will be material equipment, chance of acquaintance with man and his future purpose in life. He will no longer choose the small\ncollege merely because it offers opportunity for personal contact with strong\nmen.\nA freshman class of fifty is a pitiable sight. A freshman class of one hundred and fifty or more is a spectacle to make the gods weep. Such spectacles\nmay be seen in many of our large universities. Men are individual even when\nthey are freshmen. They cannot be successfully managed in large crowds.\nThese young people are fresh from the secondary schools where they have been\ntaught in classes of twenty-five or thirty. There they have been held to rigid\nrequirements and have been accustomed to give an account of their stewardship each day. The transition from the personal care and individual requirements of the high school to the mass-treatment in the freshman class is discouraging, bewildering, and many times ruinous. The mass- work of the\nlarge class makes it difficult, if not impossible, for the student to get insight\ninto the subject sufficient to make it interesting. As a result he becomes a\nhanger-on and all his attempts at work are mere drudgery. His discouragement easily passes into despair and he is likely to become one of that large\nclass labeled '4ost and unaccounted for.\" The institution, large or small,\nthat is compelled to care for its freshmen in classes of more than thirty ought\nto reduce attendance or go out of business. The large freshman class takes\nthe time and money of the student without the possibility of giving value\nreceived in return. No university ever properly meets its duty till it employs\na teaching-force large enough to make small classes possible. Here, again,\nthe proper care of freshmen cannot occur without the expenditure of money.\nA large teaching-force of strong men is indispensable if many students are to be\ncared for so that leakage and failure shall be kept low.\nThe freshmen need good teaching. They will not be properly cared for\nuntil they have it. Critics say that the poorest teaching in the world is in the\ncolleges. A visit to some freshman classes will cause one to believe that the\ncriticism is half true. That there is far too much poor teaching we must all\nadmit. Although there is much good teaching in all the colleges, there is not\nyet enough of it to counteract the bad. The establishment of schools of\neducation in the colleges has done much and will do more to make college\nteaching better. The increasing demand from all schools below the colleges\nfor teachers with professional preparation for their work must finally cause the\ncolleges to look for more quaHfications than scholarship when they employ\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ninstructors for freshmen. If grade children and high-school boys and girls are\nworth enough to demand teachers who in addition to good scholarship have\nstudied the science and art of teaching, and have practiced under the eye of\nan expert, why are the freshmen, the choice and pick of all of these, not entitled\nto equal consideration ? No college, large or small, has quite done its duty to\nthe freshmen until it has supplied them with teachers w^ho can teach.\nThe absolutely necessary conditions for good work in college or university\nare good material equipment, scholarly, cultured and well-paid men, who\nbelieve that their first duty is superior teaching, and satisfactory arrangements\nfor keeping all classes of first- and second-year students small. These conditions, however, are not sufficient. The university has not done its whole\nduty until through its administration the individual is reached. Some substitute must be found for the locus parentis of the old and small college. It will\nhardly do to assume that because the numbers are so large the leakage must be\nproportionately great. The complacent assumption that when men, libraries,\nand laboratories are provided the university has performed its whole duty is\nalready challenged by the parents who furnish the raw material for the plant.\nThe individual is too sacred and too valuable to be forgotten or neglected.\nThe university should make strong individuals. Looked at as a factory for\nthe making of men it is a failure if its products are uniform. Diverse individual\ntraits must be recognized and then developed or destroyed as the case\nrequires. This can be done only through close personal contact with the\nindividual.\nSome of the large universities have endeavored to reach and care for the\nindividual through the patron professor. Each student is assigned to some\nmember of the faculty who becomes his guide and counselor. Theoretically\nthe plan commends itself. The patron takes the place of the parent and\nbecause of his wide training and large experience vdth young people he is able\nto be a helpful guide to the student. The practical difficulties in this\nmethod are great. The modem professor is not able to give expert advice\noutside his own field of work. He generally has neither the time nor the inclination to become closely acquainted with students other than those of his own\nclassroom. As a result the contact is perfunctory. Many times a student sees\nhis patron but a few times during his whole college course. The plan looks\nwell in the catalog; it quiets the fears of anxious parents; it occasionally\nsaves an individual ; but as a general working plan, it is not to be commended.\nNearly all our large universities are now organized on the department plan.\nIn these schools the student's individual needs are looked after by the professors\nin the department to which he attaches himself. They advise and direct him\nin his work. They also look after his habits, methods of study, general\nreading, in fact, everything that may contribute to his efficiency as an individual.\nThis method takes excellent care of the student after he selects his department.\nIt misses the freshman entirely. Only those who survive the leakage of the\nfirst year come under its beneficial care.\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departraentl\n\nCARE\n\nOF FRESHMEN\n\nIN LARGE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\n685\n\nPrinceton University, by the establishment of the tutorial plan, has done\nmuch to solve her own problem in caring for the individual. She has rendered\ngreat service to education by causing college men everywhere to think seriously\nand plan carefully for the more rational care of freshmen. Princeton's plan\nhas strength and weakness. Its strength has been admirably shown in the\nmany public utterances of President Wilson, Dean West, and other Princeton\nmen. Its cost is so great that most institutions will hesitate before introducing\nit. Very few modern trained men are wise enough to advise a freshman in\nall the fields of study that he may enter. Perhaps the greatest weakness in the\nplan is that it tends to relieve the regular professor of that close, sympathetic\ntouch that every teacher should have with his students. The real work of the\nuniversity should be done by its faculty. Anything that has a tendency to put\nthe molding, directing power elsewhere is fraught with danger.\nAt Indiana University for the past year and a half two of the larger departments have been giving special consideration to the freshman. A description\nof the work in mathematics will show the plan clearly. The classes in the\nfreshman work are kept small, rarely exceeding thirty students and averaging\nabout twenty-five. These classes meet for regular recitation work four\ndays of the week. On the fifth day, instead of the regular recitation, the\nteacher of the class spends four hours with his pupils, meeting them in small\ngroups of four or five. In these weekly conferences the student is encouraged\nto talk freely of his difficulties and is sympathetically helped to master them.\nPart of the conference hour is generally spent in a spirited review of the most\nimportant things studied in the past four lessons. The strong and promising\nstudent is encouraged and collateral work of interest and value is suggested\nto him. The weak and struggling student is shown where he needs to put more\nemphasis, and is patiently helped to unravel his difficulties. The results have\nbeen very gratifying. The number of failures has been reduced to almost\nnothing and the number of students continuing the study of mathematics has\nbeen greatly increased. In English composition the plan has given results\nequally gratifying.\nThe extension of the plan to all departments that teach beginning classes\nwill mean that the freshman will have as a friend and personal helper every\nman under whom he studies. In each study he will be directed by a man who\nknows both him and the subject. In a conference of one hour a closer personal\nand individual contact can be made than in the work of the classroom during\nan entire month. The conditions are most favorable. The student is\nanxious for success and the teacher desires it. The timidity and embarrassment that many students show in the classroom entirely disappear in the\nconference and the teacher and student work as friends mutually interested in\nattaining a common end.\nIn conclusion, the freshmen is so valuable that he deserves the thoughtful,\nconsiderate care of the entire university organization. He must be met and\ntreated as an individual.\nThe glory of his alma mater is in his individual\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nachievements.\nHer glory for the future is secure only when she gives to every\nfreshman the care that will make him individually strong.\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nRELATION OF THE WORK OF THE COLLEGES\nWORK OF THE MEDICAL SCHOOL\nH.\n\nCRAWFORD,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nALLEGHENY\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nTO THE\n\nMEADVILLE,\n\nPA.\n\nAmong the questions engaging the attention of the colleges of this country\nfew, if any, are of more vital importance than the relation of the colleges to\nthe medical schools. Judging by the discussions of the subject whether by\ncollege people or by the medical fraternity it would seem that the colleges and\nthe medical schools are about equally interested. The colleges are interested\nbecause their integrity is affected and their right to a place in the American\nscheme of education is called in question. The medical schools are interested\nbecause their relation to the colleges touches such vital questions as attendance,\nincome, scholastic standard, and length and character of the courses of study.\nContributions to the general discussion are being made not only by the colleges\nand. medical schools themselves, but by medical societies, examining boards,\npublic-school boards, and in fact by nearly all who have to do in any way with\nthe educational program of this country.\nThe subject assigned me is so large that I shall not attempt to discuss all\nphases of it, but shall take the liberty of confining myself to a discussion of\nThe Place of the College in the Program of Preparation for Entrance to the\nMedical School. In a general way I want first of all to present a brief review\nof the situation as it now is, then I want to point out some of the things we\nought to strive for.\nA.\n\nTHE\n\nPRESENT\n\nSITUATION\n\nOne of the most interesting and helpful discussions of this subject occurred\nin January last in the city of Pittsburg at a special conversational meeting\nof the American Academy of Medicine. After some interesting papers had\nbeen presented and considerable discussion had taken place the president of\nthe meeting. Dr. Thomas D. Davis, read to the members present a few items\nhe had jotted down — items which seemed to him to express the consensus of\nopinion as revealed in the conference. The items were as follows:\nFirst, A preliminary college education is just as important as ever, and for the same old\nreasons.\nSecond, That it is advisable for a few medical colleges to require the A.B. degree for\nentrance to their institutions though at this stage of our development it is not advisable\nfor all medical colleges to have such strict requirements.\nThird, That the requirement of the medical colleges and state boards that four years\nand nothing less be required for a medical degree is an arbitrary one.\nFourth, That universities, as a compromise, may have a combined course of seven\nyears.\nFifth, That too much time is consumed in public schools and high schools. In Germany almost two years are saved in this regard.\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nAND\n\nMEDICAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n687\n\nSixth, That a thorough public-school and college and medical course should be\narranged to be completed in twenty-four years and that it can be completed in that time.\n\nThese ideas seemed to Dr. Davis to be practical working ones and he asked\nthe members of the Academy to confine their remarks to them. The discussion which followed showed quite general acceptance of the statement\nmade by President Davis.\nKeeping his statement in mind I wish to point out in a general way the\nattitude men are taking toward the question of the place of the college in\nthe program of preparation for entrance to the medical school. There are\nactually only three possible positions that men can take :\nI. A college course is not necessary to an adequate preparation for entrance\nto the medical school. There are those who go so far as to maintain that a\ncollege course is not even desirable, that it unfits rather than fits for entrance.\nWithin two years I was present at a meeting of college and university presidents where the subject of the relation of the colleges and medical schools was\nunder discussion, the particular phase of the subject commanding attention\nbeing whether certain scientific work done in college should be credited in the\nmedical course. A representative of the medical department of one of the\ngreat universities of this country who was pre3ent calmly told us that in his\njudgment, based on the experience of many years as professor in a medical\nschool, high-school graduates were better workers and accomplished better\nresults in their medical studies than college graduates. He even went so far\nas to say that a careful examination of the records of his institution had been\nmade comparing high-school graduates with college graduates and that the\nresult of the investigation proved beyond a doubt that the high-school graduates\nmaintained higher standing in their studies than the college graduates and\nthat the success of the high-school men after graduating from the medical school\nwas as great if not greater than the college graduates. You can imagine that\nthe college presidents in that meeting were not particularly pleased with the\nstatements made by this medical professor. What he said was so out of\nharmony with what we had been telling our patrons and so out of harmony\ntoo with the results of investigations published from time to time in some of\nthe magazines of the country and in Who's Who, that when the meeting\nadjourned there was quite general feeling among the college men that if this\nmedical professor had actually represented the prevailing sentiment of the\nmedical departments of the universities the time had come for the colleges,\nparticularly the so-called small colleges, to combine and see to it that so far\nas possible their graduates should go only to those medical schools which\nrequired the bachelor's degree for entrance.\nIn justice to the medical department of the university referred to I ought\nto say that the Dean of the said medical school shortly afterward asked for\nan interview with one of the college presidents and assured him in the most\npositive way possible that the professor who had been present at the meeting\nhad not at all represented the sentiment of his school.\nHe insisted that they\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwanted college men — wanted many more of them than they had and that they\nwere just then raising their entrance requirements in order to secure a much\nlarger number of college graduates. But the medical professor who spoke\nhis views in the meeting described represents a class, and a very large class,\nwho hold that a college course is not only unnecessary but is not even desirable as a preparation for entrance to the medical school. I am bound to\nbelieve that this class does not number as many as it did twenty-five years\nago and I desire here to express my conviction that it numbers more today\nthan it will twenty-five years hence. The fact remains, however, that there\nare medical men and in considerable numbers, many of them professors\nin medical schools, who do not believe in the college course as a necessary or\neven as a desirable part of the preparation for the study of medicine.\nThen there are those who hold that while a college course is desirable\nfor the few — the favored — it is not actually necessary. Their chosen lines\nof argument are: that the medical profession could not be supplied if a college\ncourse were required of all candidates; that many young men of limited means\nwould be kept out of the profession; that many men of good minds whose\nmental awakening did not occur early would be altogether debarred.\n2. A partial college course is desirable and perhaps necessary for entrance to\nthe medical sr.hool. The number holding this view is decidedly on the increase.\nNot all who hold it would work out the problem in the same way. In fact\nthey do not. There are three different methods now in actual operation.\nOne is the method by which a combination course is offered in some of the\nuniversities making it possible for a student to finish both a literary and a\nmedical course in seven years. The plan is this: A student does three years\nof straight college work in the liberal-arts department of the university; then,\ninstead of taking his senior year in the college of liberal arts he enters the\nmedical department and after successfully completing the first year's work he\nis given his bachelor's degree and three years later his medical degree. This\nmethod has proved rather attractive and has done much to increase the\nattendance at certain large universities to the detriment of some of the small\ncolleges. Another method is that by which the small college enters into\nalliance with the university whereby the college excuses a student from residence\nduring his senior year with permission to return for his bachelor's degree\nafter he has successfully completed the first year's work in the medical department of the university. This method has not been sufficiently tested as yet\nto justify the drawing of any conclusions. It may be safely predicted, however,\nthat if the small colleges find that they are losing students in considerable\nnumbers because of the combination course offered' in the universities, they\nwill combine for their own protection and excuse from residence during the\nsenior year those students who expect to take up the study of medicine. Still\nanother method is for the medical school to require at least one or two years in\ncollege as a preparation. Marked advance is being made just now in prescribing requirements of this kind. I think I am right in saying that beginning\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmeutJ\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nAND\n\nMEDICAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n689\n\nwith the scholastic year 1910-11 at least a half-dozen of our best medical\nschools will require two full years of college work for entrance. In one or\ntwo instances at least such requirement will be made with the expectation that\nthe candidate for medicine having finished two years in college will find it to\nhis advantage to take a third year and receive the bachelor's degree from his\ncollege after one year in the medical school. If this expectation is realized\nit will mean a vast increase in the proportion of college graduates in medical\nschools within the next ten or fifteen years.\n3. A full college course is desirable for entrance to the medical school and\nought to be required wherever possible. — This may be called the traditional\nview of college people. It is a view which is argued, as Dr. Davis suggested,\n\"for the same old reasons.\" These reasons may all be summed up in a\nsingle sentence. The college differs from the technical or professional school\nin that its aim is to prepare for a life and not for a profession. The college\ntakes the boy at seventeen (this I think is the ideal age for entrance to college)\nand guides him in the pursuit of liberal studies for four years. The one idea\nduring these four years is manhood — intellectual, cultured, moral, and spiritual\nmanhood. No other period in a human life surpasses in importance the years\nbetween seventeen and twenty-one, while the boy is slowly but steadily\ndeveloping into the man. During these years his attention ought not to be\ndiverted from the one and sublime ideal of manhood. Some bright boys\nwill be able to enter college to advantage at sixteen, many will not be aVjle to\nenter until they are eighteen. But whether the four years be from seventeen\nto twenty- one, sixteen to twenty, or eighteen to twenty-two the ideal is the\nsame, a liberal education, a fitting for life — the pursuit of such studies as will\nbest develop the mind and heart of the ambitious youth until he shall have\nreached what the state regards as his majority.\nB.\n\nTHINGS\n\nTO\n\nSTRIVE\n\nFOR\n\nHaving thus briefly reviewed the situation I have only time to describe\nin the merest outline some of the things we ought to strive for. The colleges on\nthe one hand have for their ideal a full college course as a part of the preparation for entrance to the medical school. They will consent to three years in\ncollege and the senior year in medical school only as a compromise. The\nsenior year in the average American college is a unique year. The studies\npursued are elective. The associations are unlike those of any other year of\nthe four spent in college. The senior receives recognition given to no other\nclassman. Besides there is put upon him added responsibility. In a sense\nhe becomes a part of the governing body of the college — fosters its traditions,\nstimulates its life, helps to create its ideals. Many a college man looks back\nupon his senior year as the year in which he came to himself, the year in\nwhich he got a grip on things, so to speak. It is the senior year that does\nmore perhaps than any other two years in college to fix intellectual and moral\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ncharacter. The ambitious young man can ill afford to lose the senior year\nfrom his college course.\nBut if the colleges are bound by their traditional ideals the medical schools\nare embarrassed by the new conditions they face. The old methods of teaching were purely didactic and demonstrative. The expense of maintaining\na medical school was comparatively small. But in these new days when\nlaboratory methods are insisted upon the expense of maintaining a medical\nschool is increased many-fold. Medical schools like colleges sometimes\naccommodate their standard to their needs. Money must be had for maintenance and the easiest way to get it seems to be through students' fees, hence\nemphasis upon large attendance. There are medical schools with abundant\nendowment, particularly those which are departments of universities. They\nhave fine buildings, adequate laboratories, rich equipment, and strong faculties\nwhose salaries are not at all dependent upon fees received from the students.\nSuch schools are quite inclined to set high standards. Here then are the two\nextremes — the schools dependent upon students' fees and the schools with\nadequate endowment. Between these two are many means which I have\nnot time to describe.\nNotwithstanding decided limitations and some misunderstandings there\nare certain things which both the colleges and the medical schools ought to\nstrive for. Let me name three or four of them.\nFirst, An increase in the number of high-grade medical schools which require\nthe bachelor\\s degree for entrance. There are at least two of these schools in\nexistence now. We ought to have at least two more within the next two or\nthree years. In these schools a careful test could be made with a homogeneous\nstudent-body, men of comparatively equal preparation. Within ten years these\nschools would have a fairly well-defined product which might be examined and\ncompared with the product of schools hadng lower entrance requirements.\nSecond, The fixing of a minimum scholastic standard for admission to the\nmedical schools. The college people ought to be generous enough to recognize\nthat every prospective student of medicine cannot take a college course. The\nmedical schools, on the other hand, ought to join with the colleges in urging\na minimum scholastic standard. The time has come when at least a good\nfour-years' high-school course, or its equivalent, ought to be required. I\nshould not insert the word \"equivalent\" but for the sake of the few mature\nmen, of — say thirty or thirty-five years, who have never had the advantage of a\ngood high-school course but who are qualified to do fairly good work in medical\nschool in the same class -vvdth high-school graduates.\nThird, We ought to look forward to an academic as well as a time requirement\nfor the medical degree. Some of the work which the medical schools profess\nto do is being done now by the colleges, and done better; work in general\nchemistry for instance and general biology. It may well be questioned whether\nanyone ought to be admitted to a medical school who has not had at least twoyears' experience in a well-equipped laboratory.\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nDEPARTMENTS\n\n69 J\n\nFourth, The requiring of an age limit for entrance upon medical studies.\nI have long believed that the medical school is no place for boys. The nature\nof the studies pursued is such that a certain degree of maturity is required —\nmaturity of body, intellect, and character. If I could have my way about it no\none would be admitted to any medical school in this country until he has\npassed his twentieth birthday. Even with this requirement the age for graduation would be twenty-four. There are few people, I take it, who care to risk\nhaving a young man under twenty-frur for their family physician. This\nmatter of age is a strong argument for the college course. The average college graduate can easily finish the medical school, under the present requirements, at the age of twenty-five or six, and some can do it at twenty-four.\nThe medical profession is unlike all other professions in the maturity demanded of those who enter upon it.\nIn view of the many and difficult problems connected with the relation of\ncolleges to the medical schools I gladly hail the promise of more intimate\nrelationship between these institutions. Conferences, formal and informal,\nhave been held. Many more will be held. There has been much discussion.\nThere will be much more. But out of it all may we not expect a clearer\nunderstanding of the present needs and a deeper appreciation both of culture\nand of service ?\nPEDAGOGICAL\nDAVID\n\nS.\n\nDEPARTMENTS\nIN\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nSNEDDEN,\n\nADJUNCT\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNEW\n\nAND\n\nADMINISTRATION\nYORK\n\nIn discussing the place of pedagogical departments in American colleges\nand universities, and especially with reference to the departments of liberal\narts, I need not remind this audience of the youthfulness and rapid rise of those\ndepartments and their consequent lack of traditions. Their professors have\nnot always been scholarly men, and even the abler ones have not always\npursued their work in a scientific spirit; but I need not also recall that, in\nspite of quiet depreciation, active opposition, and sometimes downright hostility\non the part of other departments, and in spite of the tentative and often\nunscientific character of the content of their courses, they have, nevertheless,\ndeveloped in the large majority of American colleges and universities, and\nhave become year by year more influential. We can safely say now that they\nhave won their way not as an educational fad or fancy, nor owing to any general\nrecognition within the college of their usefulness, but in response to an active\ntho illy formulated demand on the part of the public, the teaching profession,\nand the prospective teachers in the student body. They have in reality developed out of the public-school system as have the normal schools, institutes,\nsummer schools, and the other agencies by which American education, in its\ndemocratic and indigenous character, has sought to realize itself. The\npublic demand that graduates of the colleges, entering the schools, should be\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nactually rather than nominally prepared to render the service that they offer\nthemselves for and for which the colleges recommend them. This demand has\nbeen widespread and profound, even tho not always articulate. College presidents, boards of trustees, and alumni have listened, and finally the faculties\nthemselves have responded.\nThe departments of education, hastily organized in response to this demand,\nfound little material at their disposal, while the influence of other and largely\nunrelated departments was still preponderant. It was inevitable that their\nprofessors should continue within the college those methods of propaganda\nwhich still play no inconsiderable part in popularizing and idealizing American\npublic education. But gradually they have caught the pace and spirit of the\nuniversity and college; their instructors have embraced the standards of the\nhigher professional education; here and there their professors and advanced\nstudents have acquired the patience and industry needful for scientific work;\nand, as a result of their study of pubhc needs, they have contributed much\nto our present standards and knowledge of the professional training of teachers.\nIn some institutions these departments have become purely professional\nschools; but this condition is not general. It is by no means yet agreed as to\nwhat, within the next few years, is to be the part played by pedagogical departments, especially in connection with the liberal-arts departments. The writer\nbelieves, however, that tendencies now at work indicate a fairly definite outcome of the matter, determinable mainly upon the kind of teaching ability\nwhich the public will demand from the schools.\nAt the outset, let us assume without discussion the following conditions:\n{a) A large proportion, varying from 25 to 75 per cent, of the graduates of the\ndepartments of liberal arts take up teaching, at least for a time. (5) Except\nin institutions with fully equipped teachers' colleges, it is not practicable in the\ncollege to give adequate preparation for teaching in the elementary field, {c)\nAs at present constituted, departments of liberal arts, working in conjunction\nwith departments of pedagogy, must prepare teachers primarily for secondary\nschools; tho in graduate courses, preparation may be given for normal-school\npositions, and for administrative work in public education, {d) The field of\nhigh-school teaching is rapidly expanding in importance as these schools\nacquire independence of the colleges and minister to an increasing proportion\nof the public, (e) Fewer teachers, especially men, are encouraged to take up\nsecondary-school teaching as a stepping-stone to something else, (f) Unhke\nthe European system, American secondary schools offer no opportunity for the\napprentice; the teacher must from the outset assume full responsibilities;\nhence the general demand that prospective teachers shall have been trained\nnot only broadly, but also intensively and practically, so that from the outset\ntheir work shall be free from gross blunders and demorahzing failures.\nA large part of the work of the American college, then, has been the\npreparation of secondary-school teachers. To a certain extent the pubhc has\nmade of it a professional school; but the college has only by implication\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment)\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nDEPARTMENTS\n\n693\n\nadmitted this, and it has never been willing to assume its full responsibilities.\nThe Uberal-arts departments have been reluctant to allow their work to be\ndetermined by professional considerations, and, tho eager to see their graduates\nappointed to teaching posts, have disclaimed responsibility for their success or\nfailure. When the departments of education have undertaken in some\nmeasure to organize professional courses for those students who desired to\nteach, they have frequently met the opposition of various faculty members\nwho have feared the tendency to modify their work for professional purposes.\nOn the other hand, when it has been suggested that special graduate courses\nor professional work in other institutions should be assigned to the graduates\nwho desired to teach, there has generally been resentment in the departments\nof liberal arts that their work should be regarded as insufficient for prospective\nteachers.\nIt cannot be denied, of course, that this attitude has been a natural one ;\nthe professional training of teachers is not an old idea, and the world has made\nso long a struggle to have teachers equipped with that first part of their training\nwhich consists in knowledge of subject-matter, that it is not surprising that\nsome have forgotten or have never learned that mastery of the thing to be\ntaught is but part, even tho the major part, of the true teacher's equipment.\nIn the last quarter of a century there has arisen a strong demand for something\nbetter, however, than the mere college graduate as a teacher. This demand\nis roughly to the .effect that the teacher shall, as preparatory to his assuming\nfull responsibihty, have been somewhat subjected to a selective process ; that\nhe shall have mastery of subject-matter; a certain immediate readiness to take\ncharge of children and begin at once effective teaching, and that he shall have\nthe professional outlook which will insure measurable breadth and growth.\nThese qualities may be variously defined, and we may dispute much as to\nhow they shall be acquired; but substantially that is what is wanted of secondary-school teachers.\nIt is not practicable to stop here to inquire as to what should be the training of the well-equipped secondary-school teacher. The question may be\napproached from two standpoints — the ideal and the practical. Few of us\nwould hesitate to describe the ideal training of such a teacher, but we should\ninvolve ourselves in painful disputes if we limited ourselves to practical considerations. Yet this is exactly what, as I conceive it, the colleges must do to\nan increasing extent. They must face the fact that the public expects them\nto be the training schools for certain types of teachers, and they must assume\ntheir full responsibilities in the matter. They may not excuse themselves on\nthe ground that professional work should not count toward the arts degree,\nor that in four years there is not time to include the professional and practical\nwork necessary for the fairly well-equipped teacher. Of course if the colleges\ncan insist that a year or even half-year of graduate study be required for a\nrecommendation to teach, then by all means they should require it, provided\nthey do not deprive the schools of sufficient teachers. But if , in any state it\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nbe found that the four years required for the arts degree is all that the public\nwill yet stand in the way of preparation of teachers, then it becomes the business\nof the college to organize some of its work so as most completely to train\nthose of its graduates who will teach, within the four years given. In other\nrespects — e. g., amount of professional work to be required, degree of\nspecialization to be permitted, etc. — the college must face the practical problem, and not be content to remain on idealistic or general grounds.\nIn other words, the requirement that, as I see it, the colleges and universities\nmust face is this: a considerable number of their graduates will enter teaching,\nand will want the sanction and recommendation of their institutions: these\nmust so anticipate the graduation of these students as to be able to indicate\ntheir respective professional preparation and to require that that be followed,\nto the end that the desired recommendation can be complete. Each teacher\nmust have an integral preparation, as complete as the college can give in the\nfour, five, or even six years at its disposal, just as a prospective practitioner of\nmedicine now must have the best integral preparation which four, five, or six\nyears of professional work can give him. If, for example, the college receives\nmen who anticipate being teachers of mathematics and science, starting necessarily insmall high schools, then it becomes the business of the college to indicate the most effective preparation for that work, i. e., effective in the long run\nand taking account of the culture expected of the teacher. We cannot here\nsay what that preparation should be; that is a practical problem to be worked\nout by the college, presumably after close study of public needs and the right\ndemands of professional preparation. But it is here insisted that, as a rule, the\ncolleges have not sufficiently addressed themselves to this practical problem;\nthat they have often ignored its existence ; that they are antagonistically disposed toward it, and that, in general, the academic departments have yet an\ninsufficient equipment of standards wherewith to undertake its solution. In\nother words, the colleges have not sufficiently recognized their obligations in\nthe matter, and they may even feel that to recognize them would imperil the\nbest part of their present work. Of the merits of this last contention the writer\ndoes not presume to say anything. It may be that in time we shall have two\ntypes of institutions: those which frankly give much of their energy to the\npreparation of teachers, and others which maintain their liberal-arts work\nintact, free from modification for professional ends. Or it may be that within\nthe same institution will be established two divisions: liberal arts, preserved\nas such ; and a variety of courses in academic subjects designed primarily for\nprospective secondary-school teachers. More probably, however, a better\ncompromise than either of the above is possible. But in any case it would\nseem that the majority of institutions must in some way give recognition to the\nfact that one of their large functions is the training of teachers, and that the\nnumerous inconsistencies now existing in their relation to that function must\nbe remedied.\nObviously the simple and logical solution is the organization in each\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nDEPARTMENTS\n\n695\n\ninstitution of all that work which pertains to the equipment of teachers to the\nend that it may be purposive and organic. The very large institutions may\nwell afford to accomplish this by means of teachers' colleges, like those now\nfound in Columbia, Chicago, and others. But in the less great universities it is\nconceivable that a sufficient organization can be effected without the estabHshment of separate faculties. A large committee or committees from the pedagogical and various liberal-arts departments might organize and administer\nthat portion of the work of each institution which pertains to the training of\nteachers. In this way a desirable intimacy of these departments can be preserved, while at the same time the preparation of various types of teachers\ncould be secured in its most effective form. This committee would assume\nresponsibility for the integral training of all graduates who expected the support\nof the institution in their candidacy for teachers' certificates or places. At the\nbeginning of the junior year, prospective teachers would find indicated the\ncourses, professional and academic, required for particular kinds of work, and\ncould make their choices accordingly. There is, of course, no reason why\nsuch choice should interfere with the vaHdity of the degree, as it is simply a\nform of election.\nNow it is one of the conditions of the program here discussed that the\ncommittee or group in charge of this professional training should be closely\nin touch with the field into which the teachers are to go. Secondary-school\nteaching is specialized work, and peculiarly specialized, in that in small high\nschools teachers must take groups of subjects. Various combinations are,\ntherefore, possible. At present, the graduates of most institutions may or may\nnot fit the demand; there is little oversight of the matter. As a consequence\nthe smaller high schools are plagued by college graduates who are willing to\nteach some subjects in which they have had no preparation. Furthermore,\nthis committee must study the matter of the complete equipment for each\nspecial kind of teacher. Generally there is prevalent much ignorance on this\npoint, and not least among the departments of liberal arts themselves. Stimulated by its ideals, of course, each department will claim more than it can\npractically obtain: but the committee must make a practical apportionment\namong the demands for liberal culture, professional training, and specialized\nknowledge of subject-matter. We know yet very Httle about the amount of\nEnglish literature, history of education, apphed psychology, and foreign\nlanguage required to produce that person who, aspiring to teach chemistry\nand physics, may be guaranteed by the college as a fairly well-trained teacher\nand a measurably cultivated gentleman and citizen as well. But the interests of\neconomy and effectiveness demand that we find out, and cease guessing in the\nmatter.\nBut if the various liberal-arts departments fail of their responsibilities in\nthe matter then it may be expected that the departments of pedagogy will\nassume a dominating role, for it is peculiarly their mission to discern the\nprofessional needs of teachers, and to procure the satisfaction of these as far as\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\npossible Already pedagogical departments have sorely nagged other departments by the quality and insistence of their demands. Not infrequently\nthese demands have seemed to savor of the type of question which it is said a\nfool may ask, but a wise man cannot answer. But there can be hardly any\ndoubt, in view of the developments in pedagogy in the last few years, that\nmost of these questions are valid ones, and are destined to become fields of\neducational research. It can hardly be expected by the departments of liberal\narts that they can waive criticism from the pedagogical departments unless\nthey address themselves more fully to that part of their work which has to do\nwith the training of teachers. Otherwise the pedagogical departments must\nassume increasing responsibility for the organization and direction of this work.\nIn any event, it is conceivable that these departments must assume certain\nresidual responsibihties in the final integration of studies. Under the stimulus\nof the conception of teaching as a fine art, gradually coming to rest on scientific\nprinciples, they will almost of necessity lead the way, that others may follow.\nPecuHarly must this be the case if it be found that practice-teaching must\nultimately constitute a necessary phase in the preparation of teachers. So\nfar as the elementary field is concerned, this has been demonstrated and there\nis Httle doubt among educators that it is equally necessary for others as well,\nprovided time can be found for it. So long as the public demand for highschool teachers is such that these must enter work with only four years of\npreparation it may be doubted whether much of that time is available for\npractical work; but be that as it may, in time teaching under supervision will\ndoubtless everywhere constitute a part of professional preparation for all lines.\nObservation of teaching, which is now considerably resorted to, has probably\nbeen much misunderstood; as a part of the training of a teacher who has had\nexperience it is doubtless excellent, but whether it is of more than nominal\nvalue for those with no apperceptive basis of experience and practical touch\nmay be questioned. But the successful conduct of observation as well as of\npractice-teaching will of necessity increase the responsibilities of the departments of pedagogy. Somewhere must be found an integrating force; and\nhardly anywhere else in the typical institution may we look for it, but in the\ndepartment of pedagogy.\nSOME\n\nAVENUES\nWALLACE\n\nN.\n\nOF USEFULNESS\n\nFOR THE SMALL\n\nSTEARNS,\nWESLEY\nCOLLEGE,\nAFFILIATED\nUNIVERSITY\nOF NORTH\nDAKOTA\n\nWITH\n\nCOLLEGE\nTHE\n\nMen count it well worth while at however enormous expense to make the\nslightest gain in speed, excellence, or efl&ciency. The educational field is no\nexception. Impelled by a desire to make just provision for the future, yet\ndenied the seer's vision, men often have laid foundations for structures that\ndiffered widely from the original plans. Thus the Httle red schoolhouse, whose\ngift to the nation can never be fully estimated; is after generations giving way\nto the consolidated rural school.\nDespite the service of the district school we\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department! AVENUES\n\nOF USEFULNESS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSMALL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n697\n\ncannot deny its limitations. But it has been worth all it has cost, and who\nscoffs at its crudeness confesses his ignorance of history. Likewise a change has\ncome to the honored line of academies that once dotted the country from Maine\nto the Middle West. These too have felt the push of the high school. Some of\nthem, resting on ample endowment, are still doing service, some have affiliated\nwith larger institutions, others have passed into history. The rosters of these\nschools contain honorable names; their value to the nation cannot be\nmeasured.\nThe modern free public high school, the poor man's college, the creation of\nthe last quarter of the century just closed, has come to the front. Thus while\nthe academies and other private schools of the-same grade have increased from\n38,280 in 187 1 to 101,755 in 1906, less than threefold in thirty years, the public\nschools of equal rank from 22,982 in 1876 have swelled to 722,692 or more\nthan thirty -fold in thirty years. Enrolling seven and one-half milHons in 187 1,\nthe common (or elementary) schools in the next five years gained half a million;\nbut in the thirty years from 1876 to 1906 they more than doubled, from eight\nto sixteen and one-half millions. The total percentage increase of commonschool attendance in proportion to population has since 1900 steadily declined,\ndropping from 20 . 5 per cent, to 19.9 per cent, and the percentage of population\nincrease of our private schools has likewise since 1890 dropped from . 23 per\ncent, to . 22 per cent. But the percentage of population increase of our public\nhigh schools has steadily mounted from .05 per cent, in 1876 to 0.88 per cent,\nin 1906. Nevertheless, all the millions that have been expended on the\nacademies, the buildings that have been erected, now perhaps to stand empty,\nall the efforts and sacrifice have not been in vain. The broader life, the larger\nrighteousness is the sufficient fruitage. However, with all reverence for the\npast we must not make a fetich of tradition. The goal sought is a better\ncitizenship, a nobler manhood and womanhood, and if the same phenomena\nenter into educational work that mark commercial and industrial life, we must\nsee in the changing order the evidence of progress.\nToday we face another problem. Flanked on one side by the high school\nwith its often superior equipment, and on the other side by the technical school\nand the university, the college — often a university in name — is asking the\nquestion: What next? Many factors enter into and increase complications.\nFirst, students following what may perhaps be the spirit of the times, are\nflocking to a few great centers. The last report of the commissioner of education gives a total enrollment of 258,603 students in 622 institutions, an average\nof 416. But 75,242 of these students were enrolled in 25 institutions, averaging\n3,000 each. Of these, twelve are state universities, ten are non-sectarian and\nnon-state, and three are denominational schools. It must be borne in mind,\nhowever, that a few of the smaller universities, as Johns Hopkins, Clark, and\nBoston, are primarily non-technical graduate schools. The statistics are the\nmore ominous since in many colleges tuition is the mainstay, and lessening\nattendance threatens existence.\nIt is likewise significant that in the 25 institu-\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfHigher\n\ntions referred to above few students are below college rank, while in most of the\nothers preparatory and other short-course students abound.\nFurther, the cost of education has enormously increased. The log on which\nMark Hopkins and his famous pupil could sit has grown to a huge plant as\nexpensive as it is necessary. Equipment, buildings, and men cost money.\nThe student's time is his capital and the brief period of his preparation must\nbe spent where it will count for the most. Twenty years ago $100,000 was\ncounted a heavy endowment. Today universities are spending $500,000 to\n$1,000,000 a year and colleges half these sums. A quarter-century ago 10,000\nvolumes constituted superior library advantages. Today universities are\noffering a quarter or even half a million volumes. A further difficulty is the\nshifting currents of population. Institutions once the centers of populous\ndistricts are now comparatively isolated. The trend of railways and other\nmeans of communication has disturbed the social order as has also the voluntary shifting of the population, the instinct of the immigrant, and the enterprise and sagacity whereby some cities make themselves great centers with\nwidespreading and convergent lines of travel.\nThere is nevertheless a place for a limited number of small colleges. This\nwill be more and more true as population increases, for it will not be possible\nor indeed desirable that the great educational centers do all the work. But it\nwill be incumbent on the small colleges to keep pace in wealth, resources, and\nfacihties. Otherwise, they must be content with a constantly changing staff\nof teachers or with a corps of mediocre men save as here and there a man from\nsheer loyalty or aversion to change, turns his face against temptation.\nThe past year has been notable for gifts to smaller colleges. In a week's\ncampaign, for example, Colorado College added a half million to its milliondollar endowment. Whitman College is in a milUon-doUar campaign. At\nleast two theological seminaries are in receipt of half a million each. There\nare today more than one hundred colleges and universities in, at least approximately, the milHon-doUar class. Such institutions are reasonably safe from\nfinancial crises and the ill consequences of uncertain enrollment. They can\nsecure and retain men and equipment of high excellence. Wealth is not the\nonly criterion of judgment, but culture costs, and poverty is not per se a token\nof merit.\nIn some cases there is need of redistricting. Institutions once large in favor\nand centrally located are now inaccessible. The shifting current of immigration, the changing character of populations, and the fact that the establishment\nof permanent centers of population and activity is a thing of recent times and\nis still in process, all render the situation a fluctuating one and difficult of\ndiscernment. Western Reserve College, for example, located in a small\ncountry town, was in 1882 moved to Cleveland, thus becoming identified with a\nnew and growing center. The tenfold increase in attendance within seventeen years and the corresponding growth in buildings and equipment are\nguaranty of the wisdom of the action taken.\nWe must bear in mind also that\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] AVENUES\n\nOF USEFULNESS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSMALL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n699\n\ncollecjes are not an end in themselves. They exist for the people and in\nbidding for patronage must seek to make the largest returns for value received.\nThe justification of an institution is not past history, local pride, or a sentimental feeling ; but present worth and efficiency. If local pride can conjure\nup the means of maintenance, well and good. Otherwise, local spirit by\nprohibiting necessary advance becomes merely a party to a mistaken policy.\nIt is often the part of wisdom to insure service by adaptation to conditions\nrather than, by mistaken loyalty and pride, to become a memorial of the past.\nIf the spirit of the age imposes new duties it is for us not to decline, but by\nprompt and tactful action still to maintain, our right to leadership.\nHaving thus allowed the retention of certain of our colleges by increased\nendowment, and, wherever necessary, by more favorable location, it remains to\ninquire what is to be done with the others.\nThe problem of religious education in our growing state universities and\nother non-sectarian schools starts a serious and urgent problem. Of the total\nenrollment in our country for 1905-6 of 233,588, 111,051 were in denominational, and 71,113 were in state universities and colleges. But of 116,780\nstudents of collegiate rank, 39,285 were in denominational colleges and 48,399\nwere in state schDols. This is the more siirnificant when we take into account\nthat of the denominational colleges and universities four enrolled 13,191, or\n11,311 of college grade or above. The proportion of graduates and professional students was even more marked, 13,512 in the denominational as\nagainst 16,721 in the state schools.\nEqually significant has been the increasing number of men in the state\nuniversities. In the ten leading state institutions of the Middle West there\nwere in 1896-7, 10,898 men and 3,720 women. In 1905-6 there were 20,070\nmen and 7,376 women. The total number of all universities and colleges\nwas in 1896-7, 55,755 men and 16,746 women; in 1905-6, 97,738 men and\n3 1 ,443 women. That is, whereas in a decade the total number of men increased\nonly about 75 per cent, and the attendance of women 89 per cent., in the\nstate institutions, judging from the above ten the increase in attendance was\n91.5 per cent, for the men and 90 per cent, for the women.\nIf instead of internecine strife the several denominations would transplant\na portion of their strugglng institutions to larger centers, into storm areas, into\nassociation with these state and other non-church universities where today are\nto be found thousands of church adherents, valuable factors in the church's\ndevelopment would be preserved to careers of wider usefulness and by conservation of their energies serve an urgent need. Twenty years' experience in the\nprovinces attests the feasibility of the plan, and recent successful attempts in\nthe states warrant its adoption here. The university-college affiliation\nscheme is no longer an experiment but an established fact. Nor is it wholly\na question of the future of either the academy or the small college. Some\nof these must and will continue to render valuable service. But if the\nchurches are to have any part in the higher education of their young people,\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "700\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthey must follow them to the state and other large non-sectarian\nuniversities.\nThe rapid development of the sciences and technical arts may yet so tax\nthe resources of these larger universities that the smaller associated colleges\nwill become the homes of the humanities and not the dispensers of religious\neducation only.\nAnother possible remedy is federation. In many instances separate\ninstitutions are located in close proximity, but still maintain separate existenceSafety rests in union. Any business man could draw up articles of agreement\naccording justice to all concerned. Approximations may be found in Cleveland\nor Berea, Ohio, or Jacksonville, 111., and other opportunities can be found.\nAnother field for the college is to be found in the changing character of our\npopulation. Statistics show that whereas twenty-five years back western\nEurope sent us 87 per cent, of our immigrants and southern and eastern Europe\nand Asiatic Turkey 13 per cent., in 1905 the figures were nearly reversed,\nnorthern Europe sending us only 21.7 per cent, and the other nations mentioned\nabove 79. 9 per cent. That is to say, the nationalities bringing with them the\nhighest type of social and civic Hfe and therefore most readily assimilating with\nus are rapidly falling off in numbers, and the peoples most un-American, most\ndifficult to merge into our national life, the hardest to control, are overwhelmingly increasing. Our social system needs centers of culture that shall leaven\nthe changing order, and here is a legitimate function for our colleges, a far\nbetter service than the present mad race after university ways, and impossible\nattempts at engineering and other professional schools. The resources and\npossibilities of university extension have not yet been touched and no surer\nroad to public sympathy and to useful service can be found. Thousands of\nworthy and capable persons, too, born and bred on American soil, to whom\nprivileges are otherwise denied, would enjoy and appreciate such opportunities\nconferred, and society would experience a general toning up. If such an\ninstitution be located in a large center, there are the benefits of the night\nschool for hundreds of people to whom daily bread is an ever-present\nproblem. Here too are to be found the hordes of newly arrived foreigners,\nthe most dependent and helpless of the lot, whose use of the ballot is a menace\nto good order unless that right is based on inteUigent appreciation of the duties\nof American citizenship. The adoption into a university group of an institution devoted to such work would be a valuable acquisition, and, for any decadent\ncollege, an exchange of humihating weakness for an honorable mission.\nThere is another class of citizens, too little considered but today rising to\npower, namely the farmers. The rural districts are at present in a state of\ndistraction. Culture has invaded the country, the people have tasted, have\ncaught the vision. Free mail delivery, interurban railroads, telephones,\nmagazines, and daily papers, improved farm machinery, and the elements of the\nmodern home have all come to the farmer who is no longer the man with the\nhoe but an up-to-date professional man, possessed of an independence enjoyed\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] A VENUES\n\nOF USEFULNESS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSMALL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n701\n\nby no others. On the other hand the country has been invaded by a class of\nimmigrants, who are still unlettered in our ways but honest seekers after homes,\nwho in a few years can put native Americans to shame in point of thrift and\nachievement. Rural people not only need advantages, they want them and\nare wiUing to pay the price for them. We need a system of education, a\nmodified extension of the present agricultural college, a cross between the\nagricultural school and the arts college, which in addition to professional work\nshall provide a culture adapted to the clients served. Some of our colleges\nwould do well to abandon their present Utopian attempts at the stock university\ncurriculum and devote themselves to this problem. The presence among us of\nsuch schools would in time create a sentinient in favor of country life, dignify\nthe calling, and open young people's eyes to possibihties before them. Today\nwe practically teach young people that education is a way of escape from the\nfarm. With the help of our state universities and our Department of Agriculture, atumble-down college could thus be built up into a potent agency in\nany community. The farmer is the foundation of our civilization and there is\nno shorter way to the betterment of our civic life than by the toning up of the\nfarmer and his profession. The day of wasteful use of natural resources is\nabout passed. The farmer now finds himself caught in the pinch of competition, and like others needs scientific training to enable him to conserve and\nmake full use of his energies.\nThere is need also of junior colleges. We are either asking too much or\nnot enough in education. The high school falls short of the needs of the man\nwho is to enter life at once, and further, there is a something about college\nlife that the high school cannot give. On the other hand it is a waste of energy\nto tax the university with elementary work. There could and should be a\ndivision of labor. The university could and will some time be compelled to\nlop off work below junior grade and leave this field to junior colleges. The\nlast two years of our present college course could be passed up to the university\nand conducted in connection with advanced university work. The college\nwould thus stand for culture, the university for vocation also. The raw\nrecruit would not then be brought into touch with the bewildering craze for\nspecialties nor would the student lose time in getting to his professional\ncareer.\nA form of discipline possible for the small college and of infinite value in\nthe training of youth is that afforded by the military school. The abnormal\ndevelopment of modern athletics and the transformation of college sports into\nadvertising media call for careful consideration. Nor is there better physical\npreparation for the exactions of modern life, or better civic training. Aside\nfrom the need of a trained citizen soldiery, we Americans, whether home-bred\nor foreign-born, are sorely in need of the lessons of obedience, subjection to\nauthority, and rational physical culture, all of which are essential features in\nmilitary training.\nThere is need also of a limited number of boys' and girls' schools, which\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nif properly equipped and conducted like the Exeter Academies, for example,\nwould enjoy prestige and favor.\nThe college also should be a more dynamic factor in the section in which\nit is located. Too frequently the college must call its sons and daughters\nfrom afar, and alumni removed to a distance become involved in other interests\nand lose touch with their alma mater. Helpful would be a plan whereby\ngraduates moving into the region of another college, might if they desired\nand the colleges concerned assented, transfer their relation and thus by adoption become, ad eundem gradum, alumni of another school. College diplomas\nlike church certificates might thus become transferable, men and women\ncould be kept alive intellectually by vital connection with an institution near\nenough to be practically useful, and the college would become not an annual\nreminder but an abiding influence.\nWhatever plan may in each case become the way of escape, the crisis of the\ncollege must be squarely faced. There is a crying need for better men in\nthe faculties, teachers who are students, scholars, investigators, diligent and\nkeenly alive to the progress of the world about them. There is constant need\nfor libraries and equipment that students may not toward the close of their\ncollege career be rudely awakened to the experience of having been deceived\nby false appearances. There is need of adaptation to the changing order, a\nrecognition of the demand not for bigger schools but for better schools and\nfor more effective training. There is need, finally, that the college be no\nlonger content to touch civic and social life at isolated points but strive rather\nto become more and more like leaven, a part of the public life silently but\nsurely and constantly molding and transforming it.\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Augustus O. Thomas, president, State Normal School, Kearney, Neb.\nVke-Prcsident — Morris E. Dailey, president, State Normal School, San Jos6, Cal.\nSecretary — Henry G. Williams, dean of State Normal College, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July i, 1908\nThe Department of Normal Schools met in the Second Presbyterian Church, Cleveland, Ohio, at 9:30 A.M., and was called to order by the President, Augustus O. ThomasPresident Thomas read an address on \"The Status of the Normal School in Education.\"\nPresident H. H. Seerley, of the State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa, read a paper\non \"Industrial Arts in Normal Schools.\"\nThe question was further discussed by E. E. Balcomb, state supervisor of industrial\neducation, Okla., and D. B. Johnson, president of the Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S. C.\nA paper on \"What Is an Ideal Course for a Normal School,\" presented by President\nE. Oram Lyte, of Millersville, Pa., was read in the absence of the author by Abram S.\nLongenecker.\nThe subject was discussed by R. N. Roark, president of the State Normal School,\nRichmond, Ky., and G. W. Nash, president of the State Normal and Industrial School,\nAberdeen, S. I).\nThe President appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nJohn R. Kirk, president. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\nR. N. Roark, president, State Normal School, Richmond, Ky.\nTheo\". B. Noss, president, State Normal School, California, Pa.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Afternoon, July 2\nJ. A. H. Keith, president of the State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis., presented a\npaper on the subject, \"What Relation Should the Head of Theoretical and Scientific\nEducation Sustain to the Practice School?\" The subject was discussed by Joseph H_\nHill, president of the State Normal School, Emporia, Kan., and John E. McGilvrey,\nprincipal of the Cleveland Normal School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nLewis H. Jones, president of the State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich., read a paper\non \"The Relative Values of Observation and Practice Teaching to the Student Preparing\nto Teach.\" Discussion was led by J. F. Hosic, head of the Department of English, Chicago\nNormal School, and J. W. Crabtree, president of the State Normal School, Peru, Neb.\nZ. X. Snyder, president of the State Normal School, Greeley, Colo., presented the\nreport of a special committee appointed in 1904 on \"A Statement of Policy Regarding the\nPreparation and Qualification of Teachers of Elementary and High Schools.\" President\nSnyder explained each of the eight resolutions presented and was followed by David\nFelmley, president of the State Normal University, Normal, 111., who discussed at some\nlength resolutions i, 2, and 6. The resolutions were further discussed by Francis J. Cheney,\nprincipal of the State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y.; J. A. H. Keith, president of the\nState Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.; John R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School,\nKirksville, Mo.; Joseph H. Hill, president of the State Normal School, Emporia, Kan.;\n703\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nAlbert Salisbury, president of the State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.; John W. Cook,\npresident of the Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb, 111.; David Felmley,\npresident of the State Normal University, Normal, 111.\nPresident Snyder inquired concerning the status of the Burkett and Pollard bills,\ntogether with the new Davis bill, now pending before Congress, and suggested that a committee be appointed to represent the Normal School Department of the National Education Association, in furthering the interests of the Normal Schools in Federal Legislation.\nA motion was made and carried to make the special committee appointed in Chicago in\n1907, on \"Agriculture, Manual Training, and Home Economics,\" the standing committee\nof this Department, and that said committee be instructed to keep this Department\ninformed on the progress of the above-named bills. The Secretary was instructed to\nnotify the committee, of which President Homer H. Seerley is chairman, of its new relationship to this Department.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was made as follows:\nFor President, Henry G. Williams, dean of the State Normal College, Athens, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President, D. B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial Col\nlege, Rock Hill, S. C.\nFor Secretary, Miss Louise Hannum, dean of girls, and head of English department.\nState Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\nThe report of committee was adopted and the secretary was instructed to cast the\nballot of the department for the oflScers nominated, after which the persons named in the\nreport were declared elected.\nThe department then adjourned.\nHenry G. Williams, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE\n\nSTATUS\n\nA. O. THOMAS,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE\nAND PRESIDENT\n\nADDRESS\nSCHOOL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nSTATE NORMAL\nSCHOOL,\nOF THE DEPARTMENT\n\nKEARNEY,\n\nNEB.,\n\nI am aware that this subject, in all of its phases, has formed a fruitful field\nfor papers and discussions before this department, and for special reports\nbefore the National Council of Education and the General Association;\nbut it is still fruitful.\nA careful study of the National Education Association reports is fraught\nwith profit, and it shall be my aim to review in some measure the points of\ndifference and the points of agreement found therein. I shall also hope to\npresent some of the conclusions that may be reached upon the subject. Upon\nthe points of agreement this department should unite its energies and seek to\npromote to the fullest extent. Upon the points where we disagree, we should\ncome together as rapidly as possible, and, as our ideas crystalHze, seek to\nbind them into our general policy, that we may have in our advancement the\nco-operation of every member of our department and of every normal school\nin the United States.\nWhen the National Educational Association met at Cleveland in 1870,\nwhen the American Normal School Association became the Department of\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n705\n\nNormal Schools of the National Educational Association, there were but thirtynine public normal schools in the United States. At the present time almost\nevery state in the Union is well supplied with normal schools ranging all the\nway from one to thirteen, as in Pennsylvania. Today Pennsylvania supports\none-third as many state institutions for the preparation of teachers as there\nwere then in the whole United States. The general plan and purpose of these\nschools has remained fixed and constant after the first experiment. The total\nof all the appropriations in 1870 was $504,861 . 00. After the first schools were\nestablished at Lexington and Albany, the establishment was as follows: 18441850, 3 schools; 1850-1860, 5; 1860-1870, 25; 1870-1880, 26; 1880-1890,\n19; 1 890- 1 900, 22. Thus it is observed that the establishment of these schools\nwas rapid, until the states are generally supplied. At the present time\nthere are one hundred eighty-one public normal schools in the United States.\nBut this does not indicate the whole growth of the normal idea. These schools\nwaxed great; they increase in efficiency and size year by year, but such development did not come without great effort. In 1906 the 181 normal schools\ndrew an appropriation, for maintenance, of $4,643,365.00, with $1,549,906.00\nfor additional buildings and equipment, making a total public appropriation\nof $6,193,271.00. The value of the grounds, buildings, and equipments at\nthat time amounted to $31,738,192.00. All of which goes to show the confidence the people of today impose in these professional schools. There must\nhave been opportunity for a careful test of trained teachers in actual service.\nThere are none of us who have been long engaged in normal-school work who\nhave not inquired as to the merit of normal-educated teachers compared with\nteachers who have made themselves, or have received their education in purely\nacademic schools. We find from those who have observed, that teachers\neducated in normal schools outrank the other classes. In fact, we know from\nour own personal experience what large demand there is for teachers with\ncareful preparation in our professional schools. Letters from boards of\neducation and superintendents bear out this statement. In many of the states\nlaws are already enacted making it compulsory for teachers to have normal\ntraining. This is true in our own state. Many boards of education will not\nemploy teachers who lack such preparation; this goes to prove that the normal\nschools have won for themselves an important position in our educational\nsystem.\nIt is not the purpose of the normal school to make followers, to curb individuality. Itis its purpose to make leaders, to cultivate individuality. It\nis not its mission to lay specific plans and specifications of instruction, but to\nplace in the teacher's hands the instruments of discovery and invention, to\ncreate the power to lead the way to discover new devices and new methods,\nand to give her an inspiration and a high regard for the honor and the importance of her profession. The true normal school brings this opportunity to all\nits students. They can get it from no other source. The academic schools\ndo not possess it; the teacher who simply goes forth into the profession from\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Norma\n\npurely academic schools, ''to find herself,\" will search long and diligently\nbefore she reaches the true spirit of the teacher.\nIn the organization of the normal school, two distinct departments arose —\nthe one referring to the academic side and the other to the professional. These\ntwo departments were the bugbear of normal-school advocates during the\nentire history of normal schools. It is the same problem that arises today\nin the minds of many in regard to the preparation of secondary teachers. A\nlarge number of normal-school men of high rank hold to the side that the\nnormal school should deal largely with the professional and with the common\nbranches. There are many others who hold that it is necessary to carry the\npupils on into the realms of higher education to give them a thorough\nunderstanding not only of the branches they expect to teach, but of the branches\nthat have direct bearing upon those branches. President, John W. Cook, of\nthe Northern IlHnois Normal School, according to his expression in the\nProceedings of the National Education Association, 1907, appears to hold\nto the former idea:\nMy conclusion, therefore, is that the normal school is not well adapted to the work of\nthe college, and to the extent that it attempts it there will be a falling-off in the quality of\nthe work along professional lines which it was especially organized to do if it was sincere\nin the selection of its name. There will not be that unity of sentiment, that enthusiastic\ndevotion to the study of childhood, that open-mindedness with regard to the course of\nstudy, that willingness and desire to submit the methods of the class room to the test of\nthe most rigorous criticism in the light that has been thrown upon teaching by the sciences\nthat relate to the correlated life of body and mind, that ought to be found in a teachers'\nseminary.\n\nSpeaking of an ambition to develop the academic side in order to acquire\nstanding. State Superintendent D. L. Kiehle, of Minnesota, says in an article\nin Education as early as 1883 :\nThe result in this case has been that normal schools have lost their freshness and vigor.\nBooks are studied instead of things and laws; words are recited but no ideas or judgment\nare expressed. Pupils may become scholars but not teachers. An ambition may be\nfostered to learn a science or practice an art, but not to teach school. In truth,, the school\nfalls into the common rank of academies and high schools.\n\nHe also states further:\nThey will show a continual tendency to ally themselves with higher education and\nneglect the elementary; they will aspire to a good name for the higher academic, rather\nthan to the self-sacrificing work of promoting primary instruction by better methods and\nmore thoroughly trained teachers.\n\nAgain quoting from President John W. Cook of Northern Illinois Normal\nSchool in a paper read last year :\nIf this is a correct view of the function of the normal school, the constant and insistent\npreoccupation of everyone connected with the management of the institution will not be\ngeneral or special scholarship of an academic sort, but will be special scholarship relating\nto the teaching art. Anything, then, that tends to minimize the main interest of the school,\nor what should be its main interest, must be regarded as hostile to the fundamental purpose\nof the institution. Where there is a strong accentuation of the academic idea and a rich\ndevelopment of it at the expense of the professional idea, it ought not to call itself a normal\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n707\n\nschool, but an academy or college with a pedagogical annex. I do not forget that I shall\nbe accused of thinking more of an equipment of method than of an equipment of subject\nmatter to which to apply it. Such an accusation would be unjust.\n\nRelative to the growing interest in academic subjects, I wish to quote from\nPresident S. S. Parr, of Indiana, as early as 1888:\nIf the normal school, when it develops out of its present immature form into that of a\ncompleted institution, realizes its purpose, it must have a chair for each academic subject\nof which its students study the method; and have chairs of educational psychology, general\nmethods, the history of education, and the philosophy of training; the whole to be supplemented by a practice school involving all grades of work, under the direction of skillful\nspecialists who become critic teachers, interpreters of the underlying philosophy of training,\nand directors of the work.\n\nQuoting a pertinent expression of Principal E. Oram Lyte, of Millersville,\nPa., Proceedings of 1895:\nThe course in a medical college is not limited to the mere discussion of how to practice medicine, followed- by practice in a hospital. It embraces those studies which lead\nup to the practice of medicine, or which bear upon the practice, including the whole science\nof materia medica. Nor is the training at a military school wholly upon the application\nof the principles of war, with an occasional dress parade or sham battle. A rigid course\nof mathematical and scientific instruction is insisted upon, in order that the young lieutenant may be able, not only to point his gun according to the laws governing the velocity and\ndrift of projectiles, but also to understand these laws and, if necessary, to derive them. Is\nthe normal school to differ from all other technical schools ? Is it not to be allowed to deal\nwith the subjects that bear upon the teacher's work, and not alone with the way in which\nthese subjects are to be used ?\n\nIn making a strong plea for the emphasis for the academic side of our\nnormal schools, President John R, Kirk, in last year's association, said:\nWe are not likely to make progress, excepting in spots, until some parts of our educational creed are reconstructed. One of them, innocently promulgated from the circles\nof higher education, is to the effect that a half-educated person is good enough to teach\nchildren up to and including the last day in the elementary school, while a fully educated\nperson is needed to take charge of the child on the next day in school, i.e., the first day in the\nhigh school. By this tenet the typical normal-school graduate with insufficient academic\nattainments and much dogma stands for the half-educated person, while the university\ngraduate crammed and surfeited with ill-digested facts and theories acquired in college\nlecture rooms represents the fully educated person. This creed is convenient and practical.\nIt is more easily lived up to than a better creed would be. It is damaging to all education.\n\nIn order to fully appreciate the fact that the normal schools are reaching\nup into the academic field, it is necessary only to examine the catalogs of the\nleading normal schools of the country. We find these schools not only covering the entire field of secondary education, but reaching up into the domain of\nthe college from two to four years. In practically all of the twelve catalogs\nrecently examined, was found considerable work in courses usually conceded\nto the college and university.\nTo my mind the extension of all normal-school courses to embrace a\nsubstantial academic education is as inevitable as time. I quote from a\ncommittee report of 1894, bearing the signatures of Charles DeGarrao, D. L,\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nKiehle, G. Stanley Hall, Richard G. Boone, Nicholas Murray Butler, and\nJ. M. Green, as follows:\nYour committee are firmly of the opinion, however, that the possibilities of the normal\nschool, even in its present field of activity, are not yet fully realized. They are convinced\nthat the \"one-study\" — \"one-term\" principle is a w^rong one, leading to superficial knowledge in every department of study. They think that able, mature minds are often kept\n\"marking time\" in direct primary study of the common branches, when they should be\nexamining these subjects reflectively in the light of more advanced knowledge.\n\nThe Indiana legislature recently passed a law requiring the state normal\nschool at Terre Haute to extend the course of study to cover four full years,\ngiving the right to confer professional degrees. The legislature of New\nJersey passed a similar law in order that the normal school might prepare\nteachers for first-class high schools. Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Colorado\nare already covering this ground, and placing their product in the best high\nschools of their respective states. The presidents of the £tate normal schools\nof Wisconsin in February decided by a unanimous vote to recommend to the\nBoard of Regents : first, that the course of study for the state normal schools\nof Wisconsin be extended so as to cover four years above the twelfth grade;\nsecond, that one year be added to the present two-year course at the beginning\nof this school year and one at the beginning of the year following, and also that\nthe degree of Bachelor of Education be conferred upon those who complete\nthe full four-year course. The Normal School Presidents' Council for Mississippi and Missouri Valley schools in the meeting May 8 of the current year,\nunanimously agreed to recommend to all the states represented in the council :\nfirst, that the entrance requirements to the normal schools be the same as\ncollege-entrance requirements for freshman year; second, that the normalschool course cover four years work instead of two years as at present; third,\nthat the degree of Bachelor of Education be conferred upon those who\ncomplete the full four years.\nOn the other hand, to show that the principles of the normal school are\nbeing recognized by all departments of education as a powerful factor in the\npreparation of teachers for instruction in all departments of education, I\nquote from the Committee of Seventeen, reporting at the 1907 meeting to the\nDepartment of Secondary Education, which is a complete endorsement of\nsuch technical preparation:\nI, That the academic preparation include the following elements: A. A detailed\nand specialized study of the subjects to be taught. The program of studies selected by\neach student should include work in subjects outside of those in which he is making special\npreparation, sufficient to give some insight into the difTerent fields of knowledge and to\navoid the dangers of over-specialization,\nII. That definite study be given to each of the following subjects, either in separate\ncourses or in such combinations as convenience or necessity demands:\nA. History of Education.\n1. History of general education.\n2, History of secondary education,\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n709\n\nIII. That opportunity for observation and practice-teaching with secondary pupils\nhe given.\nThe committee recognizes the difficulties involved in this recommendation, but believes\nthat they are not insurmountable. Each of the following plans has proved successful in\nsome instances:\nA. The maintenance of a school of secondary school grade that may be used for observation and practice.\nB. Affiliation with public or private high schools so situated geographically that\npractice-teaching can be done without interfering with the other work of the college course.\n\nIt is sometimes held that normal schools do not hold the respect of colleges\nand universities because those who compose the faculties do not hold degrees\nand their productive scholarship especially is limited.\nI quote the following from Charles C. Ramsay in Education^ December,\n1896:\nAs a rule, they have neither originated nor executed important movements in education; nor have their instructors, with one or two exceptions, written the epoch-making\nbooks for either teachers or pupils.\n\nThis criticism has been often made of the normal schools, and yet, in\nexamining the faculty lists from a large number of normal schools in the\nUnited States, we now find that the faculties are composed of men and women\nnot only of strong professional but of strong academic training. In fact the\nmajority of those men and women instructing in the normal schools today\nbear higher degrees: a large number of Ph.D.'s as well as A.M.'s and B.Sc.'s.\nExamining the catalogs of a number of schools, we find out of two hundred\ntwenty-one professors, thirty-four bear Doctor's degrees; fifty. Master's\ndegrees; fifty-five. Bachelor's degrees; besides a large number of special\ndegrees in music, education, etc.\nWith the passing of the old apprenticeship idea in mechanics, in law, and\nin medicine, and the founding, of trade and technical schools, has come the\nprofessional school of education. The rapid development of our country\nand the opportunity for business enterprise have produced a practical turn\nto all our affairs. We demand skilled laborers, finished lawyers, competent\nphysicians, and educated teachers. The hand that touches the strings of\nindustry must produce melodious sounds. There is no patience with the\nrude thrumming of the novice.\nEver since Samuel Hall established his school for teachers at Concord,\nVermont,\nthe normal-school idea has maintained a fixed and steadfast purpose,\n^\naltho two plans have existed. One holds to the idea that only professional subjects should be gonsidered. The advocates of this plan held strictly\nto the view that the \"how\" was the important feature of the normal school.\nThe other, while believing in the same professional, saw also a need for strong\nacademic departments. They could see no conflict between the two, but that\nthe one was beneficial to the other. This last idea has grown rapidly until it\nis now common to find strong academic departments supplementing the\nprofessional.\nNone of the spirit of the professional departments seems to be\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nlost in the higher academic. Our normal schools have no organic relation\nwith the public-school system though they direct largely the organization and\nmethod of the whole public-school system. They are over and above these\nschools in that they stand for advancement, the pioneers in education and the\ncensors of methods. They are beginning to require higher standards of\nscholarship for entrance requirements, and may be classed as institutions of\nhigher instruction. The students are almost of university age and thoroughly\ncapable of carrying strong academic courses. In many cases these schools\nreceive their supply of students direct from the high schools, and send their\nproduct on into the university without loss of time to the student or detriment\nto the university.\nINDUSTRIAL\nHOMER\n\nH. SEERLEY,\n\nARTS IN NORMAL\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCEDAR\n\nFALLS, IOWA\n\nThe industrial trend. — The past quarter of a century has witnessed a remarkable change in the motive and the plan of public education thru the rise, the\ndevelopment, and the acceptance of the industrial arts as real factors in\ncivilization. The province of American education has thus been greatly\nenlarged and this expansion has required the service of every institution that\nhas a hand in the educating and the training of men and women for the vocations and activities of life. The influence of such a change of view has remodeled\nhigher education thru the founding of technical colleges and has also compelled the universities to recognize the fact that there are other branches of study\nthan those historically adopted for the liberal education of a man. This\nattitude of the public mind has limited the old curriculum to a small part of a\nstudent's time and at the same time has opened up to study much opportunity\nfor acquaintance with the commercial, technical and practical studies that\nare related to careers in the worlds of business, manufactures and commerce.\nThe same influence has undertaken also the reorganization of the entire publicschool curriculum, compelling large attention to the abstruse problems of the\nneeds of the time — that of educating and training children not only for culture\nbut also for utihty. These tests of modern thought have been made in many\nplaces and such satisfactory results have been obtained that public sentiment\nuniformly concludes that education thru the public schools, in mechanic arts,\nhome economics, and agriculture, must become not only possible but also\nactual and universal.\nThe normal-school province. — In the midst of these activities and enterprises the normal schools and the old-time standai^d colleges find themselves\nto be the most conservative public educational institutions in the country.\nThe normal schools are recognized as institutions in which preparation for\na public career takes into consideration the actual demand that is made upon\nthe teacher who must'undertake the work required by the public schools. The\nnormal schools do not feel free to prepare products for a market that they\nthink may not yet exist, and they usually wait until a dissatisfied pubhc senti-\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n71 1\n\nment expresses itself by changes in the laws that govern the requirements for\nteachers' certificates before they deem it important to recognize public need\nand adapt the work offered to these more modem developments. This fact\nin organization and in management has made these schools more exemplars\nof methods and more representatives of peculiar philosophies and pedagogies\nthan real active factors in the developing and forwarding of public educational\ninterests and objects thru improvements and progress. Such a condition\ngrows out of a necessity that comes from training for the public service and\nin trying to furnish what is inferred the public wants. As a consequence the\nnormal schools have been notably indecisive as to the expansion of their province\nto keep up with progress and have not kept step with the developments that\nhave come to the public schools. Otherwise all such teachers' schools would\nnow be training high-school teachers of all kinds and would be training, also,\nall kinds of special teachers for directing the work in music, manual training,\ndomestic science, physical training, art, and agriculture, as such lines are as\nspecifically within their province as is the training of kindergartens, primary\nor grade teachers.\nThe demand for teachers. — The total requirements in these lines are such\nthat the normal schools can easily and successfully comply with all of them\nand they must not fail to expand their activities so as to comply fully with the\nbroad needs of the public service. The education of public-school teachers\nis a business of the widest scope, of the greatest utility, and of the largest comprehensivenes and the province outlined should not be confined to the narrow\nlimits so generally assumed by this class of educational institutions. Normalschool management in every state must take a broader view of what work is\nneeded to be done for the benefit of the public schools, and there should be no\nhesitation to show courage and formulate plans and policies to meet these\nneeds, placing these facts before the great pubhc in order to obtain the support\nfor the work that is so necessary. It is evident that wherever this has been\nfaithfully and determinedly done, such teacher-schools have been honored\nby pubhc confidence, granted abundant encouragement and support, while\nbeing at the same time commended for their great helpfulness to public\neducation. The supply of such teachers is always exhausted, the demand for\nsuch instruction is constantly expanding, the progress of the pubhc schools has\nbeen much hindered by the constant failure of the normal school fully to\nrecognize its abihty to help in these important and permanent hues, and\ncivihzation has been greatly delayed by the absolute lack of suitable interested\nworkers to lead in the much-needed progress.\nThe atmosphere of teaching. — It was recognized long since that the segregation of teachers from other students during their period of training was ot\ndecided benefit to them and their future career. Normal schools have these\nimportant relations and are able to have an atmosphere that is conducive to the\ntrue spirit of teaching, to the main purpose of developing the teaching conscience and to the constant insuring of a necessary appreciation of the value\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n■\n\n[Normal\n\nand greatness of a teaching career. This atmosphere is an impossibiUty where\nindividualism and commerciaHsm are as supreme as now regularly exists in\nmost higher institutions of learning. The normal schools should accept\ntheir privilege and should train for personal sacrifice and for helpful service\nto mankind to a degree and to an extent not now deemed esssential. These\nhumane considerations in an education and a training that is to mean the\nplacing of a personality in an attitude of serving the pubHc for the pubHc welfare must not be overlooked. The public school is in reality the greatest\neducational field of the present age, even if not the most desirable, because of\nthe greatness of its problems and the uncertainties of its tenure, and it requires,\ntherefore, that great people, with great ideas of life, with great conceptions of\npossibiHty in training and with great faith in the salvability of men thru\neducation, be trained for its teachers and its managers.\nThe normal-school opportunity. — ^This great work of teaching the industrial\narts is not to be postponed. The activities of civilization that are associated with\nthe success and the progress of mankind are necessary to the happiness and\nthe welfare of every child in this country. The normal schools have here an\nopportunity to be great in influence and to do good in multitudes of directions\nthat have not been known in a century past. The expansion of commerce,\nthe upbuilding of industries, the enlargement of possibilities for service to\ncivilization, the growth of society in all directions, the demand for increased\ncapability in scholarship and training are all startling in their magnitude and\nimportance. The high schools are developing in courses and in numbers at a rate\nwhich is nearly incomprehensible ; the demand for secondary and special teachers\nof all kinds is unprecedented ; the great public recognizes the magnitude of the\nproblems that are at issue in order to have public education effective and\neconomical; while the work is lagging because of unprepared leadership.\nThe normal schools are here and are well organized. They possess a right\nattitude and give a proper atmosphere to the training needed. They have\nthe vantage of long and successful experience that can not be forgotten.\nThey are educational agencies that are more universal and more numerous\nthan any other kind of pubHc organized effort for the improvement of the\ncommon schools. They possess excellent standards and they can enforce\nthem without fear or favor. They are able to prepare the best high-school\nteachers and the best special teachers of all kinds without delay or loss because\nthey can restrict their courses of study and insist upon the reahties of scholarship and the necessities of training. They have the sympathy and the support\nof the people to so large an extent that such an expansion of influence and\nsuch an increase of power will be commended and approved.\nThe importance to the normal school. — But, after all, the importance to the\nnormal schools of the United States of accepting this field of educational\nactivity cannot be overestimated. Their future influence, as well' as their\nusefulness, depends upon their adaptabihty to the modern movements in\neducational thought and action. These schools must be institutions in touch\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n713\n\nwith the education of the whole people if they are to be the factors in progress\nand the constructors of plans for the public good. If these schools do not\naccept and seek such opportunity the people will find other ways and found\nand organize other institutions to meet the immediate pressing needs of\nmodem life.\nDISCUSSION\nE. E. Balcomb, state supervisor of industrial education, Stillwater, Okla. — I most\nheartily indorse all that Dr. Seerley has said. I have but two regrets: One is that more\npeople could not have heard the paper, and the other is that public sentiment has not, long\nago, demanded that education, thru mechanic arts, home economics, and agriculture be\nactual and universal. As most of you are aware, those of us who live in the new state of\nOklahoma have endeavored so far as legislation is concerned to make this kind of education\nreal and actual. We first had it put into the constitution and then our first legislature\nmade every effort to enact such laws as would make this clause of the constitution operative.\nThe trend of public opinion is shown by the following extract from our law :\n\"For the purpose of carrying out the requirements of the state constitution relating\nto the teaching of the elements of agriculture, horticulture, stock feeding and domestic\nscience in the common schools of the state, there is hereby created a state commission of\nagriculture and industrial education, consisting of a state superintendent of public instruction, who shall be chairman; the president of the State Board of Agriculture, and the\npresident of the Agricultural and Mechanical College. The elementary principles of agriculture, horticulture, stock feeding, forestry, building country roads and domestic science,\nincluding the elements of economics, shall be embraced in the branches taught in all the\npublic schools of this state receiving any part of their support from this state, and these\nbranches shall be as thoroughly studied and taught by observation, practical exercises and\nthe use of text and reference books, and in the same manner as are other like required\nbranches in said public school.\n\"After July i, 1909, no person shall teach and no certificate shall be granted to an\napplicant to teach in the public schools receiving aid from the state who has not passed a\nsatisfactory examination in the elements of agriculture and allied branches mentioned in\nthis act. Any teacher whose duty it is to instruct in the .branches required by this act, who\nfails or neglects to comply with the provisions of this act, shall be discharged.\n\"There is hereby created the chair of agriculture for schools, who shall be a member\nof the faculty of the Agricultural and Mechanical College, whose duty shall be to direct\nand advise in all matters relating to the teachers of agriculture and allied subjects in the\ncommon schools. He shall visit the schools, the teachers' institutes, the summer normal\nschools and the state normal schools, advise with the teachers and officers concerned and\nplan such means of co-operation in the improvement of methods, appliances, the use of\nseeds, plants and trees as may from time to time be necessary, and shall prepare, print and\ndistribute such leaflets and other literature as may be helpful to teachers and pupils concerning or engaging in teaching agriculture, practical and scientific subjects bearing on\ntechnical and practical agriculture and its allied branches.\"\nThese extracts from the laws enacted by the first legislature of the newest state in the\nunion not only show the trend of public opinion in that state, but show, as it were, the culmination ofpublic sentiment in general. Were not the citizens of the state framing their\nlaw in the light of experiments and experiences of all the other states ? They are then but\nthe reflection of the present attitude of the public on these matters of industrial education.\nWhile the opinion of educators is somewhat divided as to the function of the state\nnormal schools, I do not hesitate to say that I indorse the position taken by President\nSeerley. If the normal schools were living up to their duty in the preparation of teachers\nthey would be preparing teachers for these manual subjects. The normal schools should\nabandon their hesitating, timid position and command the respect of the public by preparing the teachers so much needed in these lines for leadership. The progress of education should no longer be hindered by normally prepared teachers whose training has been\nso cramped by traditions that they can no longer be leaders but must be followers. Nor\ncan the normal schools hesitate longer in the matter of preparing teachers to lead in the\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nmovement. The universities and agricultural colleges are rapidly preparing to do this\nwork. Massachusetts about a year ago employed a man to assist the teachers in their state\nto do this work. Iowa also made similar provision and in many states graduates of agricultural colleges received life diplomas as teachers.\nD. B. Johnson, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S. C. — The\nInternational Committee of the Young Men's Christian Association, through its educational department, has ascertained by recent investigations that of thirteen million young\nmen in the United States, between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-five, only 5 per cent,\nreceived any preparation in the schools for their occupations, and that of every one hundred\ngraduates of the elementary schools only eight gained their livelihood in the professions\nand commercial business while the remaining ninety-two supported themselves and their\nfamilies by the skill of their hands.\nAccording to the last census, we have engaged in agricultural pursuits 10,381,765; in\nprofessional service, 1,258,538; domestic and personal service, 5,580,657; trade and\ntransportation, 4,766,964; manufacturing, mechanic arts and mining, 7,085,309. And\nyet our whole educational system has aimed towards professional service, in which is\nengaged only about one twenty-fourth of the people in gainful occupations.\nSuch facts as these are bringing home to the people the inadequacy of the old system\nof education and leading them to see more and more clearly the truth and force of the\nstatement made by President Roosevelt in an address delivered in May, 1907, \"We shall\nnever get the right idea of education until we definitely understand that a man may be well\ntrained in book learning and yet, in the proper sense of the word and for all practical\npurposes, be utterly uneducated.\" The people are coming to believe that \"it is more\nhonorable and profitable to pound an anvil and make a good horseshoe than to pound a\npulpit and produce a poor sermon.\"\nIn the South, before the war, the aim of all education for men Vvas to prepare for one\nof the professions — law, medicine, or the ministry — and for women to prepare for shining\nin society.\nAnd this was the aim there, I regret to say, long after the war.\nIt is true that in South Carolina, the state I represent, a philanthropic citizen with\nprophetic vision, Dr. John De La Howe, founded an agricultural school on his farm in\nAbbeville District in 1796, but this school, though still in existence, never flourished\non account of the conditions of admission to it and a lack of appreciation and encouragement.\nThe negroes on the plantations received from the experienced planter and his wife\nthe industrial training which is now seen to be such an essential part of the education of all.\nThe negroes were the blacksmiths, carpenters, wheelwrights, shoemakers, housekeepers,\nraisers of live stock, poultry, etc. And thus industrial training of the whites was placed\nunder a ban. The war broke up the plantation industrial training of the negro and emancipated the white man rather than the black man and has opened the way for the industrial\ntraining of all the people.\nThe South has not been alone in its thralldom to classical learning in the schools, but\nit has been slower than the rest of the country in escaping from it, mainly because of its\nconservatism, its impoverishment by the war, and its peculiar social, industrial, and economic conditions.\nI rejoice that there is now a very general awakening, North and South, to the need and\nimportance of industrial training in the city and the country, and there is now a very general\nagreement that education must prepare for life's duties, whatever they may be.\nThe President of the United States, in a noted address to leading educators of the\ncountry, takes Industrial Education as his theme, holding that industrial training, the training which fits a man for the shop and the farm, is one of the most potent factors in national\ndevelopment and that real protection to American labor is to be secured by industrial training of the masses rather than by the tariff and the immigration laws.\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nAN\n\nIDEAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nA NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n715\n\nGreat capitalists and manufacturers organize the National Society for the Promotion\nof Industrial Education. The state of Massachusetts appoints a Commission for the Study\nof Industrial Education, whose reports are in general demand. Bills are introduced in the\nCongress of the United States for the encouragement of industrial education throughout\nthe country and the National Council of the National Education Association appoints a\nCommittee on Industrial Education.\nAs a result of all this interest and agitation the agencies for giving industrial training\nand the numbers receiving it have increased greatly. The report of the United States\nBureau of Education for 1906 shows that in 1895 a total of 4,892 pupils, boys and girls, were\nattending manual and industrial schools of high-school grade in this country, and in 1906\nthe number had risen to 48,610.\nThe South feels keenly the necessity for industrial education for her people and is\nfeeling its way toward the best methods of supplying it. Her fertile fields, rich deposits of\ncoal and ore, great forests, and magnificent water power are yet only partially developed\nand utilized, and they can be properly developed and utilized only with skilled, industrially\ntrained labor\nWith this universal need and demand for industrial education there must be teachers\ntrained for the work, and the normal schools are the best agencies for training these\nteachers.\nThere are a number of normal and industrial colleges in the South doing this kind\nof work.\nI agree heartily with the speaker who opened this discussion that it is very important\nfor the normal schools themselves to provide for industrial education.\nIf the normal schools are to continue to receive the support of the people, they must\nmeet the needs of the people in this matter of providing teachers to give industrial training in the schools as well as in other ways.\n\nWHAT\nIS AN\nIDEAL\nCOURSE\nFOR\nA NORMAL\nWHAT ACADEMIC AND WHAT PROFESSIONAL\nSHOULD IT UNDERTAKE?\nELIPHALET\n\nORAM\n\nLYTE,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nFIRST\nPENNSYLVANIA\nSCHOOL, MILLERS VILLE, PA.\n\nSCHOOL?\nWORK\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nThe function of the state normal school is the preparation of teachers for\nthe public schools. Teachers for higher institutions, such as coUeges^and\nuniversities, as a rule, assume that they need no preparation except a knowledge of the subject they desire to teach. The college professor and the university professor are still, to a greater or less extent, under the domination of the\nidea that all the preparation for teaching necessary is to know the subject\nto be taught. But the normal school recognizes the truth of the statement\nthat teaching is something that can be learned and that often the best scholars\nare the poorest teachers. It is not the function of the normal school at the\npresent time to undertake to prepare teachers for chairs in colleges and\nuniversities. Their duty is to fit teachers for elementary institutions, including schools of a grade not above that of the ordinary high school of a smaller\ncity.\nOf course I am aware that there are normal schools that offer academic\ncourses covering the college curriculum, but I think that this fact will not\ninvalidate the general statement that the field usually occupied by the normal\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "7i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nschool is that of preparing teachers for the public schools, including lesser\ngrade high schools. And I know, too, that no teacher can know too much,\nprovided he does not lose sight of the fact that the children he is expected to\nteach know so httle. At the same time, I may be allowed to say that I regard\nit as unfortunate that the college idea — not the idea of higher education —\ndominates the high schools of so many cities and towns. Preparation to\nenter the classical course at college is not the best education for a young man\nwho never goes to college. The school curriculum should be so planned that\neach year the boy or the girl receives the education most needed, if he or she\nshould discontinue school at the end of the year. And this does not lead the\npupil to fight Caesar's battles over again, or deliver again the orations of\nCicero against Catiline. But it is the most important problem the school\nsuperintendent or principal has to solve, and it is similar to the problem which\nwe must attempt to solve if we try to say what an ideal normal-school course\nshould be.\nAssuming these statements to be correct:\n1. That it is the function of the normal school to prepare teachers for\nall grades of public schools from the kindergarten to and through the smaller\nhigh school.\n2. That the education of a teacher at any period should be the best for him\nif he stops at that period, and\n3. That the condition of some of our public schools makes it necessary\nfor boards of directors or trustees to employ persons who have but little education and less training for the vocation of teaching, let us ask what preparation\nthe teacher in the public school needs. The teacher of the public school\nmust, of cource, know the branches he expects to teach. He must have a\nknowledge of grammar, geography, history, arithmetic, and other branches\ntaught in the public schools. To know grammar so as to be able to teach\nit, the teacher must be familiar with good literature, and must know rhetoric\nand have some acquaintance with the laws of thought and thought expression.\nTo be ready to present the subject of geography to a class of pupils, the teacher\nmust know something of geology, zoology, botany, must know what people\nare doing, bow they live, how and why cities grow and decay, and what causes\nthe shifting of population. To be. able to teach the history of our country,\nhe must be familiar with the history of England, the history of Germany,\nand know something of what is included in the term general history and what\nmay be called current history. To be able to teach arithmetic, a knowledge\nof geometry and algebra is absolutely necessary. Then, too, the modern\nteacher, the teacher who is \"up-to-date,\" must know something of art —\ndrawing, water color, oil, pottery — of manual training in its various forms, of\ndomestic science and domestic art (including cooking, sewing, applied chemistry) of sanitation, of vocal music, of sociology, of an endless number of\nsubjects bearing upon complete living and successful bread- winning.\nMuch of this knowledge may be called academic, yet there is a wide differ-\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nAN\n\nIDEAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nA NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n717\n\nence between the general, superficial, indefinite, if not inaccurate, knowledge\noften acquired by a graduate of the best high school, and the specific,\nthorough, definite, accurate knowledge that a teacher must have. This academic knowledge, which may be called the academic knowledge of the\nteacher, must be given by the normal school. The high-school graduate\ndoes not have it, the college graduate has grown away from it if he ever\nhad it, and, as a rule, is unwrilling to go through the drudgery required to\nobtain it, and if the normal school does not give it, it is not acquired. More\nthan this, the teacher must know the child, must study as well as he can\nthe growth of the child's nature, how a child leaves its mother's arms,\npasses through the kindergarten, the primary grades, and the high\nschool. He must know something of the mind of the child and the laws of\nits mental growth, something of how a child is controlled, what interests\nit, what it cares about, and what is repulsive to it, at the various stages of\nits mental growth, and something of the effect knowledge has on a growing\nmind. He must know the principles of education, methods of teaching,\nhow a school is managed, and be acquainted with the lives of the great teachers,\nand know where they failed and where they succeeded. He must be able to\nput into practice the best methods of imparting knowledge and of developing\nthe mind through the acquirement of knowledge. He must know that there\nis a best way for a child to develop into a man, and that each child is an\nindividual and requires individual treatment. This work, which is strictly\nprofessional, all will agree it is the function of the normal school to provide\nfor its students.\nIf these statements are accepted, it will be seen that a properly equipped\nnormal school has two distinct lines of work, which may be conveniently and\ncorrectly called academic and professional. These two phases of work are\ndistinct, but each equally necessary.\nIt must be said, however, that many normal school men do not accept this\nstatement. Many hold that a normal school is not called upon to do anything\nbut what they call purely professional work. To this two things may be said:\nFirst, the academic work to which I have referred — the mastery of the branches\nto be taught, from a teacher's point of view — is really as professional in the\nnormal school, as the careful, thorough study of anatomy and physiology is\nprofessional in a medical college, or the study of mathematics is at West Point\nor Annapolis. Indeed, when it is remembered that many of the branches\nstudied are to be used by the teacher in actual teaching in the public schools,\nthe academic study of these branches becomes in a peculiar sense a part of\nthe prospective teacher's professional training and consequently cannot be\nomitted from a fully equipped normal school.\nSecond, I have never visited a normal school that claimed to be doing only\nprofessional work in which I did not see very elementary academic work, and\nI have visited some of the best and most famous normal schools in the United\nStates, nor have I ever examined the course of study of a normal school that\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "jlS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ndid not have a great deal of what is known as academic work. Indeed, I\nknow a gentleman who has charge of a large and influential normal school,\nwho says that the best training for a teacher, and probably about all that he\nneeds, is to have him taught the academic branches by a superior teacher.\nHe holds that a teacher can best learn to teach arithmetic to children by\nbeing taught arithmetic well himself. The absurdity of this statement is\nseen when we compare the subjects taught to an adult, and the mental processes bywliich he grasps these subjects, with the mental equipment and effect\nof a child just struggling with the elementary notions of the subject.\nAgain, it may be said that the two phases of the educational preparation of\na teacher, the academic and the professional, should go hand in hand in his\ntraining. The academic training should always be given with the thought\nthat the matter presented is presented to a teacher who will in time present\nit to learners probably as it is presented to him. The recognition and acceptance\nof this fact will make the academic work of the normal schools a necessary\npart of a teacher's professional preparation which no school whose mission is\nto train teachers can afford to omit.\nThen, too, as soon as the academic teaching is sufficiently advanced,\nmethods of teaching the subject should be carefully and consciously presented,\nand other phases of professional training, such as history of education, school\nmanagement, psychology, should be given in such a way that the normalschool student should live and breathe in a progressive, normal-school atmosphere, the fundamental characteristic of which should be that of service.\nEvery teacher in a normal school should be ready to serve others at all times,\nand every student should become imbued with the thought that the highest aim\nof the teacher is to serve others. We hear so much of the advantages of\nliving in a college atmosphere — an atmosphere too often filled with the odor\nof old pipes and beer mugs, with baseball bats and college pennants, an atmosphere in which the \"polar\" is despised and a \"man's\" standing is measured\nby the number of \"cuts\" recorded against him — this is not the environment\nin which conscientious teachers of immature, undeveloped children of both\nsexes can best be trained. The progressive normal school must have a normalschool atmosphere, and it must instil into its students the high ideal of living\nfor others. Much of its best work, therefore, will not be found in its course\nof study, but will be in its social environment, in its literary and musical\norganizations, in its Christian Associations and Temperance Unions, in its\nreligious organizations, in all that makes a man or woman a fit model for the\nrapidly developing youth of our countr>^\nIt was my intention to finish this paper with a presentation of several courses\nof study now used by leading normal schools throughout the country, and I\nhad considerable correspondence with Presidents Z. X. Snyder, of Greeley,\nColo., John W. Cook, of DeKalb, 111., L. C. Jones, of Ypsilanti, Mich., and\nW. S. Monroe, of Westfield, Mass. I also wished to present the course of\nstudy of the normal schools of the State of New York, prepared by Superin-\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nAN\n\nIDEAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nA NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n719\n\nten dent A. S. Downing.\nIn addition, I am a member of a committee to revise\nthe course of study for the Pennsylvania normal schools.\nMy reason for not presenting the courses here referred to is the same\nreason which I must offer for not presenting this paper in person — my health\nis in a precarious state, and my physician forbids me from doing any work that\nit is possible for me to avoid. I am sorry to be compelled to present this\npaper in an incomplete form, without being able to '*work it over\" as carefully\nas the requirements of the meeting demand, and without being able to add to\nit the courses of study above referred to, which would have given it a value\nwhich it painfully lacks without these courses. I am sorry, too, not to be\nable to enjoy this year the inspiration and good fellowship that I have participated in in the past. Whether I shall be able to meet with you in the future\nis a problem for the future.\nDISCUSSION\nR. N. RoAEK, president, State Normal School, Richmond, Ky, — Whether this question\nis approached from the side of local conditions or from the side of theoretical ideals, the\nresult will be practically the same. The sole function of a state normal school anywhere\nis to prepare teachers for trained service in the public schools. It is no part of a state normal\nschool's business to prepare for college or to offer courses leading to academic degrees.\nThe normal school should prepare teachers for all grades of work in the public schools.\nIt is entirely safe to say that in no state can the normal school afford to assume that its\nstudents have the sort of knowledge of subject-matter that they should have in order to\nprofit best by the work of the normal school. In the school of which I have charge we\nstarted from the assumption that the legislature of Kentucky created normal schools in\n1906 for the benefit of the public schools of the state, and, basing our work upon the further\nassumption that the schools which most need help and have the best right to demand help\nare the schools of a majority of the people — the rural schools — we put the curriculum in\nreach of students who expect to teach in these rural schools. Academic work and professional work are carried on concurrently. Of the academic work nothing need be said\nexcept that two aims are kept constantly in view in every class; namely: thoroness of\nscholarship in whatever branch is studied, and the constant illustrating of the best methodology of the subject by the instructor in handling his class. Every normal-school man\nknows that a teacher will teach as he has been taught rather than as he has been theorized\nupon. By safeguarding this point, we escape the anomaly of having an instructor in arithmetic contravening the teachings of the professor of method.\nThe academic work is arranged to reach from the needs of the rural school teachers\nfor a thoro grounding in the elementary subjects to the needs of those who are preparing\nfor high-school departmental work, principalships and superintendencies. The requirements of schools in the territory served by the State Normal are met on the academic side\nof the curriculum. If a school board asks for a principal who can teach Virgil or secondyear German or first-year French or trigonometry, we propose to meet the demand. As\na rule, we do not find such preparation as our students may have made in high schools\nquite adequate for our requirements in thoroness of view point. A reciting knowledge is\nso different from a teaching knowledge. No matter what academic credits are brought\nby a student, therefore, we require at least one ten-weeks' term of work with us in some\ndivision of the subject-matter of each branch. This term's work frequently reveals a\nstartling weakness in academic soundness of scholarship in even the elementary subjects.\nSince the efficiency of a teacher is more often tested by his knowledge of elementary sub-\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\njects than by any other, we are at much pains to secure in our students soundness of elementary scholarship.\nOn the professional side, our work consists of two elements: one theoretical and\nfundamental, presenting the science and philosophy of teaching, and the other the practical side, designed to give some training in the art of managing and teaching a school.\nThe distinctively professional side of our work, therefore, consists of a certain amount of\ngeneral pedagogy giving, as the name indicates, a general view of school economy and teaching method. This is followed by a fundamental course in psychology as applied to education. But little work is done in psychology except as it is applied to education. Questions\nin speculative psychology are raised with the students, and library references are given\nbearing upon them which may be used by the students according to interest and opportunity, but it is kept constantly in mind that speculative psychology has little or nothing\nto do with teaching. Following the work in psychology, and based upon it, is a certain\namount of general method and following this two terms or more of specialized methodology,\nranging from primary methods to high-school methods. Following the work in method\nare two terms of educational economy which subject covers all the ground of the old-time\nschool management and a good deal more. One subject which receives special emphasis\nin the work in educational economy is graded-school organization and administration, designed to prepare students to take hold of a village school and organize it into a three- or\nfour-room graded school and conduct it successfully, staying with it until it grows into a\nfully equipped and fully officered school of twelve or more teachers.\nOn the practical or art side of the teacher's work we require a number of terms of\nobservation in the model school, between which and a practice school there is a sharp\ndistinction. In the model school the pupil observes the method and management of the\nteacher in charge and discusses these matters with the teacher in classes especially organized\nfor that purpose. After the student is well grounded in the theory, in the philosophy and\nscience of the teacher's work, and has observed the best illustrations that he can give of the\npractical working out of these by expert teachers, he is required to do a certain amount\nof practice-teaching under the direction of critic teachers. This aspect of our work is not\nyet fully worked out because our school is only a little over a year old and we have not yet\nthe facilities for practice work that we expect to have within a year.\nIn our work it is assumed that the successful teacher must not only know the subjectmatter of his branches and the methodology of their teaching, but must bring to bear all the\ngeneral culture possible. This culture of the teacher is provided for by a study of history, of\nliterature, of sociology, and the history of education; This last-named subject is placed\ntoward the end of the curriculum for the reason that it is believed no teacher can fully understand the causes and moods of change and growth along educational lines, by an individual\nor a people, until he knows somewhat of the philosophy and science of education and\ngeneral history of nations. Not only are daily recitations required in certain terms in the\nsubjects just named, but the student is expected to do much collateral and illustrative reading in the library.\nG. W. Nash, president of the State Normal School, Aberdeen, S. D. — A Pennsylvanian or a New Yorker might have his normal course of two, three, or four years follow\nthe high-school course of four years with the latter a prerequisite to the former; while the\ndweller in a less developed state might have his course of the same length, but so constructed as to follow immediately the common-school work usually comprehended in the\neight grades. The striking difiference in these extreme courses is due in great part to the\nvastly different conditions which prevail in the sections where they operate.\nTo my mind, the person who assumes to teach in the grades below the high school\nshould continue his school course at least three years beyond the eighth grade. The\nhigher work should be largely academic, but should have in its make-up enough of professional study to show plainly that it is intended for teachers.\nIf thisVere counted a mini-\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAN\n\nIDEAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nA NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nmum of preparation, a great body of budding pedagogues would be compelled to undertake the work, and the pressing demand for better trained teachers in the country schools\nwould thus be met. The rural population of the United States still outnumbers the urban\npopulation and public education in our country districts should no longer be so sadly\ninferior to that of our cities.\nMy ideal course for normal schools would begin immediately above the common- 721\nschool grades, with an elementary division covering a period of three or four years — four\nyears in case introductory reviews in such branches as arithmetic, grammar, geography,\nand American history were necessary; otherwise, three years. Above the elementary\npart of the course, I should provide an intermediate division of two years, this more heavily\nfoaded with professional subjects and designed to fit teachers for important grade positions,\nward principalships, and minor supervisorships. A third, or advanced division, would\nconsist of at least a single year, and would prepare for high-school places, superintendencies, and school room positions carrying the heavier responsibilities.\nTo those completing the elementary division I should have the state award a teacher's\ncertificate limited to, say, three years; to those finishing the intermediate division, the\ndiploma of the school and a five-year certificate; and to those completing the advanced\ndivision, the diploma of the school and a life certificate. The plan could be strengthened\nand ineflficient teachers could be forced into the normal schools, if the minimum requirements for teachers' certificates secured on examination were made to parallel the elementary\ndivision of the course. Personally, I should not be averse to an expansion of the advanced\ndivision sufficient to command the baccalaureate degree, but should grant the degree in\nno case for less than four years' work in addition to that offered in the best high-school\ncourses of the land.\nMy course would permit of very few electives, but would make possible specialization\nin English, German, French, Latin, mathematics, history, science, or industrial work.\nOne completing it and taking, for instance, the six years' work in Latin would be as well\nequipped as the average college graduate to teach his specialty. I should insist that\ngraduates of the complete course be properly recognized and awarded teaching positions\nin the high schools on an equal footing with the college men and women who have in the\nrecent past assumed to monopolize such places.\nIn line with these ideas I suggest the following outline of a normal-school course of\nstudy. This contemplates five fifty-minute recitations weekly unless otherwise indicated.\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nElementary — Leading to a Three- Year State Certificate\nfirst year\nFirst Semester\nSecond Semester\nEnglish\nEnglish\nFreehand\nDrawing\nGreek and Roman History\nAlgebra\nAlgebra\nOne of:\nOne of:\nLatin\nLatin\nPhysiography\nCivics\nIndustrial Work\nIndustrial Work\nSECOND\n\nEnglish\nPlane Geometry\nSight Singing\nArt of Teaching i\nOne of:\nLatin\nGerman\nZo\nology\nIndustrial Work\n\nyear\n\nEnglish\nPlane Geometry\nMediaeval and Modern History\nSchool Management i\nOne of:\nLatin\nBotany\nGerman\nIndustrial Work\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\ntMonnal\n\n722\nTHIRD\n\nFirst Semester\nPsychology\nEnglish History\nAdvanced Arithmetic\nOne of:\nEnglish\nLatin\nGerman\nFrench\nPhysics\nIndustrial Work\n\nYEAR\n\nSecond Semester\nScientific Agriculture\nAmerican History\nAdvanced Grammar\nOne of:\nEnglish\nLatin\nGerman\nFrench\nPhysics\nIndustrial Work\n\nAdvanced — Leading to a five-year State Certificate.\nFOURTH\n\nMathematical Geography\nTeachers' Manual Training\nMethods and Observation 3\nChild Study 2\nReading 2\nOne of:\nEnglish\nLatin\nGerman\nFrench\nSolid Geometry\nChemistry\nIndustrial Work\n\nYEAR\n\nHistory and Philosophy of Education\nTeachers' Manual Training\nMethods and Observation 3\nSchool Law 2\nReading 2\nOne of:\nEnglish\nLatin\nGerman\nFrench\nAdvanced\nChemistry Algebra\nIndustrial Work\nfifth year\n\nProfessional Reviews in\nGrammar and Arithmetic\nPublic Speaking 2\nPractice Teaching\nTwo of:\nEnglish\nLatin\nGerman\nFrench\nConstitutional History\nTrigonometry\nVertebrate Zoology\nAdvanced Physics\nIndustrial Work\n\nProfessional Reviews in\nGeography and Physiology\nPublic Speaking 2\nPractice Teaching\nTwo of:\nEnglish\nLatin\nGerman\nFrench\nModern European History\nAnalytic Geometry\nPlant Histology\nAdvanced Physics\nIndustrial Work\n\nPost-Graduate — Leading to a State Life Certificate.\nsixth year\nSociology\nEconomics\nAdvanced Psychology\nAdvanced Theory and Practice 2\nTwo of:\nEnglish\nLatin\nGerman\nFrench\nDifferential\nCalculus\nGeology\nAdvanced Chemistry\nIndustrial Work\n\nEthics\nAdvanced Theory and Practice 2\nTwo of:\nEnglish\nLatin\nGerman\nFrench\nIntegral Calculus\nAstronomy\nAdvanced Chemistry\nIndustrial Work\n\nAs is readily seen, provision is made for six years' work in English, Latin, science,\nmathematics, or industrial work; five years' work in German; four years' work in French;\nthree years' work in history, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHEORETICAL\n\nAND\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n723\n\nI should admit graduates of approved four-year high schools to the fifth year of the\ncourse and require of them the following work:\nFirst Semester\nSecond Semester\nProfessional Reviews in\nProfessional Reviews in\nGrammar and Arithmetic\nGeography and Physiology\nPsychology\nHistory and Philosophy of Education\nMethods and Observation 3\nMethods and Observation 3\nChild-Study 2\nSchool Law 2\nPractice Teaching\nPractice Teaching\nHigh-school graduates seeking the life diploma would take, in addition to the foregoing, the sixth year of work already outlined. With two electives offered in the last year,\nthis would give opportunity for double courses in language, mathematics, science, etc., in\nharmony with the student's high-school preparation. To the scholastic training suggested,\nI should incidentally add sidelights on manners, morals, and good citizenship. I assume\nsufficient equipment and teaching force to give effectively the work proposed.\nThese are mere hints at a course of study and must be accepted as the suggestions of\none who draws his inspiration largely from the prairie stretches of the Dakota country.\n\nWHAT\n\nJOHN\n\nRELATION SHOULD\nTHE HEAD OF THEORETICAL\nAND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION SUSTAIN TO THE\nPRACTICE SCHOOL?\nA.\n\nH.\n\nKEITH,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOSHKOSH,\n\nWIS.\n\nThere has been much controversy in recent years regarding the relation\nof theory to practice, one group holding that theory shows that by which\npractice should measure itself, while the other group maintains that successful\npractice is that by which theory should be determined. This opposition was\nrevealed clearly at the alumni banquet of a normal school recently. A graduate\nof the class of 1875 said, in substance, ''The first lesson the new graduate\nneeds to learn is that the actual school is not the school studied about in\npedagogy and psychology.\" The graduate of June, 1908, said, in substance,\n''If the actual school is not the school we have studied about, the actual school\nought to be transformed and glorified until the real school is in truth the ideal\nschool.\" Both apparently overlooked the interrelationship of theory and\npractice. Genetically, practice precedes theory and theory in turn modifies\npractice. Modified practice demands a new interpretation or theory — and\nso, by a dialectic process, both theory and practice develop.\nTheory is, after all, but a generalized interpretation and ideal projection\nof successful practice. By its nature, therefore, it exists as an introduction to,\nand a suggested modification of, existing practice. Theory is to possible\nsuccessful experience in teaching what mathematics is to successful railroad\nbuilding — a body of knowledge that has value, not in and of itself and for its\nown sake (whatever that may mean), but in its relation to concrete achievement.\nIn some quarters, however, theory has become partly synonymous with\n\"speculative hypothesis.\" Hypothesis is, at best, but a bold guess at the\nuniformity underlying phenomena. If unverified by subsequent experiment,\nthe bold guess of hypothesis deserves the approbrium of the adjective, speculative. The topic for discussion this afternoon, however, makes clear its\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nmeaning of theoretical by coupling it with scientific. Ever since Francis\nBacon turned from the easy method of authority to the toilsome method of\nverification by observation and experiment, scientific has meant verifiable\nand has been synonymous with a non-speculative attitude toward all the\nphenomena of life.\nThe phrase \"theoretical and scientific education\" is therefore interpreted\nas including the laws of education that are capable of being worked out\npractically and also a definite attitude toward the working out of these laws.\nWhether agreeable to us or not, the topic under discussion involves the\npurpose of a practice school in a normal school. The ends to be attained\nby a practice school constitute, to my way of thinking, a trinity. First of all,\nif there is any theory or conception of education held by those responsible for\nthe conduct of a normal school, the practice school should be the living embodiment of this theory. If such is not the case, the normal school is untrue to its\nduty of being a norm, or standard-setting institution. I think every practice\nschool inevitably embodies some theory of education, altho it is often true that\nthe theory so embodied is not the theory taught in the classes of the normal\nschool. This only proves that there is something fundamentally wrong either\nwith the head of theoretical and scientific education or else with the practical\ncontrol of the school.\nIn the second place, the practice school exists to afford concrete illustrations of the theoretical and scientific education taught in the classes of the\nnormal school. If, for example, students are studying discovery as a method\nof learning, they should be afforded an opportunity of observing children who\nare actually learning something by the method of discovery. This example\nwill serve as a type of what I mean by the second end to be secured by the\npractice school.\nIn the third place, the work of a normal school is never really completed\nuntil the student has shown some power in actual teaching. One may comprehend the theory and yet be unable to exercise the actual control demanded\nby the theory. From this point of view, the practice school exists as an opportunity for students in the normal school to gain some small measure of skill\nin actual teaching.\nWe are now ready to take up the question involved in the assigned topic.\nThe topic does not ask as to whether the head of theoretical and scientific\neducation should be the president of the school or a member of the faculty,\nprobably because the amount of executive work demanded by the size and\norganization of the school controls the answer. Be the size and organization\nof the school what it will, the head of theoretical and scientific education should\nsustain an advisory relation regarding the general organization of the practice\nschool and the general aspects of the course of study. I urge an advisory\nrelation rather than control, because control of a practice school of any considerable size, if effective and constant, is enough, of itself, to occupy the time\nand prowess of any one person.\nThis advisory relation makes it possible for\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHEORETICAL\n\nAND\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n725\n\nthe executive head of the practice school to give a less-divided attention to the\nactual details of the work and also to look for suggestions to the one who is so\nfar removed from the concrete details of actual control as to have a reflective\nperspective. This general proposition is subject to modification, however,\nwhen the head of the practice department or any of the supervisors of practice\nhave unusual teaching power in certain lines, and when the head of theoretical\nand scientific education has unusual teaching power with children or in supervision of practice teaching.\nIn order that the advisory relation set forth above may have some influence\nupon the general organization and the course of study in the practice school,\nas well as upon the practice teaching of normal students, frequent conferences\nare necessary. These conferences should be with all those concerned in\nthe actual administration of the practice school, and should, in general, have\nfor their purpose the definitizing and actualizing of the ideal of education to\nwhich the school as a whole is committed. In these conferences the discussion of difficulties encountered in honest effort to realize the ends set up\nfor practice-school pupils and normal-school students alike should be a regular\npart of the program. The head of theoretical and scientific education ought\nto be able to advise wisely regarding both classes of difficulties; and the\nnecessity of considering these practical diflftculties will do much to keep one's\nfeet on the earth.\nAnother relation is to what is called observational work. Separate classes\nin observation may or may not be desirable; but observation of children at\nwork, in amount sufficient to give concreteness to the theoretical and scientific\neducation taught to normal-school students, is imperative. The planning\nof this work should be done by the head of theoretical and scientific education.\nTo plan such work advantageously requires that one be actually conversant\nwith the work done day by day by the different groups of children in the\npractice school. Simply to observe children has little value. It is the working over of successive observations, the perception of a relationship between\nor among observed things that really counts in the education of one who\naspires to be a teacher. This means that the observations by the classes must\nbe worked over by discussions. This discussion of observed work is really a\nvery difficult matter to conduct profitably. The mere twaddle of repeating\nwhat was done and passing final judgment upon separate acts by teachers and\npupils should be replaced by a form of discussion that involves some genuine\nthinking ; but, at the same time, the seeing of things that were not actually\nin the recitation is to be avoided. By means of such discussions, students\nshould build up some standards of judging and criticizing their own teaching\nas well as that of others. These same standards, if well established, will\ntend to prevent jealousy, gossip, and backbiting — three sins not yet obsolete\namong teachers.\nThe head of theoretical and scientific education is particularly susceptible\nto illusions, especially those relative to what we ought to do in schools. We\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nought not to do the impossible, and even the possible is accomplished only\nwith great difficulty. There is nothing quite so sobering to the judgment as\nthe necessity of facing one's own work. The head of theoretical and scientific\neducation ought therefore to teach in the practice school and before his own\nclasses in order that he and his students may appreciate the difficulties involved,\nand in order that he become not visionary. Such work, when well done, also\nexerts a wonderful effect on students by giving them standards to which\nthey can recur. Above all, such concrete illustrative work by the teacher of\neducation tends to break up the tendency to teach as one has been taught.\nTo summarize by generalization : I have urged that the head of theoretical\nand scientific education should have an organic and vitalizing relation to the\npractice school, tho not its executive head; that it should be his constant\nendeavor to bring to the practice school an inspiring and illuminating theory;\nand I have shown that, if this is done, it will react most helpfully upon the\ncontent of the theoretical and scientific education taught to the normal students.\nIn setting up all these relations as desirable, I have outlined more than\nany one person can accomplish. This fact does not, to my thinking, vitiate\nthe conclusions reached in any way, for the question at bottom is as to what\nrelation should exist between instruction in education and the concrete process\nof education that goes on in the practice school.\nDISCUSSION\nJoseph H. Hill, president, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. — The point of view\nof my discussion is that of practical agreement with the paper with possibly some difference\nof emphasis in matters of detail. The practice, or as I prefer to say, the training school, is\nthe heart of the normal school. It exists, as has been said, as a concrete realization of the\nview of education held in the normal school. It not only exemplifies, but tests that\ntheory of education; and more, it may be, to some legitimate degree at least, an experimental school, a place for the investigation and the discovery of educational truth. The\nconjunction of theory and practice in the training school is the distinctive feature of normalschool education that more than any other gives it efficiency professionally as compared\nwith the general training that has been assumed so often to be the only preparation necessary for teaching school. Yet it must not be forgotten that the normal training school defeats\nits own purpose if it be thought of as existing only for the sake of exemplifying or even discovering pedagogic theory or if it be thought of as existing only for the sake of the intending\nteacher. It is a school; and if it is a real school, not ah artificial one, its supreme interest\nis in the boys and girls who are to be taught; the supreme end of its processes is their growth\nand the development of their powers and character.\nThis side of the case is emphasized to bring out the idea, not overlooked, as I feel, by\nthe writer of the paper, but perhaps needing emphasis in order that two halves may make\nthe concentered whole, that the work of administration in the training school, and the\ndirection of its instruction, in order to secure the most efficient results, must be maintained\nunder conditions as nearly natural as possible, and involving the maximum degree of freedom on the part of those immediately concerned with the work. I should preserve the\nintegrity of the training school as such, and in matters pertaining to its organization and\nthe general aspects of its course of study as well as the working out of its details, I should\nexercise great care not to impair the power and hence the efficiency of its principal and\nthose immediately associated with him in daily work.\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nTHEORETICAL\n\nAND\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n727\n\nConsidering, therefore, the principal of the training school and the head of theoretic\nand scientific education as co-ordinate workers in the same field, I should be in substantial\naccord with the detailed suggestions of the paper as to the recognized functions of each; I\nshould think of neither as in any sense to be subordinate to the other, but should regard\ntheir relation ideally to be that of sympathetic and intelligent co-operation. Such a relation can be maintained successfully only when at least three things are implied: (i) A\nspirit of cordiality, frankness and tolerance in their personal relations; (2) A general accord\nas to the theory of education in its psychological and philosophical aspects; (3) An actual\nunderstanding by frequent conference, full discussion, and, as much as possible, observation of the work of each by the other.\nGiven these three elements and details may safely be left to be determined as conditions, largely local or temporary, may demand. Given these elements, and there need be\nlittle concern as to differences of detail in the presentation of theory and the places and\nmethods employed in daily work. The qualities of an educational philosopher and an\nefficient administrator are not necessarily, perhaps rarely, united in the same man. Two\nmen, totally unlike, yet one in spirit and in purpose, may admirably supplement each other.\nUnity is not necessarily uniformity. There are a thousand ways to exemplify good teaching in a given lesson with the same subject-matter, all in harmony with the same educational\nphilosophy, if there be a thousand teachers, each naturally and freely giving expression\nto himself; and there are ways innumerable for the same teacher to teach the same lesson,\nif he be seer enough* to choose the way not looking within at himself but following the line\nof vision from himself to the mind yonder of the waiting and expectant child. \"Not the\nform, but the spirit,\"is the true motto of the training school, and, when that is realized, then\nmay he that teaches reverently and not boastfully say to the taught: \"The words that I\nspeak unto you, they are spirit and they are life.\"\nJohn E. McGilvrey, principal of Cleveland Normal School, Cleveland, O. — The\npractice school is sometimes planned and conducted with the purpose of giving the greatest\npossible degree of skill to the beginner in the shortest possible time. And in many of our\ncity normal schools this, even though an unconscious presupposition, is the standard by\nwhich the effectiveness of the entire work is finally judged. This undue emphasis upon\nimmediate skill, demanded especially of the city normal school by an overshadowing system,\ntends to control matters of organization and steadily to narrow the view of the individual\nstudent in the practice work. The beginner, losing sight of the theories and principles of\neducation previously studied, substitutes therefor empirical knowledge, generalizes from\na few facts, and fixes the habit of relying on direct and individual observation. This\nmeans an early end to the period of growth by the limit of self-satisfaction; and the instruction in the department of theoretical and scientific education has thus failed in its chief\npurpose.\nThis tendency in the mind of the student toward the divorcement of scientific knowledge from practice finds its counterpart in the movement toward a complete separation of\nthe two departments, with the head of theoretical and scientific education in merely nominal\ncontrol of the practice teaching. And such a relation I believe to be the natural and inevitable result wherever the dominating aim of the practice work is to give to the student-teacher\na high degree of skill in the immediate problems of management and in the teaching of a\nspecial and limited subject matter in a particular grade.\nIf, on the other hand, the aim of the practice work is not specialized skill but a deeper\ncomprehension of educational principles and problems previously studied, the studentteacher's attitude toward the work of the day and in the years to come will be entirely\ndifferent. When confronted with the confusion of unrelated facts the tendency is forming\nto look deeper into the facts for an organized system; and this power of insight and comprehension achieves results beyond the reach of mere mechanical skill in a narrow field of\naction.\n\nIn the words of Emerson:\n\n\"By a deeper apprehension and not primarily by the\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\npainful acquirement of many manual skills does the artist attain to the power of awakening other souls to a given activity.\"\nThe question of normal-school organization under discussion is subordinate to, and\nmust be answered in light of, what constitutes preparation for teaching. And in teaching\nthe science of education, as a part of that preparation, we are subject to the same laws\nand conditions that govern the teaching of any science. What the experimental laboratory\nis to the study of physics the practice-school laboratory is to the study of education. One\nmight, in the teaching of physics, present the entire subject from the theoretical standpoint\nbefore the experimental work was begun, but so doing would be very unusual and would\nrightly meet with opposition and criticism. One might, and it is not unusual, attempt to\nequip the student with the entire body of the theory of education in the abstract before the\npractice work is begun, and it would provoke little or no criticism; which means that in\nthe generally accepted view of the fundamental law of knowing — namely, that concrete\nconscious experience must constitute the material of generalization — controls the teaching\nof the science of physics but not of the science of education. But the stubborn fact remains\nthat only concrete conscious experience with the actual teaching process can give content\nto the philosophy of education and general method, and that a law or principle in education, as well as in physics, enters the mind only thru the medium of the facts or things\nwhich it is meant to explain. Such being the well-established fact, the practice work must\nbe considered an integral part of the instruction in theoretical and scientific education in\nthe same sense in which the laboratory practice is a necessary part of the instruction in\nphysics, and, therefore, the head of theoretical and scientific education should have immediate and direct control of the work in the practice schools; not merely an advisory but a\nsupervisory relation.\nThe most difiicult problem confronting the normal school in preparing a teacher is\nto establish in the mind of the beginner a connection between theory and practice. To\nenable the would-be teacher to recognize in the concrete situation confronting him in the\nact of instruction the controlling principles and governing laws of the mental exercise is\nthe one all-inclusive aim of normal-school instruction. Failure in this means failure in all\nthings else, so far as the preparation of a teacher is concerned. With this realized, standards of judgment and self-criticism are established which will save future experience from\nthe fate of deadly routine and will develop that spirit of self-reliance and power through\nwhich the teacher's personality becomes a matter of greater moment to the pupil than the\nsubject matter of instruction.\nBecause of the importance and difficulty of maintaining in the thought of the student\nthis connection between the principle and the practice it seems to me that the head of\ntheoretical and scientific education in the normal school should personally supervise and\ndirect the teaching of the students in the practice rooms. And when, because of numbers*\nsuch personal direction becomes impossible, the supervision should be continued by those\nunder his immediate direction.\n\nTHE RELATION OF OBSERVATION TO PRACTICE-TEACHING\nIN THE PREPARATION OF THE YOUNG TEACHER\nL. H. JONES,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nYPSILANTI,\n\nMICH.\n\nThe comparison which I am to make between these two vital processes\nin the training of teachers does not require me to discard either, but rather\nto state, if I can, the appropriate relationship between the two when both are\nused. Each of the two will doubtless be found better than the other for the\nattainment of certain ends in training, while neither will be found competent\nto displace the other or attain its ends. The normal school proposes efficiency\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBSERVATION\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE-TEACHING\n\n729\n\nin education as an end in the training of teachers; and efficiency in teaching\nas one of the subordinate ends in the process of the achievement of general\neducational efficiency. Efficiency in teaching is a standard set up to mark\nsuccess in the art side of that work, i. e., teaching as a process is actually\naccomplished in accordance with the rules which enable one to master an art.\nIn order that the crudities and mistakes in the practice of an art may be reduced\nas greatly as possible a preliminary course of study which shall be of the nature\nof a science is desirable. Especially is this true of the art of teaching, since its\ncrude practice involves such serious consequences to the youth who are\nunfortunate enough to fall into the hands of the teacher who without scientific\npreparation practices his art on defenseless children. Even practice-teaching\nis made a part of the general preparation, because if first teaching be done\nunder helpful criticism, its period of greatest crudity and inefficiency may be\nshortened in the interest of the pupils even more than in the interest of the\nstudent-teacher. But analyzing preparation into its parts, we shall see at\nonce that observation is distinctly on the science side of preparation, while\npractice-teaching as a process, though a part of preparation, is of the nature\nof an art, wherein efficiency is finally based to some extent, at least, on skill,\nhowever acquired.\nAn accurate analysis of each of these two processes, then, will enable\nus to see clearly the appropriate place of each in a full course of training for the\nyoung teacher.\nI. Observation. — By this term I mean observation of teaching done by an\nexpert, in whose teaching the better elements of the process are shown concretely, ie.,\n. in action, while the elements of failure, often seen in poor teaching,\nare mainly absent. Observation of the work of a fellow-student should be\ndeferred till a late period, if allowed at all. In the early stages of training\na student-teacher should be protected against familiarity with poor teaching,\nas an artist should in his formation period be protected against the vicious\ninfluences of low-grade art.\nThe special advantage of observation lies in the fact that it presents to the\nstudent-teacher, in the most concrete and vivid form possible, the elements\nof an ideal or standard of the process which he is presently to try to perform.\nIt differs only in these two respects from all the theory work which has presumably preceded it. The whole preceding study of education so far as it\nbears on success in teaching is but the gathering together of the elements of\na standard or ideal of the process of teaching. The expert teaching does not\nprobably give any or many new elements; it rather shows one of the countless\ncombinations which an intelligent teacher is prepared to make at a moment's\nnotice from the varying conditions of the schoolroom. But it is the actual\ncombination, at work before the senses of the observer, carried on by a being\nof like characteristics to the observer, and calculated therefore to inspire\nthe observer with a sense of power so necessary in the first practice of the most\ndifficult of arts — that of teaching.\nIntelligent observation takes notice of the\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "730\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nelements which make up the moving ideal, studies how they are combined,\nwhich elements are predominant or controlHng, and how the combination\nas a whole accomphshes its work. If one notices only how the combination\nas a whole accomphshes its results, he is Hkely to become a servile imitator.\nTo allow observation to take on this character is to lose its wholesome effect\nas a preparation for practice-teaching and to make it an evil, in time, in the\nyoung teacher's training. But to analyze the concrete process as it goes on\nbefore the observer, seeing which are the effective elements in it, prepares one\nto place similar elements of strength in his own ideal of teaching when he is\nforming one for immediate use as he stands before his own class. The student\nmust so far analyze the case as to separate from the individual personality\nof the teacher such actual elements of the teaching process as he can unite\nwith his own individual personahty and still keep them effective, and discard\nthose which belong wholly to the individual personality of the teacher; unless,\nindeed, he should devote himself to making his own individual personahty\nlike that of the teacher observed.\nBut this analysis, made under the direction of the training-teacher whose\nteaching has just been observed, is in no important respects different from previous work done in psychology, pedagogy or history of education. In each of\nthese studies the student-teacher analyzes conceptions of human nature in\norder to see how human nature is properly related to educative processes;\nor analyzes subject-matter to find out how its mastery will be related to the\ngreat educative processes of the school; or analyzes educational ideals of the\npast or the present to see which of these have the merit that renders them\na fit part of his educational ideals. In the study through the observation of\nteaching his subject is limited to teaching, and the concrete illustration to be\nanalyzed is somewhat compHcated by the personal elements entering into it.\nThere is therefore an intensity of study scarcely present before, and by reason\nof the living character of the process an interest scarcely possible before.\nAnother difference must also be noted. In all previous studies and analyses\nwhen one had found an element of one's proper ideal, one could only philosophize about its probable effect in an educative process, judging results merely\nby its nature; but in observation one finds this element actually at work and\none may see its effect on actual children when used by an actual teacher.\nThis tends to give substantial character to educational processes and an air of\nactuality which preceding studies lacked — which indeed most theoretical\nstudies lack.\nBefore turning to the analysis of the practice-teaching process, some consideration should be given to what lies between the two provinces, but which,\nafter all, emphasizes the attitude assumed in this paper. This is the fact that\npractice-teaching, when it comes, if it shall be profitable to the student-teacher,\nmust proceed from an inner urgency and not from outward pressure of any\nsort. Now inner urgency to do a thing consists of several elements, among\nwhich the following are prominent: clearness and vividness of the idea or ideal\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBSERVATION\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE-TEACHING\n\nof the act to be performed ; the depth or strength of the desire to see it accomplished— especially by ourselves; determination to put into the action every\nelement of power that one thinks will tend toward its accompHshment. Now\nhis state of mind in regard to teaching has been growing in some form in the\nmind of the student-teacher during all preceding study; but its effectiveness 731\nis greatly enhanced by this visible accomplishment of the end by one who\nuses the very elements of power which our studies have led us to have\nfaith in. The vivid conception thus evolved is happily correlated with the\nelements of our personality — whether spiritual, mental or physical — to the\nend that every native power of the person is already toned up for the particular process or processes required for success. The teacher who proceeds\nfrom this vivid and intense inner urgency to teach will never simply imitate, but\nwill teach, because the whole personality is in harmony with the processes\nwhich make up the teaching act. Such a teacher is original and generally efficient, and the training acquired in this way enters into the permanent\nequipment of such person as a teacher.\nIn approaching the practice-teaching process, it is well to clear the ground\na little by saying that the first teaching should be something simple, so that\nthe student-teacher can succeed on the first trial. One success is worth a\nhundred failures as an element of growth in powder to teach. It is possible\nfor some particular person to be so self-satisfied or so egotistical as to need\nthe humihation of a defeat before he will consent to teach in accordance with\nthe principles of true success; but even then the failure is no part of the\nsuccess nor an element in the growth of the power to teach. It is merely\nsome preparation of soil, making it fit recipient of the seed. But true growth\nin power to teach comes from the success of teaching that has been done\nthrough self-urgency, coming from a clear and vivid conception of the end\nto be attained and the true means of its accomplishment. This vividness of\nconception comes to most persons most easily by observing a successful teacher\nteach. Following such observation one will try to teach under what will\nprove to be the easiest conditions — the harmonious tendency of his whole\npersonality toward the realization of his conception of what it is to teach in\nany special case.\nPractice-teaching is a complex process, tho it looks simple. If the\ntraining-teacher has proceeded wisely the student-teacher is in a state of\ninner urgency — i. e., he wishes to teach this particular lesson as a result of the\ncomplete and clear conception he has of it and of the appropriate means of\nits accomplishment and his personal feeling of pride in worthy achievement.\nThe last step in this preparation is by choice the observation of the trainingteacher teaching similar things to these same children. Under these circumstances there is no element of the student-teacher's personality at war with any\nother. There is no element of fear of his critic, no fear of failure to cast its\nbaneful shadow before, no fear of the pupils themselves to interfere with the\nprompt thinking, feeling and deciding w^hich make up the mental operations\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nof the teaching process. Happy is it for all if first effort, free and happy,\nshall be successful; leaving necessary adverse criticism till later stages when\nit can be better borne and when doubtless it will be necessary, covering some\nof the graver problems of teaching and disciphne. When criticism must\ncome it should be mainly directed to the development in the student-teacher of a\nreasonable habit of self-criticism. The growth of this habit however should\nnot be made so great as at any time to interfere with the free play of thought\nand feehng without which there is no real teaching.\nThus it will be seen from my analysis of the case that observation of\nexpert teaching is a necessary part of that preparation for practice-teaching\nwhich consists of a clear, clean-cut, vivid conception of what good teaching\nis and what processess are involved in it. It is difficult to conceive that\nstudents can gain sufficiently vivid and concrete conceptions of the process\nwithout more or less of such observation work.\nDISCUSSION\nJames F. Hosic, head of the Department of English, Chicago Normal College,\nChicago, III. — Observation seems to me an essential part of the preparation of the young\nteacher. The value of student-observation of teaching, however, is largely dependent\nupon the conditions surrounding it. In the first place, neither observation nor practiceteaching will very much profit the beginner unless what he sees or does is typical. There\nmay be such a thing as \"formal discipline\" in teaching; but if actual teaching is to be\nbetter because either observation or practice has preceded, there must be many elements\nof experience common to the two. Under present conditions, a practice-room should\ncontain thirty-five or forty children who are following a regular, graded course. The\nobserver should see the children at work as they would be if he were not present. He\nshould not be a mere looker-on at a lesson to which he has been specially invited, but should\nbe able to drop in at various times and seasons so that he may come to know the normal\nlife of the room. He should have opportunity to study the children he is to teach. It does\nnot follow that he should see the regular teacher present just such material as that with\nwhich he will begin. He should feel a lively, compelling interest in all the activities of the\nroom. If teaching has come to seem to him worth while, he will do so whether the pupils\nare later to be his or not. Now no mere \"model school\" is Hkely to supply conditions\nsuch as those just outlined — certainly not all of them. The very name has come to signify\nsomething untypical. The children in such a school are generally from only a part of the\ncommunity. They are few in number, and very generally have had more than ordinary\nhome advantages. Those who teach these children are often college instructors in education as well, and can hardly avoid conducting the model lesson with more than half an eye\nto the student-teachers present, who have come to see certain definite theories and methods\nexemplified. Personally-conducted observation this, where your guide tells you beforehand what you must see, and assures you afterward that you have seen it. Does some\nyouthful Twain ever inquire, \"Which is the statue, which the pedestal ?\"\nThe classes for practice in the model school, moreover, are proverbially small. Training-scho ls inlarge cities can and often do have large practice-schools. That in Chicago,\nfor example, has two practice-schools, one in a foreign district, with a total of over two\nthousand five hundred children. But this provision is rare. Practicing on a dozen children, with a training-teacher hovering near, is a long way from the stern reality. No\nwonder that the normal graduate so often returns to his alma mater to tell his teachers\nreproachfully;\n\n\"I have had to unlearn all that I learneH at the normal school. \"\n\nOf course\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBSERVATION\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE-TEACHING\n\n733\n\nthere will always be need of adjustment to new educational surroundings, but the process\nshould not be made more painful by a naive underestimating of the difficulties which must\nbe met.\nThis leads me to say that I am compelled to differ from the writer of the paper on one\nor two points: (i) Should the student see little or no teaching by fellow-students? If\nwe assume that he comes to his observation at the time when he is carefully considering the\nnature of children and the principles of teaching, we may be reasonably certain that he\nwill discriminate. We used to say that the child should never see wrong forms. We know\nnow that he will see them sooner or later, and that he invents a good many for himself.\nThere is another maxim to the effect that he who is forewarned is forearmed. (2) Should\nthe way be very carefully smoothed for our beginner ? Not too carefully. Failure is hard\nto bear when it follows notable success, success that was won so easily — because somebody\nelse arranged the combination! Success is more or less relative. The beginner may not\nhope for a high degree and should not be deceived into supposing that he has won it.\nMany people never become better than fair, moreover, simply because their powers of\nmastery have never been called out. And there are some candidates who ought to fail.\nFailure would discourage them out of the profession — to the lasting good of everybody.\nCertainly the number who must learn by their blunders is not small. I should hesitate to\nsay that all such are egotistical, unless the word means merely human. Of course criticism\nof the beginner need not be ruthless. We may \"temper the wind.\" But the student should\nbe brought face to face with a concrete problem of teaching; he should have the privilege\nof arranging a solution for it; and if his plan has promise he should be free to try it. He\nwill then actually be practicing. Otherwise he will simply be trying to learn to teach as\nMiss or Mr. X. Y. Z. teaches, and the danger is that he will succeed.\nIn closing, let me suppose the case which the speaker before me has preferred not to\nconsider. If we were to choose either observation or practice, which should it be ? I\nhave heard the \"educational clinic\" warmly upheld. The clinic has the advantage of\nbeing easy to arrange. Given a gallery, and one demonstrator, with a few specimens, can\ndo the rest. At the summer schools, to be sure, something of this kind is all that is possible.\nWell for the luckless grown-up if he do not have to observe teaching and be Johnny-in-theprimer-class both at once. But students at summer schools are not mainly young teachers\nand may be trusted to make a good deal of allowance for unusual conditions. For the\ninexperienced teacher, the beginner, the \"clinic\" can never suffice. But neither can the\nright to sit many hours in a typical classroom where the normal life of the school may be\nobserved. It looks easy until you try it. But to point the moral by an analogy, nobody\never advances far on the road to a tennis championship until he gets out on the court.\nAnd in the game of education, likewise, there is no substitute for earnest, serious, judicious\npractice in teaching normal children under typical conditions.\nJ. W. Crabtree, president, State Normal School, Peru, Neb. — If agreeable I will limit\nmy part in this discussion to giving some concrete data on the one question as to whether it is\nof any special advantage to the young teacher to take observation before doing practice\nteaching. I took the records of twenty-five graduates who had taken observation before\npractice or any other form of teaching. Tho we require observation first in our course of\nstudy, I was able to find the records of the students who, because of conflicts in their\nprograms, and for other reasons, had been allowed to take practice-teaching first, having\ntaken the course in observation later.\nHere is the result:\nAverage observation grade\nAverage teaching grade\nAverage observation and teaching grade\nAverage, doubling the value of teaching\n\n. Group 25 ^\n86J\n91 J\n88^\n89JI\n\nGroup 10\n92\n88|\nQof\n89I\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nThese grades show clearly that better results are secured in each course when this\ncourse has been preceded by the other. It will be observed, however, taking these grades\nas a true measure of professional attainment, attaching equal importance to observation\nand practice-teaching as we are in the habit of doing, that group ten, the one having taken\npractice-teaching first, has the better preparation. It is necessary to attach double importance to practice-teaching in order to give group twenty-five equal teaching equipment with\ngroup ten.\nObservation being a year in advance of practice-teaching, these young people seem to\nfail in appreciating the real bearing and value of their work in observation on their next\nyear's practice-teaching. Thus a good deal of time is lost in getting the class up to what\nwe call the appreciation point. Possibly more time is lost then when practice-teaching\ncomes first, the reason being that in practice-teaching the suggestions of the expert critic\nteacher have point to them at the moment. The student applies them at once. It may\nlook as if these figures are disproving the proposition that observation should precede\npractice-teaching. Not so, but it does place in doubt whether this arrangement — observation, followed by practice — necessarily gives the best preparation for teaching. If you attach\nany importance to these figures as measuring teaching attainment, you can easily see that\nit would at least be a hair-splitting process to find any actual advantage to the would-be\nteacher to have his course in observation before, rather than after practice-teaching. If\nyou take into account fractional per cents, would you not choose your teachers from group\nten, rather than from group twenty-five ?\nEvery one educated in the public schools gets certain notions of teaching from his\nteachers, ideals born of a long-time experience, sufficiently definite to enable one to begin\npractice-teaching with at least a degree of intelligence. Would it not be better, thinking\nonly of the one preparing to teach, to have some experience in the practice school before\ntaking the technical course on observation and special methods ?\nWhile the range of this investigation is narrow and the data not known to be sufl&ciently\naccurate and typical for drawing real scientific deductions, it certainly presents enough of\ninterest to suggest further investigation along these lines. If the conclusions of this paper\nare accepted it does not lesson in the least the appreciation of President Jones's excellent\npaper. His statements regarding the amount and character of observation work, how\nto fit it and practice-teaching into each other, making observation more or less theoretical and practice-teaching an art, in fact everything in his paper stands the test of\ncriticism, except the one conclusion, and that only an implied conclusion; namely, that it is\nof advantage to the young teacher himself to have observation before practice-teaching.\nThat conclusion has been brought into question.\nBut observation should precede teaching practice tho for a very different reason.\nThere can be little or no gain, as has been shown, in this arrangement for the would-be\nteacher; there is quite likely some loss in it to him.\nObservation should come first, however, when considered not from the standpoint of\nnew teachers but from the standpoint of the children in the practice school. Better sacrifice one per cent, on the teaching proficiency of the would-be teacher than to sacrifice one\nor more per cent, on the well-balanced development of each child in the practice school.\nThis thought appeals most strongly, of course, to those of us who have children in the practice school. For the sake therefore of the children who are unfortunate enough to be constantly experimented upon in the interest of others, let us require even more preparation\nthen ever before in observation and in methods, permitting no one to teach these innocent\nand defenseless children until it is certain that he will meet with a degree of success. Let\nus sacrifice, if necessary, some time on the part of one preparing to teach rather than permit\neven the few children in the practice school to receive the irreparable injuries that result\nfrom malpractice in teaching.\nFrom the standpoint therefore of the one preparing to teach it may matter little which\nromes first, observation or practice-teaching, but from due consideration of the welfare of\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] PREPARATION\n\nAND\n\nQUALIFICATION\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n735\n\nthe children to be taught, there is only one order of precedence, observation and then\npractice-teaching.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON STATEMENT OF POLICY REGARDING THE PREPARATION AND QUALIFICATION OF\nTEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nWhereas, The public schools are the schools of the people ;\nWhereas, The public schools being the schools of the people, all factors in\ntheir organization are very clearly identified with the life of the people;\nWhereas, The preparation of teachers is an important factor in the success\nof the schools and in the development of civiHzation; and\nWhereas, The normal schools have grown out of the thought, sentiments\nand opinions of the people, and are the direct expression of the will of the people,\nbe it\nResolved:\n1. That the state normal schools make high-school graduation, or equivalent, abasis for admission to the standard normal course.\n2. That the normal schools prepare teachers for the entire public service\n— elementary and secondary;\n3. That the preparation of the elementary teachers be two years, and of\nthe secondary, four years;\n4. That the normal schools establish well-organized departments of\nresearch work leading to the solution of problems affecting education and life;\n5. That while the normal school is not the only agent for the training of\nteachers, it is the state's chief agent, and as such it should set up standards\nof teaching, determine ideals, and train men and women whose call is to\neducational leadership;\n6. That the colleges and universities should not dominate the courses of\nstudy of the high schools to the end of making them preparatory schools,\nthereby preventing these schools from being the best expression of the whole\npeople;\n7. That the curriculum of the normal school should be broad enough in\nscope to touch all phases of special preparation demanded by the broadening\ncurriculum of the public schools.\nC. C. Van Leiw, Chairman\nDavid Felmley,\nZ. X. Snyder,\nCommittee\nDISCUSSION\nDavid Felmley, president, State Normal University, Normal, 111. — The preamble to\nthese resolutions is an attempt to set forth the actual relation of the normal school to the publicschool system.\nThe normal school has been established in every enlightened nation where\nthe education of the children of all the people is recognized as a duty of the state. It is\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ndue to the same cause as has set up the technical school in all the professions and higher\noccupations; namely, the demand of modern civilization that every man shall make adequate preparation for his chosen work. It is recognized that teaching is an art — a rational\nart, based upon a body of underlying knowledge of the purpose of the school and of the\nlaws of development of the child, and that a reasonable degree of skill in this art is best\nobtained at the outset by practice under competent direction.\nIn the paper of Commissioner Brown before the Council Tuesday morning it was\nstated that the normal school is a sort of blind alley because it does not look to some higher\nschool for its standards and directions, and to which it may send its product. This is true\nand to our honor. We front the common school and its problems; its needs are our needs.\nWhatever the people believe should be in the schools must straightway find a place in the\nnormal-school program.\nThe resolutions follow logically from the preamble and are made necessary as a statement of policy because of the attempt made to separate the common school into two distinct\nparts. In some states the colleges and universities are assuming the exclusive right to\nprepare secondary teachers and are demanding that the normal schools restrict themselves\nto training teachers for the elementary schools.\nWe do not agree to this program.\nHistorically the college has been very slow in divesting itself of mediaevalism. Its\nstudents still in large part are busied with dead languages and obsolete adjustments.\nWhere the college dominates the high school, as it does everywhere more or less completely\nwhere a system of accredited high schools prevails, the high-school program, its subjects,\nthe topics in the subjects, even the mode of instruction, are determined by the needs of the\ncollege and they in turn largely by tradition. At a conference that I attended a few years\nago, normal-school and high-school teachers were discussing the course in algebra. The question arose, What is our aim in the teaching of algebra ? The normal-school teachers\nattempted to answer by showing the relation of the generalizations of algebra to the particular problems of arithmetic and the value of the experience in the unfolding life of the child.\nThe high-school men frankly said their aim was to enable their students to meet the collegeentrance requirements.\nThe separation of the common school, the peoples' school, into two parts is without\nhistorical justification. Our high schools have come about thru adding algebra and\ngeometry, rhetoric and literature, ancient history, the natural sciences and foreign languages\ncivics, economics, and other branches to the other studies of the common-school\ncurriculum. These additions were made gradually and without any change in the organization. Then came the attempt to drive a wedge thru the common-school curriculum\njust above the eighth grade. As the years proceed the separation becomes wider. Certain\nbranches are called high -school branches, others common-school branches; whereas the\nelements of the natural sciences and of many other high-school studies belong in the\nelementary school, while reading, grammar, arithmetic, geography, and U. S. history\nshould all be taught somewhat in the high school. Separate buildings, even separate school\nboards are sometimes provided. Ignoring the fact that the development of the child is\ncontinuous, undue emphasis is laid upon the differences between adolescence and childhood, to the effect that the teacher of youth needs to know little of the teaching of children.\nAll this has injured the schools.\nThe normal school should not abandon the high-school field. The colleges and\nuniversities, while claiming the exclusive right to furnish high-school teachers, have not\nmade adequate provision for equipping such teachers. In many college circles pedagogy\nis still sneered at. Anybody, they say, can teach a subject if he knows it. In actual\ntraining in the art of teaching under the direction and criticism of skilled training teachers\nthe college does practically nothing. Hence most of these college fledgelings, when installed\nas high-school teachers, have little to guide them except their recollection of the practice\nof their college professors.\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] PREPARATION\n\nAND\n\nQUALIFICATION\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n737\n\nA rather well-defined caste feeling is developing among the teachers of our cities.\nThe members of the exclusive caste are no more sharply set off by the branches they teach,\nby the schools they have attended, by their social position, by the salaries they receive, than\nthey are by their indifference to the general problems of education.\nBut even if the colleges were prepared to train their teachers and were not undul)\ndominated by antiquated ideals it would not be wise to turn over to them the exclusive\npreparation of all but elementary teachers. Shall the teachers in the grades be taught in\nthe normal school while the principals and superintendents who are to supervise the work\nare trained in a different institution with other traditions, ideals, and purposes? The\nnormal schools from the time of David P. Page have made the chief contributions to the\nliterature of practical education. Their students are the most faithful readers of such\nliterature. University departments of pedagogy have turned to the normal schools for\ntheir instructors and heads. Shall the leaders in our profession receive a professional\ntraining less definite, thoro, or comprehensive than the rank and file of the teaching body ?\nAt the present rate of progress it will take the universities some years to catch up with the\nnormal schools as schools for the training of teachers.\nIt is sheer pharisaism to demand a degree as the one necessary qualification of the\nhigh-school teacher, the principal, or superintendent. It places emphasis upon the label\nrather than the goods. There never was a time when men and women of force, courage,\nand determination have not pushed up from the ranks to positions of leadership in all\noccupations. Railroad presidents have come up from the shop or from the section, as\nwell as from the technical schools. Where is the college president or faculty of science\nable to confer a degree on Thomas A. Edison ? The question for a teacher at thirty is\nnot, Have you been to college ? but, Are you a student ? If the latter, he is the more fit\nto teach high-school boys and girls.\nTo restrict the normal school to the training of elementary teachers is to drive out the\nyoung men, for practically all of them are looking to administrative positions or to teaching\nadvanced students.\nWe ask for high-school graduation as a prerequisite for our standard two-year course;\nbut believe it unwise at present to turn away young men and women from the farms who\nhave not attained this academic rank. Few boys in the gities look to teaching. The men\nin our calling come chiefly from the country. They cannot always come thru the high school.\nThey are too mature and capable to line up with the fourteen-year-old graduates of the\neighth grade. From this source the normal school must continue to get much of its best\nmaterial — young men who in four years will often cover the ground included in the highschool and two-year normal course.\nFrancis J. Cheney, principal, State Normal arid Training School, Cortland, N. Y.—\nI heartily indorse the report just read by Dr. Snyder. It formulates an educational policy\nwhich the normal schools can approve without apologizing to anybody. I believe that it is\na policy that every normal instructor on this floor believes in. If I am right in this proposition, why not say so without hesitation ? It is time, I think, that the voice of the normal\nschools of the republic be heard and their influence felt. The high schools and colleges,\nin many instances, have been wont to assume a cynical attitude toward them. These\ninstitutions have too often in the past treated them with condescension, belittled their work\nand considered them a class apart. They have been accused of being subsidized high\nschools doing work of little value at great expense to the state. An attempt has been made\nto laugh out of court the gospel of better methods of teaching in all classes of schools, from\nthe university down — methods based on well ascertained pedagogical principles — as being\naltogether visionary.\nI am glad to think, however, that a better day has dawned. The product of the normal\nschools is coming to be appreciated and was never in such demand as it is today. Slowly\nbut surely into the doubting minds of those who are largely responsible for the work in\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\n^ and universities has percolated the notion that normal schools can do and are\nour colleges\n738\ndoing valuable work. Only the other day the president of one of the largest universities\nof the state of New York told me that the best prepared students that entered his institution\ncame from the normal schools of the state.\nAnd now I urge that, having formulated an educational policy, the result of long and\ncareful deliberation by an able committee, we stand by it like men who have convictions\nand who intend to persevere in their utterance until they get a hearing.\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nTRAINING\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Jesse D. Burks, principal, Teachers Training School, Albany, N. Y.\nVice-President — Anna C. Hedges, superintendent, Hebrew Tech. School for Girls, New York City.\nSecretary — William E. Roberts, supervisor of manual training, Cleveland, Ohio.\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday Morning, June 30, 1908\n\nThe department met in Pilgrim Church at 9:30 o'clock in joint session with the\nDepartment of National Organizations of Women, and, in the absence of the president\nand vice-president, was called to order by C. R. Richards, director of manual training.\nTeachers College, New York, N. Y.\nWilliam E. Chancellor, lecturer on education, University of Chicago, presented\na paper on \"Democracy in Education.\" The paper was discussed by Emma M. Perkins,\nWestern Reserve University, Cleveland.\nKatharine E. Dopp, lecturer on education, Extension Division, University of\nChicago, read a paper on the topic: \"Equality of Opportunity Can Be Secured only\nby a Systematic Recognition of Individual Differences in Native Capacity and in Prosspective Career.\" Discussion followed by Foster H. Irons, supervisor of art and manual\ntraining, Superior, Wis.\n\"The Requirements of Individual Differences Constitute the Rational Basis for\nSecondary, as Distinguished from Elementary, Education, \" was the topic presented by\nDavid S. Snedden, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.j discussion byFrank P. Bachman, Normal College, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.\nSECOND SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, June 30\nThe department met in Pilgrim Church at 2:30.\nS. Chester Parker, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, presented the subject: \"Industrial Development Has Exerted a Pre-eminent Influence on Social Progress,\" which was\ndiscussed by Arthur H. Williston, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nCarleton B. Gibson, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ga., presented a paper on\nthe topic: \"The Industrial Aspect of Social Life Affords a Varied and Significant Body\nof Subject Matter Which Is an Essential Element in a System of Education Controlled\nby Social Standards;\" discussion by Starr Cadwallader, superintendent of sanitation,\nCleveland, Ohio.\nWilliam Noyes, Teachers College, New York, N. Y., read a paper on: \"The Important Function of Constructive Activities in Education Is to Reveal the Social Significance\nof Industrial Activities,\" which was discussed by James E. Addicott, Isadore Newman\nManual Training School, New Orleans, La.\nTHIRD SESSION.— Thursday Afternoon, July 2\nA paper, prepared by Charles H. Morse, secretary of the Massachusetts Commission\non Industrial Education, Boston, was read, in the absence of the author, by A. E. Dodd,\nNorth Bennett Street Industrial School, Boston.\nA general discussion. was introduced\nby Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\"The\nfollows;\n\nRequirements of a Program\n\nof Industrial\n\nEducation\"\n\nwere\n\npresented as\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\na) \"Constructive Activities as an Essential Part of Elementary Education,\" by\nM, W. Murray, supervisor of manual training, Springfield, Mass. Discussion by A.\nDodd, North Bennett Street Industrial School, Boston, Mass.\nb) \"Intermediate Industrial Schools Admitting Children to the Sixth School Year\nand Equipping Them for Entrance to Industrial Pursuits,\" by Edgar S. Barney, Hebrew\nTechnical Institute, New York, N. Y.\nA preliminary report of the Committee on Collecting Data for Courses of Manual\nTraining in Public Schools, outlining the plan of work, was presented by Charles H. Keyes,\nHartford, Conn., a member of the committee. The report was accepted and the recommendation that the committee be allowed to increase its number to a minimum of fifteen or\na maximum of twenty and that it be continued for another year was carried.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented resolutions of thanks to the officers of\nPilgrim Church and the local committee of the Department, which were adopted.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President, James E. Addicott, director, Isadore Newman Manual Training\nSchool, New Orleans, La.\nFor Vice-President, Edna D. Day, a ssistantprofessor of home economics, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\nFor Secretary, A. E. Dodd, director of North Bennett Street Industrial School,\nBoston, Mass.\nThe report was adopted and the nominees were declared elected.\nThe department then adjourned.\nGeo. a. Seaton, Secretary pro tern\n\nWILLIAM\n\nPAPERS AND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nESTABROOK\nTHE\n\nCHANCELLOR,\nLECTURER\nUNIVERSITY\nOF CHICAGO\n\nON\n\nEDUCATION\n\nInvariably, of necessity, men discover and diagnose the disease before they\nfind the remedy. And only idle scoffers worry the diagnosticians. Less than\na hundred years ago, we learned to isolate and to diagnose tuberculosis;\nbut no man yet has discovered the remedy. We have but recently learned\nwhat poverty is and are only now learning that its several major causes proceed\nfrom sickness, ignorance, and fraud. Some are thinking today that the true\nremedy is education, while others are asking seriously what education itself\nis. In other words, for the first time in world-history, man is resolutely attacking the second problem of civilization. The first is how to achieve civilization,\nthe second is how to bring all men to share in it.\nThe proposition is to educate all equally; that is, in the best possible\nmanner. Any reduction of the educational opportunities of the most fortunate\nis, of course, out of the question. We are to equalize upward. This proposition isnot academic but moral, for no issue that involves a principle can be\nacademic. It is true that we cannot educate all equally now or at any time in\nthe near future; but we can choose the haven and set the chart of the voyage\nby the compass. We can do so, and in this instance we have done so. That\nhaven is democracy: the chart is universal education: the north pole of the\ncompass is the equality of men and of women in rights. We propose to\neliminate from society all the criminal and all the wretched, whatever be the\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n\nDepartment)\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n741\n\ncauses of their wretchedness, by cutting ofif the supply. The process is the\ncomplete education of all.\nThe exact question before us this morning, stated affirmatively, is: The\nideals of democracy require that equality of opportunity in education be offered\nto all. Democracy is a simple matter: it means that authority belongs to\nthe people not as individuals but as a whole, and it implies that the authority\nshall be used for the common good. In all things, pure democracy asserts\nthat public opinion shall constitute the decision, with no mediate interpretation\nby any group or by any individual. Democracy sets up not merely public\nopinion but public decision and determination. Democracy has no room for\nrepresentative legislatures or for law-making courts but only for the executives\nof its will. The moment we erect a legislature to do any independent ruling,\nthat moment we depart from democracy. A constitution that binds us to the\npast is to that extent undemocratic and the court that interprets it is undemocratic; for democracy requires immediate obedience to the present popular\nwill. So far as legislators keep their ears to the ground and short-circuit immediately to their mouths, cutting out conscious brain-operations; so far as\njudges bow to the popular command, looking to public approval rather than\nto the letter and spirit of the law; and so far as all executive officers keep\ntheir hands upon the public pulse, following its fevers and apathies — in\nthat far government is democractic, whatever be its forms and methods. A\nNew England town meeting is a phase of democracy; other phases may\nbe readily discovered in some of the non-Episcopal Protestant churches.\nDemocracy has hit upon the device of the ballot, one vote to a citizen, the\nplurality to rule, as its standard mode of registering its will. An essential\nprinciple of democracy is that \"one man is as good as another.\" Absolute\ndemocracy would give the ballot to every man and woman.\nNow I do not need to say that we Americans are not democrats, pure and\nsimple: we like to say that \"we are democrats but not qf the extreme type.\"\nBut this is by no means all. We are partial democrats at best in only a few\nof the social institutions and not completely even in them. The oldest of\nthe social institutions, property, is not democratic in America. The family\nis not democratic. The church in most of its forms is not democratic. Government isonly partly democratic. Occupation and business present almost\nno democratic features. Education and culture are, however, partly democratic; and charity would like to be, but cannot. War is the very antithesis\nof democracy. When, therefore, we talk of American society as democratic,\nwe are talking of ideals and of tendencies, not of realities taken altogether in\none view.\nThis matter of democracy is sometimes said to be itself academic; but those\nwho think so do not know Am.erican history and present American conditions.\nThere are eddies and back currents, but the tide is toward and into democracy.\nIt is therefore useless for the individual, upon such an occasion as this, to\nprofess support of or opposition to democracy; one might as well talk for or\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nagainst gravitation or electricity or sunlight. All that we can do is put ourselves in proper relation with that overwhelming tide. So wide and swift\nis the movement into democracy that it has but few martyrs, though many\nheroes.\nThis view is so common that we don't talk much about democracy; we\nsimply try to obey the social will. No two men are likely to agree as to what\nthe ideals of democracy are; and a close examination of the present question\nshows that I do not need to discuss them. For the question may be stated\naffirmatively in this form: Equality of opportunity in education for all is an\nideal of democracy. There is no person in America who will deny that\nproposition, even for the cases of negroes and of Chinese. Moreover, we\nmay say equally that equality of opportunity in law and government, in business, in everything, is an ideal of democracy; and none will deny the proposition. There are, however, some who will promptly say: I believe in only a\npartial democracy, for it is entirely obvious that there is no reason why in\nAmerica we should afford in education equality of opportunity to negroes, to\nChinese, to Japanese, to Indians, to the city poor, to the isolated rural children,\nto the backward, and to girls, with white boys of well-to-do fami ies of Teutonic\nstock in the cities. I shall not discuss this proposition, though it appears\nto be the answer of actual American practice to the democratic theory and\ntendency.\nEducation is a process known by its results. In part, this process is natural.\nIn some measure, every person grows; this feature of growth man shares\nin common with all life. But in large measure, in the cases of most persons\nin a civilized society, education is an artificial process — facilitated, if not actually forced. In the terms of physio-psychology, education increases the\nrate or speed of nervous action; it widens the field of consciousness, increasing\nthe number of items held in attention; it improves the power of retention; and\nlikewise, it improves the quality of recollection. Obviously, this is in part a\nphysical, in part a psychical development. It is in part a matter of occasional\nacts and in part a matter of habits of action. With the same obviousness,\nit appears that these improvements may be so effected as to delay or even to\nprevent natural development, which is the familiar danger of encouraging\nprecocity.\nThe process of education may be stated in various other terms. In those\nof popular psychology, we may say that education produces quickness of\nthought, energy of motivation, power to concentrate attention and to recall\nformer intellections, emotions, and volitions, and therefore produces better\njudgment. Or we may put this otherwise and say that education quickens\nenergy and intelligence, induces and develops efficiency, establishes habits\nof moral action through the result of thoughtful consideration of experience.\nEducation, again, may be stated in the terms of sociology and of economics,\nof ethics and of philosophy, and of common sense. It may also be stated in\nterms of knowledge.\nEducation is always a zigzag or dialectic from inner\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n743\n\nto outer, from outer to inner; it is a two-cycle phase of objective and subjective and\n;\nit is a spiral whose limits of diameter and of altitude are suggested\nnot by the average so-called \"educated\" man but by such as Aristotle, Michael\nAngelo, Newton, Shakespeare, and Washington.\nWe educators only belittle education ourselves when we speak of a welleducated young collegian or high-school youth. I am not here in any capacity\nas a purist in English ; but did you ever look for something in a dark closet and,\nfailing to find it, get a good light? How dijfferent the task was: indeed, the\ntask ceased at once. The right word is a light in a dark place.\nIn the sphere of education, we are all the time using hyperbole, and we\nspeak of ''educate\" when we mean simply \"teach\" or perhaps even that\nlesser matter, \"instruct.\" This proposition — that equality of opportunity\nin education is a democratic ideal — employs the word \"education,\" not the\nword \"instruction.\" Equality of opportunity in instruction would soon\nparalyze the world with two surfeits of the uniformly taught and of the\nrejected. Some of us think that we have too much equality of opportunity\nin instruction now. Inequality and variety of opportunity in instruction,\nproperly adjusted to individuals, produce equality and uniformity of opportunity in education.\nEducation, of course, aims to produce the free man. Now the free man\nis the one who best knows the absolute laws and best obeys them. I speak\nof the laws that govern nature and human nature, without shadow of turning,\nnot of the statutes and customs and fashions of the times. To become free\na man must see and hear, know and obey the laws: he must be intelligent,\nefficient and moral. Some are born dull and apathetic but obedient: others\nare born bright but careless, and disobedient. No uniform instruction deals\nhonorably with all kinds. I know a man by nature of extraordinary persistence and concentration, energetic, thorough; but entirely unobservant\nand actually enslaved in a narrow morality in consequence. When he got\nout into life, he found it a hard school. Why ? Because, though tremendously\ntaught, his good qualities were bound about and into him until he became\nblind: he is like a steam locomotive, traveling a route of fixed rails. His\nsoul cannot see through the steam that he leaks at every joint. He needed\neducation in intelligence and receptivity. Of kindergarten, of nature-study,\nof drawing and music, of science and art, he was taught nothing. He lives\nin an immense world of his own creation, unlike the real world of men and\nof things. And I know another man, wide-awake to the world, a delight in\nconversation, but at sixty years of age he has yet to do anything or be anything\nof any value. All his sowing has been of the tares. He is a toggler with\ntools, a dabbler in business, a dilettante in art, too busy to think and to work.\nWhen a youth naturally spells correctly, remembers everything that he reads,\nimitates and emulates artists in EngHsh, what is the use of drilling him in\nlanguage and literature and history ? My own answer is: find the deficiencies\nand develop them.\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nI have now reached a stage in the argument that, perhaps somewhat\nfancifully, I call the conclusions.\nThere is no such thing in reality as industrial education or religious education or commercial education; but there is such a thing as commercial instruction, another such reality as industrial instruction and another such verity as\nreligious instruction. And all these are absolutely necessary phases in education. In other words, I hold to the ancient theory that there is but one kind\nof education and that it consists not in following bents but in straightening\nthem out. It is obvious that I am contemplating here no short and easy road\nbut a long and hard one. Souls seem to be bom into the world at different\nages; or, if you prefer, stages. I would educate them all forward or outward\nor upward.\nIt must be clear, upon the face of this presentment, that to me an education that is not characterized by the development of capability of earning a\nlivelihood seems therein not complete. Equally must it be clear that the\nmode of livelihood must be taught. Again, it must be clear that youth should\nstay at school until competent to perform a worth-while part in life. Moreover, the UveHhood must be taught prior to any attempt to teach morality, to\nwhich it is an essential condition precedent. I am speaking of that sufficient\nmorahty which equips one adequately for the affairs of daily life.\nAnd now to return to an earlier stage in the argument. Democracy is not\nmerely a matter of the control of government by the majority or plurality,\nexpressing its opinion in stated elections, though we have not even so much\ndemocracy as that. It is the operation of society in every respect — property,\nfamily, religion, government, education, occupation, culture, charity, even\nbusiness and war — by the people for the common good.\nChoose ye men to rule\nIn every needful faculty\nIn church and state and school,\n\nwas the way in which Emerson phrased it. But even his remark does not\ngo so far as democracy, for that denies the right even of representatives or\ndelegates to rule. Obviously, if in some future state of society the people\nas a whole are to govern in all things, a safe majority of them must be educated\npersons, lest, being bUnd, they plunge society into the ditch. This platitude\nis not yet a commonplace nor is it a principle honored by sincere observance.\nThe natural evolution of society is bringing us into democracy; and education must proceed with equal step.\nDemocracy will say \"to each according to his need\" in education and will\nrespect the individual, learning his powers, his interests and his needs. True\ndemocracy is by no means blind to the present economic inequahty of men\nand resents any proposition that material fortune measures merit. It resents\nalso the proposition that we are to apportion educational opportunity according to merit. Almost the exact opposite is true. Democracy is no more\nafraid of pauperizing children by educating them all equally in the best\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n745\n\npossible manner than is the father of wealth and culture. When the spirit\nof democracy has won over an effective majority of mankind, cost will not\nbe a factor in education. Do not at this point say, \"Oh, this is idealism,\nit is even ideology.\" I am not advocating anything, not even this. I am\ntalking about a stage of society into which we are traveling.\nIt has been suggested that we can reach this goal of equality of opportunity\nin education in either of two ways: By developing a variety of schools each\nin subordination to one of the major social institutions. Labor and occupation will develop trade and craft schools; capital and property will develop\neconomic schools, teaching, the conservation of wealth; state and government\nwill develop schools for citizenship ; church and religion will develop schools\necclesiastical and parochial; home and family will undertake instruction in\npedagogics and in domestic science and art; business will produce bookkeepers; war, soldiers; charity, phiJanthrophic workers. Let each youth\nchoose what he will. But this is note quality of opportunity in education;\nit is simply free choice of opportunity in instruction. I need here merely\nto mention the fallacy of the device of election. How can youth know, being\nyet ignorant ?\nThe other way to present equality of opportunity in education to all\nis to create the school as an integral, independent, universal, self -supported\nsocial institution. Our eastern states in 1787 gave away their western\nlands. Our later states have sold most or all of their school lands. What\nendowments the school might have had! That easy mode of creating the\nindependent school is no longer available. A few cities in Arkansas, I believe,\nand a few other cities here and there elsewhere, have done what hundreds\nmight have done.\nBut I am proceeding beyond the bounds of my assigned topic. We have\nnot yet tried democracy. It is a stage on the road toward Christianity, which\nlikewise, as a people, we have not yet tried. In our lower mood, Christianity\nappears incredible; as a social state to be arrived at by journey from the\npresent, Christianity does indeed appear incomprehensible. And yet that\nlaw will be fulfilled before heaven and earth pass. If some thousands of\nyears hence a curious antiquary digs up our American debates about the\npropriety of equality of opportunity for all in education, will not our posterity\nsay with sadness, \" Oh, ye of little faith: your leaven has indeed at last leavened\nthe whole lump\" ?\nIn our age children and youth may be neglected in city tenements and\nin lost country places, deceived and defrauded in many cities and towns;\nbut it will not always be so, for the destiny of mankind includes the discovery\nthat the Father wills that not one of these little ones shall perish, and this\nmeans nothing less than complete education for all. Democracy may propose\nequality of opportunity in education: Christianity proposes certainty of complete education.\nThere is comfort only in the wide survey and in the long search. The\n\nli\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nvanguard line ever v^idens and the course of history is forward. The class of\nthe so-called ''fortunates\" die out from generation to generation. We are\nthe offspring of the neglected vi^orkers of past ages. And from this fact we\nare taking the lesson, for we are learning to educate not away from work but\ninto work.\nBy as much as mercy transcends justice yet includes it, by as much as love\ntranscends sincerity yet includes it, by as much as grace and charity and\nfaith transcend diligence and courage and knowledge and yet include them,\nby so much does Christianity, which is personal love, transcend democracy,\nwhich is social righteousness. We cannot accurately forecast future social\nstates: no more could Washington and Frankhn, Madison, the Morrises,\nHamilton, Mason, Wilson, Gerry, forecast the social state to which they contributed so much. But in the light of history we are entirely safe in saying,\nnay, we are honorably obligated to say that the new ages to come will sur-.\npass in their measures of justice, of freedom, of love between men and men,\nany dreams of present seers. In history, the outcome always demonstrates\nthe folly of cynicism and the wisdom of faith. As Edwin Arnold said:\nShaD any gazer see with mortal eye,\nOr any searcher know, by mortal mind ?\nVeil after veil will lift, but there must be\nVeil upon veil behind.\n\nEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY CAN BE SECURED ONLY BY\nA SYSTEMATIC RECOGNITION OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN NATIVE CAPACITY AND IN PROSPECTIVE\nCAREER\nKATHARINE\n\nE.\n\nDOPP,\n\nLECTURER\nON EDUCATION,\nEXTENSION\nUNIVERSITY\nOF CHICAGO\n\nDIVISION,\n\nTHE\n\nThat there are individual differences in native capacity is a fact familiar\nto all ages. Plato makes Socrates say,\nCitizens, you are brothers, yet God has framed you differently. Some of you have\nthe power to command, and these he has composed of gold; .... ethers of silver, to be\nauxiliaries; others again who are to be husbandmen and craftsmen, he has made of\nbrass and iron\nAnd God proclaims to the rulers .... that they should watch\nover their offspring, and see what elements mingle with their nature.\n\nThe truth of Plato's story is readily perceived. There are individual\ndifferences in native capacity, and these differences appear in the same class\nof society and in the same family. The error is the idea that officials, appointed\nfor the purpose, will be able to detect these differences with sufficient accuracy\nto classify children into three groups. Biography is replete with instances of\nmistakes on the part of parents and teachers in estimating the capacity of\nthe young. Who can tell whether the precocity of childhood is the light of genius\nor the early flowering of a Jife whose energy will soon be exhausted ? Who\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEQUALITY\n\nOF OPPORTUNITY\n\n747\n\ncan tell whether the apparent stupidity of a child is the result of slight capacity,\nthe lack of opportunity, or the slow growth of a master mind ? Who can\ntell whether a predilection for mechanics is an indication that the child has\nthe promise of great mechanical abihty, or that it is the natural expression\nof growing nerves and muscles through the media at hand ?\nIt is to be hoped that some day we shall be better able to interpret the\ncapacity of the child and of the youth than we are at present; but until the\nsciences which underhe this knowledge shall be developed to a far greater\nextent than they are at present, we shall do well to refrain from mortgaging\nthe child's future on the basis of our superficial judgment. Too often differences incapacity, as they are manifest in later youth and in mature Hfe\nare less differences in native capacity and in aspiration than differences in the\nmeans for their reahzation. Capacities may He dormant until there is something which calls them forth.\nNor are we better able to determine a child's future vocation. The\nbiographies of- great men contain abundant material to show the folly of\nparents in attempting to select a vocation for a child irrespective of his real\nfitness and incHnation. Vocation can be determined only as opportunities\nare provided for caUing forth and developing capacity. The best that can\nbe done by parents and teachers is to furnish an environment which will\ncall forth capacity and furnish copies of typical vocations in the larger world.\nWhile freeing ourselves from any implication which might interfere with\nthe solution of the problem, we are not justified in freeing ourselves from the\nlimitations of the more general topics of this session. In the light of these,\nour problem becomes that of determining the place of industries in an education which shall secure equaHty of opportunity for all.\nA teacher, visiting a school in one of our larger cities a few years ago,\nasked to see the industrial work, whereupon the supervisor replied, \"The\nchildren in our school come from the homes of the wealthy; we have no need\nof industrial training.\" The attitude of this supervisor is typical of that\nof a large number of people who see in industrial training only a preparation\nfor a specific trade. The more thoughtful people, however, regard industrial\ntraining not so much as a preparation for a specific trade as a means of securing the all-round growth and development of the child. Perhaps to a majority\nof those who believe in the educational use of industries, this training is to\nbe secured by adding well-graded lessons in cooking, sewing, and woodwork to\nan otherwise formal curriculum. To others the function of industries is\nmore thoroughgoing, more comprehensive. The best educational use of\nthe industries is more than the teaching of a trade; it is more than well-graded\nlessons in manual training and domestic science; it is more than the formal\neducation given through the use of books. It embodies the best elements\nof them all, supplementing and reinforcing them wherever necessary, and\nplacing them as the central figures in a rich background of subject-matter.\nAnd just as the occupations from grade to grade should be such as to give\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n748\nthe child the opportunity to face the practical problems of invention and\ndiscovery which lie back of the processes of modern Hfe, so the subject-matter\nshould give him the history of these inventions and discoveries, the simpler\nsteps in the evolution of the sciences and the arts, and their intimate relations\nto industrial and social life. In short, the best educational use of the industries would develop, on the one hand, individual initiative and control, and on\nthe other, an appreciation of what our civilization has cost.\nThat this ideal is not fully reahzed in even our best institutions is indeed\ntrue; there are difficulties in the way and it will take time to remove them;\nbut beginnings have been made and, tho inconspicuous at present, like\nthe leaven hid in the three measures of meal, they will in good time leaven the\nwhole lump.\n\"The rivalry of patterns,\" writes Professor James, \"is the history of\nthe world.\" In this happy expression we can catch a glimmer of what may\nbe the method of working out the higher educational ideal. Under the stress\nof the conflict between the ideas of trade and formal education, the weakness\nand strength of each will appear; each will be forced to incorporate the best\nelements of the other; each will be compelled to reach out for a richer\nsustenance than either now commands. And through this conflict the people\ngenerally will become conscious of that which is already clear in the minds\nof the best educators. They will then understand that such a conception of\na trade school as prevails at present for the periods of childhood and early\nyouth is shortsighted and destructive. They will see that the children who\nare limited to a training in one trade or fragment of a trade do not develop\ntheir capacities to the same extent as those do who have an opportunity to deal\nwith a greater variety of materials and processes; they will see that the young\npeople who enter a trade with this meager equipment have an inadequate\noutlook upon life, and that they soon lose heart and fail to advance. Such\nobservations as these, in time, will force people to see that to limit a child to\nsuch an education is to consign him to dwell in the darkness of a cave when,\nwith better opportunities, he might have dwelt in the light of day.\nThose interested chiefly in the output of our manufactured products may\nrejoice for a brief season in a slightly increased skill; but if there are any\ntruths to be learned from history and from daily experience, their joy will be\nshort-lived. There are human as well as material factors which enter into\nthe problem. These must be reckoned with. For when the vitality of the\npeople — the chief glory of our nation — is once sapped, how can we hope to\nexcel in industry ?\nSurely the quality of human life is as valuable an asset as the immediate\nprofits of any class; surely it is as much the business of the state to conserve\nthe vitality and moral energy of its people as to protect its natural resources.\nWhat shall it profit this nation if, for a brief season, it commands the markets\nof the world and loses the health, intelligence, and moral fiber of its people ?\nHow can we hope to secure stable conditions in society if large numbers of\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nEQUALITY\n\nOF OPPORTUNITY\n\n749\n\nthe people are ignorant, miserable, and discontented ? Surely we are living\nat too late a date to follow the policy of \"after me the deluge.\"\nIn contrast to the idea of trade schools we have our great system of public\nschools — a system which, with all its defects, outrivals that of any other\nnation. But we cannot afford to rest upon our laurels; there are new battles\nto be fought, and there must be a long, patient process of quiet building before\nthey are won, before our educational structure is shaped to meet modem\ndemands. The formal education still largely prevailing in our public schools\ngives such exclusive attention to the key of knowledge that it fails to notice\nwhether the child is able to use the key. In the attempt to teach the child\nhow to read we fail to notice what he reads; and frequently he leaves\nschool either with a distaste for books, or with a taste for only those of a\ntrivial nature. The emptiness of much of the time spent in the school in\ncomparison with the fullness and richness of life out of school, is the secret\nwhich lies back of many a case of truancy and of leaving school for work.\nThe strictly formal school on the one hand, and the narrow trade school\nfor children on the other, are thus two horns of an ugly dilemma. On the\none hand we have the barest formalism parading under the name of a general\nculture, and, on the other, we have the barest sort of a training in technique\npretending to stand for efficiency in industry; on the one hand we are feeding\nthe child on the stale crumbs of knowledge, and, on the other, we are training\nhis fingers to act in a mechanical way. And just as the supporters of a formal\neducation regard the entrance of the industries with suspicion, fearing that\nthey represent a materiahstic spirit, so advocates of a trade education openly\noppose the admission of anything into the curriculum which smacks of culture.\nBut why should we accept either horn of this apparent dilemma? Why\nnot try to get nearer the truth ? Whether we are advocates or opponents of\nculture for the masses, would it not be well to inquire more closely into the\nreal meaning of culture ? Whether we are advocates or opponents of schools\nfor children in the interests of efficiency in the trades, would it not be well to\ncall to mind what real efficiency includes ? The apparent opposition between\nthe ideals, efficiency in industry and culture, between trade and formal education, which came out in a startling way in the January meeting of the National\nSociety for the Promotion of Industrial Education, is founded upon misconceptions. The idea that labor is degrading — an idea which has survived from\nbarbarous times — is nourished and strengthened in the minds of young people\nby our elementary and high schools as well as by our professional schools\nand colleges. The superficial idea of culture prevailing — the idea that it is\nsome particular knowledge of history, literature, • or art, in the exclusive\npossession of a favored few, who are esteemed chiefly for the fineness of their\napparel and their abstinence from all forms of manual work — is an idea\nequally pernicious in its influence. It is such ideas as these which befog the\nmind and direct it away from the real issue. It is such ideas as these that are\nstrengthened, also, by the striking contrasts between the conditions which\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nsurround the industries and the professions. It is needless for me to recite\nthese conditions; they are familiar to all who would know, and it is their\ninfluence far more than that of labor itself that is affecting the judgment of\nall. On the other hand, it is the idea that to show one's self cultured, one\nmust show one's self non-productive that is largely responsible for the spiritual\nbankruptcy of the leisure class.\nIt is not our work so much as our attitude toward it which determines\nwhether we are cultured. The washerwoman may possess more real culture\nthan the wife of a congressman. The village blacksmith may be more cultured\nthan a railroad magnate. It is not the subject but the way that it is treated\nthat determines whether it is a culture subject. Those men who are raising\ntheir voices in the attempt to prevent the dissemination of culture, cannot, I\nbelieve, be opposed to real culture, but to the formalism masquerading in its\nname; when we are willing to admit that practical experience in an industry\naccompanied by the mathematics, the science, the history, the hterature,\nand the art which is vitally related to it, is as good a means of culture as can\nbe found, one of the greatest differences between contending factions will\nat once be eliminated. When public-school advocates who oppose industrial\ntraining for all, once realize that individual efficiency and control are absolutely\ndependent upon personal experience, and that the appreciation of the accumulated wisdom of the ages must be purely external unless founded on experience,\nthen those who are now ranged in hostile camps will unite forces in a common\ncause. It is thus that the \"rivalry of patterns\" works to produce a higher\ntype.\nDuring the formative period, then, the function of industries in education\nis that of developing capacity and helping in giving something of an outlook\nupon life. This is all very well for children of the well-to-do classes, it may\nbe said, but what is to be done with the children of the poor ? Where such\nchildren are found they must be dealt with, and they should be dealt with\nin the wisest way. Experience should have taught us the folly of allowing\nchildren to grow up without a training. Children must be educated. It is\nthe only safe course, and it is the most economical one. But who is to stand\nthe cost ? It certainly would be a wiser policy on the part of the state to bear\nthe entire expense of rearing dependent children, and children of very poor\nparents, than to let them go uncared for; the history of human progress seems\nto indicate, however, that the first attempts are generally made by means of\nprivate enterprises. If it is thought that the receiving of aid will tend to\nsap the spirit of self-reliance, why is it not possible to establish large loan\nfunds administered through some such agency as that of the Juvenile Court.\nAlthough the difficulties in this case are greater than in the case of students'\nloan funds, they are not insuperable, and we may hope to see a satisfactory\nsystem evolved.\nWhen the period of specialization has arrived, when the youth is ready\nto enter upon the preparation for his special vocation, industries which have\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEQUALITY\n\nOF OPPORTUNITY\n\n751\n\nhitherto occupied a dominant place in a general education must give way to\nmore specialized interests. At this time the young people who are planning\nto enter the professions have little difficulty in finding schools that will give them\nthe requisite training. Not so the young people who are planning to enter the\nworld of industry. It is for this reason that many young people are compelled to get their training in the work itself. The schools, dominated by\nthe ideals of the professional classes, have given little heed to specialization\nin the industries. And just as the elementary and high schools have persisted\nin clinging to an empty formalism, disregarding the interests of practical life,\nso the special schools which have been established are chiefly those intended\nto promote the ideals of the professional classes. The time is at hand, however, for a recognition of the demands of industry, for a recognition of the\ndemands of the people who engage in manual work. It is just as much the\nbusiness of the state to establish schools for specialization in all departments\nof industry, as it is to establish schools of law, medicine, and warfare. And\nwe may expect within a few years to see great progress in this work\nNot till the children of the working classes receive as liberal an education\nas those of other classes, not till technical schools are established on as high\na plane as the professional schools, can it be said that there is equality of opportunity for all.\nDISCUSSION\nFoster H. Irons, supervisor of art and manual training, Public Schools, Superior,\nWis. — The first paper by Dr. Chancellor took up the \"Equality of Opportunity in Relation to the Ideals of Democracy,\" and stated that individual freedom in the face of great\nsocial institutions was the result. This individual freedom means confidence in the\nability to use effort. Those of us who are acquainted with the cause of this discussion\nfrom the standpoint of the teacher know that the reason why the majority of the boys\nleave school is because of lack of confidence in themselves.\nThe second paper by Miss Dopp takes up \"Equality of Opportunity in Relation to\nthe Individual;\" that is, in relation to the child. In this discussion, native capacity concerns what the child is; and career, what the child is to be.\nLet us look at some of the practical demands that have brought about this discussion.\nBut 4 per cent, of the children that enter school finish the course at the present time.\nThere are 25,000 children in Massachusetts alone whose lives are failures because they\nleft school early. Everyone of us could give a list of names of children who have left\nschool whom we might have kept in school if we had given them work that appealed to\nthem.\nThese are some of the demands for trade instruction if we are to give equality of\nopportunity to all our pupils. We are taking the business man's standpoint to produce\na product that has a market value rather than a shelf value.\nWhat is the solution of this problem:\nFirst, those courses based entirely on future career; trade instruction.\nSecond, manual training attached to the curriculum.\nThird, manual training that has an organic relation to school and life.\nStating this in pedagogical terms, the first two are based on subject-matter, the last\nis based on the child In our public-school system, we must in the beginning base the\nwork entirely upon the child and his native capacities or instincts.\nHis future career is\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\nLManual Training\n\n75'\nat zero at the beginning of the school life, but gradually increases until it is the largest\nfactor at the end of his school life.\nWe have been working for years to get the public and boards of education to understand the educational value of manual training. If we are not careful the establishment\nof the trade school with its practical results will work against the manual training for\neducational value, because it is a condition so much easier to understand by those not\nversed in the knowledge of mental development.\nEquality of opportunity in the elementary school is based on individual differences —\nthe differences of mind. Native capacity at this point means native instinct. The child\nis interested in those things in which he is confident of himself. Don't let us forget that\nthe eyes and other senses are the industrial tools of the mind. Industrial training means\nseeing more things clearly. Professor James speaks of the fringe of consciousness. Let\nus see to it that there is not too much \"fringe.\"\nEquality of opportunity in the secondary school means giving the child an opportunity to find himself. We must bear in mind the native capacity, but the emphasis\nmust be on his future career. Native capacity and future career can be taken care of in\nthe elementary and the high school by courses in manual training used as a laboratory\nmethod.\nThe trade school is a distinct problem. It is in relation to the boy who leaves school,\nthe boy our present school system does not take care of. He must have an independent\nschool. If he leaves school before the completion of the eighth grade he is still a child\nand can only do a child's work. It would seem that the beginning of trade instruction\nshould be at the close of the eighth grade.\nThe quantity of work in the high school has a close relation to this problem of keeping\nboys in school. The child is at an age when his excessive physical growth may interfere\nwith his mental growth. If a boy loses confidence in himself he is lost. The high-school\nwork should be so elastic as to let up on the boy during this period, but keep him in school\nuntil he regains his confidence.\nTo sum up: Equality of opportunity gives individual freedom, and means confidence\nin ability to use effort and overcome difficulties. The problem of the elementary school\nis that of the child and his native capacities or instincts. It is the place for the teacher\nto find the child. The problem of the secondary school is for the boy to find himself,\nthe emphasis being on future career. Industries find a place in this education as a laboratory method of manual training. A sufficient amount of manual training in the grade\nschool to give full play for the constructive instincts would reduce the demand for trade\ninstruction. The trade school is a distinct problem demanded by social and economic\nconditions. The safe place for the beginning of the trade-school work is at the close of\nthe eighth grade.\n\nDIFFERENCES AMONG VARYING GROUPS OF CHILDREN\nSHOULD BE RECOGNIZED; AND THE PERIOD AT WHICH\nTHIS RECOGNITION TAKES PLACE MAY RATIONALLY\nCONSTITUTE THE BEGINNINGS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\nDAVID\n\nS.\n\nSNEDDEN,\n\nTEACHERS\n\nADJUNCT\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nADMINISTRATION\nYORK,\n\nN.\n\nY.\n\nIn this discussion we assume (a) that American education aims to be\ndemocratic; (b) that it therefore seeks to give, within their personal and\nsocial capacity, equal opportunities to all; and (c) that equality of opportunity\ncan only be secured by recognition of differences which, theoretically individual,\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nAMONG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n753\n\nmay nevertheless, for practical purposes, be regarded as characterizing distinguishable groups of children. In addition, the writer makes the following\nassumptions: (a) The weakest part of American education, for many children,\nis that covering approximately the period from twelve to sixteen years of age\n— the last two grades of the elementary school, and first two of the high school;\n{h) The fixing of the elementary-school period as eight years in length is not\nrationally defensible, but is one of the incidents of the development of American\npublic education from below up; {c) Of the very large percentage of children\nwho leave school at from fourteen to sixteen years of age a large part require,\nduring their last two years in school, a very different educational program\nfrom anything now offered them in the traditional courses; and {d)\nDuring the period between twelve and sixteen it is possible to give a very\nconsiderable fitness for vocational pursuits, even tho such preparation cannot\nbe specialized so as to dispense, in any marked degree, with the usual apprenticeship period, but that it can aid in the selection of a calling, and the right\nindustrial or other vocational training will give a body of useful experience\nand habits.\nIt is the purpose of this paper to discuss the questions: (a) What are the\ngroup differences that should be recognized as a basis for differentiation, and\ntherefore, for secondary education ? (6) Where should differentiation begin ?\n{c) What should be its character ? and {d) What are the conditions of its\nadministration ?\nGROUP\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nAS\n\nA\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nThree kinds of differences are recognizable among children with reference\nto the extent and kind of education which, in the secondary stage, they\nshould receive. These are based on (a) native capacity, including strong\ninterests and tastes; (h) economic conditions of the family and its capacity to\nsupport the child during the period of its higher education; and (c) probable educational destination.\na) Our measures of native capacity are yet crude and uncertain. But\npractically we keep large numbers of children back in grades because of\ninferior abiHty to do the work required, or for lack of interest in it. In the\nearly years of the high school we practically exclude large numbers because\nof lack of capacity. Parents are constantly removing children from school\nbecause they are convinced that such children can no longer derive profit\nfrom further study. It is now suspected that, in the case of many children,\napparent inability may not be so much native as due to bad pedagogical\nmethods; or that it may in many cases attach to certain school subjects\nand not to others, particularly where, as in the case of foreign languages, no\nsocial premium seems to be put on their study. Again, it is not improbable\nthat apparent native ability may be connected in some way with pubescence,\nso that the seemingly dull child may gain in ability after the change in life,\nor, vice versa, the precocious one lose. But even under present conditions\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nof uncertainty, it is possible to recognize various groupings of capacity, and it\nshould be possible measurably to predict the future educational career of a\nlarge majority of children after they have reached the age of twelve. There\nwill be those who probably cannot finish the elementary course; those who\nwill have no sufficient capacity to enter or stay in high school; those who have\nnot the qualities for business; those who have no interest in manual art, etc.\nh) Sufficient attention has not yet been given to the conditions under which\nthe economic status of the family affect the educational careers of children\nafter the age of fourteen. The majority of the people of the cities are\nwage earners; the family income is not large; to keep a child in the high\nschool costs the family from $200 a year up; and if there are several children,\nthe pressure to have the older ones relieve the burden is very great. It is\nwell known that among manufacturing peoples a very large proportion of\nthe children enter employment early. This does not preclude the fact that\noften a boy or girl of exceptional capacity for school work will be kept at school\nat considerable sacrifice by the parents if it clearly appears that such sacrifice\nmeans ultimately the marked success of the child; but these cases are not\nnumerous. It is not in evidence that the school authorities have studied, in\nconnection with the large withdrawal from school at the age of fourteen and\nduring the early years of the high-school period, the economic condition of\nthose who thus withdraw. Undoubtedly large classes could be found in which\nsuch withdrawal is a necessity, quite apart from the question of the ability of\nthe pupil. It is highly probable that at the age of twelve or fourteen it will\nbe found that a sufficient number of children are obliged to prepare for early\nentrance into industry to justify consideration of their special educational\nneeds. At any rate this should be regarded ^s a basis for group differentiation of opportunities.\nc) Present educational practice differentiates between boys and girls in\nthe provision of manual and domestic work in view of their different educational destinations. In a few cities special high-school preparatory classes\nexist for children who, at the age of twelve, obviously are quaHfied and intended\nfor high-school work. In reform schools and various other types of special\nschools, children at the age of twelve or later receive a kind of education suited\nto their probable future needs. In the American secondary schools as now\norganized some opportunities for speciahzation are offered to those who wish\nto take up commercial work, to prepare for college, etc. But in the main,\nAmerican education, unlike that of Europe, refuses largely to take account\nof the probable educational destination of its pupils, especially those under\nsixteen years of age. The reason for this exists in the general tradition of\nthe democratic character of American education, but it actually operates, as\nwe believe, to render such education undemocratic. At first it would appear\nthat differentiation of education according to educational destination could only\naffect vocational training; but a study of the conditions of fife will show that\nthe cultural and social needs of varying groups must make different demands\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nAMONG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n755\n\nupon the kind of cultural and social training given. The cultural and social\ntraining of children who must enter into industry at fifteen should for the\nyears from twelve to fourteen be in many respects different from that of those\nwho are probably to have a high-school and college education. Furthermore,\nthere are excellent reasons for believing that cultural and social training\nshould be in some degree correlated with vocational training, to the end that\neach may be most effective. But this is impracticable unless the educational\nsystem provides for several possible goals and organizing education for youth\nfrom twelve to sixteen.\nTHE\n\nBEGINNINGS\n\nOF\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nWith few exceptions, American elementary education assumes uniformity\nof course for all children thru the eighth grade or approximately thru the\nfourteenth year. Nowhere else in the world do we find similar practice.\nBut it is well known that much more than a majority of the children in the\npublic schools either do not complete the eight grades or do not go beyond\nthem; and all of these may be assumed to quit school as soon as the law\nallows. Because during the last two grades no specialization has been\npermitted it has proven difficult to make anything of the vocational subjects\nHke commercial arithmetic, accounts, manual training, and domestic arts\nthat have been introduced; nor, on the other hand, has it been practicable\nto make the beginnings of algebra, geometry, and foreign languages for those\nchildren obviously destined for a secondary education. The widespread\ndemand for a six-years' high-school course indicates a call for earlier differentiation than is now possible. European practice in all countries makes provision\nfor extensive differentiation at twelve or earlier. There can be hardly any\nquestion but that, by means of special courses, large numbers of those who\ncannot complete the grade work in our city schools could be better accomodated than at present. The time is ripe to recognize the following facts:\n(a) Secondary education should involve differentiation according to educational\nneed, and this begins to manifest itself earlier than the traditions of American\neducation have estabhshed; in fact, after the sixth grade, there should be\nallowed some opportunity for differentiation; (6) Whether or no we choose\nto call all of the courses thenceforward followed secondary or not, they should\nall be regarded as equal in the sense that each, for the class of children adapted\nto it, offers a first-class education, even tho some of these courses must terminate at the time when the pupils average fourteen.\nTHE\n\nCHARACTER\n\nOF\n\nDIFFERENTIATED\n\nCOURSES\n\nObviously there must be strict limits to differentiation of courses in the\nupper grades of the elementary school and the earlier years of the high school,\nowing to administrative necessities; but it is clear that some account must\nhenceforth be taken of vocational work as a factor in some of these courses.\n\n11\n\nOpportunities for vocational training are becoming increasingly difficult\nin other channels of life than the schools; these must reaHze their added\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "756\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nresponsibilities. We may not here enter into discussion of the kind or degree\nof vocational training possible for children from twelve to sixteen. We may\neven assume for the present that specialized-trades training, or other kind\ndesigned to produce a considerable degree of immediate fitness for any given\nvocation is impracticable; but, on the other hand, we have abundant experience\nto prove that a somewhat general form of vocational training along several\ndifferent lines is an entirely feasible thing. It is possible to begin at the seventh\ngrade and give, along with an ordinary program of studies, considerable special\ntraining in commercial subjects; or in the use of tools, as found in the industrial\narts; or in agricultural arts; or yet again, in the household arts for girls. Such\ntraining may be made very concrete ; it may utilize actual vocational practices\nand economies; and it should give a large amount of habituation, intelligence,\nand ideals which, when specialized training comes later, will form a satisfactory background for the latter.\nBut again it must not be assumed that such vocational courses should be the\nonly ones found in the program; we are assuming that they are offered\nsimply for those who most incline towards them or have most need of them.\nIn the elementary school, and the high school as well, should be found courses\nministering exclusively to cultural ends. No more fundamental mistake has\nbeen made in the elementary school than in prescribing manual training for\nall children alike, once it has been introduced, and before its educational\nvalue had been fully ascertained. Vastly better would it have been to have\nestablished good courses in manual training, even to be taken four or six\nhours a week, for those who especially cared for that work. It would then\nhave had some vital educational and vocational significance.\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nUnder ideal conditions the execution of the above program would require\nthe general recognition of a six-years' high school and the abandonment of\nthe last two grades of the present elementary course. Pupils completing the\nsixth grade, or otherwise qualified, would find open to them several courses\nso arranged that it would be possible for those probably quitting school at\nfourteen to receive in their remaining two years a maximum of preparation,\nbut also permitting those who could look forward to a considerable secondary\nschool and college career to make suitable beginnings for that. To a considerable extent all these courses would involve identical work in certain subjects, as English, history, and geography, the differentiation taking the form\nof alternative groups of remaining subjects, as (a) foreign languages and\nmathematics of secondary-school type; ih) natural science, music, art appreciation, etc.; {c) commercial subjects; {d) agricultural subjects (in the right\nenvironment to give these a true vocational significance) ; {e) industrial arts,\nperhaps differentiated according to locality and dominant types of adjacent\nindustry; and (/) household arts. It should not prove a difficult matter to\nadjust these courses so that pupils leaving at fourteen would have received\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n757\n\nconsiderable profit, while for those who stay until sixteen a considerably\nmore extensive development would be possible.\nBut, in case the six-years' high-school course appear too radical, it should\nbe evident that by a slight differentiation of courses in the last two grades of\nthe elementary school, that remaining just as it is, and the departmentalizing\nof some of the work, almost the same results could be accomplished. In\nsome large cities these grades now assemble in separate buildings, the schools\nbeing called intermediate; and American education is not at all unfamiliar\nwith departmental work and specialized teachers in the upper grades. If\nwe increase and enrich the manual training offered, relating it closely to\nfamiliar types of production, and making it possible for certain classes of\npupils to substitute something else for it, as foreign languages in the one case,\nor commercial subjects in the other, we shall have the proposed program in\nits essence. Already the beginnings of this are found in cities like Baltimore\nthat maintain special high-school preparatory classes; and in those special\nclasses for defective and delinquents found in some cities where specialized\nprograms of study are prepared to serve particular ends in the training of\nchildren that do not fit the ordinary program.\nSimilarly, it would not be at all impracticable nor administratively difficult\nto provide in our large city high schools, in addition to the college-preparatory\ncourses now maintained, at least one general culture course especially designed\nfor children who will leave at sixteen; and other courses of a more vocational\ncharacter, also of two years in length, embracing the lines mentioned above.\nFinally, let it not be said that any such prpgram as that contemplated\nabove requires any sacrifice of the education which makes for culture or for\neffective citizenship. Rather I believe it will promote it. We too often forget\nthe very meager degree of cultural education now realized for the majority\nof our pupils; we forget that one or two hours a day of the right kind of study\nby pupils interested in their education because it is vital to their needs may\ngive much more of culture and civic training than we accomplish at present.\nWe sometimes forget that with certain types of pupils and under certain social\nconditions the more effort we expend, the less we get in the way of educational\nresult. We have not yet learned all the lessons of casting the bread of our\neducational efforts on the current of contemporary life, with its possibilities\nof larger returns.\nINDUSTRIAL\nS. CHESTER\n\nDEVELOPMENT HAS EXERTED A PRE-EMINENT\nINFLUENCE IN SOCIAL PROGRESS\nPARKER,\n\nPROFESSOR OF\nOXFORD,\n\nEDUCATION,\nOHIO\n\nMIAMI\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nI realize that it is not possible to produce final proof of this thesis owing\nto the undeveloped condition of the social sciences. At the same time, it is\ndesirable to examine the problem sufficiently to appreciate the fundamental\npart played by industrial development.\nThere is a strong tendency to depreci-\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nate the value of industrial development in favor of political, intellectual,\naesthetic, literary and religious influences. I believe that a study of the\nquestion will provide a scientific basis for a reconstruction of our ideas of\nvalues, and a consequent reconstruction of our educational practices.\nBefore proceeding with the discussion proper, it is necessary to determine\nthe meaning of certain terms. In the first place, what do we mean by industrial? Realizing that the term is ordinarily used in several senses, I shall\nhere use the word industrial to designate those activities of mankind which\naim at practical control and utilization of the materials and forces of nonhuman nature. Industrial designates man's practical efforts to secure food\nand shelter, to domesticate animals, to raise and use plants, to obtain minerals\nand transform them, to master and utilize the forces of wind, water, steam,\nelectricity, etc. It includes a vast variety of activities, from the simple process\nof the hunter to the most elaborate constructions of the mechanical and\nelectrical engineer. It includes such inventions and mechanical devices\nas the phonograph, moving pictures, electrical machinery, the steam engine,\nthe cotton gin, gunpowder, and the printing press. All of these are examples\nof man's practical mastery and utilization of the materials and forces of nonhuman nature. The aim of this paper is to show how fundamentally these\nhave influenced human life.\nThe place of industries in history. — From the historical point of view, our\nthesis takes the following form. Of the manifold activities of human beings\nthose classified as industrial have, in the long run, played a more important\npart in bringing about transformations in social structure than have any\nother class of activities. In order to avoid confusion in thinking, I shall\nfirst state what this thesis does not mean :\n1. It does not exclude the extensive influence of other than industrial activities; in\nfact it implies such influence.\n2. It does not maintain that the world vi^ould be at all like it is if the other activities\nhad not existed.\n3. It does not maintain that industrial activities have exerted a pre-eminent influence\nin every case, but only in the long run.\n4. In short, it does not maintain that industrial activities constitute all of life, but that\nthey constitute a large part of it and profoundly influence the rest.\n\nAs illustrations of the part played by the industrial factor in history I\nshall call your attention to some very famihar examples of its influence, begining with those nearest home and proceeding to the more remote. As I am\nnot an authority I shall mention the authors upon whom I depend.\nBeginning with the United States the example that immediately suggests\nitself is the influence of the invention of the cotton gin and cotton- working\nmachinery.\nChanning says :\nIf the cotton gin had never been invented, it is not unlikely that slavery would have\nbeen peaceably abolished in the South in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. On\nthe other hand, if slavery had been profitable over a larger area of the United States, that\nnstitution might have become so firmly established, it could not have been overturned.\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n759\n\nAnother very striking example is the influence of the development of\nmeans of transportation and communication, such as canals, steam transportation on land and water, electric traction, etc. Again Channing says:\nThe development of these engines of civilization was destined to exercise an influence\non the history of the United States far exceeding that of any political factor whatever.\nThe political results that have flowed from the introduction of methods of cheap and\nrapid transit have equaled in importance the economic results.\n\nA second familiar example is the influence exerted on the development of\nthe English nation by the growth of the factory system and of mining, which\nfollowed the invention of cotton-working machinery and the steam engine\nabout 1770, These were the direct causes of the democratic reorganization\nof the English government in the nineteenth century.\nMr. Gibbins says:\nThe growth of the factory towns created the political question as to the proper representation of such large masses in Parliament. The history of their progress toward\nthe franchise is a matter for the political historian: the economist need only notice that\nthe coal mine and the spinning jenny revolutionized the face of English politics as effectually as the guillotine changed the course of the politics of France. Amid foreign war and\npolitical disturbance, the miner and the weaver were shaping and changing the future\ncourse of the nation.\n\nAs a third example consider the relations between England and Germany\ntoday. It is almost, axiomatic to say that the relations between nations at\nthe present time are based largely on international competition in industry.\nWhile it is difficult to weigh precisely the elements entering into the structure\nof Anglo-German distrust, there is no doubt that the rapidity with which\nGermany is overhauling England in the markets of the world is one of the\nchief factors. One need only read the English quarterlies to appreciate this\nfact. While there is much discussion centering around the free-trade controversyj many students who have studied the problem thoroughly are convinced that at bottom it is a question of industrial efficiency. This is strikingly presented in a recent work entitled Industrial Efficiency, by an Englishman named Shadwell. As a result of a long period of personal investigation\nin England, Germany, and America, Mr. Shadwell gives us a vivid picture\nof the industrial conditions of these countries. He shows clearly the comparative deterioration of English industry, explains it as due to past prosperity\nand the resulting gospel of ease, and shows that the only hope for revival is in\nthe stimulus of economic necessity which England is beginning to feel.\nThe influence of industrial factors in the history of Rome is surely familiar.\nThe virtues of an agricultural people were largely responsible for its greatness,\nand the disappearance of the industrial conditions developing these virtues\nlargely responsible for its decline.\nProfessor Adams says:\nThe causes of the fall of Rome may be roughly divided into two groups — first, the\nmoral causes; second, the economic. The economic causes are more immediate in their\naction. When we turn to the economic causes we stand appalled at their number and\nvariety.\n\nForemost\n\namong\n\nthem\n\nwere\n\nslavery and\n\nthe resulting\n\nextinction of the\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "760\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfree-laboring class, the free distribution of com and the consequent disappearance of the small farmer.\nAs a final example I shall take Greece, whose glory and fate were greatly\ninfluenced by its industrial system.\nProfessor Meyers says :\nThe brilliant civilization of Greece was the product of slavery and never could have\nexisted without it. Without the slaves the Attic democracy would have been an impossibility, for they alone enabled the poor as well as the rich (free citizens) to take part in\npublic afifairs.\n\nThe effect of thus separating the higher class from industrial responsibility\nand aiming only at reflective and aesthetic attainments is thus expressed\nby Davidson :\nIt may fairly be said that Greece perished because she placed the end of life in individual aesthetic enjoyment, possible only for a few, and regarding only the few.\n\nI have given five familiar examples of the influence of industrial activities\nupon the development of particular nations. These do not prove our thesis.\nFor this we shall need many researches of an exact scientific nature. But\nthey do serve to make concrete such a statement as that made by Professor\nBourne, that many a time a simple achievement in the development of industry\nhas shaken the world with revolutions mightier even than the deeds of aCromwell or a Napoleon.\nHow do the industrial occupations of a people influence its life and character ? This is the second aspect of the problem. It is a question of social\npsychology. The answer to the question has been worked out by Professors\nThomas, Dewey, and Veblen. Their general position is that occupations are\nthe primary causes of variation in social characteristics. As Professor Dewey\nsays, \"Occupations determine the fundamental modes of activity and hence\ncontrol the formation and use of habits.\"\nProfessor Thomas and Professor Dewey have presented the clearest case\nfor their thesis in the example of the hunting occupation. They show how \"in\nprimitive life, art, war, marriage, etc., tend to be psychologically assimilated\nto the pattern developed in the hunting vocation.\" Hunting is characterized\nby attention to the immediate problem in hand, and intense emotional excitement centering around a personal conflict, which has in it a large element of\nchance and danger, and which requires alertness, promptness, keenness,\nstrategy and skill for a successful issue.\nThe characteristics of the hunting people which result from their main\nindustrial occupation are as follows:\n1. The savage is characterized by keenness and alertness of attention. He is not\ndull, stupid or apathetic.\n2. He will show great patience, persistence, and effort in anything partaking of the\nnature of immediate personal conflict, but not in the pursuit of remote ends.\n3. His art is primarily dramatic and mimetic, not pictorial. It is made up largely of\ndances reproducing hunting movements and the behavior of animals of the chase.\n4. His religion is characterized by totemism and abundance of plant and animal\nmyths.\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n761\n\n5. He thinks that sickness and death are the results of attacks by other persons who\nwith strange weapons are hunting their victim to death.\n6. His relations with women are characterized by personal display, rivalry, pursuit,\nconflict, and victory.\nThe wife is treated as a trophy of the chase.\n\nThis sketchy summary of the position of Thomas and Dewey will serve\nto suggest the fundamental influence of the practical occupation of hunting\nin determining the other activities of the group.\nTaking the extreme opposite of the simple hunting activity, Professor\nVeblen shows how the modern machine industry has produced the following\nresults:\n1. It habituates the workman to thinking in exact terms of material cause and effect.\nHe tends to take an impersonal mechanical view of affairs.\n2. It develops trade-unionism with its far reaching influences.\n3. It encourages socialism with its program of radical reform.\n4. It makes it difficult for the workman to appreciate religious appeals based on\ngrounds of metaphysical validity.\n\nTaking up the question of the relative willingness of different classes of\nsociety to change their habits, Professor Veblen shows that it is in the realm\nof industrial activities that we find the strongest tendency to develop and\nadopt innovations, and that at the other extreme we find religious and higher\neducational activities as the most conservative influences in social life. Owing\nto the important and intangible consequences of religious attitudes it is essential\nthat the old be thoroughly tested and the new thoroughly inspected before\nchange. The ultra-conservative character of institutions of higher learning\nis proverbial. It takes but a glance at religious, educational and industrial\nactivities to perceive how much more rapidly innovations are introduced\nand adopted in the industrial life.\nWhat is the meaning of social progress ? In our introductory statement,\nwe distinguished between social change and social progress. Social changes\nare objective. It is comparatively easy for observers to agree upon the facts\nof change. But opinions will vary greatly concerning whether a given change\nmarks progress or not. All unbiased observers would agree that concentration of population and growth of cities followed the invention of the spinning\njenny and the steam engine. But many will see in the growth of cities the\nmultiplication of evils, and, while admitting the change, will deny that it\nis progressive. Others who take a different point of view, will maintain that\ncity activities have greatly enriched the life of man and see progress in the\nmovement.\nThe previous discussion has been concerned primarily with social change.\nI shall now say a few words about social progress. I realize that I can not do\njustice to the topic in such a short time. The question is not only very involved,\nbut being of a philosophical nature, the answer to it will be determined primarily\nby temperaments. ''Tough-minded\" people will think of progress in one\nway, ''tender- minded\" people in another way. In view of these facts I shall\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntManuai Training\n\nsimply present very briefly four definitions of social progress, and try to\ndetermine under each one how industrial development contributes.\n1. The first definition of social progress is in terms of the theory of evolution. Asociety progresses as it becomes more and more differentiated and the\nparts become increasingly interdependent. In other words, social progress is\ncharacterized by increased division of labor and increased organization for the\nattainment of common ends. Now if we compare the various kinds of human\nactivity, it will be at once evident that this process is carried farther in the\nindustrial field than in any other. This is suggested by the very term used\nto designate the process ; namely, the division of labor. Industry is so divided\nthat thirty-nine men are employed in the various activities of making one\ncoat, and industry is so organized that goods are brought to our homes from\nall ends of the earth.\n2. The second definition of social progress also takes the evolutionary\npoint of view. It makes survival in group-struggle the criterion of progress.\nIt maintains that if a group is fitted to survive, it is the superior group. In\nthe historical part of our paper, we showed how the industrial factor played\na prominent part in determining this group-survival, and hence contributed\nto social progress.\n3. From a third point of view progress is measured by increased control\nover and utilization of the forces of nature. We are told in Genesis that God\ncommanded man to replenish the earth and subdue it, and to have dominion\nover all the living things of the earth. Hence man is progressing as he increases\nhis command over the forces and materials of nature. This makes industrial\nprogress and social progress synonymous.\n4. Finally, we have the point of view of the ethical idealists who would\nmeasure progress by increased self-realization. Society progresses as it\nprovides increasing opportunity for each individual to develop his individuality.\nIn this connection I desire to make three points:\na) It has been industrial development more than anything else that has\nprovided the leisure to enable the masses to develop other than the industrial\nphases of their personalities. The Greeks may have emphasized individual\ndevelopment more than any other people but it must be remembered that\nthis was permitted only for the select few. Industrial development is making it possible for most workmen to have four or five hours a day of leisure\ntime for self -improvement and development.\nb) Industrial development has done more than anything else to enrich\nthe environment of the masses: this richer, fuller experience provides for\ngreater self-development. Homely examples of this are found in the invention, improvement and manufacture of the printing press and more recently\nin the phonograph and moving-picture machines with their educational\npossibilities.\nc) There is too much of a tendency to conceive of self-realization in terms\nof contemplative reflective existence, withdrawal from all practical contact\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n763\n\nwith nature's forces. To read the ordinary interpretations of self-realization\none would imagine that it consisted in the Buddhist ideal of a purely passive\nhfe. As opposed to this, we should realize that activity would represent the\nideal with many people. I believe that the constructive instinct is more prominent in the great masses of people than the reflective contemplative tendency\nand that for these, self-reaHzation would be in terms of constructive work\nand the active mastery of nature's forces. In other words, self-realization\nfor the masses would be along industrial Hnes.\nIn conclusion, I desire to say a word about the selfishness of the industrial\npoint of view. There is a tendency among some people to feel that they have\nanswered all arguments for industrial development by branding it as materialistic and selfish. In general these same people would be in favor of a life of\nreflection and ''learning for learning's sake.\" Now I suppose most people\nwould agree that service or action for the common good is a high ethical ideal.\nYet it is perfectly consistent to take this very advanced, very unselfish ethical\nposition and to believe at the same time that it is industrial development that\nmost contributes to the common good. It is just as easy to conceive of an\nEdison actuated by unselfish motives of service to mankind as to conceive\nof a Plato in the same way. Moreover, as Dr. Dewey says, any arrangement\nwhich develops an individual's capacities in construction, production, and\ncreation shifts the center of ethical gravity from an absorption which is\nselfish to a service which is social.\nDISCUSSION\nArthur S. Williston, director, Department of Science and Technology, Pratt\nInstitute, New York City. — I am going to assume that the speaker who has preceded me\nhas convinced you of the truth of the proposition that \"industrial development has exerted\na pre-eminent influence on social progress,\" and, therefore, shall spend the time that has\nbeen allotted to me in speaking on the larger topic of the afternoon, \"The Influence of\nIndustrial Development on Education.\"\nEducation is one of the most conservative of social forces and yields most slowly to\nnew or outside influences. Its methods and its subject-matter change in response to the\ndemands of social progress, it is true, but such changes have often followed a long time\nafter the new conditions making them necessary have been well established. In Rome,\nthree hundred years after the practical usefulness of facility in public argumentation or\nskill in debate had disappeared, as a possible means of defending either state of personal\nliberties, the schools were concentrating their greatest efforts on training designed to cultivate these powers. In the early periods of the Renaissance, when thought and interest\nwere awakening to the joy to be obtained from life, as a reaction from the monasitc teachings of the church, thoughtful men turned back to the early civilization of Greece and\nRome for material with which to fortify their new convictions. The term \"humanities\"\nwas applied to their studies of ancient manuscripts, made for the purpose of strengthening\nthese new aspirations for pesoaal development and moral freedom. As soon as the\ninfluence of the monastery ceased, the purpose and usefulness of such study of course\ndisappeared, but \"the humanities'' — which term came to indicate the study of ancient\nlanguage and literature in a narrow and restricted sense — commence'd to dominate the\nschools of Europe, and continued to do so until the middle of the last century. And in\nthe schools of America at present, it is not difiicult to trace the influence of the rural require-\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nments of the agricultural communities of colonial days, when all education was planned\nto train either doctors, lawyers, or ministers, or else to give the mere essentials of the \"three\nR's\" to farm boys.\nThese illustrations serve to show how slowly and how imperfectly systems of education\nhave usually responded to changed social or industrial conditions., and how methods and\nsystems of training, when once well established, are wont to continue long after their special\nusefulness has ceased. But occasionally, when public interest has been sufl&ciently\naroused, the machinery of education has responded more quickly. At the close of the\nCivil War, which created an imperative necessity for the rapid and extensive development\nof our country's resources, there were established agricultural and mechanical colleges in\nalmost every state in the Union. And again, after the close of the French Revolution,\nindustrial schools were started in all parts of France. There have been times, therefore,\nin the history of education when schools have responded promptly to industrial or social\nrequirements, because of an awakened public sentiment.\nAt the present time, in many parts of the United States, there is a rapidly growing\nsentiment in favor of the kind of education which shall cultivate intelligence and character,\nand at the same time be directly useful in the daily occupations of life. We see here the\ntwo forces, illustrated by the examples that I have cited, contending with one another —\nthe conservatism and the inertia of a traditional and well-established system contending\nwith the demands of progress At the present moment it is difficult to predict how far\nthe schools will yield.\nIndustrial, economic, and social conditions have changed so rapidly in the past few\nyears that the need of a type of instruction which shall be more closely related to practical\nlife has become for a large part of our population almost imperative. This fact is rapidly\nbecoming recognized, and it is fast modifying educational thought. It is now acknowledged that education is a continuous process and that other things being equal the kind of\nthought and study in schools which are most likely to continue and have application in\nafter life have the greatest educational value. The demand for school-training along the\nlines that shall be useful, therefore, does not spring wholly from utilitarian motives. It\ncomes from the desire to meet in the best way both the educational and the industrial necessities of the very large number of persons, especially in the big cities, who must choose\na vocation early in life.\nAs a consequence, thoughtful educators are asking themselves 'whether their schools\nare doing all that might be done to help boys and girls to get a good start in life, and whether\nthere are not other subjects and other methods of training which will be quite as valuable\nin cultivating intelligence and character as those at present employed, which would at the\nsame time increase the possibilities of obtaining desirable and profitable employment when\nthe time comes to leave school. Efficiency in the preparation for life-work is the ideal\ntoward which they are beginning to work. They look about and compare their efforts\nwith the work of others in different fields and are amazed at the contrast. They ask\nthemselves if a group of intelligent business men trained to appreciate efficiency in railroad management, or other practical affairs, accustomed to economize in time and effort\nin every possible way, would devise a system anything like the present system of elementary, grammar, or high-school training if they wished to prepare boys for useful careers in\nthe different departments of the companies under their charge. And if they are Candid\nthey answer, \"Most certainly not; provided they could be free from the traditional\nprejudices regarding education.\"\nBut just as soon as we commence to inquire how we may get the same degree of\nefficiency in education as we do in other affairs we are met with a number of difficulties.\nWe discover that the school must assume a number of duties and responsibilities that it\nis not accustomed to concern itself with, but which are nevertheless essential to the attainment of the higher degree of efficiency.\nFirst, The school must learn how to select bovs and girls to enter those various callings\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nASPECT\n\nOF\n\nSOCIAL\n\nLIFE\n\n765\n\nin industrial commercial, or agricultural life for which their circumstances or natural\nabilities best fit them; and it must have trained experts who can do this work of selection\nwith skill.\nSecond, It must be able to study and analyze the various industries for which it prepares young people with sufficient accuracy to predict what qualities of mind and character\nand exactly what kind of training will be most likely to prove essential to successful careers\nin these vocations; and it must be able to devise courses of instruction which will most\ncertainly develop these necessary abilities.\nThird, It must be able to watch the changed conditions of commercial and industrial\nlife as closely as the successful business man watches his market, so as to be able to anticipate changed requirements.\nFourth, It must assist those who have completed its courses to get well placed in\nemployment sufficiently profitable either in remuneration or in outlook, in order that the\ntime and effort spent in training may not be wasted.\nThese are economic as well as educational considerations and are quite different from\nthe usually accepted and preconceived functions and responsibilities of the ordinary school,\nyet they are what the present-day industrial and social conditions are demanding in a most\nforceful way of education.\n\nTHE INDUSTRIAL ASPECT OF SOCIAL LIFE AFFORDS A\nVARIED AND SIGNIFICANT BODY OF SUBJECT-MATTER\nWHICH IS AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT IN A SYSTEM OF\nEDUCATION CONTROLLED BY SOCIAL STANDARDS\nCARLETON\n\nB.\n\nGIBSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nGA.\n\nThe ideals of a people vary, and as they by slow degrees deeply and definitely\nimpress themselves upon the hearts of the people, they, with unfailing certainty,\ninfluence the means that are used for the education of the people and the\ndevelopment of the national character. If the ideal be beauty in symmetry\nand strength of human body, athletics will be the means of education. If\nthe ideal be skill in arms and conquest through warfare, a soldier's training\nwill be the means of education. If the ideal be the traditions of a people, a\nconstant conning over the things of the past and the glorious achievements of\ntheir forefathers will be the means of education. If the ideal be profound\nknowledge of the classics, a study of literature will be the means of education.\nIf the ideal be achievements and discoveries* in science, the laboratory will\nbecome the work shop of the school. If the ideal be the transformation of\nboundless stores of raw material into products that contribute to the needs and\ncomfort of man, handicraft will be the means of education.\nAs Greece, Rome, the Orient, and Western Europe have in ages past had\ntheir several ideals, so America today seems to be coming into a clearer vision\nof an ideal of industrial supremacy. Only one other nation in the world has\npreceded her in the realization of that ideal.\nGermany, a land of limited resources, a land lacking the fertility of soil\nwith which our country has been blessed, forced to import much of her food\nsupply, almost entirely without mineral wealth, a land hemmed in by countries\nwith hostile tariffs and unfriendly trade relations, a land in the main without\nnative artistic sense and devoid of the inventive ingenuity of the American,\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nhas, thru the persistent training of her children's hands, first in the homes\nand for the last half century or more in her public schools, reached an enviable\nposition of commercial and industrial supremacy.\nTo this little nation America, with her vast resources of fertile stretches of\nland and inexhaustible mines of mineral wealth ; with her boundless forests and\nunlimited water power; with coal and iron and limestone lying side by side\nwith which to make easy the transformation of iron ore into all the products\nof the iron market; with marvelous water power in the midst of her cotton\nfields to transform the fleecy staple into all the varied products demanded by\nthe world for clothing; with characteristic native ingenuity and inventive\nskill; with engineering ability that has removed mountains and made the\narid desert to blossom as the most fertile plains; with the markets of the world\nopen to her on all sides — America must take second place and be outstripped\nin the race for commercial supremacy by her less favored competitor. And\nwhy? True, we sent into the markets of the world year before last two\nbillion dollars worth of products. Marvelous combinations of capital and\naggregations of business skill greatly reduced the expense of production and\nsent from American factories an amazing output. Nature aided largely with\nraw material and wonderful power, and American genius gave splendid means\nof transportation, but with all this there was lacking one significant and important factor — universal manual skill on the part of the workers.\nWhile from our fields there went into the markets of the world more than\none million dollars worth of products, general scientific agricultural education\ncould be credited with very little of this wonderful production. Only the\npremonitions of such education have been felt in the great West and Northwest, and in no degree whatever have the fields of the South felt that awakening of nature which comes from the quickening touch of general scientific\nfarming.\nAnd while our nation gave to the markets of the world one hundred million\ndollars worth of products from under the earth, there was lacking in this\ncombination of business ability and mining engineering an equally important\nfactor — universal skill of hand.* Our factories, with marvelous power, cheap\nfuel and Yankee business ability, added to the commerce of the world seven\nhundred million dollars worth of manufactured products; and while American inventiveness in the production of modern and efficient machinery enabled\nus to produce these goods economically and well, skilled handicraft played\nalmost no part in their manufacture.\nEndowed lavishly with raw material, inventive ingenuity, business skill,\nand unlimited power, what might we not do in the commerce of the world if\nwe had only followed Germany's wise example fifty years ago and put into\nour public schools everywhere manual training and industrial education ?\nOur forefathers unwisely based their aspirations for industrial supremacy\nupon a protective tariff, which was to foster infant industries and add profit\nto the capitalist in his competition with foreign nations.\nThis protected\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nASPECT\n\nOF\n\nSOCIAL\n\nLIFE\n\n767\n\nthe manufacturer, but failed to protect the people who were converting for\nhim his raw material into marketable stuff, except in so far as it gave them\nemployment.\nWhile we were struggling upward under a protective tariff, Germany was\nsteadily marching on to industrial supremacy under universal industrial\neducation. Today we are waking up as a nation to the fact that we have\nmade a mistake and today leaders of thought in statecraft, commerce, and\nmanufacturing are beginning to realize that universal industrial education is\nfar more important than a protective tariff.\nScientific child study, educational pyschology, and history are all good in\nthemselves, but they are insufficient, singly and coUecti'vely, as a basis upon\nwhich to build a broad scheme of education that will meet present day needs.\nThe school must become linked more closely to life and must prepare its\nstudents for efficient service in the hfe into which we send them.\nI would not lessen one iota the cultural influence of the school, its noble\nwork in development of character, the high ideals of conduct that may be placed\nbefore youth; but all this can be made a prominent feature of the work even\nof the school shop. My belief, based upon experience, is that the boy or girl\nworking daily in the school shop becomes the more susceptible to these elevating and cultural influences of the school, becomes more interested in the purely\nacademic work, and develops the more surely a strong stable character.\nFor a long time it was recognized and accepted intuitively by school men\nas a well-estabHshed fact that the state had lawfully and morally no part in\nthe industrial training of its youth. And upon this assumption the introduction ofmanual training into school systems was bitterly fought by educators\nand the pubKc generally, who believed that legitimate education consisted\nonly in training thru the humanities. Manual training, however, finally\ngained a hold upon the pubhc schools, first for its educational value, and\nlater in some vague, indefinite way, it came to be recognized as a legitimate\nfactor in school work for its economic value also. But only during the present\ndecade, indeed, during the last two years, has specialized industrial training\nor vocational: education come to be recognized in any community in the United\nStates as a legitimate part of pubhc education. The wisdom or legality of\nsuch recognition depends upon the view we take of the purposes of government.\nPublic education is a department of government or a medium thru which\ngovernment expresses itself for the people. The education of all the children\nof the people at public expense has long been regarded as a legitimate function\nof government; first, that the government might not have ignorant citizens\nwho would be in danger of becoming criminals; later, that the government\nmight have a higher average type of citizenship and so develop g, state in which\nits educated citizens might find a just pride.\nIt has perhaps been left for the latter years of this decade to bring out a\nmore liberal -view of the functions of government.\nMany statesmen and\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthoughtful citizens are beginning to realize that the full and complete purpose\nof government is not alone protection against crime and ignorance and pauperism, but that it is the full and complete development of all its citizens. It is\nnot sufficient that school houses and churches be established in communities\nto supplant or lessen the need of jails and police protection, but there must\nbe in the citizens constructive and creative ability to contribute to the wealth\nand general welfare of the community. The ideal citizen must be not only\na person of intelligence and culture, but he must be also an efficient, economic\nunit.\nIndustrial education is today a prominent and popular theme, not only with\neducators, but with statesmen, manufacturers, and men of large business affairs.\nThe President of the United States does not hesitate to declare it the most\nimportant problem of the public schools. The organization of the National\nSociety for the Promotion of Industrial Education, composed largely of the\ngreat capitalists and manufacturers of this country, is significant. The prominence given to the commission for the study of industrial education appointed\nby the state of Massachusetts, not only in that state, but thruout the entire\ncountry, shows the trend of public thought on this question. The remarkable\ngrowth of industrial and technological schools everywhere indicates a widespread desire for this form of education in what they have been pleased to\nterm practical subjects. More and more the school is becoming articulated\nwith life work, and the fact is gradually being accepted that any work carried\non in the school which prepares directly for intelHgent and efficient service to\nmankind is legitimate, whether it be in the learned professions, in business\nwalks, in manufacturing, in agriculture or in any form of industry.\nEducation should prepare for the activities of life, and if the dominant\nfeature of the life be agriculture, education leading directly to preparation for\nthat kind of life may properly be given in the schools; and when agricultural\neducation is attempted in the schools of a certain section of the country it\nshould be adapted to the particular needs of that section of the country. If\nit is found that a very large percentage of the children going thru the elementary\nand secondary schools find their bread-winning occupation in some form of\nindustry, it is not only the privilege, but the duty of the community to prepare\nthis large number of children for intelligent and efficient service in their chosen\noccupations. The aim should be not only to make the young citizen intelligent,\nbut to make of him an efficient, economic unit.\nRecent investigations conducted by the educational department of the\ninternational committee of the Y. M. C. A. demonstrated that of thirteen\nmillion young men in the United States between the ages of twenty-one and\nthirty-five, only 5 per cent, received in connection with their school education\nany preparation for their several occupations. It was also discovered that\nof every one hundred graduates of our elementary schools, only eight obtained\ntheir livelihood by means of the professions and commercial business, while\nthe remaining ninety-two supported themselves and their families by the skill\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nASPECT\n\nOF\n\nSOCIAL\n\nLIFE\n\n769\n\nof their hands. If 92 per cent, of those who complete the elementary school\ncourse go into some form of bread-winning occupation where the efficiency\nof their service and their wage-earning power will depend upon skill of the\nhand, should not the elementary school seek to become more closely articulated\nwith the life into which its graduates must go to find their livelihood ? Add to\nthese graduates the large number of those who fall out of the elementary\nschools from the fourth grade on, and we have a vast army of young people going\ninto the bread-winning occupations with no specific training therefor.\nIn ages more or less remote, the ideal in education seemed to be to get a\nvery small percentage of our young men thru college and university courses in\norder that they might enter the learned professions — medicine, law, and\ntheology, and almost no thought was given to the vast majority, possibly\n98 per cent., of the youth of the land who for one reason or another could not\nreach the end of a university course. There stood out before educators only\nthese three goals toward which they urged on the more favored of their students\nin ability to do scholastic work. Indeed, it was often considered somewhat\nof a stigma to make so great a failure in school, college, or university work\nas not to reach one of these goals, and fall into the base occupation of trade\nor still baser occupation of industry. It mattered little what the young man's\nearning power was, or the efficiency of his service to mankind, if only he could\nbecome a limb of the law, a doctor of medicine or a young theologian. And\nif, after vainly struggling for several years, he could not earn his daily bread\nin one of these professions, he might honorably try school teaching. The\nless fortunate boy who fell by the wayside, and, donning his overalls, went to\nwork at some industrial occupation, where in time his wages might amount\nto as much as twenty-five dollars a week, was looked upon with disfavor by\nthe young man in the gentler walks of life whose \"salary\" was no more than\ntwelve dollars a week. This increased earning power of the young man of\noveralls represents a higher degree of intelligence and efficiency of service to\nmankind in his industrial occup'ation, as surely as the lower earning power of\nthe other represents the lower degree of intelligence and efficiency of service\nto mankind in the gentler walks of life.\nThe wonderful achievements in engineering, manufacturing, commerce,\nand agriculture are forcing the American people to regard these occupations\nas in every sense quite as highly honorable as the so-called learned professions.\nAnd the schools are coming to recognize more and more that those studies,\neven elementary studies, which prepare the youth for successful experience\nin these occupations, have as legitimate a place in the school curriculum as\nany of the humanities. In the earlier days industries and trades were often\ntaught in the good old farm homes, not only to the inferior classes, but to\nthe children of many of the best people of the country. Before the building\nof great cities and the vast network of railroads, the farm home often had its\ncarpenter shop, saw mill, blacksmith shop, cooper shop, tannery, shoe shop,\nand many other industries; and the boys who had little schooling often had\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nvaluable training in these industries, and in the little worid about the home\nthey contributed for a term of years in some special industry valuable service\nthat -came from such crude specialized training.\nAnd I dare say that such training had as much to do with the development\nof the men who in the larger cities, in after years, became leaders in commerce,\nin manufacturing or in statecraft, as any formal school training they might\nhave received. I have in mind a man who belongs to one of the foremost\nfamilies in the South and whose wise mother in such a home saw to it that\nnot only he but that all of his brothers had special training in some one of\nthese industries. His specialty was cobbUng. That man, after reaching\nhis majority, settled in a city of the South and is today its most successful\nbanker and manufacturer, a man who is regarded by everyone as pre-eminently\nthe first citizen of his city. The training that was given in this crude way\nin the old farm home should, in the passing away of these old homes, be given\nin the schools of the land.\nThe most hopeful sign in this educational renaissance is our growing\nwiUingness to break away from tradition. The social ideals or dominant\nlife of a people must influence the schemes for education. Now that industrial\nAmerica, with its governmental protection to the industrial, has been outstripped\nby Germany with its universal industrial training, we are being forced as a\npeople to give serious study to the reorganization of our schools to meet the\ndemands upon them for industrial efficiency; and this is a problem for the\njoint solution of educational leaders, statesmen, and captains of industry.\nToo many American boys and girls have been sHpping thru the meshes of\nthe elementary schools and going out to join the vast army of bread winners\nwithout adequate training. Many of those who leave the schools have a\nfeeling, based upon observation of their bread-winning friends, that the preparation they are receiving in the schools does not give them earning power.\nThe aim of the schools has been to develop passive living power, but hving\npower without commensurate constructive earning power is un-American.\nThe truly typical American is one who can wear overalls as gracefully as he\nwears a dress suit.\nThe problem of rural communities is that of adequate agricultural training\nfor the masses of young people who should go into agricultural pursuits. The\nproblem of urban communities today is that of adequate training for the masses\nof young people who must become bread winners in industrial and commercial\npursuits.\nDISCUSSION\nStarr Cadwallader, superintendent of sanitation, Cleveland, O. — After all that\nhas been said during the sessions today concerning the importance of industry in life and\nof industrial education, it seems scarcely possible to add anything which shall have significance to this audience from the standpoint either of the industrial need or of the educational program. But it has seemed to me that in this and other similar discussions the human point of view is not presented with the fulness which it merits.\nOn the one side the\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "UepartmentJ\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nASPECT\n\nOF SOCIAL\n\nLIFE\n\n771.\n\nsubject is ably and technically handled. The difficulties and possibilities of including\nindustrial courses in the regular school program are very skillfully set forth. On the other\nside the subject is also well stated. Statesmen, manufacturers, and others concerned\nabout industrial supremacy, demand that the number of those trained to do things with\ntheir hands be very greatly increased. You, who are educators, have in the past accomplished the arrangement of a program measurably suited to the needs of various communities and I have confidence to believe that you will again succeed. I have also very great\nconfidence that what the captain of industry wants for the advancement of his particular\nbusiness he will get. But what of the great mass of school children of whom you have\nspoken ? What will they get ? Will they be able to attain a more comfortable, happy\nlife, or will they become only more fit tools ?\n\nThe subject for this particular part of the program says: \"The industrial aspect\nof social life affords a varied and significant body of subject-matter.\" As to the industrial\naspect of social life — you have all been proving that industry is at the basis of things.\nIt is necessary to earn a living. You have shown that the methods of production and\ndistribution determine, to a considerable extent, forms of social organization. True,\nchanges in the methods of production and distribution have, within the last century,\nremodeled the forms of social organization. But the industrial process, the way in which\nindustry is conducted, does not by any means comprehend the social life of a people.\nIndustrial effects are quite as important as industrial processes. Industrial processes,\nwhich may be very effective in so far as the making of a product is concerned, may be\nabsolutely detrimental to the life of a community\nIn the consideration of this subject, certain limitations have been overlooked. There\nare limitations within the school. We are pretty generally agreed that the public school\nhas not, for a large majority of the children who enter it, the effect, the influence that it\nought to have. It does not give them even the traditional kind of education. The short\nperiod during which the average child remains in school seems insufficient to attain this\nresult. The difficulty may be in the child, in the method, or in the quality of teaching,\nbut the fact remains that the success is not what it might be or what it ought to be. Now,\nif industrial courses are added, will the 92 per cent, who leave school after four or five\nyears more surely be given an industrial training, sufficiently effective and valuable, than\nthey are now given the traditional education ? A portion of them, doubtless, will be\nbenefited, but the benefit can scarcely be postulated for them all. There are also limitations outside the school. Suppose the 92 per cent, are given an efficient industrial training, that they become skilled hand workers, does any man or woman live in a community\nwhere 92 per cent, of the school children thus equipped could go out and tomorrow be\ncertain of earning a living under existing conditions ? A percentage of those graduated\nfrom the various schools now earn their living. The vital question for the vast number\nof children and the families from which they come is by how much the other kind of training will increase this percentage.\nThere is no longer much difference of opinion as to the method of school instruction.\nApparently the wise educators have come to the conclusion that a child is not a receptacle,\na passive instrument, or thing. A child is recognized as an active organism. He gains\nmost of his knowledge as well as his general development, not by absorption but by activity.\nBut I presume that for a long time the school program will provide for the transfer of\ninformation from the teacher to the pupil. Now in connection with the industrial training\nwhich is to give skill of hand, well-developed body, quickness of mind and eye, what\ninformation is to be given which will make this training a factor of social efficiency ? It\nseems to me that there is a vast body of subject-matter of the greatest importance, which\nis neither touched by the present school curriculum nor by the plans proposed to develop\nmanual skill. It can be provided for in that portion of the program set apart for the\ntransfer of information from teacher to pupil. Food, clothing, and shelter are essential\nfo life. The quantity and quality of these things attainable bv the mass of people have\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "^72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Trabing\n\na direct bearing on social efficiency. The real object of training is not, to my mind,\nindustrial supremacy but human supremacy. The child is to be trained not so much\nthat he may make more or even better things; but that he himself may more surely secure\nand more wisely use the means of life. It is important then that he should have information concerning the conditions surrounding the industries which he may enter. The\nhours of labor, the chances of injury or premature death, the chances of permanent or\noccasional employment, and the rate of wages in particular industries are all of concern to\nhim, and should form a part of his instruction. It is important to instruct the chi4d not\nonly in regard to conditions in particular industries, but also in regard to community\nconditions. If certain industries afford some leisure, reasonable safeguards to life and\nlimb, and a fair wage, the child should know what probability there is that the worker\nin these industries can, in a given community, obtain pure food, good clothing, decent\nhousing, and wholesome recreation. Further than this, is it not the duty of the school\nto point out whether the best kind of industry for a child is to be found in the locality\nwhere he is ? The school teaching, for example, should impress upon the city-born child,\ngrowing up under conditions which demand powers of endurance and resistance which his\nenvironment has denied him, the possibilities of life elsewhere.\nJust a word in regard to industrial efficiency. It does not seem to me that industrial\net^ciency is synonymous with social efficiency. Industrial efficiency may be absolutely\nanti-social. It makes for a larger production of things, makes also for a better production\nof things; but social efficiency, as I understand it, makes for a larger and better comfort\nand happiness of human beings — human beings, all of whose time and energy is not consumed in earning a living, but a part of whose time and energy is released for the things\nof the mind and the spirit, developing right human relationship.\n\nTHE\n\nIMPORTANT FUNCTION OF CONSTRUCTIVE ACTIVITIES IN EDUCATION IS TO REVEAL THE SOCIAL\nSIGNIFICANCE OF INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES\nWILLIAM\n\nNOYES,\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK, N. Y.\n\nModem industry, as compared with mediaeval industry, is characterized,\nin the first place, by its relation to scientific knowledge. Tested knowledge\nand high technical skill have taken the place of guess work and of the ''ruleof-thumb\" skill of our ancestors, and the result is a revolution in industrial\nprocesses. One after another of the sciences, mathematics, physics, chemistry,\nbiology, geology, geography, etc., has put its resources of knowledge at the\ndisposal of industry, and the result has been that these sciences have so far\nimpressed their character that industries are now beginning to be classified\naccording to the sciences which have been applied to them. Chemistry gives\nits name to one group of industries, biology to another, and various branches\nof physics to still others. Modem industry, in other words, is applied science.\nBut no less truly is modem science dependent upon modern industry.\nGreat as is the contrast between mediaeval and modem industry in respect\nof its application of scientific methods and principles, it is no greater than\nthe contrast of method between mediaeval and modern science. The typical\nmediaeval scientist was the alchemist, working alone and in secret; the typical\nmodem scientist is the inventor, working on a grand scale and with enormous\nappliances.\nNot only is it true that modem industry is applied science;\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n773\n\nmodern science includes, in turn, enormous industries devoted to research.\nOnly a few years ago the study of electricity could be carried on by a single\nman with a few Leyden jars; today an electric plant with its lines, whether of\nlight or power, covers miles of territory and employs thousands of workers,\nand this is the form in which the modem student of electricity must study it.\nThe interdependence of science and industry characterizes them both,\nand they vitalize each other. To speak in a figure, the hermit Science has\ncome out of his cell and married the drudge, Industry, greatly to the glory and\nusefulness of them both.\nAnother characteristic feature of modern industry, alongside its scientific\ncharacter, is its social character. Like mediaeval science, mediaeval industry\nwas distinctively individualistic. Every man for himself w^as still the golden\nrule which survived from primitive life. To be sure industry and life were\nfar more sociaHzed than before, but the social revolution made its vastest forward stride with the industrial revolution. The industrial reorganization of\nthe past century involves a change in human relationships, and that change\nwe call socialization.\nAnd not less but more than industry has science become sociaUzed. Modem\nscience is social knowledge, impossible for the individual to acquire alone.\nWhat would any great modem scientist be by himself without the host of\nscientists and other workers, devoted men, toiling beside him to accumulate\ndata and verify results ?\nMr. H. G. Wells, in his illuminating book, New Worlds for Old,\nwrites:\nThe whole difference of modern scientific research from that of the middle ages,\nthe secret of its immense successes, lies in its collective character, in the fact that every\nfruitful experiment is published, every new discovery of relationships explained. In a\nsense scientific research is a triumph over natural instinct, over that mean instinct that\nmakes men secretive, that makes a man keep knowledge to himself and use it slyly for his\nown advantage. To ''keep shut\" and bright-eyed, and to score advantages, that is\nthe wisdom of the common stuff of humanity still. To science it is a crime.\n\nThe medical profession condemns as a quack and a rascal the man who\nuses secret remedies. No sooner does a scientist make a discovery than he\npublishes it broadcast.\nAnd still less is modern science capable of individual application. For\nexample, a few years ago the world needed better artificial Hght. The discovery\nof Karl von Welsbach that thorium and cerium were brilliantly incandescent,\nwhen heated together, was not enough to furnish the light. A curious mineral\ncalled monazite sand has to be brought from Brazil and scientifically and\nrigorously purified; ramie, a China grass, has to be cultivated in India and in\nItaly to be woven into mantles; long-fibred asbestos, scientifically made in\nBelgium, furnishes the loop; the oxides of berillium and aluminum are used\nto vitrify the upper end of the mantle; and the label is painted on with uranium\nnitrate. The efforts of ten thousands of men are employed to utilize rare\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nminerals which a few years ago were of interest only to academic science, and\nevery night millions of people are benefited thereby.\nNo better illustration than this is needed both of the union of modern\nscience and modern industry and of their social character.\nScience, as well as industry, tends to develop the social consciousness, the\nrealization — in spirit and in conduct — that life is social, that participation in the\ncommon life is the only life worth living.\nIn a word, modem industry is more and more distinctively scientific and\nscience is more and more related to industry. They are interdependent. With\nscience, industry shares the glory of being progressively social. Indeed it\nmay be said that the most notable trend of modern life is the socialization of\nhuman knowledge and human activities and human relationships.\nWhat then shall, nay, must, be the character of modern education in order\nto include an adequate appreciation of modern industry? If education be\nHfe in the making, it should in the first place include familiarity with modern\nscience, and second, it should reveal the social significance of industry.\nThat the former of these requirements is being well if not adequately\nfulfilled is one of the noblest achievements of our educational system. The\nstudy of science in the schools is becoming pragmatic. The recognition of\nthe interdependence of science and industry is going on apace, and the credit\nfor this is largely due to the science teachers in our schools.\n^ In addition to this we have begun to include formally the study of industries\nin our school curricula. Industry as a factor in education is a common\nsubject for discussion in such conferences as this. As you are all aware,\nsuch study began, and naturally began, with the primitive industries, because\nthey were the simplest of comprehension and afforded workable material for\nartistic expression. Of its high value it is not necessary here to speak at length.\nThe comparatively simple problem of teaching children how savages,\ncolonists, and mediaeval craftsmen fed, clothed and sheltered themselves,\nwe have solved with no little success. Not that our solutions are above criticism. Much work has been highly histrionic and some of it has perhaps contributed as much to the mystification as to the enlightenment of children.\nBut undoubtedly the work has been an advance in the field of teacher-directed\neducation, for, among others of its virtues, it has given to the child added\nmaterials and opportunity for self-expression and an insight into some industrial processes. On the whole, we have done well.\nBut this reproduction of primitive or mediaeval forms of industries in\nschools is a comparatively simple problem. The tools are small and inexpensive,\nthe rule is the rule of thumb, and the work is individual. But modem industry\nis not solely nor distinctively muscular toil nor manipulation, but the hamessing and directing of natural forces to produce wealth. It uses gigantic tools,\ntoo expensive to fool with, its methods are the exact ones of science, and its\nunits are armies of men, women, and children.\nAn appreciation of modem industry, therefore, involves not merely the\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n775\n\nunderstanding of its primitive forms and manipulation in them; it involves a\nmore or less complete understanding of the principles underlying the harnessing and directing of natural forces. In a word, the more scientific information\nwe can impart, the more we can cultivate the scientific spirit, the more nearly\nwe are revealing the true significance of modem industry.\nSuch scientific study includes observation and familiarity with industrial\nprocesses. The village boy of a generation or two ago had abundant opportunity to observe all the common industrial processes of the day. The modem\nboy has no such opportunity.\nA serious difficulty that confronts us in the attempt to reveal the social\nsignificance of industry is the system of secrecy and aloofness with which\nindustry is carried on. The method of science, as we have noted, is open,\nfree publication. Its symbol is the torch passed from hand to hand. The\nmethod of business is the trade secret, and its motto is plainly written on its\ndoors: ''No admission.\" Even the scientific expert has difficulty in finding\nout how much science is being applied to various industries. He is looked upon\nas a spy. And as for the ordinary man or boy who is curious to learn about\nindustrial processes, he is almost entirely barred from any approach to them.\nIndustry is protected not only by a tariff, but by trade secrets, which are\nlocked up in safes and scrupulously kept out of public sight. It is only when\na business is so firmly established that it is beyond the fear of competition\nthat it can be generous. A notable example is the famous glass works at\nJena. They publish all that is known concerning the making of glass and\ndepend solely upon the excellence of their product to maintain their supremacy, a candor that seems almost incredible to those whose success depends\nupon the possession of trade secrets and private patents.\nTo open workshops to observation, and that not merely for the purposes\nof advertisement, would be an invaluable means of industrial education, and,\nmore than that, would give to business some of that spirit of free social service\nthat now characterizes science.\nBut to reveal the social significance of industry involves, in addition to an\nintellectual appreciation of its principles and methods, a manual approach,\nby which I mean actual participation in industrial processes as now carried\non. In other words, either the workshop must become more like a school,\nor the school must become more like a workshop. The only way to leam to\nwork is to work. This is no less and no more true of modern industries than of\nprimitive or mediaeval industries. If it is important to acquire manual skill\nin basketry, pottery, or woodwork, in order to appreciate a handicraft, it is\nno less important, nay, rather more important to participate in modern industrial processes. This, I hardly need say, does not mean a mere repetition of a\nmonotonous motion, nor deftness in guiding an almost auton;atic machine,\nnor the blind following of a prescribed chemical formula. It is such processes\nas these that constitute the sort of industrial education now actually given to\nchild laborers.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nNor, on the other hand, can an adequate industrial education be obtained\nwhen industrial activities are reduced to entertaining simulations on a small\nscale. In the attempt to convert into individual playthings projects which are\nonly socially possible, some of their meaning is inevitably dissipated. A\nmake-believe world can never be a complete preparation for a real world.\nNot for one moment would I belittle the educative value of making and\nworking scientific and mechanical toys. It is a good thing for a boy to make\na motor boat, as a part of his study of the principles of hydraulics and electricity.\nAll amateur efforts, whether in electricity, printing, weaving, painting or\nphotography, are, or can be made to be, educative; but educative play of this\nsort can, at the best, be only a partial preparation for educative work. In\naddition, actual participation in typical forms of modem scientific productive\nactivity is essential to a complete industrial education. This is because, whether\nfor good or for ill, man is educated by his work. That the modem man is a\nmore social being than his ancestors is largely due to his industrial life.\nThe participation in modem industry is slowly but surely transforming\nhuman nature, for a man is educated by what he does. The instinct of\nworkmanship, the closeness of observation, the patient gathering of data,\nthe readiness for innovation, the power to generalize, the ability to reason from\ncause to effect, in a word the scientific habit, which tends to carry with it the\nspirit of service, these are the spiritual offspring of the marriage of science and\nindustry. The socialization of science and of industry means, in its ultimate\nconsequences, a remaking of human character. Social service instead of\nprivate gain; the common good as indispensable to individual welfare; good\nwill as the lubricant of human relationships; co-operation as the means of\nattaining fellowship : all these are ideals that modem industry tends to make\nreal. Tends, I say, for modem industry, plainly social though it be in character, ishampered by business practices that stifle and cmsh it. Every useful\nscientific discovery and every advance in industrial efficiency are new warp\nthreads shot across the woof of human relationships, binding men closer together.\nBut constantly twisting and snarling, these threads is the system of private\nbusiness by which industries, essentially public in character, are owned and\nmanaged, not for public welfare, but for private gain and personal advantage.\nWe may as well face the fact that industry, altho it is more and more a\nsocial and socializing process, is largely tumed into a means of private gain.\nThis, moreover, marks still another contrast with the practice of science.\nAs we have noted, business success depends primarily upon the spirit of private\ngain; science thrives on the spirit of public service, and so far forth the modern\nsystem of production for profit stands athwart the road on which science is\nmoving, barring progress and exacting tribute.\nThe secretive practices of modem business not only thwart science, but the\nself-aggrandizement that characterizes them blasts moral character. The present business necessity for the spirit of greed to a great extent perverts the spirit\nA fact that everywhere\nof workmanship engendered by social industry.\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n777\n\nconfronts us is the perversion of human character under the necessities of our\npresent business system. Industry and science tend to make men social;\nbusiness as conducted today tends to make them greedy and selfish. Ugly\nas the fact is, we cannot ignore it, for it is thrust upon our notice every day.\nBut, fortunately, neither this condition nor this state of mind can last.\nThe logic of events is against it. The exploitation of what are in truth social\nactivities for private gain is, I believe, a temporary feature of modem life.\nScience must and will proclaim its truths in spite of the censorship of modem\nbusiness. Industry does and will more and more partake of the nature of\npublic service, and cannot forever be harnessed to the chariot of swollen\nfortunes.\nThe social significance of modern industry is too great to be obscured, and\nthe social trend of its evolution too strong to be perverted by private and personal advantage. The real meaning of modern industrial activities is their\nsocial meaning, however much this fact may be clouded by present-day\npolitics or by private monopolies. To help reveal this social significance of\nindustry, as well as to help create the social consciousness, is a part of the\nfunction of education.\nHow can this be done ? In this discussion we are assuming almost without\nquestion that it is the function of the state to prepare its citizens for industrial\neflSciency. We have abandoned the idea that such preparation can longer be\nleft to private initiative. The apprentice system is on its deathbed. Industry\nhas reached such a highly socialized condition that it has become necessary\nfor the social organization, the state, to assume charge of the now well-recognized social function of industrial education.\nSome inferences from this condition of affairs seem to be plain. If a\ncomplete industrial education requires actual participation in productive\nindustry, and if industrial education is a state function, it is reasonable to\ninfer that the state should control industry at least so far as to make use of it\nfor educational purposes.\nA state that cares enough for its children to educate them for industrial\nefficiency cannot in reason sit passively by and let that efficiency be merely\na tool to fit the exigencies of private profit. It cannot afford to train young\nmen and women at great expense, only to let their increased worth as producers\naccrue to the enrichment of a favored few. It must recognize that educated\nhuman beings are worth too much to be tossed about in the great gamble and\nscramble for business profits, and wasted now in overwork, now in enforced\nidleness. It must go on and guarantee that the conditions of labor shall be\ndecent and livable ; that the workers shall be assured of steady employment ;\nthat their increasing industrial efficiency shall come back to them in more\ncomforts and leisure, and that their work shall contribute to' their mental\nand moral growth. The state must see to it that its most precious possession,\neducated men and women, use their powers thmout life at the point of highest\nefficiency and thereby add to the honor andglory of thestate.\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nIndustrial efficiency means, or should mean, not merely greater profits\nfor the employers of labor, but a fuller and happier life for the laborers; and a\nsystem of industrial education should be one in which the prime consideration\nis given to the welfare and happiness of the laborers.\nIt has always been our boast that our educational system was not privately\nowned nor managed for the benefit of private interests, but for the common\ngood. \"The public school, the last bulwark of democracy !\" has been a powerful rallying cry for the conservation of the fundamental principles of a national\nlife. And now that the school is beginning to assume new forms, and include\ndefinite preparation for occupations, it behooves us, educators and conservators\nof the common good, to see to it that the character of the new education be\nprimarily for the fuller development of boys and girls, in order that they may\nacquire the scientific spirit and the social consciousness, and not be merely\ntools, highly specialized tools, for the piling up of more wealth for economic\nmasters.\nIndustrial efficiency, that is, the ability to produce more wealth, we must\nhave. In the effort to obtain it, let us also secure social efficiency, the ability\nto produce more happiness for all, thru participation in the common life.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJames E. Addicott, principal, Newman Manual Training School, New Orieans, La. —\nWhile we all admire the spirit and are in full sympathy with the educational ideals of\nthe author of the paper just read, there are a few semi-socialistic sentiments expressed,\nthe details of which we would wish explained or modified before giving an unqualified\nindorsement. Probably all of us are of the same opinion as Mr. Noyes on the main\npoints of his paper: that \"science is becoming more and more concerned with its application to industry;\" that both science and industry were \"in mediaeval times distinctively individualistic\" and have since become more social in their nature; that\n\"science has a strong socializing tendency \" and that the industries are helping materially\nto sociaUze the world; that \"science and industry are inter-dependent;\" that\n\"modern science is social knowledge and impossible for the individual to acquire\nalone;\" that \"education should include familiarity with modern science\" and should\nalso \"reveal the social significance of industry;\" that to \"reveal the social significance\nof industry involves participation in industrial processes;\" that \"the socialization of science and industry tends to a higher type of human character;\" that the scientific ideal\nis \"social service instead of private gain;\" and it makes for \"good will as the lubricant\nof human relationships;\" that \"it is the function of the state (i) to prepare its citizens for industrial efficiency\" and (2) \"to guarantee to its industrial citizens some comforts and leisure, thus giving opportunities for mental and moral growth.\"\nSome of these statements or inferences would admit of considerable discussion if\ntime would permit.\nMr. Noyes says, \"Science tends to give to a higher degree than industry the social\nconsciousness, the realization in spirit and in conduct that life is social, that participation\nin the common life is the only life worth living.\" We cannot suscribe fully to this statement, for industry in all its various phases has in all ages been one of the greatest socializing agents; and science, even in its most modern and perfected form, is and always\nmust be a mere auxiliary to industry.\nThe real value of science or of any other branch of\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n779\n\nhuman knowledge must be determined by the service it can render to man's works and\nto man's ideals.\nMr. Noyes's statement that hand-work problems in the teaching of historical stories\n\"have contributed as much to the mystification as to the enlightenment of children\" cannot be accepted by teachers and supervisors of primary work. While we all agree that\na complete understanding of the principles involved in the harnessing and directing of\nnatural forces is highly desirable, it must not be assumed that this is the all-important\naim in education; neither must we assume that small children have the interest in or the\ncapabilities to conceive the principles involved in such highly differentiated processes.\nThe work and methods alluded to as mystifying I would still contend to be the better\nfor children below the fifth year of the elementary school. These children live in and\nenjoy a certain spirit of mystification.\nThe scientific spirit which reveals modern industry has not found a place in the\nsmall child's mind; his scientific attitude must be shown rather in his appreciation of\nthe true, the good and the beautiful in nature, in a refined and delicate feeling of pleasure\nin the sunset, the woods, the mountain, the streams, and in a sympathy for the birds, the\nanimals, and the people he meets.\nAgain we must not accept as final the idea that the scientist is a human model, while\nthe business man is a selfish, dishonest, secretive individual; and that because industry\nexacts tribute it is therefore barring the progress of science. The real efficacy of even\npure science lies in the fact that it may ultimately prove useful and profitable to man in\nhis various industrial enterprises.\nScience seeks and obtains its reward as it becomes useful to industry. It is true that\ngreed for money has lowered the ideals of many business men, but greed for honor, for\nfame, yes, for knowledge, may be just as selfish and sinful unless controlled by a spirit\nof social service. The teachers are living in glass houses, and although at times it becomes\nour duty to throw stones at the business men, they in turn could nearly destroy our educational homes by a swift return of the missiles. I refer to the examination system in\nschools with the accompanying rivalry for highest per cent., for prizes and for the glory\nwhich comes to the one who has defeated others in a useless and purposeless race, all of\nwhich is conducive to the development of vanity and selfishness among our very best\npupils and should if possible be replaced by a purpose which is nobler and more altruistic.\nThe memorizing and cramming process so prevalent throughout the country wastes much\nof the time and energy of supervisors, teachers and pupils and crushes out much of the\nlove of real study and the enjoyment in independent thought.\nThe examination system sets up false ideals, similar to those found in business methods,\nand emphasizes too strongly the memory of facts and offers little reward for judgment and\npower to plan and to do things. In adult life success depends upon the use of knowledge\nand abilities; no reward is given for merely knowing. A child who is led to believe that\nthe accumulation of facts alone is the good education has a false notion of education.\nAll the misers are not seekers and hoarders of money: some are after facts and knowledge with no other purpose than that of hoarding. This is both narrow and selfish.\nKnowledge unused is of no more value than gold hidden in the miser's chest. Religious\nprecepts, moral principles and educational processes are of value only so far as they affect\nour acts, only so far as they help us to live nobler and more useful lives. We should teach\nour pupils how to use knowledge, how to study, how to solve life's problems and how to do\nthings. The motto of the teacher should be \"Train for social service,\" as Mr. Noyes advocates— this means unselfishness, nobility, and character.\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 8o\n\nTHE\n\nCHARLES\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nMOST\nURGENT EDUCATIONAL NEED\nOF TODAY\nPROVISION FOR INDUSTRIAL\nTRAINING\nIN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nH.\n\nTS\n\nMORSE,\nSECRETARY\nAND\nEXECUTIVE\nOFFICER\nOF THE\nMASSACHUSETTS COMMISSION ON INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION,\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n[An Abstract]\n\nIt is fortunate that we are all agreed that there are educational needs, and\nthat our present system of education can not, from the very nature of the case,\nbe final, for there can be no such thing as finality in education as long as man\ncontinues to develop. We catch the cue-word of the most urgent educational\nneed from the very age itself in which we are now living — the Industrial Age.\nFor it is the conditions of this age which have made so plainly evident to us\nthe chief shortcoming of our present system of public education. During the\nlast three decades we have seen the successive introduction of the kindergarten, the manual-training and the commercial schools into our public-school\nsystem. The two former have, however, in so far as they have been succes ful, acultural motive.\nOn the other hand, the last half-century has been what might be termed\nthe professional education age, for in it the establishment and development\nof professional schools in large numbers has been the most marked educational characteristic. It was felt that modern intelligence and modern demands\n— ^in a word, modern hfe — required a professional training which could no\nlonger be carried out by the older method of association with a practitioner.\nBut professional schools are for adults, and, consequently, they are conducted\non a basis which applies to adults, and, except in the cases of a comparatively\nsmall number of state schools, they can be considered public schools only in\nthe sense that the expensive \"boys' schools\" in England are called public\nschools.\nIndustrial schools, on the contrary, are needed for youth of public school\nage, consequently they should be public schools in the sense that they should\nbe free schools. The need of industrial schools is brought about by the\ndemands and the conditions of the present day. The youth cannot become\na skilled industrial worker without a preparatory training. The old-time\napprenticeship system, in which the master workman taught the youth, under\nhis own eye, the necessary work and even the secrets of his trade, has gone by.\nIn fact, it could not exist under the present-day industrial conditions. And\nyet the demand for highly skilled workers has grown enormously and is still\non the increase. Indeed, so great is the present-day demand that the majority\nof the youth — at least of young men — who reach the age of self-support\nenter upon some form of industrial work.\nFortunately, we have not to discuss from the beginning the propriety of\nmaking the professional training of youth a public education matter, for that\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nTODAY\n\n781\n\nquestion was decided in favor of such a move in the consideration of commercial instruction in the public schools. If enough pupils are expected to enter\nupon commercial life to justify public commercial instruction, how much\nmore do the greater number who enter upon industrial life justify industrial\ninstruction at public expense.\nIt has, however, been found that separate commercial high schools are\nnecessary to meet modern business demands, and all the more will separate\nindustrial schools be needed to meet industrial demands because trade processes must be taught by skilled specialists, and the general supervision which\nwill suffice even for a commercial school will not be sufficient for an industrial\nschool. In the establishment of industrial schools for youths we are but\nextending — that is, carrying down — the idea of professional training to a\nlegitimate public-education field.\nThe position of Massachusetts in the industrial-education movement is\ndoubtless known to you all. Having been the first state to establish a commission with broad but clearly defined active powers, it has been regarded as\nthe pioneer in this work in this country, and, as a consequence, the state commission has been consulted from all sides, both by personal interviews and\nby letter. Many visitors come to our office, not only from various parts\nof this country but also from the antipodes, to get information regarding our\nstudies and method. So numerous have been the requests of committees and\nassociations, both within and without the state, for addresses on industrialeducation topics that it is found utterly impossible to respond to more than a\nfraction of such invitations. The work of the Massachusetts commission\nlies in four distinct lines: first, the study of what has been accompHshed\nelsewhere in industrial education and the diffusion of this knowledge; second,\nthe study of needs for industrial education in general, and in different localities in Massachusetts in particular; third, the creation of local public sentiment which shall demand the establishment of industrial schools, and the\nadvising local authorities; fourth, the establishment and conducting of\nindustrial schools, including such details as planning courses of study, approving the selection of teachers, and the supervision of the schools.\nSchools affording industrial training should be provided for persons of\nfourteen years and upwards. For those youths under fourteen the training\nshould be, as now, for general development. It has been found through long\nexperience that, to educate thoroly for the trades, the instruction which\nshall begin a definite preparation for industrial work should be entered upon\nat an age not later than fourteen or fifteen. These were the ages at which,\nunder the old-time apprenticeship system, youths entered upon their apprenticeship. At this period they are mature enough to begin the serious study\nof industrial work, and after this age there is a tendency, which- grows stronger\nand stronger with the increase of years, for them to turn from the mechanical\ntrades.\nThe kinds of schools needed for youths more than fourteen years of age\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwho will enter industries, or are already in trades as more or less skilled\nworkers, may be briefly stated as follows:\nFirst, there are the schools for youths not in the trades but who are preparing for entrance upon life's work as industrial workers. For such, in the\ncities, there should be day independent schools which shall instruct the boys\nin the mechanical industries, in both practice and theory, and in good citizenship; and instruct the girls in women's trades, in both theory and practice,\nand in domestic science. In the rural districts there should be established\nday independent schools which shall instruct the boys in agriculture and\ncitizenship, and the girls in certain branches of agriculture and in domestic\nscience. Such agricultural schools should also offer courses for those already\nengaged in agricultural pursuits.\nThese independent industrial schools must provide for those youths who\ndesire a trade education. It is to be presumed that the fourteen-year old boy\nand girl have received such cultural training in the elementary schools as will\nenable them to understand the work which will be assigned them in the industrial school.\nThe youth should be admitted to the industrial school upon arriving at\nfourteen years of age, irrespective of his having completed the general education of the elementary schools. It is necessary, however, that he should\nhave had sufficient training in arithmetic, English, and such other subjects\nprovided in these schools, as will enable hira to take up the subjects which\nwill be given in the industrial school, which include not only hand work\nbut such book work as may have a direct bearing upon his trade education,\nas, for instance, chemistry as it relates to the trade, physics as it relates to the\ntrade, shop mathematics, shop problems, such algebra and geometry as is\nnecessary to enable the youth to read the trade papers and which is quite\ndifferent in character from the algebra and geometry given in the ordinary\nhigh school.\nThe school for the youth fourteen years of age or above would be established with the idea of a four-years' course at the maximum. There are\nyouths who will find it impossible, for financial reasons, to remain for the\nentire four years.\nSecond, for youths already employed in the trades, whether they be\nlearners or workmen, there should be established independent evening schools\nfor those who find it impossible to devote any portion of the daytime to school\nattendance; but there should also be established independent part-time day\nschools for those workers who can arrange to devote certain periods of the\ndaytime to attendance upon such schools. Perhaps the best form of parttime school would be what may be called a \"repetition-school,\" where two\nsets of pupils are instructed in the school and the instruction of one week is\nrepeated the next week to a different class. By such an arrangement two\nboys who felt that they must work for their living could work in pairs, each a\nsubstitute for the other at school and at their chosen industry.\nThat is, John\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEED\n\nOF TODAY\n\n783\n\nmight work in a shop one week while Tom was going to school. The next\nweek Tom would take John's place in the shop while the school instruction\nwhich Tom had been receiving would be repeated for John's benefit. Such\nan arrangement should not interfere with either the school or shop work.\nThese boys, by reason of their training in the school, would do their work\nbetter while they were in the shop. Such an arrangement should be welcomed by the manufacturers. The manufacturers of Massachusetts have\nrepeatedly expressed to me and to the investigators of the Massachusetts\ncommission that they would be willing to allow the boys who were at work\nin their factories opportunity to profit by such instruction if such schools\nshould be established. That such a school would mean a special school\nwith special teachers is plainly evident. It would not do to bring into close\nschool association such adult pupils with the younger pupils of the usual day\nschool and the instructors would have to be men who, by reason of their trade\nskill and knowledge, would command the respect of trade members.\nThis brings us to the question: Why should industrial schools be independent schools ? The aims of the industrial schools are wholly professional,\nwhile those of the present public schools are largely cultural. The methods\nwhich must be employed in the industrial schools in order to make them a\nsuccess are totally different from those of the cultural schools, for at every\nstep the immediate practical value of the matter taught must be made clearly\nevident and emphasized. Not only the teaching but also the supervision in\nsuch schools must of necessity be radically different from that of the cultural\nschools.\nThe training of teachers for these independent industrial schools may be\neffected in one of two ways: first, the training of skilled workmen to become\nteachers; second, the training of existing teachers in trade work so that they\nshall become skilled practical mechanics.\nThe courses of study and work in such schools will provide general industrial training as a foundation, will meet the needs of the youth for the local\nindustries, and will put the youth in touch with actual commercial methods\nand work.\nIt was at first thought that the work of the Massachusetts commission\nwould result in the establishment of technical high schools, which would have\nfor their object the fitting of men for industries directly. Many people\nbelieved that the technical high school or manual-training school should have\nthat for its main function — the fitting of men for industries and trades; but\nafter a very thoro study of the situation in foreign countries, in Massachusetts, and in other states in this country, the Massachusetts commission\nhas come decidedly to the conclusion that a technical high school, altho\nof value in our educational system, cannot, as now conducted, provide for the\nneeds of youths who are to become the skilled workmen.\nNow those schools reach the same boy, practically, that the high school\nreaches.\nA boy, if he is to pass their courses successfully, must have in\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDV CATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nhis mind an idea which tends to carry him in the direction of general\nculture.\nIf the idea is to extend the work of the high school so as to meet the needs\nof the same class of pupils who are now in attendance in the high school, then\na technical high school or a manual-training school is the proper kind of a\nschool for the accomplishment of this. If, however, it is desired to meet a\ncondition which is facing the country squarely — the question of what is going\nto become of the 90 per cent, who drop out of the schools before they graduate\nfrom the high school — if it is desired to provide for numbers of these youths,\nthen it is necessary to have a new kind of school — the industrial school.\nThe school should be conducted more as a manufacturing business would\nbe conducted. The boys and girls in the school should be given to understand that time is money. The school should be thoroly equipped with\nall the machines used in the special subjects to be taught — a forge shop, a\ncarpenter shop and machine shop. These schools, instead of trying to give\nsomething which has only cultural value — educational value as it has been understood tobe — should try to give all the subjects taught because of their\npractical value. We shall find that the youth who comes from these schools is\neducated in a broad sense while at the same time he has been getting things\nof practical value.\nI have no fear that the parents will not send their children to these schools\nafter the schools have gotten a start. My personal observation in Cambridge\nis quite conclusive on this point. As head of the Manual Training School,\nI saw it grow from 120 pupils to over 500. I know that a very large percentage\nof those boys entered the school because their parents believed that the school\nwas going to teach them a trade, that is, those parents wanted the boy to have\nthat opportunity. We would start with more than 100 in the entering class\nand the class in the senior year would be reduced to less than 50. Those\nboys dropped out of the school because the school was not giving them what\nthey thought they wanted. They would beg and their parents would plead\nfor the privilege of more work in the shops, and to be excused from a purely\ncultural subject which the boys seemed totally unable to handle because\nthey had no interest in it.\nThe Massachusetts commission believes that these schools should offer as\na maximum a four-years' course. For the first two years the courses would\nnaturally be those which would very largely train the hand, and the mind\nthrough the hand, working in wood and metal — very much intensified manualtraining school or technical high-school shop courses, completing what would\nrequire four years in such schools in two years; and along with this practical\nwork there should be given subjects which relate to industrial occupations\ninstead of the cultural subjects which we have insisted upon in the past.\nThen, after these two years of general preparation, if the boy intends to become\na machinist, a blacksmith, or a carpenter, speciaHze with him for such time\nas experience demonstrates is necessary to give him the training for that par-\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nTODAY\n\n785\n\nticular line of work. I think if these schools are started with the boy at fourteen, bythe time he is sixteen you will find that it will not take him very long\nto become prepared to go into the industry. He is not wanted in the industry\nfrom fourteen to sixteen today except in the textile lines. The manufacturers\nin Massachusetts say that the fourteen-year old boy is of small value to them.\nThey will take him at sixteen. They do not want him younger. Our feeling\nis that the fourteen-year old boys (and girls) are the ones that should be provided for, and that this country needs the services of those boys, who are now\nbecoming our untrained workers, in skilled industries. The long consideration of manual training has in a great measure prepared the community for\nindustrial training at public expense. Those\" who have made themselves\nforemost authorities on manual training are realizing most fully its industrial\nshortcomings and are the most enthusiastic advocates of independent indus*\ntrial schools.\nDISCUSSION\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — Industrial education isthe crying need of the day. Our schools are the outgrowth of the needs of the\ncommunity and we have provided for these needs as soon as they made themselves felt.\nIn the past the industrial needs have been supplied for the boy in the shop with the apprentice system, and for the girl in the home. These conditions have been outgrown, particularly in the towns, and I am agreed with Mr. Morse that the most pressing need of the\nday is a better preparation for industrial work, or, in other words, for vocational training.\nHeretofore industrial training has been looked upon as an interloper, but the recent meeting of the Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education marks an epoch. Industrial\nTraining, the brat of the kitchen, has been given a place in the sitting-room and made a\npart of the family.\nIn what I say I shall discuss some of the things with which I am acquainted. Certain men of Milwaukee, realizing the need for such an institution, established a School\nof Trades. They gave it no fancy name and sought to place at the head of it a man\nwell trained in the trades. Two years ago the legislature passed a law placing the school\nunder the control of the public-school board and providing for the levy of a tax for the\nmaintenance of the school. The school board has now been in control for a little\nmore than a year. The cost per pupil is three or four times as great as for instruction\nduring the same time in the regular high schools, but we feel that it is well worth the price.\nPlumbing, pattern making, and the machinist's trade have been taught and this year we\nare adding a department which will teach the work of the good old-fashioned carpenter and joiner.\nThe boys go out from the school and do their work as well as some of the plumbers\nand better than others. The same thing is true of those who take up the work of the\nmachinist and the pattern maker.\nThe boys are received at the age of sixteen, which is the lowest age which the law\nallows, tho we should Uke to take them at the age of fourteen. Such boys as have at\nleast finished the eighth grade are preferred tho others are taken. Tho the experiment has been in operation so brief a time we feel that the results fully justify the extra\nexpense of a trade school.\nEdna D. Day, University of Missouri. — Tho I sympathize in the main with what\nhas been said I feel that one omission has been made. It is not enough to be trained to\nearn a living but it is equally important to be trained to spend our money to the best\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nadvantage. This can be done in the study of home economics. In this we teach the girls\nto buy the different foods, and the various furnishings and materials needed for the\nhome. The boys as well as the girls need this training, as well as something of hygiene.\nWe spend but a part of our time in work, a large portion being devoted to recreation.\nThe school system which does not train how to utilize the leisure time to the best advantage\nis worthy of much blame.\nBert M. LeSeur, director of manual training, Reading, Pa. — May I ask Mr. Pearse\nwhat has been the attitude of the trade unions to the Milwaukee Trade School ?\nMr. Pearse. — I am glad that question has been asked as it is a vital one. We went\nto the legislature with the bill to make this school a part of the public-school system and\nwere fortunate enough to have the bill passed unanimously. There were in the legislature representatives of various labor unions. The special committee having charge is\nmade up largely of manufacturers^ though there serves upon it a business agent of a\nmachinist's union. Of course there has be^n some slight opposition to the school, but this\nis decreasing as the work of the school becomes better known. Some of the boys\ngoing out from the school join the union, while others take up their work in the non-union\nshops.\nPerhaps more join the union than do not.\nMr. LeSeur. — Have any of the boys, so far as you know, been refused admission to\nthe union?\nMr. Pearse. — No, not so far as I know.\nFrank H. Ball, director of manual arts, Public Schools, Cincinnati, O. — These\npapers have been of interest to one who is an old manual-training teacher and I thought\nthat you might be interested in a phase of the problem as it is being worked out in Cincinnati by Professor Snyder. He has taken students from the classes in the technical\nschools and put them into the shops in alternate weeks. The plan has proved very successful and is capable of adaptation to the public schools where the expense of trade\nschools, were all trades provided for, would prove prohibitive.\nPaul Kreutzpointner, Altoona, Pa. — How many pupils are accommodated in the\nMilwaukee Trade School ?\nMr. Pearse. — The day classes I believe to be nearly filled to their limit, and the\nnight classes have a large waiting list. There are accommodations for 40 in the machine\nshop, 20 in pattern making, 40 in carpentry and 40 in plumbing.\nMr. Kreutzpointner. — ^What are the running expenses ?\nMr. Pearse. — The expense for the plumbing, including instruction and material,\nvaries from $15 to $20 a month.\nFor the other trades the expense will be under $15.\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nM. W.\n\nMURRAY,\n\nOF MANUAL TRAINING\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING,\n\nTO INDUSTRIAL\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nHow to secure the most efficient help is the manufacturer's problem; the\nconditions and pay of labor constitute the trade-unionist's problem, and\nmaking the most efficient social unit of every boy and girl in the schools is the\nproblem which we, the educators, must endeavor to solve. If we analyze the\ncase, we shall find that all three can unite on a common ground, and that in the\nproper working out of these problems the manufacturer will get better help,\nthe trades more pay and better hours, and the schools will do more than ever\nbefore in the way of education.\nAccording to the United States commissioner of education, a common-\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n787\n\nschool education increases a man's wage-earning power 50 per cent., a highschool education 100 per cent., and college training 200 per cent. I wish to\ncontend that every boy and girl should come within the 50 per cent, class and\nreceive at least the equivalent of a common-school education. This cannot\nbe done so long as practically everything is dominated by the college ideal.\nWe must come to see that it is the absolute right of the boy who does not wish\nto go to high school to be equally well fitted for a mechanical line of work if\nhe cares to pursue it, and have the same amount of money spent for his education.\nThe schools of Springfield, Massachusetts, are probably fairly representative of the best in our present-day system of education. Let us consider\nthe statistics of the class which has just been graduated from the high schools\nof that city. When it entered the first grade, in 1895, there were 1,539 in the\nclass. Before it had finished the ninth grade, 1,075 ^^ 7° P^^ cent, had left,\nand 1,363 or 88 per cent, had left before entering upon the senior year in the\nhigh schools. If we take into consideration the rapid growth of Springfield,\nand the fact that some of those entering the high schools come from surrounding towns, we shall have a loss of many more than 1,075 before they enter\nthe high schools. We find that this class had the first year in the high schools\nan enrollment of 433, the second year, 248, and the third year, 236. A drop\nso great from the first to the second year would seem to indicate that the\ntrouble is not entirely in the grades, and that pupils are disappointed in what\nthey get in the high schools. Yet in Springfield there is some constructive\nwork below the fifth grade and about the average amount in all grades above\nthe fifth, including cooking and sewing. There is a technical high school\nwith a commercial course, a domestic-science course and other so-called technical courses, and the schools are still falling far short of meeting the needs\nof all the pupils.\nA further study of enrollment statistics shows where we need to begin to\nattack this problem. During the last year there were in the elementary\nschools of Springfield, 1,423 pupils fourteen years old or over, under the\nfollowing classification: Fourteen years old, 801; fifteen years old, 417;\nsixteen years old, 164; seventeen years old, 34; eighteen years old, 7 ; total,\n1,423. Of children between 14 and 16, there were in the city a total of 2,641.\nOf these, 427 or 15 per cent, were in the high schools; 1.2 18 or 47 per cent, were\nin the elementary schools; 268 or 10 per cent, were in parochial or private\nschools, while 727 or 28 per cent, were not attending any school. Over 700\nboys and girls losing the benefits of school training, and not being fitted to do\nanything in particular !\nMany promising remedies which we would gladly try have been suggested\nfor these universal educational evils, but we inevitably meet, with the question\nof expense, which not only keeps us from improving our present school system,\nbut too often makes it next to impossible for school superintendents to maintain what is already established.\nOf the billion odd dollars appropriated at\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthe last session of Congress, the United States Bureau of Education obtained\n$1,250 as an addition to its appropriation over that of the previous year.\nCommissioner Brown was anxious to expand the work of his bureau and\nmake it a clearing house for all educational work in this country. There\nwas needed $50,000 more, but Congress gave the bureau practically nothing,\nwhile it spent $10,000,000 for battleships to keep the country from going to\nsmash.\nToo much stress has been laid on a broad general training, and there has\nbeen great fear lest we specialize too young. We are told that a boy in the\nelementary school does not know what he wants to do, and so cannot pursue\na special line of work, but we have ample proof that there is one thing which\nmany of them will not do: namely, study abstract things from books. Many\nfail to realize that we are already forcing boys to specialize in deviltry and\nidleness by driving them from school. We cannot nor do we wish to add\nvocational training to our already overcrowded elementary school course.\nWe must have special courses and special classes for the boys and girls whom\nwe are not reaching at the present time; not an addition, but a parallel to the\npresent elementary school course. We need not fear that direct vocational\ntraining will at all upset what already exists. We are asked, \"How do you\nknow that boys will stay in school if they are given vocational work?\" Of\ncourse, we do not know that they all will, and we should probably be unable\nto furnish teachers and equipment for them if they did. We have had experience enough, however, with what little has been done with manual training\nto prove that there is a large number of these pupils who are held in school\nand their interests aroused through this kind of work.\nAny live manual-training teacher can cite cases without number where\nmanual training has been practically the only thing in the curriculum in which\nboys have been interested, and I have had many boys tell me that they would\nstay in school longer if they had more work with their hands. Manual training\nis doing a great deal as it already exists but I shall try to point out where it is\nfalling short and what can be done to improve it.\nSince its introduction, the advocates of manual training have laid emphasis chiefly on its educational value; that is they have tried to distinguish between\nthat which is educational and that which is practical. Should we not look at\neducation as more than the three R's and realize that anything which betters\nthe condition of man, enabling him to earn a better living through knowing\na trade, and so to make a better husband and father than he could otherwise\nbe, is educational ?\nWhatever may have been the original purpose of manual training or motor\ntraining, it has come to be pretty generally accepted as a means of general\ntraining, and in the lower grammar and primary grades as a method of instruction or a means of expression through constructive activity. With very young\nchildren in the kindergarten and primary grades it is most largely and I\nbelieve properly used to illustrate their regular work, making it clear to them\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n789\n\nby picturing their stories, cutting forms from paper, building them in clay\nor whatever material may be used, thus trying to make the work real, not\nabstract. When we get into the upper grades, the work becomes more\ntechnical, as independent subject-matter is introduced, and definite tool\nmanipulation and principles of mechanics are taught. In the high school,\non account of the greater amount of time devoted to the work and the more\nadvanced standing of the pupils, it is still more technical and theoretical, the\ngeneral principles underlying the trades being taken up. The more specialized the work, and the more theory is taught, the more technical it becomes,\nand if it is carried far enough, we have the training for engineers.\nThe terms, manual training, motor training, industrial training, trade\ntraining, and vocational training are often used as if they were synonymous.\nTo make myself clearly understood, I wish to state what I beheve the different\nexpressions have come to stand for. They overlap in so many cases that no\nsharp line can be drawn between them, but each term should stand predominantly for one kind of work.\nThe function of trade training is, as the name implies, to make mechanics.\nIt is possible to do this with comparatively little technical knowledge or theory.\nThe technical principles involved may be beyond the skilled workmen. I\nbelieve that any work which will enable a student to take a better place in the\nindustries is industrial training. Thus trade training, technical training, and\nmanual training, in so far as it makes a man more efficient in industrial lines,\nare industrial training. Generally speaking, the present status of manual\ntraining is general training, but if we broaden it, we shall have on one branch\ntechnical training, and on the other trade training. Vocational training should\ninclude all of these and anything else which will enable a student to earn a\nliving as commercial and professional training.\nIf we consider the psychological basis of motor training in the elementary\nschool, I think we shall see that it is not only absolutely essential to general\neducation and development, but fully as much so as the basis of trade or the\nother forms of vocational training, such as dentistry and surgery.\nSo much has been said, and it is so generally accepted that manual or motor\ntraining and the constructive activities are of primary importance as a means\nof general development, that I will not take time to lay emphasis on that side\nof the question. Important as motor training is to the child's general development, itis even more important to his special development or the acquisition\nof skill of hand in any special Hne of work. In the. primary or play period,\nfrom two and one-half to seven years, the child naturally seeks to express\nhimself through doing. We should take advantage of this time to make all\nour teaching real. During the secondary period, from about seven to about\nnine, there is a change in the play spirit which gradually becomes the spirit\nof work. Interest in results rather than in performance begins to develop\nand the child becomes critical of his work. During the preadolescent stage,\nfrom nine to about twelve, habits are most easily fixed and this should be the\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "790\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nperiod for the beginning of the training for special skill. We should begin\nto look for good results in workmanship as we can develop accurate motor\nideas only through accurate muscular movements, as motor ideas form the\nbasis of manual skill. This brings us to the adolescent period, or the critical\ntime between thirteen and sixteen when boys leave school, and if manual\ntraining or constructive work given during this period has fulfilled its function,\nit will have given them a training which will directly fit them to pursue a special\nline of work. The work in these upper grades and in the high school should\nbe of such definite character that whatever is learned will be directly apphcable\nto industrial life.\nIt is a mistake in discussing the educational value of manual training to\nattempt to divorce that side from the practical side, emphasizing its value\nas a stimulant to book work. While I think that this side has not been overemphasized,do\nI feel that many of the advocates, in their desire for the approbation of the traditional schoolmaster, have lost sight of the intensely practical side of the work which has invariably appealed to the general public.\nJust as soon as we introduce shop work into the upper grades or into the\nhigh school, work must be given which will stand the criticism of practical\nmen and where it has not been done, the general public has been slow, and I\nthink rightly so, to see the value of it and it has invariably met either with\nmeager support or total disaster. Whatever may be the general educational\neffect on a boy of doing a nice piece of work in wood or metal, it cannot help\nhaving considerable industrial significance. A boy may learn to saw out\na board, to size and plane it up for a coat hanger or pen tray, and we call it\neducational, but if it is done in the best way he should have learned the proper\nuse of the saw and plane which would be directly applicable to carpentry,\ncabinet or pattern making. The only vital distinction between shop work\nwhich is educational and that which is vocational is that, in the latter, operations\nare practiced until they require little thought for their successful accomplishment.\nThere is a side to the question of trade training which has not been given\ndue prominence in this discussion of industrial education. We should not\nfeel that if we direct boys into a trade that their chances of a broader education are thereby lost. Probably the boys who will be directed into trade work\nwill be those who have progressed in school just as far as it is possible for them\nto go, and the learning of a trade will be just so much additional knowledge.\nThe man who is interested in what is he doing will read and study about that,\nand thus create a thirst for information which he will carry out into other\nlines. It is probably doubtful if a man ever learned a trade and had occasion\nto regret it in after life.\nIt should be clearly understood that the teaching of manual training in the\ngrades for an hour or an hour and a half a week will not only have little or no\neffect in solving the question of industrial education, but the work will come\na long way from fulfilling its function as a means of general training. One\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nhour once a week may be better than nothing, but I have come to believe\nfirmly that it is little better than a means of giving boys a short recess from\nbook work. About all the best results in manual training, that is where not\nmore than an hour or an hour and a half a week has been devoted to the work,\nhave been obtained by a few teachers of unusual physical energy who have 791\nallowed boys to work a great many hours out of school. I have recently read\na school report which contains an admirable statement of the needs of industrial education, and the superintendent finishes by recommending that the\ncommunity solve the problem by appropriating $500 for equipment and paying\n$600 to a woman teacher to give the boys of the upper grades an hour or an\nhour and a half a week — a perfectly ridiculous solution.\nA complete system of industrial education requires constructive work in\nthe primary grades, not less than two hours a week in the grammar grades\nfor all pupils, special extra classes for those boys who have not progressed far\nenough in the grades so that they would get the more formal work with tools,\nand special classes which will allow those boys who desire it to do from two\nto five hours more work a week. This should enable pupils to decide whether\nthey wish to go through the technical high school which will lead to the higher\ntechnical schools and the engineering professions, or whether they wish to\nenter the vocational schools which will lead directly to the trades.\nIt can rightly be claimed that manual training is not industrial training,\nthat is, if we mean by industrial training only the teaching of a trade. Trade\nteaching should be only a part of a complete system of industrial education,\nand manual training is as essential to it as it is to the system of general education.\nA school system is unlike a business organization in that its primary object\nis not to make money, but there are many points of similarity between the two,\nand many places where business methods might well be applied to the school\nsystem. The object of the school should be to make the best possible men\nand women from whatever material is furnished. We probably exercise care\nenough in the spending of money for teachers and supplies, but do we use\ncare enough to see that none of our raw material is lost or wasted in the\nprocess of education ? What were formerly the by-products of many manufactories are now their most important sources of profit, and I think we are\nfast coming to see that something should be done to save the large number of\npupils who never complete the elementary-school course, these by-products\nof our school organization. If the high-school graduate is the finished product\nof the system of education provided by the state, is not the loss of material,\ndropped or spoiled in the process, tremendous ?\nI feel confident that, in the near future, our schools will have to be so\norganized that not only will all the pupils in the elementary school have more\nconstructive work than there is at the present time, but that those who are nonbookish or must leave school early to go to work will be given an education ofa more practical kind which will make them feel that they are being\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA riONA\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n792\nfitted to do something in particular. This will mean that they must get more\nof the traditional three R's than they could possibly otherwise obtain. I do\nnot see how in the working out of this plan, it is going to at all affect what we\nalready have, unless it is that what we are at present teaching in all subjects\nwill be better taught in the future, made more live and better fitted to the\nneeds of the pupils.\nDISCUSSION\nA. E. DoDD, North Bennett St. Industrial School, Boston, Mass. — ^To me the strength\nof the appeal which this last paper makes is not because of its concern with ideals toward\nwhich we all must work and which are impossible of immediate attainment, but rather\nbecause it presents with such feasible suggestiveness a scheme which Dr. Snedden in\nspeaking the other afternoon called \"a plan for tomorrow.\"\nThat manual training has not met one of the chief needs of that period in publicschool life wherein occurs the great loss in attendance and of which Mr. Murray has\nsubmitted figures even from the enlightened city of Springfield, none know better than\nthose of us who are in the work.\nThat this loss takes place during the period extending from the sixth grade to the\nhigh school does not seem to me to be any argument for the establishment of trade courses\nin the grades as some would have. No child of grammar-school age is sufficiently developed physically or mentally to lay aside a broadening course and elect work that trains\nin specific operations. Any scheme advocating such practice would be wholly un-American\nand would tend to even greater class distinctions than are found in Europe.\nNow almost any teacher or principal with whom one may speak will quickly agree that\nthere is a large mass of detail material taught in various subjects almost solely because they\nwere taught years ago and survive today because of tradition. In times when few subjects were taught it was possible to take up these details which are now become practically\ndead matter in relation to the present-day needs.\nWith the growth of the past several years there have been constantly added new\nsubjects which changed conditions have made necessary, but at the same time there have\nbeen no eliminations. And so when manual training was tacked on to this already crowded\ncurriculum a further squeezing was gone through in order to find the 5 per cent, or 10 per\ncent, of schooltime to be devoted to the work. As Mr. Murray shows in the figures quoted\nfrom Springfield — and which are country wide^ — manual training has not been the hopedfor force in holding children in school. It has been in many cases little more than a dab\nin effect. In trying to make use of this very small amount of time many manual-training\npeople have been led into accepting a low standard of construction often covered with\na stuck-on decoration which mainly served to keep the attention from dwelling too strongly\non poor construction and which, so far as giving the boy a high standard of constructive\nappreciation, has been time wasted.\nAs a possible plan to put into effect for present use, the subjects of the upper grammar\ngrades may be gone over and some of the mass of detail in history, geography, arithmetic,\netc., may be cut out. Instead of long recitations on what may bound Europe or Arizona,\nit is possible to dwell more upon the commercial products or the industrial history of a\nlocality. This would then make possible sufficient time for doing handwork of the solid\nsort that would give the child that satisfaction of accomplishment so necessary as a stimulus,\nand also make possible a standard of attainment with various materials that is not possible\nunder prevalent conditions. This opportunity for a boy to do what he is really capable\nof doing is of prime importance. Allowing more time for these things will make for an\nindustrialized manual training that the boy who now leaves school can see the use of and\nwhich will carry him to the point where he may enter either a pure trade school or a technical school.\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n793\n\nINTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS AS A REQUIREMENT\nOF A PROGRAM OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\nEDGAR\n\nS. BARNEY,\n\nPRINCIPAL HEBREW\nTECHNICAL\nNEW\nYORK, N. Y.\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nWith the exception of electricity, no science has made greater progress\nduring the past thirty years than has education. The introduction of the use\nof tools into school-courses under the names of manual training and technical\nwork thirty years ago opened up a new era in education in this country. The\nadvancement and the rapid, successive changes in the electrical and other\nindustries since the invention of the incandescent lamp and the electric\ndynamo, together with the decline of the apprenticeship system, have made\nthe introduction of industrial work into our educational system a necessity,\njust as the advent of railroads about 1830 made the new type of civ^l -engineering schools of college grade a necessity.\nThe old apprenticed mechanic learned his trade in the comparatively small\nshop of his master where an opportunity to learn all the operations on the\ndifferent kinds of work in that shop was possible; but the invention of new\nand automatic machinery, the division and subdivision of labor,- the combination of capital into corporations bringing under one management hundreds and even thousands of employes have changed this, and so today the\napprenticeship system is practically a dead letter.\nWe should not rely upon foreign skilled labor to meet the demand. Our\nonly solution of the problem is to turn to the schools and introduce thoro\npractical courses in industrial and technical work, which courses shall include\nnot only the use and manipulation of tools, but shall combine therewith those\nsubjects which will lead to an industrial intelligence, a knowledge of materials\nand the principles of mechanics, of the cost of production and the commercial\nvalue of time.\nIn New York City approximately 37 per cent, of the population are engaged\nin industrial and mechanical work, 37 per cent, in business, 19 per cent, in\ndomestic service and 5 per cent, in the learned professions, and undoubtedly\nother large cities of our country would show nearly the same percentages.\nThere are many schools for the 5 per cent, in the learned professions, but\naside from the engineering schools of college grade, there are but few containing thoro practical courses for the 37 per cent, engaged in industrial and\nmechanical work.\nThe growth and development of an educational system, like that of any\nother science, must be an evolution, the result of practical application and\nexperience. We have seen the introduction of the kindergarten; of simple\nhandwork in the primary and elementary grades; of manual training in the\nhigh school — manual training for educational development only. We must\ngo a step farther, develop and expand industrial and technical schoolwork\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nleading to a vocation in the upper grades of the elementary schools and in the\nhigh schools for children from thirteen to seventeen years. The study of the\nconditions of youth in our country has led to the expression often heard in\neducational discussions, that \"the years from fourteen to sixteen are wasted\nyears.\" Why so ? My study of statistics of various commissions has led to\nthree conclusions:\nFirst, the great majority of our boys leave the public schools by the time\nthey are fourteen when the state releases them from further obligation of\nattendance.\nSecond, the mechanics' trades of skilled labor do not admit boys until they\nare sixteen to eighteen years of age.\nThird, the great majority, sixty-eight per cent, as a result of one investigation ofover five thousand cases, drift into the ranks of unskilled labor, that\nis, in department and other stores, as messengers, errand boys in offices, and\nin factories and shops employing hands x)f a grade known as unskilled labor.\nThe schools, both elementary and high, are too exclusively literary in their\ncharacter for the average active boy from thirteen to seventeen years. This\nis a period when the boy wants to do something practical, when he wants\nto see definite results. Give a boy a school with a definite vocational end in\nview, let him feel and know that when he has finished his course he will be\nprepared to enter a vocation with a fair prospect of advancement, let him\nfeel the interrelation between his mathematics, science, drawing and shopwork, let him realize that he is preparing himself for something definite in\nthe lines of the skilled artisan where his wages will be commensurate with\nhis worth, and that boy will continue at school both from his own choice\nand as the wish of his parents. This is not merely a theory; we, at the Hebrew Technical Institute in New York, have shown that the problem of school\nmortality, that is, the large number leaving before completing the course may\nbe practically eliminated or, at least, with the masses, greatly reduced.\nIn the public schools of New York the annual number of those enrolled\nthat leave during the year is about 44 per cent., while at the Technical Institute\nthose who voluntarily leave during any year is only 8 per cent., and most of\nthese leave for such reasons as sickness, death in the family or removal from\nthe city — conditions entirely beyond their control. Besides, truancy is of rare\noccurrence. A great deal of the success of the school depends upon the\nteacher and especially the teachers in the technical and shop departments.\nHowever contrary it may be to theory, we have obtained the best results by\nengaging as our shop teachers expert mechanics of wide experience, of good\nelementary or high-school education, men who have been successful foremen\nand superintendents. It is easier for such a man to conduct successfully a\nshop class than for an experienced teacher to become an expert mechanic.\nThere are but few today who possess both these qualities. In a few years\nwhen we do have men of both high education and practical experience, our\ntechnical teaching forces will be greatly improved.\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\n795\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe Hebrew Technical Institute, with its twenty-four years of experience,\nhas conclusively shown the practicability of carrying out a technical course\nof study and work fitting the boy for some definite vocation in life. This\nschool, established in January, 1884, was one of the first in this country to\nintroduce definite systematic courses of shop-instruction for boys. The\nminimum age of admission is twelve and a half, altho the average age is\nnearly fourteen. An entrance examination is given in arithmetic, thru\ninterest, elementary English grammar, United States history and geography, equivalent to that given in the elementary public schools of New\nYork upon completing the 7B grade. We prefer to have the boys finish\nthe elementary school before coming to ours, but in many cases, for home\nreasons, they are unable to do so, and we then admit them upon completing the\n7B grade or its equivalent. The course of study and work is three years.\nAll students pursue the same general course during the first two years, devoting\napproximately one-third of the time to shopwork in wood and metal, onesixth to drawing, one-sixth to science, one-sixth to mathematics, and onesixth to English, history and geography.\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF TIME\nHours per Week\nSenior Class Middle Year\n\nEnglish Subjects\nMathematics\n•\nHistory and Geography\nPhysics, Mechanics and Electricity\nShop Lectures\nFreehand Drawing\n,\nMechanical and Architectural Drawing\n,\nShop Work, Joinery\n,\nShop Work, Wood Carving\n,\nShop Work, Wood Turning\n,\nShop Work, Pattern Making\nShop Work, Vise Work on Metal\nShop Work, Machine Work\n,\nSpecial Work- Pattern Making; Architectural Wood\nWork; Carving; Machine Work; Instrument\nMaking; Architectural, Mechanical or Freehand\nDrawing, or Practical Electricity\n\nJunior Year\n\n28\n\nStudents not fitted for successful mechanical 34work either physically,\nmentally, or by inclination or aptitude, are requested to withdraw. At the\nbeginning of the third year the student, then a little over sixteen, chooses a\nspecial course, with the advice of the teachers and subject to their approval,\nin one of these lines: machine-work, instrument-making, wood pattern and\nmodel-making, architectural woodwork, wood-carving, mechanical drawing,\narchitectural drawing, freehand drawing and designing, or electrical work.\n30\nTo this special course selected he devotes fourteen hours a week, practically\none-half of the time, and the other half is spent at mathematics, English,\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ndrawing, physical science and shop work in other departments. In mathematics the aim is to complete plane trigonometry, which is accomplished with\nthe more advanced pupils. Shop problems are constantly introduced. The\ncompositions and essays in the English department have a direct bearing upon\nthe work in hand and are therefore written with interest and earnestness. The\nextensive work in the drawing departments incidentally enables the pupil\nto illustrate most of his written work and this in itself helps to increase the\ninterest. In the department of physics and applied electricity certain definite\nexperiments and measurements have to be made from a collection of blue\nprinted descriptions and problems. These occasion extensive collateral\nreading and study, and carefully kept notebooks are required. We place\nfirst-class instruments in the hands of the students and we demand fairly\naccurate results. We have found it advisable to purchase high-grade instruments, tools and machines and to let the students use them. We are opposed\nto the too-frequent practice of merely showing an air pump, a volt meter or a\nswitchboard to the student, and not letting him handle the article for fear it\nwill be carelessly broken.\nTo be sure, our supervision is careful and our discipline strict, and while\nthe students use all machines freely, we have never had a serious accident:\nno finger has ever been lost or bone broken.\nA few years ago science was studied from the textbook only, no apparatus\nbeing used. Then came the lecture by the teacher with his limited outfit of\napparatus, and this was a great improvement over the textbook-only method.\nNow we let the pupils themselves freely use the apparatus, tools, and machines.\nI well remember the intense interest I had the first time at school I was permitted to use a few pieces of glass tubing of different sizes to study capillarity.\nHow much greater must be the interest and delight of the boy when he can\nhandle the dynamo, the volt meter, the engine lathe and the milling machine,\nwhen he is able to operate them with skill and to make a galvanometer or a\ndrill that in turn can itself be used.\nIn our shops a few simple exercises, as such, are made for the purpose\nof familiarizing the student with the tools; afterwards definite useful articles\nor parts are made. When drills, reamers, or milling-machine cutters are\nmade, tempered, hardened and ground, we expect them not to vary more than\none five-hundredth of an inch, a thousandth of an inch either over or under\nsize, and that they will be fit for use in the shop. In constructing a motor,\npair of field glasses or a lathe, the drawing must be accurate, the patterns\nmade to size, allowing for shrinkage, and the machining must be, at least, to\nwithin a thousandth of an inch; in many cases however the work is correct\nto within a quarter of a thousandth.\nThe conditions in the mechanical departments are made to approach,\nas near as possible, those that will be found in the outside world. The pupil\nworks mainly from a model or a blue-print. Several wood-turning lathes in\nuse in the pattern shop have been made and during the past year the drawings\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n797\n\nand patterns for a 12-inch swing engine lathe have been completed, the machine\nwork of which will be done next year. A small gas engine, a five-horse-power\nalternating current dynamo, a sensitive drill, an arc-light stereopticon, and\nseveral galvanometers are among the products of the school, and these have\nbeen made by boys from sixteen to seventeen during their regular class periods\nwhile they were acquiring the principles and some skill in the mechanic trades.\nThey were not made by the teacher nor hired operators.\nThe object of the Institute is to give the student a thoro technical\ntraining in the use of hand and machine tools without neglecting his general\neducation. The size of the class is limited, averaging twenty -four, to allow\nthe teachers to give the requisite attention to each pupil so that the progress\nin English and mathematics is fully as rapid as in the public schools which\ndevote more hours per week to each particular subject. The daily sessions\nare from nine until four for the first-year class; nine until five for the upper\nclasses, with an hour at noon for luncheon which is served to all the students\nat a daily cost, not counting service, of six and one-half cents per boy for the\nfood. There is a short vacation of two weeks in July, two in August and a\nhalf-day session the rest of the summer. The hours of work for the mind and\nhand follow each other in such a way that the attention is rarely overstrained\neven in a long day's work.\nThe students are instructed during the first two years in those subjects\nwhich will be useful to them in whatever mechanical pursuits they may finally\nchoose, and in the third year they are encouraged to give special attention to\nthat branch of work which seems most agreeable and suitable for each; but\neven here the aim is at thoroness, dexterity and understanding in general\nrather than at the acquirement of those special manipulations which can be\nrapidly acquired in practical life if the foundations have been properly laid.\nExperience shows that our graduates, in a short time, can learn more and\nadvance more surely than can boys who have passed thru years of regular\napprenticeship to a particular trade. We do not aim at teaching the higher\nbranches of mechanical, civil or electrical engineering of college grade, but,\nrather, the practical operations and applications of the mechanics' and artisans' trades, with the expectation that ultimately our graduates will become\nforemen, superintendents, managers and proprietors, and in this respect our\nexpectations have been realized. Of the earlier classes that have been out of\nthe school ten or more years, 42 per cent, are foremen, superintendents,\nmanagers, or proprietors. Some, of course, will never rise above the grade\nof an ordinary mechanic.\nThe average age at graduation is seventeen years and three months.\nSeventy-five per cent, are following mechanical lines of work corresponding to\nthose taught them at the Institute.\nThe average earnings vary from $8.00 a week for those graduated a year ago\nup to $50.00 a week for the older classes graduated twenty years ago, the average\nincrease being $2.00 per week for each year that the boy is out of the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nI believe that no other school in the country keeps so closely in touch\nwith its graduates, or has so definite a record of them. Upon request, they\nsend written reports every December, and last December, out of seven hundred\nand one graduates, only forty-seven reports were missing.\nRECORD\n\nOF SEVEN\n\nHUNDRED\n\nAND\n\nONE\n\nLIVING\n\nGRADUATES\n\nWood pattern and model making\nMachinists\nInstrument makers and general mechanics\nElectrical work\nDraughtsmen\nArchitects\nManufacturers.\nForemen and superintendents\n42 per cent, of the graduates who have been out ten years or more have\nrisen to be foremen, superintendents, managers, or proprietors.\n\n4 per cent.\n7 \"\n10 \"\n16 \"\n18 \"\n4 \"\n2 \"\n11 \"\n\nTeachers and students\nClerical positions\nReports not received\n\n3 \"\n19 \"\n6 \"\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\nThe per-capita cost during the past five years has varied from $105 to\n$113 as schools usually reckon the per-capita cost, or from $120 to $125, including every expense. The valuation of our site, building and equipment as\ncarried on our ledger is $450 per pupil.\nThe Hebrew Technical Institute is not conducted solely as an end unto\nitself; we have solved at least one problem for our community and our country— that industrial and technical courses of schoolwork for boys from thirteen\nto seventeen years of age are perfectly feasible and practicable and that the\nexpense is not prohibitive. But in conclusion let me say that we do not dwell\nupon the material side alone of this educational problem. We strive to teach\nour boys law and order; a love and respect for their home, their father and\ntheir mother — a lesson too often neglected today. Our boys become examples\nof manhood, good citizens and true patriots.\nWhile we are striving to give the boys a practical educational foundation\nthat will make them not merely self-supporting throughout their years, but\ncompetent to earn and accumulate sufficient wealth to reheve them of poverty\nand its attendant sufferings in old age, we nevertheless do not forget that a\nvery important part of education is the development of character.\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — George W. Eggers. head of dept., graphic arts, Normal School, Chicago, HI.\nSecretary — Mary A. Woodmansee, supervisor of drawing, Public Schools, Dayton, Ohio.\nSecretary — Florence E. Ellis, supervisor of drawing. Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nMORNING\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, June 30, 1908\n\nThe Department met in Plymouth Church at 9:30 o'clock.\nThe meeting was called to order by the President, George W. Eggers.\nThe program was carried out as follows:\nI. General Topic Viewed from the Standpoint of Society:\n1. President's address: \"Has Art a Place in an Education for Efficiency ?\" — George\nW. Eggers, head of department of graphic arts, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, III.\n2. Ont.\n\"Art a Factor of Culture\" — James L. Hughes, chief inspector of schools, Toronto,\n3. \"The Bearings of Art on Industry\" — Charles Zueblin, professor of sociology, the\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nThe President appointed the following committee on nominations:\nFrank A. Manny, Ethical Culture School, New York City.\nJ. J. Rogers, Shaw High School, East Cleveland, Ohio.\nMaude Lawrence, assistant supervisor of drawing, Cleveland, Ohio.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday\n\nMorning, July i\n\nThe Department met in joint session with the Departments of Kindergarten and\nElementary Education.\n(For program see Kindergarten Department)\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nAfternoon, July 2\n\nThe Department met in Plymouth Church and was called to order by President\nGeorge W. Eggers at 2:30 o'clock.\nThe program was carried out as announced:\nII. General Topic Viewed from the Standpoint of the School:\n1. \"Some Educational Deductions from the Art of the Great Periods\" — F. G. Bonser,\ndirector of Normal Training School, Macomb, 111.\n2. \"The Place of Art in a Constructive Education\" — Frank A. Manny, Ethical Culture School, New York City.\n3. \"A New Basis of Art Education\" — Emma M. Church, formei director. Academy\nof Fine Arts, Chicago, III.\nThe committee on nominations reported as follows:\nFor President, Florence E. Ellis, supervisor of drawing, Cleveland, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President, C, Valentine Kirby, Manual Training High School, Denver, Colo.\nFor Secretary, Emma M. Church, former director, Academy of Fine Arts, Chicago, 111.\nThe report was accepted and the nominees were unanimously elected.\nThe department adjourned.\nFlorence E. Ellis, Secretary\n799\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nGEORGE\n\nW.\n\nEGGERS,\n\n[Art\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nHAS ART EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nADDRESS\n\nA PLACE IN AN EDUCATION\nEFFICIENCY?\n\nHEAD\nOF DEPARTMENT OF\nNORMAL\nSCHOOL,\nCHICAGO,\n\nGRAPHIC\nILL.\n\nARTS,\n\nFOR\n\nCHICAGO\n\nA land gifted by nature with fabulous resources is awakening after a century of wastefulness to the fact that those resources are not boundless. The\nvery tardiness of its awakening adds to its haste in trying to conserve what\nis left of its forests, its fisheries, its mineral deposits and its beauties.\nThrough whatever channel it has come, this almost frightened sense of\neconomy has penetrated all our lines of thought: to save now — to save\nmoney, to save energy, to save resources, to save time. And among those\ngifts upon which nature has set her awful limit, time is pre-eminent. The\ngreat masses sensitive to this pressure begin to demand that education show\nmore practical returns for the time their children spend upon it, and they\nmake themselves heard by withdrawing their children from the schools until\nwe ask, \"What shall we do to keep children of fourteen at school ?\" \"Prepare\nmy son,\" says the average father, \"so that he may live better than I do —\nearn more, enjoy it more.\" He usually thinks that this would be furthered\nif that son could learn some trade or profession in the public school — but he\nwill listen to reason.\n\"Prepare these children,\" says the captain of industry, \"to become skillful\nand economical producers — that we may compete with other nations in cheapness of production and ultimately surpass them in commerce and in wealth.\"\nAnd he would urge that we choose the boy's trade for him and bring him up\nin it.\nAnd the educator says, \"Prepare the children to live,\" and he comes\nwith that cry of \"Educate the whole child,\" which has grown so familiar to\nour ears.\nLayman, manufacturer, and educator are asking for one and the same\nthing — education for greater efi&ciency — and what is more remarkable, they\nall seem to have the same recipe for it— industrial education. So industrial\neducation, for better or for worse, is upon us — \"a condition and not a theory.\"\nAt this point, however, all immediately begin to differ, some to say that\nindustrial education means the learning of a trade and some that it means\nsloyd work, copying models for skill of hand — for there still prevails a belief\namong people that a child's faculties can be trained as separate things — head\nalone, hand alone, and heart alone — as if separate stones and mortar and\nshingles necessarily imphed a building.\nIndustrial education, like anything else, may be constructive in character-\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n8oi\n\nmaking for efficiency or it may not. Look into some of the other subjects.\nGeography once upon a time meant a series of memory exercises. Geography\ntoday deals with the relation of the earth to mankind. We see that the old\ngeography taught us many things which we did not need to know — the names\nof the capes along the north coast of Siberia, for example — knowledge for\nwhich the average student never has any use. So matters of that kind are\neliminated from the new geography. Geography today, on the other hand,\nserves the student as a vehicle for his reasoning. It may show, for example,\nthat a given country has a certain amount of rainfall per year: that the surface\nof that country has certain characteristics. Very well, ''What industries will\nprobably develop under such conditions ?\" It asks, ''What products will that\ncountry send to ours ? \" \" Or we to it ? \" \" As a matter of fact, what commercial\nrelations do we have with that country ?\" Now such teaching is constructive\nteaching, not because it gives the student facts, but because it teaches him to\nbuild with the facts which he has or gets. Such an education is in accord with\nthe movement referred to a moment ago to get the most out of the things we\nhave.\nNow examine manual training in the same light. Geography, we said, was\nonce upon a time a series of memory exercises — and no one thinks of it as\nsuch today. Manual training was, when it received its name, a series of\nexercises \"to train the hand.\" Those who regard it as such today are, I\nbelieve, decreasing in number. Manual training today is constructive education. The student is given conditions. A circle of conditions forms his\nproblem. These conditions comprise: first, some recognized need which is\nto be fulfilled; and second, certain available resources — material, and time,\nand experience for the fulfiUing of that need. The student does the rest.\nWith these fixed limitations about him, he works out his problem as the engineer, or the architect, or the inventor works out his, using those materials which\nare at hand according to the dictates of his intelligence. This, we believe,\nis one form of industrial education which makes for efficiency.\nNow, what has art to do with an education for efficiency ? It appears that\nan education for efficiency is essentially a constructive education, a building,\na making, a putting together.\nRuskin says:\nYou may read the character of men and of nations in their creative work as in a\nmirror. A man may hide himself from you, or misrepresent himself to you, every other\nway. But he cannot in his work; there, be sure you have him to the inmost. All that\nhe likes, all that he sees, all that he can do — his affection, his perseverence, his impatience,\nhis clumsiness, his cleverness, everything is there. If the work is a cobweb, you know\nit was made by a spider; if a honeycomb, by a bee; a worm cast is thrown up by a worm; a\nnest wreathed by a bird; and a house built by a man, worthily if he is worthy, and ignobly\nif he is ignoble.\n\nWhen we have made a construction and have satisfied ourselves that it\nmeets all the physical needs of the case \"and is good\" — we have still to ask\nourselves, \"Will it please the eye which must always see it?\" for is not that\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nas much a part of its usefulness as any other of its properties ? And if we\ncan see that it will not please the eye, then it is not made in the best manner\npossible according to our light, and would better be destroyed — for the best\nmanner possible is the only manner in which we have a right to make it, if we\nwould make it at all.\nAnd what is the educational importance of a training in the appreciation\nof beauty ? In industrial work, taught constructively, the student is a maker\nof choices. To meet the given conditions he is thrown upon his own resources\nto select this plan rather than that, this material in preference to that, this\nmode of joining instead of some other. But in his constructive work the\nlimitations set upon his choosing are positive — indeed much of the value of\nthis work lies in that it involves his sense of the relations of cause and effect.\nIf he is making a chair it must be stable and durable and comfortable to the\nhuman anatomy. If a house, it must be tight and keep out the weather.\nWhen we take up the fine arts, we find that his freedom for choosing is far\ngreater. In this side of the work, therefore, we find him going into far subtler\ndiscriminations, hearkening to those whispered preferences within his own\nnature which love one curve better than another, which find poetry in this\ncolor combination more than in that — we find him making himself sensitive to\nfinenesses in things beyond the mere adequacy of them. Enough has been\nsaid to show our position — that the training of the aesthetic sense is really a\nfurther training, a refining of the constructive sense. And is it not the subtle\nman, the sensitive man, the keen man, who stands, after all, for the highest\ntype of civilization?\nThere is one more consideration. The captain of industry may have\nlistened to this manner of reasoning with an indifferent ear. What will all this\ndevelopment of the individual do for commerce? It will do many things\nbut we will mention only one.\nToday the nations of the earth are all about as much interested in commercial supremacy as we are. It is closing down to a neck-and-neck race.\nAlready we are looking to Germany for certain instruments in whose manufacture the Germans show particular skill. Already we look to England\nfor certain materials honestly and durably made. Already we look to France\nfor articles of beauty. Yes, even we of utilitarian America purchase milHons\nof dollars worth annually from the country which began compulsory art education ahundred years ago — purchase, because of their beauty, things that\nare ''made in France\" — to say nothing whatever of things made in Japan.\nNow, can not cosmopolitan America come forward to the present situation,\naim to produce manufactures which are not merely cheap (as those of some\nnations) or adequate (as those of others) or honest (as some of ours are not\nat present) — but combining all of these qualities; make for our own use, and\nthat of other nations, manufactures which are ample, beautiful, perfect? It\nwould be toward such an end that art education would tend in educating the\nefficiency of the nation.\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS\n\nA FACTOR\n\nART AS A FACTOR\nJAMES\n\nL. HUGHES,\n\nCHIEF\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nIN\n\nCULTURE\n\n'\n\n803\n\nIN CULTURE\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTORONTO,\n\nCANADA\n\nBeauty and utility are always in harmony. Art is therefore not only one\nof the most practical subjects but one of the highest and most productive subjects of culture. Culture may be considered as the development of selfhood\nand the improvement of the powers of self-expression; as the strengthening\nof the mental powers; as the storing and enrichment of the mind, or as a\ntraining to qualify for greater happiness and broader vision by the appreciation\nof the true and the beautiful in the works of nature and of the great master\nminds of the past. Art is an important factor in these four elements of\nculture.\nThe most essential element in real culture is the kindling of selfhood, the\nrevelation to the child himself of his supreme power so that he may become\nconscious of originahty and gain a sure faith in himself and in his power of\nindependent achievement. Each child has some power center which, if\naroused and made the leading element in his executive work, will kindle his\nwhole nature and stimulate his most energetic efforts in self-expression. Such\nself-expression along the line of his best power is the only sure way to develop\na true faith in himself, and the development of a true vital faith in himself\nis what gives genuine value to culture. The kindling of a child is therefore\nthe most important work in fiis culture.\nAll children are not kindled by the same subject. Some are kindled by\nliterature, some by science, some by music, and some by art — more by art than\nby any other department of study. It is easier to reveal to a child the fact\nthat he possesses original power by art-teaching than by any other form of\ntraining. Art is therefore an- essential element in the culture of childhood,\nbecause of its value in general kindling power. It is an important element\nof culture, too, because there are so many children who cannot be really kindled\nby Hterature, or science, or music, or mathematics, or history, who may be\naroused to harmonious activity by art. If these children are not allowed to\nillumine their Hves by art-study and artistic expression the result will necessarily be restricted and barren Hves. Nothing can be more sad than a barren\nlife. No life should be barren. No hfe can be fully productive unless it\nyields its true fruit in full measure. No Hfe can yield its richest fruitage\nunless its real selfhood has been trained to be self-active.\nInterest is the vital element in culture. Each child has some department\nof power which is his interest center. The interest that arouses and defines,\nthat awakes and achieves, must act from within the child himself, and it must\nhave Appropriate materials and opportunity for stimulation and activity.\nWith a narrow curriculum many children were never truly kindled, and they\npassed through life ''deaf and dumb and Wind to a milHon things;\" indifferent\nnegative beings, instead of energetic and positive is they should have been.\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntArt\n\nInterest aroused in the central departn^ent of each child's power so fully\nas to lead to original expression becomes the supreme agency in producing\ndefinite and energetic action of his whole being, and therefore one of the\nchief aims of education should be to find the interest center of each child and\nprovide opportunities for original work to develop original power. Art is\nthe only subject that can develop the central power of some children, and it\nhas a wider influence in the development of a consciousness of original power\nin all children than any other subject except manual training, and it is one\nof the most essential elements in manual training\nArt gives a new form of expression, which may be developed easily and\njoyously into self-expression. Every new form of self-expression strengthens\nthe powers of self-expression already possessed by the child. All forms of\nself-expression are in harm.ony with each other, and are m.utually developeng\nto each other. Each new power broadens the mind and makes it more\nfully conscious of its powers. Each undeveloped power prevents the perfect\ngrowth of all other related powers. The revelation of a new phase of selfhood\nto the child is a notable epoch in his growth, and in the awakening and defining\nof his powers. Art is the highest form of self-expression for many children\nand it may be a high productive form of self-expression for all children.\nArt strengthens the mental powers. It cultivates the observant powers\nand accurate observation is the fundamental basis of clear and definite thinking. Seeing is a m.ental act. Culture in correct^ seeing m.eans culture of the\nmind, not of the eye. We see only those things to which we pay attention.\nThousands of pictures form themselves on the retina each day that are not\nseen. The mind attends only to those pictures in the eye which are related to\nappreceptive centers formed in ti by experience and training.\nArt trains the reasoning powers. Definite seeing leads to accurate thinking. Accurate observation lays the foundation for correct judgment. A\nconsiderable portion of our reasoning depends on our conceptions of size, form,\ncolor, and relationship; therefore art by the cultivation of new and exact\napperceptive centers of size, form, color, and relationship, gives a logical\npreparation for clear thinking.\nArt provides the highest opportunities for the culture of the imagination.\nReal art is not a mere reproduction of beautiful things that have been stored\nin the memory, nor is its highest work the representation of the best work in\nnature. True art is more than this. It is an expression of the highest revelations of a lifetime in new forms in harmony with the individuality of the\nartist. Art molds material things into new and higher forms; it beautifies\nthem with more exquisite and more harmonious colors; it transforms them\ninto more ennobling expressions of the highest spiritual evolution of humanity.\nBut art does not stop here. It deals with the unseen and attempts the* interpretation ofthe infinite; it reveals the most transcendent visions of spiritual\ninsight. Whether art be reproduction, or representation or transformation,\nor spiritual revelation, it exercises some form of the imaginatoe, either repre-\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenti\n\nART\n\nAS\n\nA FACTOR\n\nIN\n\nCULTURE\n\n805\n\nsentative, or constructive, or creative, and by exercise develops it and qualifies\nit for fuller, freer activity. Our highest powers are capable of most rapid\nand most comprehensive development, and all powers grow most rapidly\nwhen used for highest purposes. As art is such a high form of self-expression,\nit necessarily follows that it is one of the most perfect agencies for developing\nthe imagination.\nArt develops originality and qualifies man to aid in increasing human\nwisdom and power, and in the promotion of human happiness by the revelation\nof new thought, new forms of beauty, and new conceptions of aesthetic and\nspiritual evolution. We should leave the world richer than we find it. Our\nonly possible gift to civilization is some true revelation of our spiritual power.\nThe development of original power is therefore the supreme element in education. Original power can be developed only by the exercise of some form of\nself-expression in constructive invention, oratory, literature, music, or art.\nArt is certainly one of the highest of these forms, and therefore it is one of the\nmost productive agencies for developing original power.\nWe are usually too willing to be satisfied with high achievement in the\npower of expression by the child in oral language, written language, music,\nmanual training, and art. This is a mistake, because expression alone adds\nnothing to human power or wisdom or vision. Expression at best is but a\npreparation for self-expression. It is not even that in the truest sense. Selfexpression, or originality, is not only the desired end of education, but the\nprocess by which the most comprehensive, the most definite, and the perfect\nforms of self-expression may be acquired. Self-expression is infinitely more\nproductive than expression. The passive forms of expression are little better\nthan the passive forms of accumulation in developing the child. The true\nfunction of selfhood is the exercise of original or creative power. When\nthe creative functions of the child are assumed by the teacher, or are left out\nof consideration altogether, the child's culture is weakened at its most vital\ncenter. No other school work affords such universally attractive opportunities\nas art for the expression and development of originality, and for the revelation\nof the growing inner life by creative activity in improving and beautifying the\nconditions of our environment.\nArt is of special educative value because it so readily reveals to the child\nhimself the possession of original power. The most important epoch in the\nlife of a child is the time he gets a revelation of his special power, a consciousness of the fact that he has independent creative power. The central element\nin strong character is a positive self -reverence based on a conscious recognition\nof original power to be used for humanity. No other school-study gives such\nexcellent opportunities as art for revealing to a teacher the great fact that the\nchild has original power. The results of a child's original efforts are more\ndistinctively manifest, more objectively real, and more easily achieved in art\nthan in any other subject. This is the culture that gives real value to all\nother kinds of culture, and that arouses most effectively the powers of the mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^ [Art\n\nArt is a very important element in the education of a childbecause it qualifies\nhim for the true interpretation of the great works of art. All the great ideals\nof the world's leaders in the progress of humanity toward a higher civilization\nare stored for the development of the present and for coming generations in\nliterature, art, and music. The schools, should train all children to be able\nto search intelligently in the treasure-houses of the race, and to interpret\ncorrectly the transcendent visions of those men and women who have stood\non the mountain peaks of development, and who have recorded their higher\nvisions for all who come after them. The schools try to train their pupils to\ninterpret literature as a means of securing greater happiness and higher\ndevelopment; they should also train them to comprehend and interpret the\ngreat ideals that are preserved in art and music for the enrichment of the race.\nI am never so conscious of a defect in my culture as when I stand with a\npainter before a great picture, or walk with an architect in a grand cathedral.\nThe artist or the architect sees and feels and thinks a thousand things unseen,\nunfelt, unthought by me. I am relatively blind and unconscious when compared with him. The things he sees and feels, the great thoughts that stir\nand lift him, are recorded in the picture for me, as well as for him, but I cannot\ninterpret them for lack of the culture which I failed to get. I cannot see and\ninterpret the records because I was not trained to see and interpret. It might\nhave been possible for me to have seen clearly and interpreted truly, and my\nwhole intellectual and spiritual life is narrower and weaker because of my\nlack of the culture that would have enabled me to do so. The fact that we\ncould not all be trained to see what Ruskin saw in color, or in architecture,\nis no reason why we should not be trained to see as much as we have natural\npower to see. Our duty as educators is to kindle the children, and cultivate\ntheir vital intellectual powers so fully that they may be able to gain as much\nof culture and of uplift as possible from all the elements of culture and uplift.\nArt is one of the most productive of these elements. It is a key to niany great\nstorehouses of the best culture. We wisely try to train our pupils to be capable\nof comprehending and enjoying and using the emotion and thought stored in\nliterature. We should for exactly the same reasons train them to see and\nunderstand and enjoy the records and revelations of the varied forms of art\nm painting, in sculpture, and in architecture. We should leave no child without the power to appreciate and interpret the works of the great leaders of the\npast.\nThe child who has not been taught the fundamental principles of balance,\nrhythm, and harmony is blind to the real beauty of the designs in carpets,\ncurtains, and wall paper. The child who has not been trained to recognize\ncorrect forms and proportions and to understand the relationships of forms\nand proportions cannot truly appreciate the exquisite beauties of sculpture\nor the majestic beauty of a cathedral. The man who understands the correct\nprinciples of literary composition sees in literature many beauties in literary\nform that bring no joy to the untrained; the man who has a knowledge of\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nART\n\nAS A FACTOR\n\nIN\n\nCULTURE\n\n807\n\nthe principles of composition in painting gains infinitely more of happiness\nand of culture by studying a picture than a man who has not learned those\nprinciples. The principles of composition in art are as definite and as simple\nand as easy to teach and to understand as the principles of literary composition, and every child has a right to know them.\n■ True art-teaching multipHes our power to see beauty, and harmony, and\nunity, and design, not only in the greatest art productions of man but in the\nworks of nature. The man whose color sense has not been trained is not\nable to recognize the rich harmonies of color that are seen by trained eyes.\nThe melody and the beauty exist for all, and are seen and understood and\nappreciated by all in proportion to the amount of art- training we have received.\nOh, the difference between the trained and the untrained!\nOne of the most effective lessons I ever learned was given by a teacher\nof art who showed me a collection of Japanese pictures chosen especially as\nillustrations of the exquisite color harmonies developed by those greatest\nstudents of color. Beside each picture lay some common object. The harmonies inblues and grays of that first picture I saw reproduced in a cinder from\nthe ash heap. The harmonies in the tones of browns were beautifully seen\nin the inner side of a piece of bark taken from an old and decaying log, and\nall through the series of pictures, each picture had its color harmonies reproduced by moss, or bark, or shell, or fungus, or by some common thing that\nmost of us pass without any recognition of its beauty. It means a great deal\nto a young life to be made conscious of the fact that even the commonest\nthings that lie unnoticed around us possess some elements of beauty equal\nto the most fully developed conception of the race. The revelation of beauty\nand harmony hitherto unseen prepares us to believe in the higher evolution of\nthe race, in order that it may become capable of comprehending the higher\nbeauty and harmony yet to be revealed. It helps too to a clearer understanding ofthe universe and its Creator to realize that even the most apparently valueless things possess transcendent beauty when we become capable\nof seeing it.\nBut the lesson that we are in the midst of beauty, and the training in\npower to see beauty, great as they are, are not so important as the habit of\nsearching consciously for the beautiful. The greatest modem art teachers\nmake alertness to beauty and responsiveness to its influence the supreme\naims. The true teacher often says to her pupils: Draw or sketch or paint\nfor me the flower or tree or tower or porch or vase or landscape you think\nmost beautiful, or bring me the pattern or picture or object that you think most\nbeautiful. At first it is enough that the child shall make the choice, but\nlater the reasons for the preference should be given.\nOf course it is essential that the choice of each child should be recognized\nas of absolute value to him, and reverently respected by his teacher. If his\nchoice be inferior, his taste cannot be raised to a higher plane by the adoption of the choice of another. The making of choices, and the explanation of\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nthe reasons for making them, form a very productive exercise; but the chief\nvalue of such training is the development of a persistent tendency to search\nconsciously for the beautiful and true in our environment and in our conditions.\nConstantly relating the best outer to the best inner will lead to a conscious\npurpose to make the best inner become the outer. The habit of choosing the\nmost beautiful in our environment will aid in the development of the most\nbeautiful characteristics of life.\nIdeals transform individuals, and ultimately transform national life.\nIdeals become vital in our lives by consciously choosing them.\nArt has a high culture influence because it tends to lift the soul above\nmaterialism. Every working-man should know that he can create and reveal\nideals. So will his life be ennobled. Our material life should be spiritualized. The spiritual in literature and music and art is lifting the race slowly\ntowards the Divine.\nThis is the real education.\nMr. Morris says: \"Art is for the few.\" This is a narrow view. It is the\nlimited thought of an artist, not the broad view of an artistic educator. Each\nsoul should have those powers trained which tend t© bring it into conscious\nrelationship to the universal spirit. Art can do much to achieve this grand\nresult. Each new apperceptive center of beauty and harmony qualifies for\na higher and deeper consciousness of beauty and harmony, and promotes our\nconscious growth towards the Divine.\nWith grander ideals of liberty and of individual power, and of the possibility of human achievement as we grow towards a truer spiritual emancipation, let us teach the best we know of art to all the children as a basis for\na nobler art and for a purer individual and national life.\nTHE\n\nBEARING\nCHARLES\n\nOF ART ON INDUSTRY\n\nZUEBLIN,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nGoethe once said: \"Fortunate is he who at an early age knows what art\nis;\" which you may take as a platitude, but Philip Gilbert Hamerton has\nsaid that in the whole realm of art literature you will hardly find a sentence of\nequal significance.\n'\nWe all have had the experience, either in ourselves or in others, of trying\nto overcome years of neglect or bad teaching; and often no amount of information, no amount of subsequent training, will neutralize the mistakes of the\nschools. I fancy most of us have gone through some sort of art-training.\nUnfortunately for many, that usually has meant merely a sort of encyclopedic\nsurvey of the great painters and sculptors of the world. Unless we can learn\nsome of the elements of art, we cannot by mere knowledge of art products\nremedy our deficiencies.\nI want to speak here very briefly about the function of art with respect to\noccupation, social welfare, and culture, believing that we shall satisfy these\nneeds best if in preparation for occupation we give students a knowledge of\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nBEARING\n\nOF\n\nART\n\nON\n\nINDUSTRY\n\n809\n\nform, color, and design; if in preparation for social welfare we consider especially the beauty of environment; and if as a contribution to culture we consider the fine arts and the lesser arts in harmonious relations. Those of us\nwho were educated in the puV)lic schools, or even in private schools, twenty or\nthirty years ago, will have had scarcely any instruction in form, color, and\ndesign. I remember very well the style of public-school instruction — ^if I may\nquote a personal experience — which obtained in Philadelphia at that time.\nI stayed in the country late one autumn, and came into school every day,\nwith permission to take one session until two o'clock. The teacher of my\nclass stayed through the lunch hour every day, and for the first time I learned\nsomething of her skill in freehand drawing, when she prepared the blackboard\nby a slate pencil for the coming chalk lessons. That was the character of\ninstruction given throughout the schools of Philadelphia at that time. At\nthe end of fifteen years of school life in Philadelphia I am perfectly sure the\naverage student did not have the remotest conception of the elements of art.\nI presume the other schools were not much better. Even today you go into\nschools where teaching in art is given; it is still called drawing, and that\ndrawing is still too seldom the means of recording one's own impressions.\nTolstoi defines art as the power of telling someone else what one sees. A\nlittle boy gave to his teacher at one time in a sketch his impression of the\nvacation school by an attempt to show the boy who went and the boy who did\nnot — two very grotesque figures, suggestive of the before-and-after of patentmedicine advertisements. I have used it as a lantern slide, trying to show\nhow we could make use of our impressions, no matter how rude the art. The\ngrotesqueness of it always strikes the audience, and I have taken it as a reflection, not on the boy, but on the audiences, that they did not get an idea when\nthey saw it carried out, because of the crude form. He showed the idea as\nit came to him, but of course without training he did not have the power of\nrecording it skillfully, of making it vivid. The kindergarten is supposed to\nbegin the removal of those deficiencies from which we suffer, by teaching\nchildren form and color. As the kindergarten methods penetrate into the\ngrades, there is given more of the conception of design. I have had the pleasure\nof visiting some of the manual-training schools in this country, and I would\nspeak especially of the Mechanic Art School in St. Paul, where the endeavor\nand actual accomplishment with every child are teaching him to express his\nown ideas. In Chicago there has been the introduction of color-work with\nchildren, and it has been found that, while only 50 per cent, can reproduce in\nblack and white, about 99 per cent, succeed in the use of color; which implies\nthat the child has in him usually some artistic idea until crushed out by false\nmethods of instruction.\nIt has been the custom to stuff children full of facts; as someone said\nrecently, we paraphrase the old idea about the little star: \"Twinkle, twinkle,\nlittle star, teacher's told me what you are.\" Occasionally now they are allowed\nto find out these facts for themselves.\nVery few of them, however, acquire\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nthese very simple fundamental things — a conception of form, color, and\ndesign.\nWhat is the economic value of this form of teaching? The greatest\nnecessity of the workman of today is adaptabiHty. He is frequently stranded\nfor lack of it. I remember living with a friend in London who kept bachelor's\nquarters, and marveling at the skill of his domestic — a man who seemed equally\ncapable in the garden, kitchen, or garret. I wondered that such a versatile\nman should be found in domestic service. My friend told me that he had\nbeen a skilled watchmaker who had perfected his special skill so assiduously\nthat he had failed to do anything else, so that when they invented a machine\nwhich could do his work, and that was taken away from him, he was stranded;\nand so he became a house servant. That is the condition of the majority of\nworkmen today, if good workmen; if comparatively inferior and unambitious,\nthe condition will not be so difficult. In the schools of today the power of\nadaptability should be given chief attention; children should be taught to\nuse their hands to express the ideas of their minds. It is astounding to see\nwhat little children can do with clay. Those of us who never got beyond the\ncrude mud pies which we taught ourselves to make after we had escaped from\nschool can scarcely realize what children can do in the schools today.\nI think sometimes we hear rather excessive denunciations of the value of\nreading and writing from such people as John Ruskin ; yet, after all, it is asked\nwhether in learning so much from books we have unlearned the capacity for\nobserving with the eyes and executing with the fingers. Beginning with\nclay and other plastic materials, we can carry children up to a recognition of\nwhat a soft finish on a table means, contrasted with the mirror-like tables\nwith which we have been familiar — to reaHze that the texture of wood signifies\nsomething. This is an equipment for industry which it may take years for\nus to appreciate.\nYou will witness this curious phenomenon in the world today: a man who\ncan manage men can go with ease from one situation to another; he can go\nfrom being an engineer on a railroad Uke the IlHnois Central to the position\nof an engineer on the Panama Canal — as happened here recently — simply\nbecause he has that power of adaptability. But the average workman has not\nthat capacity, and is thus limited in his occupation.\nJohn Ruskin's famous dictum in regard to good architecture is, first, that\nthe material should be good and true; second, the ornament natural; third,\nthe designer left free to work from his heart. We have stifled that capacity\nin the workman, if he ever had it. I do not believe, of course, that the change\nof methods in schools will immediately bring large rewards; it will probably\nbring rebuke from employers. But, after all, there is a growing demand for\nindividual products, and the workmen themselves will not long be content\nwith the humdrum limitations of today. People say, however, that this development of handicraft is reactionary. But that is not the case. There is a\nmovement which is running counter to that of machine industry, which comes\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBEARING\n\nOF ART ON INDUSTRY\n\n8ii\n\nvery largely from the fact that even in the midst of the mechanical triumphs\nof today we are insisting upon individual workmanship. The time is coming\nwhen either we must go back to lead ajprimitive life, or we must have the\nopportunity to express individuality in workmanship; and it is being hastened\nin the schools today by giving children, not a knowledge of the great sculptures,\nbut the power of design, which emanates from a knowledge of form and color.\nA few years ago, after an extension lecture which I gave in an Iowa\ntown, the drawing- teacher, in discussing the subject, gave a little exposition on the blackboard of the meaning of proportion, and drew the\noutline of a house, and put the windows and doors in where they ought\nto be. That was twenty years after I left the grade schools, and yet it was\nthe first intimation I had had of what proportion meant in a building. I am\nafraid there are a great many people quite as ignorant as I was as to any\nproper conception of form. The most graphic illustration of this is in the\ndecline of colonial architecture at the time we supplanted humble bricklayers\nwith skilled architects. The old colonial buildings are invariably satisfactory\nin form and color. The builders had no education in the schools — only instinct.\nThey had a tradition of form. The ftioment that generation died out and\nthe trained architects of these schools undertook to draw their conception of\ncolonial architecture, it began to decline. They have not in their souls any\ntradition of proportion, and they draw something out of their minds which\nis mathematical and not artistic. Half a century ago in England they were\ntalking about the significance of the oval. Everything was built upon the\noval. Everything today is built upon the city building-lot. The conception\nforced upon the architect is the city building-lot, and this again is mathematical,\nbeing compelled to produce a thing which a mechanical civilization wants.\nA friend of mine was standing, or rather sitting, reverently looking at the\nVenus di Milo recently, when a woman brought in a troop of American girls;\nand they all stood, craned their necks, and looked at the Venus. Then she\nled them over and they looked at the fragments. They looked as tenderly\nat the fragments as they looked at the statue. They had seen every element of\nit preserved, and they were satisfied — checked it off, and went home. That\nis not tl)e attitude of the illiterate. It is the attitude of the average untrained\nmind until he has seen such an amount of true art that he knows. That is the\nremedy — to see enough until one knows. We can do this in the schools. I\nrepeat, therefore, that in preparation for occupation the most necessary thing\nis to get the power of adaptability ; and that can best be done, not by definite\ntechnical training, but by elementary teaching in form, color, and design.\nTo secure social welfare we must secure beauty in environment. We have\nmade the greatest progress in the decoration of schools, and the landscape\narchitecture outside the building has advanced marvelously in our day. Many\nwill remember the bare white walls and blackboards of the old-time schoolhouse, with nothing to relieve the bleakness unless the teacher could not resist\nthe impulse to put in plants. Now we frequently have good pictures, altho\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ntoo little discrimination and too many of them. Then we have better school\ngrounds. Unfortunately some schools have none. I have in mind one in\nChicago which stands flush with the sidewalk. The children must play in\nthe street. Back of the school are two very little places where the children could\nnot all stand up at once. Of course we cannot decorate those tiny places.\nWe must have courage to attempt greater things. We must get a beautiful\nenvironment for the school. Not that the children shall be told just what\nthat means, or that they shall be taken up in order to these pictures, as we\nwould in a good religious ceremony go around and reverently view each one ;\nbut in some way or other they will absorb the influences, if given the opportunity.\nIn our efforts to teach new ideas we have unfortunately too often taught them\nin the same way as the old ideas. An example of this is the two vacationschool children who were viewing with the greatest possible interest the eagles\nin a cage in Lincoln Park. One said: ''Come on, let's go away or we will\nhave to draw them.\" They enjoyed them to the utmost until they thought\nof some formal task. The unconscious influence of those noble birds would\nhave been equally beneficial.\nBut what are you going to do even with a beautifully decorated building,\nif after leaving it the children must be turned loose amid the conglomerate\narchitecture of Lake Avenue ? The best teacher cannot eradicate the influence\nof bad grammar at home, and the best art teacher cannot eradicate from\nchildren the impression of the advertisements along the elevated and steam\nrailroads. Even private residences bear advertisements, probably because the\nbacks and sides of almost all houses in Chicago are unworthy of anything but\nadvertisements. I am not so sure but the owner is right to have some sort\nof paint to cover up the sort of brick that you see in some of those buildings.\nThe child cannot go out of this building and keep all that he gets' here. Consequently we shall have to undertake a reformation, training this generation\nas well as the next. That again means going down to the fundamentals.\nA great many people have on their walls beautiful oil paintings and in their\nhouses hideous furniture; and they do not know it. I do not know whether\nit is that they put all their souls into the old masters and divest themselves\nof their surroundings. It is true that music and the fine arts are of infinitely\nless importance than the furniture, the hangings, and the kitchen fittings.\nWe can never eradicate those impressions by any amount of education in the\nfine arts. Until the environment becomes harmonious we are going to undo\nthe work of the schools. If the schools are going to effect anything, they\nmust be met half- way by civic and home improvement.\nOf course, in cultural improvement we must get a considerable notion of\nthe fine arts, because they are intimately related to culture. Music, literature,\nsculpture, and painting — we must know something of these if we are to get a\nknowledge of art; but they are rather the means of finding out things than\nreal knowledge. The average woman's art study is merely to finger the lexicon\nby cataloging art products.\nThat is valuable knowledge, but it gives us not\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGREAT\n\nPERIODS\n\n813\n\none single aesthetic conception. There again we have to go down to the\nfundamentals. As Ruskin said, to study carefully the Grand Canal of Venice\nwas worth a visit to all the galleries of Europe.\nSargent has painted many beautiful portraits of the millionaire and the\nmillionaire's beautiful daughter, but he has never done anything for a private\npatron like his decoration for the Boston hbrary. No painter could rise to\nsuch heights in painting the picture of any milUonaire as in painting some\nbeautiful and ennobling subject, something that touches his soul. A wonderful\ninfluence is sweeping over the country, giving the people a conception of the\ndifference between mural painting and easel painting — a work of art related\nto a building and a work of art not related to anything. We gain thus not only\ngreater artists, but a culture not merely for the favored people who can go to\nEurope, but for the multitude who, if they cannot have this abundant knowledge, at least can grasp the fundamental principles that will teach them\nsomething of harmony. I take it that it is not impossible with the forces\nalready at work in the schools to teach form, color, and design so as distinctly\nand valuably to influence the mind of the child and lay the foundation for this\nculture which will give us that sense of harmony and make for the child of\nthe future a more beautiful environment for the expression of his ideas.\nSOME\n\nEDUCATIONAL DEDUCTTONS FROM\nOF THE GREAT PERIODS\n\nFREDERICK\n\nG. BONSER,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTHE\n\nMACOMB,\n\nART\nILL.\n\nAny discussion must be tested finally by its relation to fundamental principles. Abrief statement of educational principles, therefore, follows.\nEducation has reference to the development of an individual living and\nworking among other individuals. It refers to the development of the individual himself, but he is measured in terms of his efficiency in serving the\nneeds of others.\nIn mental development there are two factors of growth: the self-active,\nunfolding agency, the inner or subjective factor; and the outer world, the\nenvironment.\nThe interaction of these gives experience.\nOnly when situations are regarded and attacked as problems to be solved\nis mental development accomplished. It is only when a problem, real to\nihe child, confronts him, that he exercises his power to do and thereby grows.\nTwo factors appear as all-controUing in the selection of the materials of\neducation, the one social, referring to the worth of the material itself ; the other\npsychological, referring to the interest, capacity, and method of growth of\nthe child mind. These two determining factors, the social as a measure of\nworth, the psychological as a guide to sequence and method, are to be applied\nto the selection of every item of subject-matter. May we briefly apply these\nfactors in relation to art education:\nThe child is in active contact with sources of nearly all forms of art material.\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nNature, with its line, dark-and-shade, color and composition, is open to him;\narchitecture, as exhibited in dwelling-houses, libraries, school buildings,\nchurches, and other public buildings, is rich in its materials; industrial art,\nas shown in the design and decoration of all kinds of textiles, the exterior and\ninterior of walls, furniture, pottery, machinery, tools, utensils — everything\nin all man's great variety of equipment is a constant suggestion of the beautiful\nin relation to the useful; masterpieces in sculpture and painting, or excellent\nreproductions of these are now within the easy reach of nearly every child;\neverywhere are human beings engaged in every phase of institutional life.\nThus, the child is in living contact with almost every possible source of art\nmaterial and is vitally interested in it. The great variety of work in the school\nsubjects — nature-study, geography, history, literature, and manual and\nhousehold arts — are constantly offering opportunities and motives for development of appreciation and expression in all forms of both industrial and\nfine art.\nOn the psychological side, the child is characterized by great activity in all\nits forms. Interest is high in all living things and especially in persons.\nAttention is absorbing but rapidly fluctuates. Sense organs and muscles but\ngradually adjust themselves to fine co-ordinations. The motives in art expression which most strongly appeal are those of free, active Hfe, expressed with\nbold and hasty strokes. Imagination is vivid. Technique is subordinate\nto thought content. Expressive instincts, constructive instincts, creative\ninstincts, and decorative instincts are all strong. As adolescence develops,\ninterest in human action grows into interest in human motive, the power of\nabstract thinking develops, and the interest in symbolic representation and\ndecoration becomes prominent. Appreciation is inherent from the beginning\nand highly responsive to cultivation. On the psychological side, then, the\nchild is equipped with all of the latent possibiHties for the development of\nboth a fair measure of skill and a worthy degree of appreciation.\nTo summarize, then, the child is in the midst of an abundance of sources\nof materials, opportunities, and motives for art expression and appreciation,\nand he is equipped by nature thru instincts, capacities, and interests to\nrespond to all of these.\nWe now may turn to the evolution of fine and industrial arts that we may\nsee whether we may derive any substantial helps from the great art periods\nin solving the problems of present-day practice.\nPerhaps that fact most significant of all for us is that both the fine and\nthe industrial arts have always flourished together. As WilHam Morris\nobserved,\nIt is only in later times .... that .... the great arts of architecture, sculpture,\nand painting, and those lesser so-called decorative arts, have fallen apart from one another.\nAnd I hold that, when they are so parted, it is ill for the arts altogether.\n\nAnd Reinach notes that\nThe Greek artisan ....\n\neven in the humblest crafts .... showed himself the imi-\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nOF THE\n\nGREAT\n\nPERIODS\n\n815\n\ntator and sometimes even the rival of the great masters of his time. We may say indeed\nthat there was no great difference in Greece between high art and industrial art, for artists\nand artisans sought for inspiration from the same sources, and displayed the same unerring\ntaste.\n\nIt is said further,\nHad all the productions of Greek architecture, sculpture, and painting vanished, leaving\nno trace behind, the evidence given us by the utensils and household vessels, articles of\nornament, and equipment of all kinds .... would alone convince us of the incomparably fine artistic feeling of this highly gifted people.\n\nIn every great art period, the poorest household utensils, and the implements of the common, work-a-day world, as well as the divinest creations of\nthe fine arts, have shown the conimon expression of the true artistic instinct.\nA second significant fact is that every period has enforced the value of\nstudy and the inherent worth of all phases of nature, society, and the human\nmind as motives in art. Nothing has been found too common or simple,\nnothing too sublime or sacred, to lend its influence in beautifying the habitations and surroundings of men. There follow several illustrations of this\ntruth, chosen to show variety and range rather than completeness.\nIn the Greek period plant and animal forms were extensively studied as is\nwitnessed by the great variety of forms in the decoration of cups, vases, and\nother pottery, drinking-horns, coins, terra cottas, friezes, etc., etc. Conventionahzed designs, both of plants and animals, abound. It is needless\nmore than to mention the wonderful development and use of geometrical\ndesign, spacing, repetition, and rhythm. Architecture found its development\nin the erection of temples and public buildings, incorporating elements of\nreligious dignity, stability, and simple purity. The physiological expression of\nhuman attitude and emotion was studied with the utmost care.\nIn the early Christian period there were established the splendid possibilities ofarchitecture growing out of realistic and allegorical expression of\nrehgious history, doctrine, aspiration, and hope. The Basilica of St. Paul\nwithout the walls, Appolinaire, and St. Sophia are typical examples of this\nrehgious influence.\nThe Romanesque period marks the extent to which conventionaHzed\nsymbolism may subordinate everything to moral and religious motives.\nArchitecture developed in majesty and power as is evidenced by such structures as the cathedrals of Worms and Speyer, St. Semin of Toulouse, and the\nBaptistery at Florence. Sculpture and painting conform to motives for\nchurch decoration and center in religious allegory. The highest industrial\nart was developed to decorate doors, choir screens, pulpits, windows, vessels\nof the mass, and other church equipment. Tradition dominated and nature\nwas forgotten.\nThe Gothic period brought a \"brilliant revival of realism.\" The flora\nof the country was studied with \"loving attention\" for motives in decorative\ndesign. The reaUsm and optimism give a free, uplifting, airy, and exalting\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nquality to the architecture and plastic art of the period. Motives from all\npossible sources — legend, scripture, nature, agricultural labor, the sciences,\ncrafts, arts — all are made to contribute to the variety and richness of the\nperiod.\nThe Renaissance saw the utilization of almost every conceivable motive\nin art. Classic forms and sources were studied with almost fanatical enthusiasm. Yet the period was one of originality, variety, and initiative. Here\nart attained its most poetic expression. Cathedrals, palaces, castles, commemorative arches, all stand as monuments to the architectural genius of the\nperiod. Man at his best — in his history, his daily life, his religion, and his\naspirations — became the highest motive in graphic and plastic art. To\nmention the names of Titian, Tintoretto, da Vinci, Raphael, Michel Angelo,\nCorreggio, the Van Eycks, and a host of others of this period, is to suggest the\nvariety of motive, technique, and'accomplishment, in all fields of art.\nThe more recent period is perhaps but a continuation of the Renaissance\nmovement. Variety and individuahty are dominant characteristics. Initiative isevident as shown by the experimentation in the possibilities of novelty,\naltho much of this is amateurish and is wanting in depth of purpose and\nmotive. The naturalism and the idealization of common things — Corot,\nDupre, Millet, Inness, Bonheur — suggest the possibilities in the work and\nsurroundings of common life.\nFrom this mere glimpse into some of the greater art periods, it seems to\nbe true that all enforce the significance of the study and worth of every field\nof nature, society, and human life as motives in art.\nA third point, differing from the foregoing only in emphasis, would offer\nthat all periods show the possibilities thru both industrial and fine art of\nmaking the common things of life, those pertaining to shelter, clothing, and\nfood, as beautiful as they are useful. Both artisanship and art have ever\ngone hand in hand in the decoration of walls, furniture, and household\nutensils.\nOne other fact is of noteworthy significance. In every period, art has\ndeveloped in close relationship to other vital human interests. Examine the\ncoins, the vases, the statues, the monuments of architecture, and the paintings\nof any period, and standing plainly revealed are the stories of its heroes, its\nestimate of the worth of its industries, the ideals of its institutional Hfe, its\nconception of human vice and virtue, and the aspirations of its moral and\nreligious hopes.\nSummarizing these four generalized facts from the great art periods, they\nare: (i) That the fine and industrial arts have always flourished together;\n(2) that the whole world of nature, mind, and all their varied relationships\nhave motivated art expression; (3) that the common things of life have ever\nbeen of high importance in stimulating decorative and representative expression; and (4) that in every period art has developed in close relationship to\nother vital and dominant human interests and activities\nBut those are all\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGREAT\n\nPERIODS\n\n817\n\nbut phases of one great truth, that in all periods, and among all peoples, every\nform of artistic expression has come from the heartfelt needs of the whole\npeople, has been the expression of the artistic instinct thru beautifying the\nmaterials of vocational life and idealizing and beautifying the conceptions of\nsocial and spiritual life.\nWhile these facts enforce their own significance for art education, it is\nbelieved that explicit deductions may be of worth in establishing principles\nupon which to base the selection of materials and the method of their development in our practice.\nFrom the history of art and the needs of the present, both social and psychological, is\nt evident that the purposes of art education are two: To cultivate appreciation of the beautiful wherever found; and to develop the power\nof self-expression. Few have the capacity to become artists, but all have\nopportunities to appreciate works of art. All of us have much to do in determining whether our surroundings shall be ugly or beautiful. It is the function\nof the public school to cultivate discrimination, taste, and appreciation in\nart, just as much as it is to develop taste and appreciation in literature and\nmusic. All have the latent capacity for appreciating far more than they can\nexpress. I can value and appreciate the decorative designs in textiles, pottery,\nfriezes, or household furniture; but I cannot successfully produce them. I\ncan respond with a thrill to the perfection and beauty of the Venus of Milo,\nthe Victory of Samothrace, or the Apollo of Belvidere; I cannot make them.\nI can feel awed and subdued and uplifted by the Parthenon, St. Peter's, Rome,\nor Westminster Abbey; I cannot make so much as a plan for the simplest\nelement of one of these. I can respond to the realism of Titian, Rubens,\nMillet, or Vereshchagin; to the poetic expression of Halls, Ruisdael, Bume\nJones, or Alma Tadema; to the symbolism of Michel Angelo, Raphael, or da\nVinci; but I cannot make artistically the simplest representation in stone or\non canvas. For most of us appreciative insight is a thousand fold more to\nbe desired and more possible of accomplishment than skill in production.\nBut some degree of skill is also possible to all. As the use of words with\nsome accuracy and elegance may be cultivated, so also may be the capacity\nfor graphic and plastic expression. The values of expression in clearing up\nideas, and in securing appreciative insight into the fuller meaning of artisanship\nand art, are of much significance. Every child should have an opportunity,\nalso, to find himself. We cannot afford to have a possible artist remain a\ncrude craftsman or unskilled workman because of want of opportunity for\nhis development.\nCultivation of appreciation and of the power of self-expression, then, are\nthe purposes of art education. In their order, what are the means for realizing\nthese ends ? We said earlier that the materials for appreciation are all about\nthe child. Nature with its landscapes, its sunsets, its plant and animal forms,\nwith their action and color, its form and color in stones, shells, and metals,\nits water with its life and its color, its phenomena of storms, of snow, of the\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[An\n\nchanges of seasons — all about and every day nature offers a most various and\nbeautiful source of material.\nArchitecture has not begun to be appreciated for its value in decorative\ndesign and its opportunities for the study of many classic forms. There is\nhardly a town or a city in this country that does not offer opportunities far\nbeyond any use that is ordinarily made of them. Dwelling-houses, schools,\nchurches, libraries, and other public buildings might be studied with splendid\nresults in stimulating and cultivating appreciation.\nIndustrial art may also be so studied that it will be rich in its values for\ncultivation of taste. Textiles — dress goods, carpets, rugs, millinery — fabrics\nof all kinds and for all purposes, may be studied from the standpoint in connection with textile industries and domestic art. Furniture, wall paper —\nhousehold decoration as a whole — is well worth while; china and pottery offer\none of the best sources for the study of decorative design; the decoration of\nbooks and magazines; jewels, medals, coins, utensils, tools, and equipment\nfrom every vocation in life — all are at hand with their almost overwhelming\nvariety of designs and motives, all of which, when studied aright, may be of\ngreat value in cultivating appreciation. These may be studied, not as\nisolated subjects, but in vital relationship to these industrial materials as they\nmost naturally arise in the course of study. Our study of the pottery industry finally took us far afield into the realm of Greek decorative design, but the\nstudy was profoundly more significant for the children than an isolated study\nwould have been, for they saw the relation of a high art to a familiar and\ncommon industry.\nStill another much advocated but little used field of study for art appreciation isthat of the masterpieces of graphic and plastic art. If originals cannot\nbe had, excellent reproductions are easily available. I do not mean analyzing\nor dissecting the pictures for elements of technique and structure, but trying\nto get the story and feeling the author tried to tell. Why did the author paint\nthis picture ? What did he wish to express ? Try to tell the story in words.\nBut most of all, try to lead the child to feel that he cannot tell it all in words.\nThe very beauty of the picture is a subtle something that can't be expressed in\nwords, and when that feeling comes, appreciation is safe. If you can say\nnothing of a picture that will help to arouse in the children the feeling that lies\nbeyond words, hang it before them and let it tell its own story.\nA last element which is offered as having a place in the development of\nappreciation is the cultivation of some ability in production. Acquaintance\nwith an activity begets interest in it. Those most appreciate a product who\nknow from inner experience the work involved. Some participation in the\nmaking of representations and designs is of much value here. To summarize\nthen, it is offered that appreciation may be cultivated by a study of nature,\nof architecture, of industrial art, of the masterpieces in graphic and plastic art,\nand by work in drawing, painting, modeling, and other means of decoration\nand representation.\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGREAT\n\nPERIODS\n\n819\n\nSkill in expression may be developed through free work in representation,\ndirected and refined by the teacher as opportunities appear, using motives\nfrom immediate life interests. Design and decoration, probably first appearing in relation to the placing, spacing, and repetition of motives used in free\nexpression, call attention from the beginning to prominent fundamental\nprinciples of form in both industrial and fine art. ,In all media used — pencil,\npaint, paper, cardboard, textiles, clay, wood, metal, or any other material —\nattention to these elements of form and harmony must be as constant as is\nattention in English to oral and written expression if correctness and elegance\nare to be attained. Of course, here, as in all work in expression, growth and\npower will be secured only in so far as there is real motive. Whether it be in\nwords, or paper, or paint, or clay, or what not, be sure the pupil has something\nto express; then you may help him to express it well.\nA remaining element helpful in the development of skill in expression is the\nmasterpiece. Excellent pieces of workmanship in every respective field, under\nconsideration — decorated china, a well-designed rug, a beautiful wall paper,\nan artistic book cover, a well-made chair, a good picture — anything of high\nexcellence showing the qualities in which the pupil is endeavoring to develop\nskill, will help him. In all expression work, imitation is a factor not half\nenough appreciated, even in oral reading. I do not mean copying, but having\ncorrect sense perception which will leave correct images and ideas in mind to\nserve as standards to which to attain. Masterpieces in art should serve just as\nlarge a purpose in the development of skill in expression as should those of\nEnglish in cultivating the qualities of style. How can one show the principles\nof decorative design so well as by pieces actually embodying them? After\nfair attempts have been made to express action, how can you help the child\nmore to a correct conception than by showing him for his study \"The Sower,\"\n*'The Gleaners,\" ''The Escaped Cow,\" \"Aurora,\" or other pictures fitting\nthe occasion? For every element of technique — perspective, placing, tone\nvalues, composition, etc. — illustrative masterpicees are of the greatest value\nand importance.\nThus thru free expression, design and decoration, and the use of masterpieces, using motives from every possible field closely related to life interests,\nsuch desirable skill as the pupil is capable of may be developed. Whether this\nbe great or small, it should have the opportunity to make the most of itself.\nThru this development, much will be of value in cultivating appreciation,\nalso.\nThruout the foregoing there have been emphasized two distinct\nelements in art education which are supported everywhere in art by those\nthings which have endured: First, that fitness to its purpose is an essential\nfactor in determining the character of design and the choice of motives, either\nin industrial or fine art. Second, that spontaneous art expresses itself in\nbeautifying and symbolizing the most immediate and vital life interests.\nAgain and again in the study of the great periods this is forced upon us. Out\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfArt\n\nof the fulness of the heart of his time and his people, both the artisan and the\nartist speaketh. I offer, then, that from both the teachings of the history of\nart and the inherent nature of the child, every subject of art study in the school\nis properly motivated only thru some interest dominant in the life or environment of the pupil.\nA last point which I would emphasize is the necessity for the full use of\nspontaneity, originaHty, and constructive imagination. Our own unused\nAmerican environment is the source of possibilities for a high development of\nappreciation and skill. We have natural scenery, and history, and folk lore,\nand social struggles, and social and religious aspirations and ideals that may\nfind their highest expression only in bronze or marble or on canvas. We\nhave unused possibilities for decorative design — oak leaves, acorns, corn,\nthe golden rod, red clover — all as intrinsically worthy, and perhaps as symbolically significant, to us, as laurel or lotus or acanthus.\nTo me, the whole history of art and the most vital element in the pedagogy\nof the twentieth century, alike teach that all progress in art lies in the expression\nof the experiences, the hopes, the ideals, and the aspirations of our own environments, of our own times, and of our own lives. The past is studied to refine\nand stimulate creative effort for the expression of the life of the present, not\nto become a substitute for it. Both likewise teach that the fundamental principles of both industrial art and fine art are the same. The cathedral and the\nbook cover, the memorial arch and the kitchen stove, the palace wall and the\nlaborer's pick, the queen's tapestries and the servant girl's rug, may respectively\nand appropriately be decorated with the same design, show the same elements\nof line, spacing, color, or representation. Nothing is too common to involve\nprinciples of the highest artistic significance, nothing too fine to respond to the\nsimplest elements of artistic expression. The appreciation and enjoyment\nof artistic materials used in daily work are not less a portion of the full joy\nof living than are the appreciation and enjoyment of the materials used in\nlife's leisure. The large deduction I make from the whole matter is, that art\nis one, and that the means of realizing its highest appreciation and expression\nis thru the great variety and richness of life interests nearest at hand.\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nPRANK\n\nA.\n\nOF ART IN A CONSTRUCTIVE\nMANNY,\n\nETHICAL\n\nCULTURE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNEW\n\nEDUCATION\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nEither of the terms employed in the subject offers problems which would\ndivide any company into apparently opposing but really co-cperating camps.\nTo attempt definitions of art and constructive education would be futile but\nit may be well to bring forward some illustrations which have more or less\nbearing upon one or the other of the terms.\nIn Germany, not long since, I visited a Realschule in one of the largest and\nmost progressive cities. I had observed shops in which boys were at work\non the other side of the court as I came in and asked the director if these\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nART\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n821\n\nbelonged to the school. His reply was a very curt negative. Later I asked\nhim to show me the laboratories of the school. Then he could restrain himself no longer. \"In Germany, sir, workshops and laboratories are only for\nthe education of those persons who in after life will not be able to escape\nmanual labor.\" This may serve as an illustration of non-constructive education. It is only fair to say that there is much to be seen in Germany which\nbelies the statement of the Herr Direktor.\nIn Italy — it was in Florence — I visited a technical school in which I was\nespecially interested to observe the work of young boys of what would correspond to our seventh and eighth grades and first years of high school. There\nwere well-equipped shops, laboratories and studios, each apparently ready\nfor use at any time with assistants in charge who knew the problems of the\nmaterial and processes involved. I tried to get at the program — the head\nof one of the departments who had me in charge and who spoke excellent\nEnglish seemed puzzled by my questions. Finally he said, \"The boy must,\nof course, do a certain amount of recitation work but the greater part of his\ntime is spent on problems which may require this shop or laboratory or a\nstudio — one cannot tell for how long a time. These are ready for his use and\nprofessors and assistants give him the direction and facilities needed. How\ncan we then say that he must be in a certain laboratory so many hours a\nweek ?\" \"Do you carry this out with boys of twelve and thirteen ?\" I asked.\n\"Why not?\" was his answer. We may well echo his conclusive question,\n\"Why not?\" This I give as a situation which has some of the essential\nelements of constructive education.\nThe issue between the old education and the new is older than history.\nIt has its counterpart in the struggle between rationalism and empiricism,\nmonism and pluralism, humanism and naturalism, orthodoxy and liberalism.\nWhile progress has seemed to come through the forwarding of first one tendency\nand then the other, a really constructive policy must take account of both forces\nand one might as well be a partisan for the centripetal as opposed to the\ncentrifugal as to take sides, except in a corrective way, in many of the pedagogical squabbles of the past and the present. European education overvalues products — the classic — and, what is more serious, fears participation\nin processes. One does not wonder that these embodiments of significance\nare looked upon as the chief material of education and encroachments upon\nthem are resented when one recalls the scenes he has witnessed in American\nlaboratories, shops, and classrooms in which students are kept so busy doing\nthings that there is no time or energy for them to see the relation or meaning\nof what they are doing.\nThe opposing camps show greater division as one comes to know them\nbetter. At one extreme is the classicist to whom education is an introduction\nto products as embodiments of meaning. Next to him comes the school of\nMatthew Arnold, which would include along with the products as such a\nconsideration of them as the results of processes. This is very different from\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "822\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\na third class whose main desire is that the student participate in the processes.\nThe second and third are often confused and a recognition of the two phases\nwould prevent much wasteful controversy. The third class may be subdivided into one including those who would make the processes copies of those\nwhich already have taken place (the culture-epoch influence is much older\nand of wider range than the school to which the name is applied) and another\nwhich includes those who in an extreme form see only present activity in its\nimmediate manifestations.\nThis last class is apt to assume that it is the true representative of constructive education but, as I stated above, I cannot believe that an intelligent\nview of the situation can allow our taking a partisan or sectarian relation.\nTo illustrate what I mean let me describe in part what I saw recently in one\nof our leading American normal schools. The class chanced to be working\nupon bookbinding — one of a half-dozen arts used as educational experience —\nthe abstract term \"art\" has given way to ''the arts\" in this school. Conditions were not easy for the class divided into three sections requiring very\ndifferent treatment. It was the method of working which seemed significant\nto me. Both the art and the manual-training teachers were present and they\nevidently understood each other. Each was kept busy with problems — the\nstrength of the work lay in the fact that each student evidently had problems\nof her own and the experts with their resources were regarded by the students\nfrom the standpoint of these problems. In the part of the period given to\ndirect presentation I was struck by the way in which the instructors made use\nof the essential problems of material and construction and to these brought in\nas contributory elements materials representing the various classes spoken\nof — there was the finely finished work of the great masters in the trade and\nthere were more simply finished products together with others unfinished\nshowing the various stages of the processes involved. The hours seemed to\nme prophetic of a future constructive education in which there will be\ndivision of labor but in which partisanship will have as little place as it has\ntoday in the more highly organized developments of science. Custom and\nhabit will have their part but consciousness and initiative and common-sense\nwill function to a much greater extent than they do today.\nI have chosen this particular case because it indicated a high-water mark\nin my observation. The type of material concerned and the progress made is\nimportant from the standpoint of the place of art in a constructive education.\nBut the same bringing of both the worlds of science and of art into one system\nis equally valuable in other subject-matters. I would take a teacher of English,\nFrench, or even mathematics or Greek to this work for suggestion. It has\noften been noted how the conservative tendency which closed in on the fresh\nbloom of humanism in Latin and Greek in the days of the Renaissance and\novergrew them with the barnacles of scholasticism until they have become\nto the unthinking the symbols of classicism, in our own days has made biology,\nphysics, chemistry, even manual training, in some schools cemeteries in which\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPLACE\n\nOF ART\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nare interred the hopes and awakenings of many of our boys and girls. Formalism in a subject which has had centuries of use is relieved somewhat by technical excellence — the art elements in a narrow sense, but in such a subject\nas domestic science, in which we have not yet gotten many habits of teaching,\nformalism has a bareness which makes one shudder to see its execution even in\nthe most elaborately equipped quarters. In passing let me say to all believers\nin constructive education, regardlesss of their particular fields, that one of the\nmost suggestive developments is that which is taking place in the subject of\nmathematics in England. The problem is to break away from the isolation\ninto which any particular movement or function has come and to bring the\nresults of the isolation — the force generated by the damming of the waters — into\nservice. In this case mathematics has been developing its grammar and technics until we have almost forgotten that it is the language of science. The\nnew movement in England and some beginnings in America are showing us\nthat certain sections of so-called higher mathematics have a constructive value\nwhich should come early and be followed rather than preceded by the formal\nwork we have considered the substance of elementary mathematics.\nIt is in this way that art has become segregated — the so-called fine arts have\nhad the advantage in that the particular materials with which they are concerned have permitted the attainment of a freedom impossible as yet in the\nelements offering greater resistance and more difficulties. When this freedom\nhas been attained it is accounted as a special prerogative of those who have\nit and not something which is to be worked out all along the line. The dualism\nwhich appears between the **fine\" and the ''useful\" arts is the same that the\nold Greeks saw in mankind, there must be slaves in order that the glorious\nflower of leisure may blossom in a few.\nIn a course given in the early 90's Professor Dewey makes the test of the\nlimit of free action at a given time, that is the degree to which anything is\nart, the extent to which it functions in the whole — the whole is seeking to\nembody itself in every particular — this whole is nothing less than the organized\naction of man. So far as the whole moves freely thru any part, that part is\naesthetic. The democratic movement in the political, social, industrial\nregions has equal bearings in art. The precious achievements of any age\nhave been hoarded as the right of those who have them and only with reluctance and under the force of pressure that could not be resisted have the barbarians, whether people or materials, been admitted to franchise privileges.\nIn a very valuable article of last year on \"Humanism and Naturalism,'*\nProfessor Woodbridge shows the state of the various interests of man at the\ntime of the rise of naturalism. It found, he says, \"an art, beautiful beyond\ncompare but secured and made possible in its monumental expression at the\ncost of unmerited and unrequited human suffering.\"^\nThe factor in modern education which stands out most conspicuously\nis that of control — of responsibiHty.\nIn many directions are seen evidence of\n» Hihhert Journal, October, 1907.\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthis. The various efforts at training the individual — at working out from[Arta\ncentral initiative — are indicative that the elements of life are still forming\nnew and higher relationships. Such recent books as Swift's The Mind in\nthe Making and Scott's Social Education furnish much material for the progressive student.\nWhen one turns to that phase of constructive education which is indicated\nby the term art, the problems of the larger situation repeat themselves. This\nis evident in one of the most important discussions of the subject which has\nappeared in recent years. ^ In this the distinction between the two aspects\nscience and art is based upon the distinction between continuity and isolation.\nThe discussion is very helpful but one feels that the general movement is\ntoward dualism and the question arises of the means of getting from one\nworld over into the other. It is as if the break in the chain of suggestions which\ncompels adjustment and a redirection of response involving consciousness\nshould be isolated as for that matter many logicians do isolate it. The particular case of art is so apart that the unity in which the scientific and aesthetic\nwould each function is lost sight of and there is an over-emphasis upon the\nminor Unity of the special instance — \"the frivolous flirt\" who is to be pictured\nas coquettish even to the ornaments on the wall may illustrate art of a certain\ntype but we may be feeling after forms which while less specialized within themselves are still art altho they may lead beyond themselves. The particular\nexperience may well require a pause in order that there may be an accumulation of appreciation which will by the force it thus gains give greater\nsatisfaction, but this is only part of the story. The temporary isolation has\nits function and thru it there is experience which the unimpeded flow of suggestion could not give; but to take it as a thing apart because its distinctive\nvalue comes from its apartness makes for a dead aesthetic as the isolation of\nthe proposition, significant as the product of a temporary holding-up and resorting ofresources to bridge a gap — to meet a need, makes for a dead logic.\nIn each case the isolation gives added value to an experience whose fuller\nsignificance is found in a larger situation.\nThe same problem arises in the statement of the psychological considerations. There is an anthropomorphic cast over it all which is a valuable asset;\nbut as religion gains by transcending the notion of a deity who reflects man\nin bodily and mental characteristics, so art may profit by a larger range. One\ncannot but raise the question of the opportunity for change and progress in\nappreciation in a system in which an isolated impression stays in itself and\ndraws into its circle only associations which make for \"perfect isolation.\"\nIf this is once attained how will it be gotten away from ? The conclusion of\nthis line of discussion well illustrates the results of this segregation and absolutism, activity becomes but a means and the real end is the old Aristotelian\nleisure — an aesthetic Nirvana or New Jerusalem of \"complete satisfaction,\"\n\"complete harmonization,\" \"complete fulfillment.\" There is unity and there\n* Munsterberg, Principles of Art Edtication.\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION\n\nis diversity — leisure and activity, but why make one an end to the other?\nLife has place for both — they follow each other and enrich each other, but the\nend is in neither by itself.\nThe important fact is the function in the larger whole of the isolation or\ndamming up whether of thought or emotion. It is this that makes possible\nstudying, considering, evaluating, appreciating. To arouse interest and to\nfall back upon experience when one possesses it are much easier problems in\neducation than is the bringing about of the lingering over the object of momentary interest with the artist's eye and touch in order to get at the meaning\nit can convey to the observer. That is study in a real sense and with it comes\nreadiness to see anew the experience that has proved useful and to see in it\nmore and more meaning that may dispossess some cherished past impressions.\nAs one lies at quarantine near New York, in the early morning there is a\nsuccession of visions — Whistler, Pennell, and even Turner effects. Everyone\non deck seems impressed but there are few who seem to be able to keep a scene\nin mind long enough to get more than a snap shot. The current of suggestion is\nuncontrolled and they are borne on to something else which quickly yields\nin turn to another suggestion.\nIt is these two phases, individual and social, which I wish to dwell upon.\nIn the individual's experience there is that participation in the abiding, that\nstaying-by, going over and over, which with the right emotional tone is joy and\nwithout it drudgery — some phases of it in school work are called drill. There\nis nothing in this inconsistent with change and progress. It is the lack of\nattention to it that has laid the so-called new education open to the charge\nor impermanence and superficiaHty. In no consideration of moral or religious\neducation can this factor in character-making be disregarded.\nOn the social side wider ranges are attaining their freedom. Athene\nErgane, the guardian of art and invention, must reach far beyond the Acropolis in the rapid extension of her territory. She finds that the machine and\nother industrial developments which seemed for a time antagonistic to her\nworld are means of widening her realm. Public-school drawing seemed far\nfrom art but the insistent patient work on the part of leaders and workers with\nvision has led to results which conservative artists give time to consider. One\nmost encouraging tendency is seen in the increasing participation of art experts\nin public-school interests. In one of our middle-sized cities at the end of a\nyear's work in which some time was given to bringing other community forces\ninto relation to the school, within a week three artists of standing in painting,\narchitecture, and music came to me and offered to giVe their spare time for a\nyear to school interests in their Hnes. In connection with some of our private\nschools men of the first rank stand ready to give unstintedly of their time to\nthe teaching specialists thus enriching the work of these institutions. As it\nhas been said that the multiplication of distinctive social settlements is of\ness importance than the increase of the number of homes which endeavor to\nmeet near-at-hand social needs, so this outreaching of artists into service\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nOther than their immediate special production makes for better art in their\nproduction and for an extension of the democracy of art. A few days ago I\nwas walking along a country road in an eastern state and was so attracted\nby the signs of two shops — the Bayfield Shop and the Boundbrook Press —\nthat I stopped in each only to learn that a man of national importance in\nart matters felt it worth his while to spend part of his time helping his\nneighbors in the designing of furniture, mile posts, church and other building signs and even in the more artistic printing of local notices, the church\nweekly paper, etc. In one of our large schools a visitor after careful study\nremarked,\nNothing impressed me more than the way in which an artist of recognized ability\nhas so made himself useful that without any assertion of authority on his part all turn to him\nfor direction — the tinting of walls, the selection of pictures, the designing of furniture,\nmanual-training projects, weaving designs, costumes, the coloring of Easter eggs. The\nharmony resulting from this cooperation and the utilization of the expert is an important\neducational factor.\n\nThe goddess will find that fields which have seemed to slip away from her\ndominion are coming again to her protection — the drama has an increasing\nart significance. The children's theater is bringing art into many barren\nlives. There are risks and dangers and no doubt mistakes, but the trend is\nright. One of our poets after a careful study of the nickel theater has written\na poem in which he shows the resources of art there which we have been slow\nto recognize. Such pageants as have been given this year in the Boston and\nBrooklyn normal schools open up to all who took part in and observed them\nwide reaches of experience. The revival of the festival while marked by some\nunnecessary limitations points the way to a study of local conditions and a\ndevelopment of characteristic art-communications which can bring joy into\nmany lives.\nA large part of this has to do with that side of life in which man is a consumer; one must accept his responsibility as a producer as well. It is here\nthat the individual elements referred to show us a serious weakness in our\nschools. We have wisely sought for scope — range — wide interest for our\nstudents but we have neglected the equally important requirement of intensity\n— depth. We provide very little opportunity for enough time on one line to\npermit the worker to reach anything like proficiency. We encourage him to\nskip from one point to another and there is no chance for the concentration —\nthe storing-up and repetition which makes him in a small way an artist.\nBenson in one of his essays calls for a reorganization of the secondary curriculum with some definite focus of major interest. The Washington Irving High\nSchool in New York City after the first year arranges a girl's work so that she\ncan give as much as fifteen hours of work a week to the graphic arts or to\nwhatever her major may be. In some of the English boarding-schools a\nsimilar result is reached by emphasis upon hobbies. We need more experimentation inthese directions — even in the elementary school I am convinced\nthat there is a need at the same time of greater variety and more concentration.\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "A NEW\n\nDepartment]\n\nBASIS\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIn the classification given above with reference to products and processes\nI purposely neglected to discuss another division of the third class — the one\nwhich desires participation by the student in processes — into those who incline\ntoward the classical and so insist that the value of the processes lies — to put\nit in extreme form — in its uselessness, its unproductiveness; while the other\nparty measures the value of the process by its results either social, material,\ncommercial — some form of remuneration being considered essential. This\nbrings us to constructive education in relation to vocation. This is a much\nlarger question than industrial training for it includes that and much more.\nIt is closely related to the question of major studies suggested above and has a\ndefinite bearing upon artistic production. There is not time to discuss this\nproblem here but in the present tendency to see certain sections of the educational situation very large it is well to bear in mind the outward swing of\nthese sections and to relate the teachings of the various subjects, the agitation\nfor industrial training, etc., to the larger social situation in which there is due\nregard for activity and leisure, continuity and isolation, science and art, logic\nand aesthetics.\n\nEMMA\n\nM,\n\nA NEW\n\nBASIS OF ART EDUCATION\n\nCHURCH,\n\nFORMER\nDIRECTOR,\nACADEMY\nCHICAGO,\nILL,\n\nOF\n\nFINE\n\nARTS,\n\nIt is a significant fact that year after year this earnest body of educators\nassembles, not to congratulate itself upon the perfection of our present educational scheme, but rather to discuss ways and means of its betterment.\nThere is a universal dissatisfaction with the hollowness of present-day life,\nwith its insincerities, its injustices, and its selfishness, and we feel that at least\na part of its cause lies in the inadequacy of the old education and its remedy in\nthe new.\nThe ideal of the age has been and still is material wealth. It is to have,\nrather than to be. It is to keep up an appearance, not to live. We have\nattained what we sought, and lo, we find that it is at the expense of the deeper\nlife of the spirit, at the expense of the real good and the real happiness. This\nmadness of possession has tended to make us feel our individual separatenesss\nrather than our social dependence and has denied us a full realization of the\nfact that no man can exist unto himself alone, that he can only know his life's\ncompleteness when he has seen in the human brotherhood his greater self\nand finally the relationship of the individual and social self to the Absolute,\nthe Oversoul, or God, or whatever we choose to call the Great Ultimate.\nThe world has long had this ideal. All of its great teachers have proclaimed it. Did not Plato declare it when he said.\nHe who would proceed aright should begin in youth to study beautiful forms; out\nof these he should create fair thoughts and soon he will perceive that the beauty of one\nform is akin to the beauty of another and he will soon become a lover of all beautiful\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlArt\n\nforms. In the next stage iie will see the beauty of institutions and laws, and after laws and\ninstitutions he will go on to the sciences and, contemplating the vast sea of beauty, he will\ncreate many fair and noble thoughts until he grows and waxes strong and at last the vision\nis revealed to him of beauty absolute, simple, and everlasting. And what if a man has\neyes to see true. Divine beauty ? Do you not see that in communion, since he has hold\nnot of an image but a reality, he will be enabled to become the friend of God and be\nimmortal ?\n\nWe might quote Buddha, Confucius, and many others.\nIt was the whole burden of Jesus' teachings to get men away from the\nworld of their senses and to realize that the permanent thing and the only\nthing that is worth while is man humanized thru being spirituahzed. To\nget them to understand that it is to know and obey the spirit of the law rather\nthan its letter, \"Seek ye first the kingdom of God and all these things shall\nbe added unto you,\" and \"The Kingdom of Heaven is within you,\" and\n\"Love God with all thy mind, with all thy soul, with all thy strength, and thy\nneighbor as thyself.\"\nTwenty-five hundred years ago, Plato formulated what he thought should\ngovern the education of this ideal Republic and five hundred years later, Jesus\ntaught very nearly the same thing for the upbuilding of his spiritual kingdom,\nand today we are very far from a realization of these ideals in life.\nThe world keeps repeating these words to itself and continues to be blinded\nby the dazzling glitter of material gold and the glare of the limelight of fame.\nOur only life and only reality we perceive in the external, the tangible. Religion isdefined by creeds, and the churches teach, not so much about the allpervading spirit, as they do about their peculiar way of conceiving and worshipping it. The question is not whether one is seeking the higher life but\nrather how is he doing it ? If his way is not my way, he is a heathen; always\nthe worship of the means.\nThe means of expression and not the essence expressed is also that by\nwhich we measure the worth of all forms of art. We say that music is beautiful sound, but it takes only our dog in the presence of the loveliest music that\nwas ever produced to prove to us that the beauty must be native in the hearer,\na quality of his consciousness. We speak of a beautiful building, canvas,\nor marble, and seldom realize that the beauty is within us and that the thing\nis merely vibrating to our inner consciousness the glow of sublimity that its\ncreator felt. Things are merely a medium of communication between mind\nand mind and between spirit and spirit. There are a few masterpieces in the\nworld's art that are so surcharged with the thought and feeling of the artist, that\nare so little material in their appeal, that the thing is lost in a sense of a spiritual presence. Such an one is the marvelous Praxiteles' Hermes, in the\npresence of whose sublime dignity there is seldom a beholder who is so irreverent as to speak aloud.\nThe fact that we still respond to these great things with a spirit akin to that\nwhich created them is proof that we still possess the \"divine fire,\" but our too\npractical training, our persistent feeling that the only reality is material, and\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA\n\nNEW\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n829\n\nour much cultivated intellects compel it to lie dormant. And how hopelessly dormant it is in most humanity at present may be seen in the way people\nspend their time of play and relaxation, by comparing the patronage, in our\ngreat cities, of opera, good music, good plays, and the art-galleries with that\nof the profitless, unlovely amusement-parks and the second- and lower-class\ntheaters. What is true of my own city is proportionately true of all other\nlarge ones. We have at least twenty of the second- and lower-class theatres,\nnot to mention the dime museums and some others, that play to full\nhouses every night and two afternoons a week, against one organization that is\nconsecrated to good music and not more than ten weeks of opera and three\nor four theaters that at least part of the season present the artistic drama.\nThere are only about thirteen out of every one hundred of the entire population\nthat once a year visit the Art Institute which is one of the largest museums in\nthe country and has brought to our very door the best of the art of these as well\nas of other times.\nOne of our amusement parks, of which we are the proud possessor of no\nless than five, which have desecrated the beauties of nature with atrocities that\nappeal to the morbid, nervous desire for hilarious recreation, had, in one day,\ntwice as many paid admissions as our art-gallery had in one whole year. Is\nthere not something the matter with the art-education that does no better for\nthe education of the taste of the masses than this ? If art and uplifting ideals\nhave any excuse for being, they are the birthright of all humanity. Our\nmethod is the intellectual one of teaching about art and what others have done\ntoo much to the exclusion of anything in the way of an expression of personal\nfeeling.\nWe might take a lesson in educational method from the mother who said\nto her little girl, ''Close your eyes, dear, and tell me what you see;\" obeying\nthe child replied, \" I don't see anything now but I hear the stars sing.\" \" What\nare they singing?\" And there followed a few strains of weird music, unlike\nanything the mother had ever heard. Its expression was as unstudied as its\ninspiration. It was the type of all great art. It is this music of the inner\ntemple that the world loves and makes immortal. One who can hear\nthe stars sing, can feel the majesty and sublimity of life in the roar of the\nstorm and the murmuring of the pines, the gladness of life in the golden sunshine and the woodland song of birds, will find ''Waltz me around again,\nWillie,\" at least, trivial. And he who has hold of this greater and\nnobler good will know that the bottom hasn't dropped out of all eternity\njust because Wall Street has had a spasm, or because the beef, ice, and coal\ntrusts and the Standard Oil Co. have expressed their aspirations in a liftingup of prices.\nThe danger-note has been sounded by many. Away back somewhere about\n1850, when public education was being discussed in England, no less a mind\nthan that of Herbert Spencer proclaimed that where intellectualization exceeds\nmoralization, education is dangerous.\nMany years later, in a book called\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlArt\n\nThe Curse of Education, Harold Gorst declared that humanity is rapidly\nbecoming less a product of natural development and more and more a\nproduct of an organized educational plan and that the ordinary educated\nman has little individuality but is a mechanical result stamped with the mark\nof his manufacturer. It certainly seems that we have lived to see that things\nhave worked out the way of both these criticisms, and for the remedy of these\nthings that we have advanced many theories and tried many expedients.\nWe have seen, too, that all too frequently our children, instead of developing into law-abiding citizens, patriotic statesmen, and soldiers, use the\neducation that the state has given them, to become corrupt politicians, the\njugglers of corporation rights and otherwise to find illegal means of personal\naggrandizement, if they can do it at not too great risk of being found out.\nTo bring about a better sense of the duties and privileges of citizenship, many\nschools have instituted a system of self-government.\nWe meet frequently and compare the results of our work by exhibitions\nof how well the children sing, what designs and beautiful pictures they can\nmake, what fine furniture they can construct, what excellent soup and cake\nthey can accomplish, how well they can spell, what wonderful arithmetical\nfeats they can perform, and what a fine percentage our whole school has made\nin its last examination; and fail to remember that our much more important results are not in things produced but in lives that have been helped to\nfind and use, to the best good of the greatest number, every power that they\npossess and that our real results can only be seen when the children of today\nhave taken from us the active responsibilities of men and women. Our\nreal problem is not, then, how can we obtain better work but how can we\nraise to its highest power this inner alchemy whose self-impelled activity alone\ncan dissolve facts into laws, and make them over into personal, usable gold ?\nHow aid this power to relate what has been gathered thru sense impressions\ninto a consciousness of harmony, peace, and eternal good, and how aid the\ndevelopment of the sense of unity of this inner, personal kingdom with that\nof all humanity and with the absolute, universal spirit ?\nHow can we awaken into a living flame that latent fire that William\nJames tells us abides in all men, that needs for its awakening some great\ncalamity, some soul-stirring occasion, or some great stress ? When we behold\na hero or a poet we say that he is inspired, he hears the inner voices, he\ncommunes with angels, or that \"from the abundance of his heart his mouth\nspeaketh.\"\nAltho the subject of this paper is *'A New Basis of Art Education,\" so\nfar only education in general has been discussed for the reason that art,\nas a mere subject in the educational scheme, is of no more importance than\nany other and also because art education both in the public schools and the\nart schools has been taught from the standpoint of history and its relevant\nsciences, has been as externally taught as all other things have been.\nIt seems clear that the very basis and center, the pivot of the whole edu-\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Drpartment)\n\nA NEW\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n831\n\ncational process, not only in the arts but in the sciences as well, from the\nfirst grade even to the universities, must shift from a point without, from external instruction of facts and narration of facts, to a point within the student's\nconsciousness, which we may call his interest, self-activity, love, veneration,\nor sense of beauty, and which can be trained alone by a conscious effort on\nthe part of the student to think and feel nobler and to make this better self\ncommunicable by progressively more beautiful expression in as varied forms\nas possible-T-in thought, conduct, work, and play.\nThe ennobling of the emotional nature seems to be the logical initial step\nin unfoldment of the moral self and it does not seem to argue any detriment\nto the development of the powers of reason or of any of the intellectual faculties, but rather puts them into their natural places as a means of education\nand not its end, and because art is the natural means of the emotional nature's\nexpression, and by art let us understand all of them, and because the emotional\nself is the origin of conduct, it seems that the arts must be the first step in\neducation that trains for a better sense of proportion and for better morals.\nIn the training of the little children, we must forget that we are specialists, we\nmust remember that it is not our business to turn out a race of cooks, carpenters, foundrymen, designers, picture-painters, arithmetical geniuses, or\nwhat-not, but rather to know that our specialties are only the diff\"erent languages thru which the inner self speaks and to be ready to help the child to\nthe best use of our special art when he has something to say that can best be\nsaid in its particular terms.\nAs consciousness evolves itself from the experience of the senses our first\nsteps in education should be training of the perception. When the children\nhave grown far enough to realize themselves as a,pa.Ttfrom and yet of the social\nbody, we might let them take the matter of the regulation of conduct into their\nhands. They will easily evolve such types as the family, clan, tribe, and in\nthe upper grades with a little help they will glory in a village or municipal\ngovernment. Again, the being confronted with the necessity of some organized\nregulation of conduct and finding its remedy themselves will give a respect\nfor law and order that mere compulsion can never engender.\nAs to the work and industry of our school community we will but need to\nturn to the history of the race for the natural order of development of the forms\nof expression, and we find the arts to have first place and those always first\nthat call for motor expression such as games, dances, ceremonials, song,\npottery, weaving, and construction of various things of use, to which has\nalways been added some design of religious or other signification. In the\ncreation of these various things much thought is needed and the ingenious\nteacher, instead of teaching reading, writing, arithmetic, and history as unrelated subjects, can create a necessity for their use and to her joy will it be\nfound that there is no difiQculty in teaching children anything they want to\nknow when they have use for their knowledge. We might eliminate grammar\nand spelling and use words and language well and step by step refine their\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nuse. All correlations should take place in the children's consciousness\ninstead of our trying to correlate subjects.\nAs the children grow older and become better able to think abstractedly\nand to be interested in so doing we may digress into a more purely reasoning\nsphere.\nThe history of art and its relevant sciences, such as anatomy, perspective,\nscience of color, etc., as well as all history and all science except as much as is\ntangent to various things the children are evolving, should be left in the\neducational scheme until the children have reached a period in their mind's\ndevelopment that is parallel with the time that these phases of thought had\ntheir birth in the race.\nScience in all its phases consists of abstract deduction made from concrete\nexperience. Hence the educational order in the science, too, should be personal experience, personal deduction therefrom and expression of these\ndeductions. It certainly seems much like putting the cart before the horse\n.to hand out to students ready-made deductions and hope that they will engender the experience.\nOur elementary educational period then should be one of the widest\npossible generalization that each child may be given a chance to find out in\nwhat direction lies his greatest natural ability. Secondary education should\nallow for various phases of specialized work for those who cannot go to college,\nhence do not need college-preparatory work.\nWhen art shall have come into its own and when we can forget how practical, scientific, and commercially successful we are, long enough to see beauty\nthat is not measured by what it cost or by whether all the best people have\nplaced their sanction upon it, when we shall remember that it is Homer whose\nname has come down to us and not that of a captain of industry of his time,\nthat Praxiteles and Phidias will continue to influence the world for all time,\nand that the sweet spirit of the Japanese painter, who signed his paintings with\na little seal that reads **The cherry blossoms and plum blossoms are silent\nyet are pathways worn to the places where they grow,\" will charm long after\nthe death of many less' aesthetic things, we shall see a system of institutions\nof higher learning devoted to the arts that shall take their places beside the\npresent universities and have not only some financial support from the state\nbut also have the recognition of the state so that it shall be a part of its\neducational scheme. The state will have as great an interest in the training\nof the artists who write our songs and poems, and make our public statues as\nit now has in the training of those who teach the languages and sciences.\nNow, the art school is usually attached to a museum of art, and a few are\nindividual enterprises. As yet there are none I believe in this country that are\nunder state supervision and none that are qualified to give degrees.\nThese art schools should be planned in accordance with the best principles\nof educational philosophy. They should be universities of aesthetics, whose\nfirst care is to develop the sense of beauty by much and varied expression, next\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nA NEW\n\nBASIS\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nto help the student in the selection of the particular profession to which his\nnatural abilities adapt him, and then to give him the necessary technical training that will make it possible for him to go directly into practical work.\nSuch a university should include departments of literature, drama, music,\narchitecture, sculpture, painting, designing, illustration, commercial art, the\nvarious handcrafts, and a normal-art course. And all of these subjects should\nbe approached from the standpoint of the personal sense of beauty and not\nthat of art history and its relevant sciences — the latter subjects to have\nconsideration last and not first. Does it not seem strange that while art is\nmost immortal of all man's creative thought, that it has the very least place\nin our education ? Does art not also, since in spirit and essence it is the same\nas religion, seem to be education's chance to teach the universal religion that\nmay appeal to the followers of all creeds and offend none ?\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Frances E. Clark, supervisor of music, Public Schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nVice-President — George E-. Krinbill, supervisor of music, Public Schools, Bisbee, Ariz.\nSecretary — Edward B. Birge, supervisor of music, Public Schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 1908\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the Old Stone Church, at 2:30 p. m., by the president, Frances Elliot Clark, Milwaukee, Wis. Wilson G. Smith, Cleveland, Ohio, made\nthe welcoming address, Mrs. Clark gave the president's annual address, speaking on\n\"Our National Music.\"\nVocal selections were then rendered by the third-grade pupils of the Waring School;\nMiss Sweeney, teacher.\nA paper entitled \"Schools from the Viewpoint of a Superintendent\" was read by\nWilliam McKendree Vance, superintendent of schools, Delaware, Ohio.\nSeveral selections were then rendered by the Girls' Glee Club of the Central High\nSchool, directed by Mrs. Marie Burt Parr.\nA paper followed on \"High School-Music\" by Osbourne McConathy, supervisor of\nmusic, Chelsea, Mass.\nA paper entitled \"Psychology of Music and the Light It Throws on Musical Education\" was given by G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nSECOND SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July i\nThe department met: at 9:30 a.m. in round-table session for discussion of the topic:\n\"What Should Be Expected from a Normal School in the Preparation of a Grade Teacher\nfor Teaching Music ?\"\nVocal music was furnished by the fifth-grade pupils of the Rockwell School; Miss\nMorey, teacher.\nPapers on the topic were read by Charles Fullerton, State Normal School, Cedar\nFalls, la., Julia E. Crane, director of music. State Normal School, Potsdam, N. Y.,\nDavid R. Gebhart, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo., Miss Clyde E. Foster, State\nNormal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nMusic was furnished by the Boys' Auxiliary Choir, under the direction of Mr. Jones.\nThe following committee was appointed to draft a resolution upon the Uniformity\nof National Songs: Powell G. Fithian, Camden, N. J., A. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati, Ohio,\nand Elsie Shawe, St. Paul, Minn.\nThe meeting adjourned until Thursday morning.\nADJOURNED\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nMorning, July 2\n\nA round-table discussion upon the topic, \"Practical Methods to Improve Our Sight\nReading,\" was opened by Mrs. Harriet D. Parsons, Cleveland, Ohio, and Charles A. Fullerton, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la.\nCharles I. Rice, supervisor of music, Worcester,\nMass., read the report of the Com83s\nmittee on Terminology Reform.\nThe Committee on Resolutions Regarding Uniformity of National Songs reported\nas follows;\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfMusic\n\nInasmuch as there are several songs of a patriotic character that are commonly sung\nin all American schools, and inasmuch as there is no uniform setting of words and music\nto some of these songs; be it\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed by the president of this department :\nFirst, to make a collection of songs suitable for use upon patriotic occasions; second,\nto revise the music and words of these songs with a view to uniformity and singableness.\nResolved, That this committee have full power to act and that the committee serve\nwithout compensation.\nResolved, That the findings of this committee be submitted to the Commissioner of\nEducation at Washington, with a request that the Bureau of Education publish the edition\npresented by the committee and take such action as to insure the use of no other edition\nby all United States Government bands.\nResolved, That the publishers of school books and others who publish these songs\nare hereby requested to use in future only the. authorized edition of these songs.\nPowell G. Fithian, Chairman\nThe resolutions were adopted and the following committee was appointed:\nA. J. Gantvoort, musical director, College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nElsie Shawe, supervisor of music, Public Schools, St. Paul, Minn.\nOsbourne McConathy, supervisor of music, Public Schools, Chelsea, Mass.\nTHIRD SESSION.— Thursday Afternoon, Ji/ly 2\nGustave W. Ronfort of Cleveland, Ohio, played the organ Sonata in D by Guilmant.\nThe first-grade pupils of the Broadway School furnished music under the direction\nof Miss McNamara.\nAlys E. Bently, supervisor of music, Washington, D. C, read a paper upon \"Children\nVoices and Children Songs.\"\nVocal music was furnished by the Normal School Glee Club.\nMrs. Alice C. D. Riley, Evanston, read a paper upon \"Child Verse in Song;\" and\nMrs. Jessie L. Gaynor, St. Joseph, Mo., on \"Music in Child Song.\"\nA paper was read by Anna Goedhart, supervisor of music. East Cleveland, Ohio,\nupon \"Educational Rhythm Training,\" illustrated by pupils of different grades.\nIt was voted that the Committee on Securing Affiliation of the National Music Supervisors' Conference with the Department of Music of the National Education Association\nbe discharged.\nIt was voted that the Committee on Terminology Reform be continued until next\nyear, and that each member of the Music Department take a copy of the questions referred\nto in the report, and oflFer such changes and emendations as he might wish.\nThe Nominating Committee reported the following nominations:\nFor President — Frances E. Clark, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.\nFor Vice-President — Charles I. Rice, Worcester, Massachusetts.\nFor Secretary — Philip C. Hayden, Keokuk, Iowa.\nIt was voted to instruct the secretary to cast a ballot for these nominees. The nominees were then declared elected and the department adjourned.\nEdward B. Birge, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\nOUR NATIONAL\nMRS.\n\nFRANCES\n\nELLIOTT\n\nCLARK,\n\nMUSIC\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nMusic in the public schools is advancing very rapidly in every way. There\nhas seemed to be a lull in the interest felt for music on the part of school people\nsince manual training has occupied the foreground and so much time and effort\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMUSIC\n\n837\n\nand discussion have been given over to this newest phase of modem education. However, music has gone steadily along, and wonderful progress is\nshown in many lines: in the number of schools where it is being regularly\ntaught; in the class of material used; in the effectiveness and thoroness\nof the teaching being done everywhere; in the advanced scholarship and\nbetter preparation of the supervisors; in the number of schools, conservatories,\nand universities offering courses in school music; in the increased number\nand enlarged scope of summer schools devoted to school music; in the number\nof educational journals maintaining departments of music; in the richness\nand variety of helpful books published on ear-training, child-song, child-voice,\nharmony, and melody writing; and most of all, in the awakening interest of\nsupervisors themselves as evidenced in increased attendance at the great\nsummer schools; in increased activity in undertaking difficult things; in\norganizations of music sections in most of the state educational associations;\nspecial organizations in different sections of the country, and by this splendid\ngathering of supervisors from many states in a great national meeting.\nWe should not forget in this connection our sister organization, the Music\nTeachers' National Association, which, thru its school-music section, is\nalso, doing much to interest the professional musicians.\nThere is felt everywhere in our country an awakening in musical activity\nof every form. More concerts, recitals, and oratorios have been given this year\nthan ever before, furnishing remunerative engagements for an ever-increasing\narmy of talented singers and virtuosi. New York has two grand operas where\nonce it had but one — Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and Chicago are soon to have\npermanent or extended seasons of opera. Boston, Cincinnati, Chicago, and\nPittsburg have their great orchestras. Italian opera flourishes in a half-dozen\ncities and opera in English may be heard in as many more. May festivals\nrise and flourish in many cities and college towns, crowned by the great parent\nmovement in Cincinnati. More artists from abroad visited our shores this\nseason than ever before. All of this goes to prove that Americans are waking\nup musically, learning to demand, enjoy, and produce the best.\nWe have been called unmusical, unappreciative, and are told that we\nhave no art, no atmosphere, and no culture. Possibly the stigma was in some\nmeasure deserved a decade ago, but the slander is being refuted every day\nand we point with pride to our splendid teachers, our great schools, our great\nartists, our multitude of younger musician workers, artists in embryo, and\nmore than all, to the mighty work that is being done for music in America\nthrough the public schools.\nIf America is ever to become what I firmly believe she will become, the\ngreatest singing nation in the world, it must come primarily from the teaching\nof singing to the millions of the masses in her public schools.\nHere in our own United States we have every condition to produce not only\ngreat singers, but communities of singers — a nation of singers. We have that\npriceless heritage from our forefathers, freedom, which has in all history set\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthe hearts of men rejoicing, and naturally finding expression in song. We\nhave infinite variety of scene, climate, atmosphere, valley, mountain and\nplain, metropolis and wilderness, the red schoolhouse on the hill, and the\nworld-famed university. Here we have a great cosmopolitan civilization,\nmade up of the best blood from every nation on the globe — children of oppression, many of them — here blossoming into the fulness of Hberty of the\nAmerican citizen.\nThe spirit of our pioneer ancestors bequeaths to us an infinite greatness\nand grandeur of character, found in thousands of the sturdy common people,\nwho still represent the real American life in spite of the dollar-mad few. We\nhave here the life-saving sense of humor, the power to relax, the lightsome\nspirit of fun, good clean wholesome fun, of tenest finding vent in some sort of song.\nHere then is our material, the children of this staunch yeomanry ready\nto our hand; ours the task to educate them.\nMost of us have been too well satisfied with the day of small things in\nachievement in choral work, not realizing the tremendous possibilities of the\nchild-voice in mass chorus, and the educational uplift to the child in the study\nof better things than we have thought possible to the immature mind and voice\nof the child in the grammar grades.\nThen too, here is the place par excellence for the teaching of patriotism.\nMore than we know, the singing of the stirring songs of pride in *'01d Glory\"\nstirs the hearts of the children at the impassionable period of growth, and\nbuilds down deep into the inmost springs of life the spirit of '4f need be,\nwe will die for the land we love the best.\"\nThere must be a reawakening in all lines of school music, an impetus given\nto the study of high-grade songs by our own composers, meaningful, musical\nsettings of poems by our own native writers, poems redolent of our own American life and thought, our own American swing and spirit, true to our highest\nideals of American manhood and womanhood. We must also be alive to the\nnecessity of introducing the classic composer to the children of the grammar\ngrades while we have them under the regular instruction of the class teachers,\nbefore many of them drift out into the workshops and factories, closing forever\nthe doors of musical advancement. There should be given at least once each\nyear a program of classic compositions, of biographies read, of artist friends\ninvited to come in and sing and play for the children from the composers\nchosen. The Welsh people have demonstrated what interest can be aroused\nby choral societies to stimulate national singing. Why should not we have\ninter-city or inter-state or inter-district contests between eighth grades to\narouse greater interest in choral work ? In a great meeting like this, such a\ncontest was found to be impracticable, but in the state and district Associations, what could be more inspiring than such an exhibition ? This year we\nhope to have such a contest between our schools in Milwaukee, to increase\ninterest in singing, and to give parents an opportunity to hear what is being\ndone.\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nOUR NATIONAL\n\nMUSIC\n\nThru the public schools the state and federal governments have a\nmeans of reaching out a hand toward building a real national music. So\ndiversified are our tastes, our tendencies, our environments that no one can\nsay that this or that phase of American music is typical. Is it the harmonized\nIndian chants or dances, or the plantation melodies? Is it the rhyme of\nthe miner's or the woodman's camp or is it the latest craze of operatic\nextravaganza of the city theater, or the hymn of the revival or Salvation Army,\nor the stately oratorios of the university, or choral society ? All these types are\na part, but only a part, of the nation's music. In the pubhc schools only is there\nbeing made a judicious mixture of the best of these, and a foundation being\nlaid for a national type of song — singing built on a basis of pure nature song;\nthe songs of home and the joys of childhood; the folk songs of other lands;\nthe stirring songs by American composers, of the thoughts found in the lines\nof American poets; and the great choral works in opera and oratorio of the\nold masters.\nTo educate the whole people to such an understanding and appreciation\nof the world's literature of choral song is our inestimable privilege and plain\nduty. To do this presupposes and necessitates, first of all, that from the\nbeginning there must be songs, and so thoro a course of reading music in\nthe intermediate and grammar grades as to make possible the study of such\nmusic, coupled with such careful conservation and training of the childvoice as to make the singing safe, pleasing, and an addition to the art and\nbeauty of the world.\nUnfortunately, there has been no recognition of school music on the part\nof the United States government. It is impossible to obtain a Hst of cities\nwhere music is taught; impossible to obtain a list of supervisors; quite\nimpossible to come by any tabulation of courses of study and gradation;\nstill more impossible to find an authorized version of our national songs.\nThey are printed in every possible variety, in every pamphlet and booklet\nfor advertising. Bands and orchestras play them in serene contempt of the\nproper phrasing, putting in or taking out holds and rests ad libitum.\nThis haphazard printing and rendition of our national songs should be\nimproved. It is quite time that this section, the recognized national head\nof school music, move in the matter of finding a remedy. A strong effort is\nbeing made to lift the office of commissioner of education to a cabinet position.\nIt should be done and when done there should be established a bureau devoted,\nat least in part, to national music.\nDo we need to wait for this development ? Can we not take such action\nas will lead to having the work done by the present organization? There\nshould be gathered all available statistics in regard to music teaching in the\nUnited States, both public and private; where taught, in what cities, in what\ngrades, whether under supervision or not, how many supervisors or assistants,\nat what salary, whether in high school or not, what examinations and what\ncredits given, what high schools give credits toward graduation, what high\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nschools give credit for outside work in music carried by the pupil, what colleges\nand universities offer courses in music as a regular branch of study, what\ncredits given as entrance requirements, what credit on regular courses for the\nwork in music, what normal schools have music as a regular part of the work\nin the preparation of teachers, how many weeks given, what states have\nmusic as a requirement, what percentage of county institutes offer music\nas a regular study ? All these and many other items would be of wonderful\ninterest to every one of us and of great value in arranging our courses of study\nand plans for work.\nThis same commission or bureau should, in consultation with musicians\nwho are authorities in choral work, issue an authoritative version of all our\nbest national songs, so that we may have some uniformity in their rendition,\nand some means of insisting that bands, at least when accompanying singing,\nshould play them correctly. Can there not be appointed at this meeting a\ncommittee to draft resolutions embodying these needs, which, upon the approval\nof this Department of Music Education shall be presented to the commissioner\nof education, asking that immediate and definite action be taken ?\nWith the record of what has been done behind us, and the goal before us\nof setting a great, free people singing, singing, ever singing, let us move on.\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE\n\nWILLIAM\n\nSCHOOLS FROM THE VIEWPOINT\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nMCKENDREE\n\nVANCE,\nSUPERINTENDENT\nDELAWARE,\nOHIO\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nOF THE\nSCHOOLS\n\nI shall have two words to say on this subject: a brief one concerning the\nvalue of music in our schools, and a longer one concerning the music teacher\nand the results which every superintendent would hke to observe in his school\nas the result of the music teacher's work.\nThe spiritual and cultural values of music have been set forth for all\ntime by the great singers of all ages from David to Luther, Shakespeare, and\nGoethe. Music and rehgion, music and poetry, music and religion and\npoetry, are examples of the chemism of art, worship, and sentiment as truly\nbeneficent to man's spiritual nature as is the union, in varying proportions, of\ncarbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the chief elements of organic life, to his physical being.\nThe educational value of music is now almost universally conceded, and\nit would be a pleasure to record that the work begun by Lowell Mason on\nhis return from Europe in 1840, in behalf of public-school music, had been\nfully estabhshed. But the fact is that there are not a few small cities, hundreds\nof villages, and thousands of rural schools in which the teaching of music\ncannot be found.\nI feel a certain trepidation in speaking in this presence of the qualifications\nof those who are charged with the duty of teaching this noble art to the children\nof America.\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n841\n\nFirst, the music teacher must understand music in no superficial way.\nSo much attention has recently been given to methods and the theory of teaching that there is danger of forgetting the supreme importance of scholarship\nand culture. Quackery in the music teaching of our schools is yet in evidence\nin not a few communities of wealth and culture. Sometimes the teacher is a\nsweet girl graduate with a high C, or a young man whose ability to sing low\nE is his sole claim to distinction. Sometimes virtuosity on the piano, the\nviolin, or the comet, has elected its possessor to the office of training youthful\nvoices, alas ! too frequently with harmful results. Sometimes a local chorister\nwith plenty of enthusiasm and a voice truly Cyclopean is engaged \"because\nhe leads the Sunday school so well.'* Sometimes a lady of social position,\nwhose husband has been unfortunate, is elected to the position of music\nteacher because she has a remnant of a voice — the remains of a musical\neducation — and because she has nothing else to do.\nIt will be a good day for school music when the standards by which to\njudge of good sound progress are well understood and defined. The average\nsuperintendent, the average board of education, and the average board of\nexaminers, are quite incompetent to form a correct judgment concerning the\nqualifications of the music teacher or the quality of his instruction. We\ncannot trust to the vagaries of any reputed musical person of the community.\nOrdinarily the local special certificate to teach music is simply a legal fiction.\nThis great and growing body of public-school music teachers and supervisors\nshould be certified as other specialists are certified; namely, by the experts\nof their own calling or profession.\nOur public-school music master must possess the quality of enthusiasm\nand the ability to present his subject in such an attractive and masterful way\nthat the pupils insensibly respond with their best efforts to his slightest wish\nand direction. This means the ability not only to create but also to sustain\nan interest in music in all grades of the public school. The primary grades,\nwhere the most important work is to be done, fortunately, are the easiest\nfields for cultivation. Children, and particularly little children, love to sing,\nand he is a poor teacher indeed who cannot interest them. But in the upper\ngrammar grades and in the lower classes of the high school is a field for the\nmusic teacher to demonstrate what manner of man he is. Here will be put\nto the test his patience and perseverance, strategy and finesse, mastery of\nthe school and mastery of himself.\nAnd this leads me to say that our music teacher must be a disciplinarian;\nnot of necessity the disciplinarian of the room — the regular teacher ought to\nbe that — but he ought to be such a master of the art of teaching that he would\nusually control a difficult situation in any grade of work without appeal to\nthe teacher, principal, or superintendent. Of course he should not be expected\nnever to have any trouble, but the superintendent has the right to suspect\nthe fitness of any special teacher who, notwithstanding the unfaltering support\nof the regular teacher, wearies him unth frequent complaints of inattention,\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ndisorder, or insubordination. Sometimes the superintendent prays for his\nmusic teacher the old Scotch elder's prayer for the new minister: ''The Lord\ngie him health, the Lord gie him grace, and the Lord gie him gude sense —\nnay, Lord, if he has nae common sense already, it's nae use o' your tryin'.\nNaebody can gie him common sense.\"\nOur music teacher must have a keen insight into the mysteries of the\nchild heart, a thorough knowledge of the child nature. He must understand\nthe feelings and impulses and motives which govern children, and he must\nbe able to enter with loving sympathy into their mental states and experiences.\nSt. Paul clearly voiced the universal law of growth when he said, \"When I\nwas a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child;\nbut when I became a man I put away childish things.\" But there is a sense\nin which it is not only eminently right and proper — it is absolutely essential —\nthat the instructor of youth should not put away childish things. The cheery\nsmile, the buoyant spirit, the sunny nature of children should be to us a better\nmeans of keeping our iDwn lives young than any fabled fountain of perpetual\nyouth.\nI have already hinted that the music teacher should be a person of genuine\ntaste in the practice of his art. Facility in reading is not the only, nor even\nthe chief, desideratum. That is the development of musical intelligence and\nfeeling — the ability to appreciate an artistic interpretation of a genuinely\nmusical composition. Even though only small ability be developed in the\nart of singing, yet an appreciation and enjoyment of music may usually be\nsecured.\nFinally, the music teacher must know something of the anatomy of the\nvocal organs, and must thoroughly understand the nature and care of the\nhuman voice.\nHow wonderful is the human voice! It is indeed the organ of the human soul!\nThe intellect of man sits enthroned visibly upon his forehead and in his eyes; and the\nheart of man is written upon his countenance. But the soul reveals itself in the voice\nonly, as God revealed himself to the prophet of old in \"the still small voice,\" and in a voice\nfrom the burning bush.\n\nThus wrote Longfellow in prose as beautiful as his poetry.\n\nThe marvel\n\nis that this \"organ of the soul\" should be so commonly undeveloped, or\nabsolutely abused, as to yield but rarely a degree of beauty and power. A\ngood singing voice helps the speaking voice. The singing master may be a\npotent agent in correcting the slovenly enunciation, nasal twang, and high\npitch of our national speech — a speech that is as susceptible of mellifluous\nutterance as any language living or dead, not even excepting the \"liquid accents\nof the Attic tongue.\" Henry Clay's voice was compared to a band of music;\nWebster's, to a trumpet; and Channing's, to a harp. When a man once\ncomplained to the latter of the severity of Christ's denunciation of the Pharisees,\nChanning read the passage to which reference was made in such calm,\nsolemn, and sympathetic tones that the critic exclaimed, \"Well, if Christ\nspoke in that way, my objection is withdrawn.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n843\n\nChildren's voices are often abused in the schools. Teachers, and Sundayschool choristers, with more zeal than knowledge, like to have enthusiastic\nsinging. Their pupils are urged to greater and greater effort. Loud, heartysinging is what is wanted and striven for. Power is regarded of supreme\nimportance, and the efforts of the teacher are directed toward securing volume\nof sound. The sensitive, quick, and willing ones respond strongly and\nheartily. ''That's good!\" says the teacher, \"sing out!\" Loud, coarse, vulgar\nshouting is understood to be music, and passes for the correct thing among\nmany most estimable, but really quite uncultured people. Now it is this coarse\nshouting that is fatal both to good music and to the vocal organs. Irreparable\nmischief is done in this way, and it is among the best and most wiUing\nchildren that the harm is done. They are urged to \"sing out,\" and the very\neffort put forth prevents them from taking easily and sweetly the higher\nnotes of the songs. Hence, they sing out of tune. The lower register of the\nvoice is forced up beyond the natural limits, and, like the straining of a violin\ni4 -string to do duty as an £-string, which makes it useless ever after as an yl,\nso such voices sustain a permanent injury in range and sweetness of tone.\nSuch teachers and choristers should adopt as a motto, ^^Vox et praeterea\nnihiP' — ^voice and nothing besides.\nThe period of mutation of boys' voices demands extreme caution on the\npart of the teacher, and renders the careful treatment of their voices a duty\namounting to a sacred obligation. Boys whose voices are changing should\nbe excused from singing, and girls whose voices are of a contralto or mezzo\nquality should be restrained in their desire commonly to sing the highest part.\nIn Jenny Lind's younger days, it is related that she apphed to Garcia, the\ngreat teacher of vocal music in Paris. He heard her sing, and then told her\nthat her voice was gone, and that she must not sing a note for a year. He\nasked her to return to him at the end of that time, and. in the meantime, to\nimprove her health. She faithfully compHed with these directions, and came\nback to Garcia at the appointed time. Rest at a critical period had restored\nher voice, greatly to her own deUght and to the gratification of her master,\nwho testifies that early misuse came near depriving the world of the Swedish\nnightingale of song ere her marvelous voice was heard.\nI shall not undertake to discuss the methods, or processes, or plans of the\nmusic teacher's work. Questions, for example, relating to the Fixed Do, the\nMovable Do, and the Tonic-Sol-Fa systems; to the type forms in pubhc-school\nmusical instruction; to the extent to which the theory of music shall be\nintroduced into the primary grades, and others of like character, are beyond\nmy province, and, perhaps, beyond my ability. I shall leave to others to\nsay whether every pupil shall be taught music; whether tone deafness can\nbe cured, and whether the voices of such can be hypnotized. Trilby-like, into\nbeauty of song. My own notion is that of Goethe who declared that \"anyone can and ought to learn music who can distinguish between a flute and a\ncowbell.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nCertainly we are all agreed that this beautiful art, which comes into our\nlives with a thousand delightful ministries, should be put on a sound educational\nbasis, and intrusted for purposes of direction and development only to teachers\nwho understandingly and lovingly appreciate its subleties and its beauty,\nits spirit and its power.\nMUSIC\nOSBOURNE\n\nIN THE\n\nMCCONATHY,\n\nHIGH\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\nMUSIC,\n\nCHELSEA,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe honor of addressing this body on the subject of high-school music has\nbeen extended to me because, in the city of Chelsea, Massachusetts, where I\nserve as supervisor of music in the public schools, the subject of music has been\ngiven a prominence in the high-school curriculum that, so far as I am aware,\nhas not been given elsewhere. But in many places the value of music in\npopular education is being recognized as never before; high schools all over\nthe country are introducing or are planning to introduce the study of music\nin one or more of its phases as special elective work, in addition to the almost\nuniversal practice of high-school chorus drill. Believing that it is the wish\nof those who have invited me to speak, I shall devote the time allowed me to\ndescribing frankly the plan of special music courses now in operation in the\nChelsea High School, trusting that you will accept this statement as my reason\nand excuse for the personal element in my paper.\nIn Chelsea we are trying to answer the question. What opportunities\nshould the high school of today offer its students in the way of a musical\neducation? We do not claim to have solved the many problems suggested\nby this question, but I offer for your consideration an outline of the results\nof our study of these problems, an outline embodying methods which our\nconvictions warrant us putting to the test of experience.\nMusic in the Chelsea High School may be classified under three divisions:\nthe general course required of all students, the special courses, elective, and\nextra opportunities in the way of glee clubs, for which pupils compete. The\ngeneral course requires of all students attendance at a one-hour music period\neach week. In addition pupils of the freshman class may be required to take\none hour additional study of sight singing. The pupils of the senior, junior,\nand sophomore classes form the advanced class or chorus, and the first-year\npupils form the freshman chorus.\nIt would give me pleasure to discuss certain phases of this general work\nin music in the high school, questions with which we are all vitally concerned.\nBut, as these questions relate to matters which are not peculiar to Chelsea,\nI shall confine myself to the proper purpose of the paper — a presentation of the\nspecial music courses, elective, as outHned in the course of study in the Chelsea\nHigh School. These courses are four in number: Course A, Musical Appreciation; Course B, Theoretical Music; Course C, Applied Music; and Course\nD, Orchestral Ensemble. The special music courses are credited on the\nsame basis as the other high-school subjects, and the marks count for promotion\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n845\n\nand graduation just as the other marks are counted. In electing special\nmusic the pupil is at liberty to drop other subjects, the choice of subjects\ndropped being subject to the advice and consent of the principal of the high\nschool. In one sense music may be considered a favored subject, as students\nare admitted to the music courses from any of the other regular school courses.\nThe course in musical appreciation. Course A, is a cultural course, which\ndoes not require ability to perform. Beginning in the sophomore year, one\nperiod a week for three years is given to listening to music with incidental\nstudy of musical forms, musical history, biography, and other musical topics\nwith which the intelligent music lover should be acquainted. The constant\nrequirement of the course is that the student shall listen to music. The instructor isan accomplished pianist, and the students are provided with a\npianola, roils, and music for laboratory work.\nIn the first year of this course the students listen to a number of compositions, the instructor directing their attention to those qualities which may be\ndescribed under the general heading \"musical forms.\" The character of\nwork done is indicated by the test at the close of the year, which includes such\nquestions, as \"What is meant by the words contrapuntal, folksong, symphony,\netc. ? \" The instructor plays several characteristic selections which are unknown\nto the students, who are required to name the form of each — minuet, gavotte,\nwaltz. The teacher plays portions of compositions which have been studied\nduring the year, and the students are required to name them, and, perhaps,\nto describe some of their distinguishing characteristics.\nIn the second year of the course the junior students listen to compositions\nwhich illustrate the historic development of music. Reference is here made\nto the composers only to explain their service in the evolution of art, biographical details being reserved for the following year. In the senior year,\nbesides musical biography, the students have a short course in the physics\nof music under the instructor of sciences, a course in listening to the various\norchestral instruments, and a course in contemporaneous musical matters.\nThroughout the three years of the course the students are referred to leading\narticles in the music magazines, the most important of which are to be found\nin our public library. Books on musical subjects are recommended and\nsometimes reviewed in the classroom. The works to be performed at local\nconcerts are explained and the pupils urged to attend as many concerts as\nthey can. The course aims to improve the quality of our concert audiences,\nand we hope that our students may swell the number of those who listen to\ngood music with intelligent discrimination.\nThe course in theoretical music occupies two periods a week for four years.\nBeginning with a review of the elements of music notation, the course undertakes to develop the students' musical perception along the lines of chord\nconstruction and connection into the realm of the harmonization of melodies.\nThe course is technical, but analytical rather than constructive. As our\nscientific course makes no attempt to turn out finished scientists, but pro-\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nposes to establish scientific habits of thought so that later the student may\nmake the most of his opportunities in technical schools; in like manner the\ncourse in theoretical music does not aim to give a finished education in harmony or counterpoint; it aims to train the student in those correct habits\nof musical thought which must be the basis of any higher musical training.\nIf we can teach our students to think in tone and to express themselves fluently\nand, as far as we go, grammatically, we will have accomplished as much as, in\nmy opinion, a high school should attempt.\nCourse C is called appHed music. Students in this course are given credit\nin the high school for work done under private teachers in singing or playing\non the piano, organ, or any orchestral instrument. The school takes the\nattitude that the serious study of these subjects is as much a part of the students' education as the study of the subjects taught in the high school. Indeed\nwith no small number of pupils it has a more direct influence on their future\nlives than most of their other studies.\nThe practical difficulties in the way of crediting outside study of vocal\nand instrumental music under private teachers are met in this way: The\nstudent, on applying for admission to the course, must present a written\nrecommendation from his music teacher and a written request from his\nparents, stating that they agree to the conditions of the course. From that\ntime to the end of the year the private teacher is considered practically a\nmember of the high-school faculty, and his bimonthly marks are placed on\nthe students' report cards just as are the marks of the teachers of EngHsh or\nLatin or the other high-school subjects. At the time of sending these marks\nto the school the private teacher is required to send a report covering the\nfollowing points: (r) the number of lessons taken since the last report; (2)\nthe average number of hours' practice a week; (3) technical progress made by\npupil since preceding report; (4) list of compositions studied by the pupil with\nremarks concerning the scope and quality of the work done on each composition. As the high school cannot undertake to decide which private teachers\nare good and which are not sufficiently good to be accepted on the same basis\nas the faculty of the school, the following plan is designed to keep the standard\nof marking up to an equality with the marking in other subjects. The school\ncommittee elects an examiner who tests the students of Course C at the close\nof the school year. The tests are based on the bimonthly reports of the\nprivate teacher, the student being required to sing or play selections which the\nreports indicate as having been learned to the satisfaction of the teacher.\nThe examiner decides whether or not a satisfactory standard of work has been\nrequired of the student by the private teacher. The examiner's mark is\naccepted as the student's average for the year. By this plan the private\nteacher is left free to pursue his own methods and, at the same time, is held\nto a proper standard in marking his pupils. Students are accepted in Course\nC at whatever degree of proficiency they may have attained, and are only\nrequired to show satisfactory progress during the year. An important point\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nto which I especially wish to call your attention is that all students accepted\nin Course C are required to take the courses in musical appreciation and\ntheoretical music. While the high school recognizes the dignity and necessity\nof technical proficiency on the student's chosen instrument, and considers\nthe study of his instrument an essential part of the student's education, it\ninsists on a recognition of the intellectual and aesthetic elements in music\nas essential and without which manual dexterity is not worthy of credit in an\neducational institution.\nAlthough deeply interested in high-school orchestras I do not believe that\nthe purpose of this paper will be furthered by discussing at length the details\nof Course D, orchestral ensemble. I have therefore merely mentioned it,\nas one of our credited elective courses.\nOur reason for introducing these special courses may be briefly stated as\nthreefold. First, they give an opportunity for young men and women with\nspecial fondness or taste for music, and for those whose social position makes\nit desirable to cultivate an intelligent appreciation of good music, to study the\nsubject in a broader and more comprehensive manner than would otherwise\nbe possible except at a sacrifice of time and effort which many would not feel\nit practicable to make. Or expressed in another way, the courses are designed\nto improve the quality and the number of our discriminating concert goers.\nSecond, they give an opportunity to young people who are preparing for a\nmusical career to carry on their musical studies while securing the general\nhigh-school advantages. Third, by giving to our future musicians a broader\neducation, by adding to the number of cultivated and discriminating\nconcert goers, by requiring a definite and high standard of work from\nprivate music teachers, and by showing to the general public the view held\nby educational authorities that music is a subject worthy of serious study,\nranking fairly with other subjects in the high-school course, the special\ncourses aim to bring about a more intelligent attitude toward music, to improve\nthe standards of teachers and performers, and to aid in developing a national\nlove and appreciation of good music.\nPermit me to quote a few words from the report of the Music Conference,\nheld in Boston in 1904, which bear directly on the second of the three\nreasons just given and somewhat on the third.\nThe report says:\nSome of the disadvantages, not to say evils, of the present neglect of music in public\neducation are v^ell understood.\nAmong them we cite a frequent example.\nA youth reaches the high-school age, desiring to study music vv^ith a serious purpose,\nwhich desire is approved by parents and teachers.\nHe is met by these school conditions:\nFirst, He must add music to his high-school course as an out-of-school study and\nthus run the peril of overcrowding, a condition w^hich occasions much parental complaint, and may result in permanent injury to the pupil; or,\nSecond, He must drop music, vi^hich, in the deliberate opinion of his advisers, may\nbe to him one of the most valuable studies of the high-school period; or,\nThird, He must leave the high school, for the present school system neither teaches,\ncredits, nor favors the serious study of music.\nAs affirmed by an experienced high-\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nschool principal, most pupils of decided musical talent, who continue the study of music,\ndrop out of the high school, and thus lose the advantage of the liberal courses of study\nthere furnished.\nThese conditions affect the college and higher education as well as the lower schools,\nand work detriment in various ways. They make it difficult for parents to carry forward\nthe musical education of their children and at the same time to secure the general highschool advantages. They curtail the opportunity of the musical element of society for\nliterary and general training. They lessen the efficiency of the teachers and interpreters\nof music. Thus, in a word, they detract from the value of an important social agency.\nThe exclusion of music from the body of instruction is believed also to impair literary\ntechnique in prose and verse, and to procure a needless separation of music and literature to the detriment of both arts.\n\nThe Chelsea High School plans to meet these conditions. Just as we offer\na commercial course for those planning a business career, a classical course\nfor the future college student, or a scientific course for those whose plans\nrequire it, we provide also a music course for our future musicians. We\nhope that as far as our influence goes there may be some advance in the educational standards among the musicians of our community.\nTHE\nG.\n\nPSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC AND THE LIGHT\nUPON MUSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSTANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIT THROWS\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nThought and reason and their vehicle, speech, are all three of them novelties in the natural development history of the soul. In the dim past psychic\nlife was very different from what it is now — feeling, instinct, and impulse\nwere all, and they were common to the whole race, while intellect not only\ncame late but was largely an individual product, causing people to differ\nfrom each other and to stand out from the species. It is of this older, larger,\ndeeper, and more generic soul of man that music is the best and truest of all\nexpressions, especially if with singing we consider gesture, mimesis, and\ndramatic action which arose with it. Music is the speech of this antique, halfburied, racial soul. It did not evolve from love-calls or charms alone, as\nDarwin thought; nor did it first appear as a tone-colored accompaniment to\nspeech, as Spencer's broader theology taught, for it is older than language, as\nWeissmann, Boaz, and Gaultmann have shown; while capacity for musical\nculture is latent in many primitive races. Birds, which evolved long before\nman appeared on the earth, practiced this art, and so did animals and even\ninsects, the very first of all creatures to emerge from the primeval sea. Indeed,\nif we stretch the term to its very uttermost and make music include all acoustic\nexpressions, the wind, rain, thunder, sea, are the oldest of all musicians,\nfor trees and brooks came later after the land appeared.\nIf we abandon ourselves to the very madness of mysticism, we may say\nthat vibrations and impacts are as old as matter, heat, light, or even atoms\nand electrons. Probably all energy is rhythmic and cadenced, so that in this\nsense the music of the spheres which Plato thought the sweetest and most\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF\n\nMUSIC\n\n849\n\nsymphonic of all, even though we cannot hear it, is no longer myth but science.\nTo all these influences protoplasm, which is the sugared-off, vital product of\nall the cosmic elements and processes, responded from the first for it is the\nmaterial soul of the all. This pristine rapport was closer and more all-sided\nbefore a special sense was developed for it. Thus, though man has lost\nmany of the old and subtler responses and perhaps has shed a whole series\nof ascending rudimentary organs after them, the human ear is the result of a\nlonger development process, which has made it the highest, and is the most\nspecialized organ of response to vibrations. But the influence of all these\nburied reactions still whispers among man's central neurons; and in his\nappreciations of pure music, reverberations are still awakened of the immemorial past when his personality was not yet so sphered out of the specialized\nin the cosmic one and all. Thus in music, man may today dimly revive the\nmost ancient elements and experiences in the history of his soul. If heredity\nis cell memory, the aesthetic response to music is the awakening of echoes far\nolder than the earliest acoustic organs ; and in this process, man remembers\nthe earliest as well as also the subsequent stages of his evolution. It is the\nart of arts because most prehumanistic and also most prophetic of the superman that is to be.\nIt is this aspect of this sovereign art that justified, if anything can do so,\nthe enthusiastic characterizations of it by writers like Mario Pilo^ that it\nutters the essence of things, best explains the world, is the chief interpreter of\nreligion, that it propounds and answers the ultimate problems of life, or gives\nat least a mystic meaning to Schopenhauer's phrases that it is the last word of\nthe highest philosophy, that it is the revealer of ultimate metaphysical being\nof the will and soul. Only from some such viewpoint can we see light in the\nutterances of German aestheticians who say that music expresses all the cosmic emotions, utters every potential as well as every actual feeling, that its\nkingdom is not of this present but also of the future world, and that it should\nbe because it strikes its roots deepest into the past and most securely shapes\nthe future so that its home is in the infinite, that it shows everything under\nthe form of eternity, that it utters all longings, even the dimmest, puts us into\nrapport with stars, sea, and dreams, draws the ideal down from its fatherland\nin heaven, if, indeed, it be not the very essence of God himself.\nBut our problem today of the pedagogy and psychology of music is a\npractical one and can go back but a very little way toward such putative origins.\nAmong children and savages, music has several distinct beginnings.\nI. Rhythm is the first which is so emphasized in all the primitive music,\nwhich seems to have a tum tum origin. Its chief features are repetitions and\ncadences. It is a system of beats, accents, stresses, time keepings, and markings, stepping, patting, tapping, striking, measuring arsis and thesis with the\nfeet. At first there is little content and little variety, but repetition exasperatingly monotonous to cultured nerves. A savage band is made up of drums,\n' Psychologie der Musik, Leipzig, 1906; 326 pages.\n\nTrans, by C. D. Pflaum.\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nat first untuned, and if there is a choir, it repeats phrases and words endlessly.\nThe child which begins by rhythmically striking one object with another or\nby keeping tab of sequent impressions on tallies in a series of light objects\nwhen getting ready to count, hums or verbalizes a measure over and over,\nperhaps slowly evolving and intricating it, or learns to beat time, march, sway,\nor gesture, has begun to ascend the long way by which the race began its\nmusical development. This stage needs great and early emphasis; although,\non the other hand, it may become excessive and neurotic as is seen in the counters and beaters. Poetry is older than prose and everything possible in the\nkindergarten and primary grades should take rhythmic character. A cardinal\ntrait of music at this stage, therefore, should be marchy, dancy, motor, for it\nmust get into the muscles. While the child may hear other music, it should\nattend chiefly to this kind. To exercise together without music is the ghastly\nmistake of Swedish gymnastics, which sins against both motor and musical\ndevelopment. Music should go with steps and steps with music. The young\nperson who cannot dance is crippled in his appreciation of a certain large class\nof music. There are those who interpret almost all kinds of music in terms\nof motion, supplementing real by imaginary movements. The sentence,\nsense of power, all periodicity and style in speech, grace, ease, and freedom,\nwhich are the poetry of movement, find here their chief source. To sit still\nand listen to stirring music stunts a musical development in a young child in\nits very bud, for it feels music chiefly as incitement to action. There have been\ngreat and precocious musical geniuses that have shot up through this stage\nso rapidly that it was little seen, but it is integral in normal, musical development, and the bom teacher of the art best knows how to draw upon and\nutilize this immense reservoir of motor tendency.\n2. The child best worth educating musically responds deeply and early,\neven if unconsciously, to the sounds in Nature, the first music master of the\nrace. The soughing of the wind through the pines stands out uniquely in its\neffect upon the sensible soul of childhood. It may even cause tears without\nconsciousness, for it plays upon the very organism. It is felt in most as sadness and restlessness, while the susurrus of the breezes among the leaves of\ndeciduous trees is early pleasing and exhilarating. The wind is a bandmaster,\nloved or feared according to the loudness with which his orchestra plays.\nThe rattle of the hail, the drip and patter of rain, the silent fall of snow, the\nroll of distant and the crash of near thunder, the ripple of streamlets, the roar\nof waterfalls, the beating of waves, and all the many voices of water are great\nmusic teachers. Then too there are the symphonies of bees, crickets, and\neven mosquitoes, the humming, droning, booming buzz of larger insects, the\npiping of tree toads and frogs, even the cries of the feles et canes, each has a\nvaried tone language of its own to the young; the bleating of sheep, the\nlowing of herds which give pastoral moods, the call of the wild, and the cry\nof the squirrel kind; above all, the birds: the lonely hoot of the owl, the\ndespairing hoot of the loon, the caw of crow and daw, the scream of the eagle\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF\n\nMUSIC\n\n851\n\nand hawk, the clapper of the heron, the cooing of the doves, and all above the\nsong of the warblers which one observer says never sing but only laugh out of a\nheart overflowing with joy; each one of these sounds and many more carries\nwith it a whole stage-setting of psychic moods; and these the tone-poet simply\nmust feel abundantly, often, and early. Living creatures do not talk to each\nother for they have no vocabulary of words, but their utterances are all of them\neither love-calls, warnings, or danger signals, and are more musical than verbal.\nSome are lullabies, others madrigals, or phihppics, or notes of defiance, or\nmurmurs of parents to their young, and some are voices of the day, others of\nthe night or storm. They suggest the heath, the prairie, moorland, thicket,\nmountain, meadow, brook, the spring when the migrators come, and the fall\nwhen they go. These are the things that have played on the soul thru all\nthe immemorial past, have controlled its moods, and have still a strange power\nto call up imagery. Snatches of these varied antiphones are, as many careful experiments show, what music suggests to all responsive souls. It is\nthese influences that should not be evicted by the music-stultifying noises of\nthe city, which cause it to focus on errotic, even decadently errotic, themes.\nSo far as music is an interpreter of nature, the child must have heard, felt,\nvaried influences, or else musical training leaves him untouched, because there\nis nothing in his soul to interpret.\n3. Song is story, and to the child is the nourishing root of all musical\nculture. A musician who never sang or at least hummed to himself or herself can never possibly feel the full power of instrumentation. He must at\nleast hear song in his throat or something vital is lacking. Song, too, must\nhave a burden, and programless music comes later. The bard is inspired by\nhis theme and pours forth unpremeditated song, because he is drunk with\nhis theme, and therefore carries his hearers away. So the great lyrists from\nthe restored Apollo to the gypsy fiddler of today in his own habitat play music\nthat to them is rammed full of meaning and content deeper than words and\nwith which they weave their spell. Hence too the musician must know the\ngreat tales of great times and men and be inspired by them, so that he can\nlearn to let himself go with abandon; and his powers of sympathy must be\nutterly untainted by criticism. Story roots of love stronger than death, of\nvengeance where man is a powerless agent of the Fates, of piety and devotion\nthat immolate self for something greater than self — among these the composer\nfinds his Muse. Hence the pupil must know and feel the great mythoperic\ncycles, especially those of the ancient Greeks, Homer and the dramatists and\nthe Germans, the Saxon Arthoriad, the Niebelungen, and the rest. All such\nlegendary and heroic love cannot be properly told save in poetry and music\nto which they incline and inspire the soul. Thus literature of this class should\nbe the handmaiden of art. Above all, biblical literature and the religious\ninstinct should be cultivated. So too patriotism and the flag and the great\nhistoric events and golden deeds of virtue, home, native land, country, and\nreligion are the great themes in all the consensus of children's preferences\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nin music. Love comes later, and comedy and parody are still later and far\nless.\n4. As to instrumentation, wind instruments that are blown come nearest\nthe heart. The pipe was first after the drum, and to play it is singing with a\nproxy larynx, while breath and feeling are ordinarily very closely akin. Thus\neven the young, even near the age of self-consciousness and emotional repressions, can still express a sentiment naturally; and school bands are as hygienic\nfor the feelings as they are for the lungs, and from Plato down all have\npraised material strains of this kind for youth. But in soulfulness, we must\nagree with Gardiner^ that the violin stands first, hard and late as it arose.\nEach string has its distinct character. It requires and trains great accuracy\nof ear and touch, and bowing is the best expression of music which the hand\ncan make. Perhaps in nothing does it come so near being the direct organ\nof the heart. How the Hungarian fiddler in his home and with native music\nhugs passionately, caresses his instrument and gets, as Paganini did, the most\nsympathetic and tumultuous response that ever instrumentalist won from a\ncrowd ! The violin is the school instrument in Germany where most is done\nin music. The ready-made notes and tempered scale of the piano and organ\nare farther off and their technique is far less expressive of the musical tones.\nThe mandolin is a tasteful decoration or bric-a-brac for a sophomore's room,\nbut is it quite virile for the American man ? It affords our stalwart college\nbarbarians in evening dress an opportunity to line up before the audience and\nstrum accompaniments in three chords to the simple ditties carried by the\nmore expert few. Is not even the banjo less lady-like and evirating ? I do\nnot know; why do not you musicians tell us? Alas, the pedagogy of music\nis yet in its diaper and swaddling-clothes stage, till we know more of the\npsychology of the chief classes of instruments, each of which does different\nthings to the soul.\n5. You music-teachers should now keep closest tab on this new movement\nfor children's theaters which promise great things in the near future. Music\nand drama are twin sisters and have grown up together in the closest dependence one upon the other. Mimesis, gesture, acting, are probably, like music,\nolder than speech itself. New studies show how most school children at some\nperiods of their lives have a veritable passion for cheap shows, of which there\nare fifteen hundred of the nickel and dime order in New York alone. Their\npassion is to see and feel passion. They long to be thrilled, and their appetite\nfor excitement is legitimate, for it must be had or the child is dwarfed; and\nwe can do little but to determine whether it shall be on a high or low plane.\nIn New York censors inspect plays and those they find clean are open to\nscores of thousands of young people at reduced rates, and supplement their\nschool history and literature and give moral upHft, draw off bad instincts, on\nthe principle of catharsis, and perform future choices aright. Good operettas come in and music now needs, and is just beginning to have pedagogic\n' Nature of Music, Boston, 1838; 505 pages.\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE PSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF MUSIC\n\ncensorship by similar boards, that have growing power to determine success\nor failure or good and bad things upon the stage jn our large cities.\n6. Keep the technique duly subordinated — pray ponder this: is it not just\nas absurd to teach children notes and the scale before they have learned a\nrepertory of songs by note, as it would be to teach reading before the child\nlearns to talk ? The prime end of musical education in the grades is to train\nthe sentiments, to make children feel nature, religion, country, home, duty, and\nall the rest, to guarantee sanity of the heart out of which are the issues of life.\nTo this, technique and everything else should be subordinated. Again, you\nmust sing to the children if you can only croon or intone poetry. I would have\na pianola in every high school and college with a few scores of well-chosen\nselections. In pubescence when the life of sentiment awakens, probably\nmusic has its very most potent influence in stirring and expanding the soul.\nMuch school music is now chosen merely with reference to some scheme of\npedagogic, systematic progression. Much method here is a sin against the\nholy ghost of music itself. Every tune introduced should have a moral and\naesthetic justification and should be admitted to the school canon only after\ncareful deliberation and for good and sufficient reasons. And then and only\nthen music will be rescued from its present abject subordination and given its\nrightful, commended place in the curriculum as the trainer of the feelings\nwhich are three-fourths of life.\n7. And lastly, I wish music teachers would read a little more, and see\ntheir work in the larger light now dawning. They might at least know\nPilo, Gardiner, Wallace/ Wallasehek,^ possibly even Gumey,^ not to add\nDarwin, Spencer, and Weissmann's dilettante and hypersubtle theorization.\nThen there is the second part of Helmholtz' masterpiece, The Sensation of\nTone, which gives the history of music on a scientific basis. There are other\nworks by Ritter, Paine, Henderson, Nerlich, Costlin, Bartholomew, Stumpf,\nwho thinks that purity of music and race type go together, that the male voice\nwas once very high, and that woman first began to sing, and that use of practicality has caused the development of music. Then there are the simpler\nresults of the study of children's choices, from discriminations of pitch, from\ntheir range of ear, their sense of timbre, the imagery that music excites, which\nGilman and Downey have studied, and even the responses of infants to music;\nwhile Dr. Theodate Smith is preparing a work on the psychic reactions\nto sound by infants and children, and fuller studies are being made upon\nmutation.\n, ' Threshold of Music, London, 1903; 269 pages.\n' Primitive Music, London, 1893; 326 pages.\n3 The Power of Sound, London, 1880; 559 pages.\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\n-NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nCHILD-SONG— ITS VERSE\nMRS.\n\nALICE\n\nC. D.\n\nRILEY,\n\nEVANSTON,\n\nILL.\n\nThe poet tells us that \"Knowledge is power;\" power over the objective\nworld about us, power of self-control, power to make objective the inner\nworld gained in that self-control. All of our education should give us one\nof two things — power to understand the thoughts of others or power to express\nour own.\nModern education has occupied itself much with the cultivation of the\npower of self-expression, and many branches have felt the stimulus of new\nmethods developed from this viewpoint. It seems a little curious that music,\ndrawing, modehng, and all the manual-training branches should have developed along creative lines, leaving verse still asleep in the bonds of the old\nconventions.\nWhatever may be the value of classic methods of scansion for college\nstudents, it is self-evident that they are not available in first grade. It is also\nevident that, if we should develop creative work in verse, we should begin\nat an age when children have not outgrown their natural fondness for it, which\nalas! they are only too prone to do under present conditions. Therefore,\nwith children, the analysis, which is always a necessary part of ci^ative work,\nmust be done after some other plan than that of classic scansion. Is there any\nother available means? Yes, that of musical scansion, one with which the\nchildren are already getting acquainted in first grade. When Lanier pubHshed his book on The Science of English Verse, he cleared away at one stroke\nall the thicket of trouble which had surrounded the analysis of English verse.\nHe established it once for all on a musical basis.\nHere we have a method to our hand ! One perfectly fitted to its purpose\nand equipped with a symbol for every least variety in rhythm. A set of\nsymbols, moreover, with which the child is daily becoming acquainted in his\nmusic lesson. By teaching these two arts, music and verse, hand in hand, the\nchild will gain in comprehension of each and also in command over the form\nnecessary for creative work in either study.\nIn all our knowledge, we find that we are more developed in our power to\nrecognize and appreciate than in our power to perform. This is true from\nthe lisping infant, who understands much that is said to him but can only\nutter a few words, to the musical critic at a symphony concert who can write\ncolumns of learned criticism about the performance of the symphony and\nwho cannot, perhaps, play a single instrument nor yet write a simple musical\ncomposition.\nThe moment, however, that we begin to do creative work in any line we\nfind that we must know the parts which go to make up the whole and their\nrelation to each other. Thus a child may have recited verses and sung songs\nfor years, and may be quite capable of recognizing and appreciating either\nverse or song, without one thought given consciously to form, to parts, to pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD-SONG— ITS\n\nVERSE\n\n855\n\nportion, etc.; but let him try to create a verse or a song and he at once must\nlearn something of form, and his knowledge must not be unconscious, as it\nhas been during the period of appreciation, but conscious. He must know the\nparts and their relation to each other before he can use them in creative work.\nWhat are the parts of verse over which he must gain control ? Briefly,\nthey are rhythm, rhyme, and other ornamentation. Of these the first is perhaps the most important, since all verse, whether rhymed or blank, has some\nmeasure of rhythm.\nWhat is rhythm? \"Rhythm is measured motion.\" In the motion, or\nvibration, which produces sound, this measuring is done by accent which\nfalls recurrently with perfect precision. The same conditions prevail when\nthis sound is used in forming words, as is illustrated by the following examples:\n2/4 Pe-ter/Pe-ter/Pe-ter/Pe-ter//\nT,/2, An-na-bel/An-na-bel/An-na-bel/An-na-bel//\n\nWhen words are combined in phrases and sentences and are so combined\nthat the logical accents of the words and phrases fall as a regularly repeated\naccent, occurring at regular intervals of time, we have verse with rhythm.\n2/4 A-/down the/vale and/up the/hill\nThe/laughing/maids run/silver/shod//\n\nAnd when these lines are further bound together with some rhyme scheme\ninto a stanza, we have some form of rhymed verse, as:\n2/4 A-/down the/vale and/up the/hill\nThe/laugh-ing/maids run/silver/shod\nTheir/laughter/rippling/like the/rill\nThat/dan-ces/where the/dai-sies/nod.//\n\nHere our rhyme scheme gives us the verse form known as the quatrain and\nour rhythm scheme may be either groups of two's or groups of four's according\nto our desire, said groups being weak-strong, weak-strong, etc., for the first\nand weak-strong-weak-weak, weak-strong-weak-weak, etc., for the second.\nHere we find exactly the same groups, and divisions of groups, as in music\nand in using musical notation for all purposes of rhythm analysis we shall find\na symbol ready to hand for any possible rhythmic groups we may wish to use.\nThe following examples will illustrate some possibilities of musical scansion:\n1. 2/4 There/ was a/man in/our /town//\n2. 3/4/Rock-a-bye/hush-a-bye/bees in the/clover//\n3. 2/4/Four and twen-ty/black birds/baked in a/pie//\n4. 2/4/Hark/hark the/dogs do/bark\nThe/beg-gars are/going to/town//\n\nIn example one we have one word which demands two pulsations to satisfy\nour rhythmic sense. In example two, in three beat rhythm we have one\nsyllable which demands two pulsations /clo-ver/. In example three we\nhave the evenly divided beat and in example four we have the unevenly divided\nbeat. The children are becoming familiar with these identical rhythmic\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nquantities in their music lesson, and therefore such analysis is easily understood by them.\nOf course the work is presented little by little, one step at a time, and in\nsuch a way that the work in the two branches deals at any given time with\nthe same rhythmic problem.\nIn the matter of measuring silences, so important in many rhythmic\nschemes, the musical scansion gives the only satisfactory method. In the\nfollowing example see how necessary the silences are to the rhythmic scheme\nand how perfectly the musical notation indicates them.\n/Break/break/break/\nOn thy/cold gray/stone, O/sea!/\nAnd I/would that my/tongue could/ut-ter/\nThe/thoughts that a-/rise in/me/ //\n\nThese examples will show some of the possibilities of musical scansion.\nAnyone who will take the trouble to scan any of the poets in this way will find\nmore and more proof of its complete adaptability and practicability.\nIn presenting the work to the child it is necessary that the teacher should\nhave as complete a mastery of her subject as in teaching any other branch.\nShe should know exactly what results she is trying to accomplish and just\nwhat methods she may use to accomplish them.\nThere is no time within the limits of this paper to go far into the manner\nof presentation, but the teacher should always bear in mind the two main\nbranches of the work: the critical and the creative.\nKnowledge of form is gained in the critical work. Through musical\nanalysis the rhythmic forms are brought to the child's conscious knowledge.\nThe particular rhyme scheme in use is pointed out and its effect upon the\nverse appreciated. Other ornaments of verse such as alliteration, onomatope, music of line, etc., and their office and effect are brought to the child's\nattention. Careful work in this department will do much to give one command of material when attempting creative work.\nIn the creative work it is well to let form be self -selective, growing naturally\nout of the thing the child has to say. Once the form is sufficiently defined to\ndecide its nature, the teacher should devote herself to the perfection of that\nform. No training in either verse-writing or in self-control is gained if the\nchild be allowed to create at random without regard to form. He may create\nin any form he choose, or, more strictly speaking, in any form in which his\nthought clothes itself forth; but, once having defined a form, he should complete his work strictly within the bonds of that form and according to its rules.\nThe value of creative work in verse is many-sided. Its power to develop\na sense of form is equal to that of creative work in painting or sculpture, albeit\nthese appeal wholly to the sense of sight or touch, whereas verse and music\ncultivate an appreciation of form as it appeals to the sense of hearing. Inasmuch as the eye has been better trained than other organs of sense by most\neducational methods, it is especially valuable to cultivate those arts which\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nCHILD-SONG— ITS MUSIC\n\nappeal to the other senses. There is not only aesthetic but character training\nin a study which teaches us to express our own ideas through a form which has\nbeen perfected and polished by the masters of the past, and any system which\nwould abandon the forms developed by centuries of patient evolution and\nforce each child to develop spontaneously all his own forms, ought, in order\nto be consistent, to do the same in all other studies, writing, arithmetic, spelling,\netc. By this plan each farmer should begin with the forked stick and develop\nhis own implements, and each artisan his. It is easy to see that in this way\nwe should get more original results but it is doubtful if the world would have\nmade much advance by such methods.\nBrander Mathews says that it is the privilege of each generation to stand\nupon the shoulders of its predecessor. From this viewpoint, we need not be\nafraid of teaching forms, since to the artist they are as truly the tools as are\nimplements to the artisan.\nAs a method of developing good taste and appreciation in English, creative\nwork is unequaled. Critics have always claimed that writing verse was one\nof the best methods of acquiring a good English style, since the need of choosing\nexactly the right word becomes greater within the limits of a narrow form.\nThere is also a valuable training given the imagination in creative verse-work\nunsurpassed by any of the other arts, and no child who has done creative\nwork in verse consistently through eight grades and high school will be\nignorant nor unappreciative of the beauties of the masterpieces of poetry.\nNothing so increases our appreciation of great work in any field as working\nexperience in that field. Here we approach the line which marks off mere\nverse from poetry. The great poet, like every other great artist, is bom, not\nmade. The divine fire is a gift of the gods which no educator pretends to be\nable to bestow. All we can do is to give the tools, the training, the technique;\nfate and the gods must do the rest.\nBut to have gained in self-control, in power to handle material (and above\nall such material as one's native tongue), in power of self-expression, in mastery over form, in power of imagination, and in appreciation of the masters,\nsurely this is an end worthy of our efforts.\nCHILD-SONG— ITS MUSIC\nMRS. JESSIE L. GAYNOR,\n\nST. JOSEPH,\n\nMO.\n\nThe study of music has long since ceased to be work for the specialist nly.\nPeople are beginning to wake up to the fact that not only will those who\nintend to become players, or singers, or composers, find profit in the study\nof music, but that as a factor in the general educationa.1 scheme, there is no\nsubject which can serve better in mental development than the study of\nmusic. No other study teaches such exactness of hearing and such nice\nappreciation of comparative tonal values.\nThe steps in the development of the musical side of a child are very much\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthe same as those which mark his general mental development. As he grows\nfrom within, desiring to express himself, the musical language may serve him in\nexactly the same way as, his mother tongue. Music is a foreign language to\nmany a child, since he may not learn it in his home, and from the hps of his\nparents. Given a child born into a musical family, where he hears constantly\nsinging and instrumental music, he comes early into the realization of the fact\nthat thought may be expressed in music, as well as in words. To such a child\nthere comes an unconscious appreciation of tone and rhythm. On the other\nhand, a child who hears Uttle or no music at home will be as deaf to its meaning,\nand as little appreciative of its beauty, as he would-be of a story told to him\nin a foreign tone.\nThe one side of music which is most universally appreciated, and that\nbecause of its close relationship to its sister art of poetry, is rhythm. The\nappreciation of rhythm comes to a child with his earliest recollection, with\nbabyhood, with his mother's lullaby, with his first Mother Goose rhymes, and\nwith the games and jingles which make up so great a part of a child's life during\nhis first four or five years. Teachers are apt to forget the great value of these\nchildish games and plays, and to think that the study of music should begin\nwith notation and scales, and the various dry symbols which to the teacher\nmean much, and to the wee pupil are merely a source of confusion.\nMany children in this day and generation are growing up without their\nrock-a-bye songs, and without the Mother Goose rhymes, and many of them\nwithout the old games and old songs of their grandmothers, and the dear old\nfairy stories and the old-fashioned songs. Teachers of music find themselves\nconfronted with a problem that is very serious — that of teaching an art which\ndeals with the imagination, and with an appreciation of tone and rhythm, to\nchildren who have had absolutely no opportunity to develop even the first ideas\nof these elements. Educators sometimes forget that an appreciation of tone\nand rhythm may not be learned about by the intelligence, but must be 'experienced through the feeUngs. Music teachers are beginning to appreciate\nthese difficulties, and all over the country methods and systems are being\ndeveloped to do this beginning work, which should have begun in the nursery.\nWhat the kindergarten has done for color and form, the musical kindergarten must do for tone and rhythm. To hear with accuracy, to conceive\nmusic-thought with exactness, and to express intelligently through notation —\nthese are the things which the teacher expects to develop.\nTo perceive, to conceive, and to express music; about these three we must\nconstruct the whole system of music-education. The symbols of music should\nbe presented as they are needed to express the musical idea. For instance, the\nbar will be presented when attention is first called to the difference between\nstrong and weak impulses, whether in music or verse. As the note symbol\nvaries in form according to the time-duration which it expresses, it is well to\npresent first that note symbol which expresses one impulse. The most natural\nnote to nse for this purpose is the quarter note.\nFrom the beginning, it be-\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRHYTHM-TRAINING\n\n859\n\ncomes a simple matter to present two eighth notes joined by their flags as a\nsymbol of two sounds to one pulsation, or the triplet as a symbol of three\nsounds to one pulsation. It is obviously impossible in a limited time to go\ninto detail, but any teacher should be able to plan a simple scheme of developing symbols. These symbols should always be presented after the child has\nheard and understands the musical example, and not before.\nThe pitch relationships of melody are represented by the position of the\nnote made absolutely exact by the lines and spaces of the staff, and these\nshould only be presented after the child has a thorough understanding of the\npitch relationship of the tones of the scale. No special value need be attached\nto the possession of absolute pitch by the child, but a sense of absolute pitch\nis often the result of careful training. However, an exactness of perception\nof the relative highness and lowness, and an appreciation of exact pitch relationships asbased upon our modern scale may be taught to anyone with a\nnormal sense of hearing. When this has been done, symbols representing\nthese relationships should be given, and not before.\nThe same value attaches to creative work in music as in other branches of\nstudy. A child may learn more of musical symbols in writing out his own\noriginal compositions than in observing volumes of the writings of others.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nANNA\n\nGOEDHART,\n\nRHYTHM-TRAINING\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF MUSIC,\nEAST CLEVELAND,\nOHIO\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMy subject today is \"Educational Rhythm-Training.\" You may ask\nwhy educational ? Is not all rhythm-training necessarily educational ? Yes,\nbut all that calls itself by that name is not always rhythm-training. In order to\nbe worthy of the name, and therefore really educational, the work done must\nbe truly rhythmic, that is, show forth and emphasize the character of rhythm;\nbe methodical, that is, regularly progressive towards a definite end, and the\nresults obtained must be commensurate to the time and energy spent in the\nattaining.\nThus I will deal briefly with these three points: i. Rhythm — What is it ?\n2. Method in rhythm- training. 3. Result desired and obtained.\nFirst, as to rhythm. Rhythm is the soul of music. The Dictionary of\nMusic and Musicians gives: \"Rhythm is the systematic grouping of notes\nwith regard to duration; its subdivisions are accent and time.\" Lavignac in\nhis Musical Education says:\nRhythm is nothing more than division of time into equal or unequal, but always\nproportional fractions. Time is the absolute equality in duration of all notes of the same\nvalue. We can play in time while giving the rhythm in an incomplete manner; we\ncannot produce correct rhythm without playing in time.\n\nThis is perfectly true. However, he seems to me to leave out the most\nimportant thing, which is accent. The most comprehensive and clearest\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ndefinition I have found in Adolph F. Christiani's The Principles of Expression\nin Music.\nRhythm is the regulated recurring motion made clear in music by the periodical\nrecurrence of accent. The best simile for rhythm is perhaps pulsation. If pulsation gives\nthe fundamental idea of rhythm, the next idea would be that rhythm is method, for it\nbrings order into every kind of movement.\n\nHe sums up as follows:\nArt has as its fundamental law, the law of beauty. Beauty presupposes symmetry.\nSymmetry is visible rhythm.\n\nRhythm is audible symmetry, or symmetrical motion. Symmetrical\nmotion is the ground element in music. The metrical basis of a composition\ncannot be altered without destroying completely the character of the work.\nConvinced of the absolute necessity of definite rhythm in order to produce\ngood music, let us see what we should do to train the children to realize it.\nSome people ask, When should the musical education of children begin?\nMy answer is, In the cradle. And it actually does, for the mother that rocks\nthe baby, singing a little ditty, is beginning the musical education of the child.\nHow she does it will determine whether the foundation be a good one or not.\nIf she sits in a rocking chair and rocks one way and sings to another rhythm\nshe will be actively destroying any sense of rhythm the child may have had\nto start with. Thus the mother may persistently be rocking the rhythm out\nof the child which the teacher will have to rock in again. So unless we can\nfirst educate all the mothers to rock in time, our rhythmic education has to\ncommence in the kindergarten or in the first grade. In the first grade I first\nteach the feeling of the equality of the beat, after that the regularity of the\nrecurring accident, then the grouping of long and short tones, from a note\nthat lasts one beat to one that lasts two, three, four beats. This is prepared and\nsupplemented by rhythm-games and motion-songs. In doing this with the\nchildren, care is taken that the movements of the children correspond to the\naccent of the music. There are many good motion-songs that I use, but, as the\ntone is likely to suffer through the motion of the body, I prefer to let the children do the motions while the teacher sings, or to divide the class, letting onehalf do the singing and the other the motions.\nHand in hand with the ordinary schoolwork a great many devices can be\nused to emphasize rhythm outside the time especially devoted to music. For\ninstance: groups or rows going to the blackboard in time to music played or\nsung; writing to music; erasing to music, taking special care that the down\nstroke is made on the accent. Anything done to music ought to be done to the\nrhythm, and this brings me to another point; namely: it should be done not\nonly to the accent of the measure, but according to the phrasing as well.\nOften in physical culture exercises are given to music, but not planned wdth\nregard to the phrasing. The teachers say in their defense: \"But I don't know\nanything about music, how can you expect me to know all these technical\ndetails ?\"\n\nHow does a child know ?\n\nPlay the game called\n\n\" Going to Jeru-\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRHYTHM-TRAINING\n\n86i\n\nsalem\" and invariably the children will want to take a seat at the end of a\nsentence, because their ear expects a stop.\nThe other day at a garden party I saw a little girl do some quite wonderful\ndancing, but the effect was marred by the lack of correspondence between the\nmovements and the music. She started every new group of movements in\nthe middle of a phrase, and ended with her bow several measures before the\nend of the tune. Now, if dancing is to be educational the teacher should also\nsee to this side of it, and so with any other exercise done to music. So far as\nto training the sense of rhythm.\nThe question now comes of training the children to reproduce rhythm —\nnamely, to translate the symbols and to keep up the regularity of the accent\nthrough all sorts of varied combinations of long and short tones, by their own\nindividual mental effort. If, during the singing of the children, the teacher\nhas to beat vigorously on her desk, I do not call it the unaided effort of the\nchildren. If, to make the children hold the notes the required time, the\nteacher has to point to every note on the board, I do not call this unaided\neffort either. But I call it unaided effort when the children sing, without help\nfrom the teacher's voice, pointer, or ruler, independently, a melody presenting\nsuch rhythmic difficulties as are not above the standard of the grade.\nWe have all found that certain rhythms, hard to transport from the eye\nto the ear, are immediately cleared up by giving a certain word or sentence to\nillustrate the movement. A professor in despair how to get a little boy to\nplay the following rhythm correctly, at last called out, \"Don't you feel how\nit goes ?\" \"Terrible, terrible, naughty boy,\" and then the boy could play it.\nAs in ordinary reading the letters in their different groupings call to the\nreader's mind the words they represent, so in music the notes in their different\ngroupings should call up distinctly and immediately the rhythm they stand for.\nI recommend the use of the tonic sol- fa- time names. They are simple,\nlogical, and fundamental, and have one name for each unit, and I have my\npupils beat the time. The value of this practice is clearly shown by the fact\nthat even a great many teachers find it hard to beat the time when the class\nsings. They swing their hand to the notes instead of indicating the beats.\nTapping the time, as is advocated nowadays, is not half as effective as beating\nthe time, because it does not illustrate accent as clearly as the old-fashioned\nbeating with its strong downward stroke. In rhythm-training I thus appeal\nfirst to the ear, then to the eye, and after that I give time dictations, letting the\nchildren write down what they hear. I apply the educational maxim, \"One\ndifficulty at a time,\" as much as possible. Therefore in taking up a new\nmelody, I let the children sing the syllable names first, so that there may be no\nconfusion on that point, then I let them say the time names, beating the time\nthemselves, and after that I let them combine the two.\nAt the meeting of this department in 1905 a vigorous protest was raised\nagainst hampering the grade teacher with methods. The speaker finished by\nsaying,\n\n\"Give her the benefit of teaching children and not methods.\"\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nmost decidedly think that we cannot give a greater boon to the teacher than\nby giving her a good method; in other words, definite steps by which she can\nwith the children climb up the steep mountain of art. It sometimes has been\nclaimed that it is belittling art to be bound too strictly by laws. Yet, in order\nto become a worthy servant of this great mistress, we have to learn obedience,\nfor there is no freedom but freedom under law.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nTOPIC— WHAT SHOULD BE EXPECTED FROM THE NORMAL SCHOOL\nIN THE PREPARATION OF THE GRADE\nTEACHER FOR\nTEACHING MUSIC, AND ALSO OF THE SUPERVISOR?\nI.\n\nC.\n\nA.\n\nFULLERTON,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nVOCAL\nMUSIC,\nCEDAR FALLS.\nIOWA.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIn the few minutes at my disposal I shall consider some phases of normal-school\nmusic that seem to me to be in special need of emphasis. After eleven years of experience\nin the music department of a normal school and after investigating quite extensively what\nother normal schools are doing in music, and what the public schools need and want, I\nam firmly convinced that the most urgent need is for the musical development of the\nstudents themselves. Let us imagine a new normal school with a body of students possessing average musical equipment when they enroll. These students need music before\nthey have any need of methods for presenting music. If it were impossible to equip\nthese students with both musical development and methods for teaching music there is\nevery argument in favor of giving them musical development. From the standpoint of\nthe school superintendent, for whom these teachers are at work, the supervisor with\nwhom they are to teach, the communities where they are to live, the normal school itself,\nwhere they are to spend a few years, their immediate families, the students themselves,\nand the children whom they are to instruct, the musical culture of these students is of\nfirst importance. Fortunately music can be taught to adults by practically the same\nmethods that should be used with children, and so it is possible to give the normal students\nthis musical culture and musical experience and in the process of giving it to them, give\nthem methods for teaching music to a large extent.\nIf this newly organized normal school is going to measure up to the reasonable demands\nof the twentieth century it must abandon the narrow conception of being merely a school\nof methods. The death knell to that kind of normal school is already in the air. It\nmust become in its special sphere an educational center with ideals second to none and\nwith an enthusiasm for scholarship which will be contagious. And it must add to this\nequipment of high ideals and scholarship skill in the art of teaching. The music department of this modern normal school, if reasonably well equipped, should be expected to\naccomplish three specific things: It should give a maximum of musical experience and\ntraining to the rank and file of the students; it should surround them with good musical\natmosphere; and it should train them, in some degree, in the most rational and artistic\nmethods of teaching music to children\nNow, for some practical suggestions on how to bring about these results.\nSo far as the musical training of the students is concerned the particular feature of\nthe work that should be kept in the center of the stage is the beginning classes. The future\nof the department is carved out here. The teacher is put to his greatest test here and\nthose who do not believe that music is for the benefit of humanity in general should be\nconverted to that belief or abandon this field. The teacher who realizes the transcendent\nimportance of this work will face it with a glad heart and if he succeeds with the musical\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "PREPARATION\n\nDepartment]\n\nOF THE GRADE\n\nTEACHER\n\ndevelopment of these students he will succeed in doing three distinct things: First, and\nmost important, he will get as much of the song spirit into their lives as possible by\nsinging with them the very best and most attractive songs obtainable; second, by using\nthese same songs as a basis he will develop technical skill in performing music; third*\nhe will give these students good substantial training in the theory of music. The first\ntwo phases of this work can be given to these adults in practically the same manner as\nwould be employed with the children, the third should be adapted more particularly to the\nadult mind.\nIn creating musical atmosphere about a school the most effective agency is the interest\naroused and the skill developed in these beginning classes. Musical atmosphere can\nexist for the individual only in proportion as musicianship is developed within him. Every\nperson, like a planet, carries his own atmosphere with him. We cannot create musical\natmosphere /or students. We must create it with students and with their active co-operation. Any sound education involves the double process of getting and giving — receiving\nimpressions and giving expression to them, and leaving out one of these processes is about\nas futile as trying to cut with one-half of a pair of scissors.\nThis steady growth in musical skill and appreciation furnishes the much-desired\neducational spirit. The rest is comparatively easy. Glee clubs, choral societies, etc.,\nwill spring jnto existence and the school will enjoy the music of the masters. Voice\nteachers, piano teachers, and violin teachers will be demanded by this increased interest\nin music and they will be forthcoming. Concerts, recitals, and lecture recitals will naturally follow and a glad public will help to bear the expense. The music of the automatic\npiano player may well be introduced here, first to be enjoyed, then to be analyzed, then to\nbe enjoyed the more. \" Rag time\" will take its exit as darkness does when you turn on the\nlight — only not so suddenly. Real hymns will be sung oftener and religious \"rag time\"\nwill gradually become distasteful.\nA school for supervisors of public-school music, a discussion of which is excluded by\nthe limitations of this paper, will naturally grow out of these conditions and where can\nthere be found a more favorable setting for such a school ? And where can be found a\nmore attractive field for the musician who has the true educational spirit ?\nII.\n\nMISS\n\nJULIA\n\nE.\n\nCRANE,\n\nDIRECTOR\nPOTSDAM,\n\nOF\nN.\n\nMUSIC,\nY.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe question propounded for discussion does not state whether we are to consider\nwhat should be expected of normal schools under ideal conditions, or under existing con\"\nditions. But since we never reach the best results under existing conditions without a\nvision of the possibilities under ideal conditions, it is probably best to consider both phases\nof the subject.\nMy ideal state normal school is governed by a state board of education whose\nmembers realize the value of music as a factor in education, and a local board of similar\nintelligence. The principal of this school has sufficient musical education to know when\nmusic is being taught as it should be taught in a normal school; a man who cannot be duped\nby the teacher who knows music for school exhibition purposes only, or by one whose\ntheories, rather than her practical knowledge, constitute her equipment for teaching. On\nthe other hand, this ideal principal sees the normal-school music in its relation to the musical\nneeds of the public schools, and is able to recognize the ability of the teacher who is supplying those needs, even though her psychology be practical rather than glibly theoretical, and\nher school exhibitions fail to compete successfully with \"Wonderland.\"\nThe ideal music teacher in this normal school is first a man or woman of such nobility\nand purity of mind that he sees the development of character in the pupils as his first concern, the good of the school as more important than the extension of any one department\nin it, and the success of his own work measured by what he does toward fitting teachers for\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ntheir life-work. This teacher is a man of broad culture, as well as a musician of high\nattainments, and a teacher by nature, by training, and by practical experience.\nThe course of study in this school, having been arranged by those who appreciate\nthe value of music in education, is a practical and practicable one, and the time allotted\nfor the work is sufl&cient to assure good results. With such conditions, the normal school\nis prepared to send out a large percentage of its graduates prepared to teach the music of\nthe grades.\nThe training of the supervisor seems to me quite a different problem, A supervisor\nof music requires a broad musical\" training, which can be secured in this country from\nprivate teachers and in private schools only. Some normal schools have departments\nof music so associated with them that musical training and literary education may go hand\nin hand. This is an ideal arrangement, because normal training is certainly as important\nto the supervisor of music as it is to the grade teacher, and normal training without a\nproper equipment in musical knowledge is as fatal to success as is the reverse.\nBut the ideal normal school with a well-equipped music department is rarely found;\na state board of education awake to the value of music in education, is equally rare; the\nprincipal who understands music sufficiently to help and not to hinder, is not yet a familiar\ntype; and a course of study fully meeting the needs of the grade teacher in school music,\nis, so far as I know, not yet in existence.\nWhat then is to be expected of the average normal school under existing conditions ?\nAs nearly as I have been able to discover, the time allotted to music in most normal\nschools is one hundred hours, or one school period a day for twenty weeks. This includes\nboth the time given to subject-matter and that allotted to methods of teaching. In an increasing number of schools, there is added to this opportunities for observation of model\nteaching and a few weeks of practice-teaching under criticism. In most schools there is\nvolunteer work in chorus, and many hours of after-school rehearsing of music for public\noccasions. But when this work is compared with that of any other branch of study in\nthe normal school, especially when the training previous to entering the normal school\nis taken into consideration, the difficulties in the way of reaching satisfactory results begin\nto appear.\nWhen a student enters a New York state normal school he has had at least eight years\nin the grades and four years in the high school. During this time he has received an\nexcellent education in the ordinary branches of study, but his training in music may have\nbeen entirely neglected, for in many communities there are absolutely no opportunities\nfor studying music.\nIs music so simple that a working knowledge of it can be acquired in one hundred\nhours, when arithmetic has required sixteen hundred hours, and English more than four\ntimes that number? After a student has had his sixteen hundred hours in arithmetic,\nthe normal school provides as many hours for the study of methods in arithmetic as are\nallotted for his full course in music. Is music teaching such a natural gift that successful\nteachers can be expected under these conditions? Is it surprising that the statement is\noften made that the normal schools do not fit their graduates to teach the music of the grades ?\nBut, I hear someone say, when you consider the small use which man makes of music\ncompared' with his constant use of English, is not music given its due proportion of time ?\nIf music were being well taught for fifteen minutes a day in every grade of every school\nin the country, and if to this were added a practical high-school course in music so that\nno one began a normal-school course without the knowledge this would insure, then the\npresent allotment of time in the normal schools would be sufficient to bring excellent\nresults. But until students come to the normal schools as well prepared for normal\ntraining in music as they are now prepared in arithmetic and grammar, the normal schools\nwill be obliged to teach the subject-matter as well as methods. With this problem before\nus what is fair to expect of normal schools at the present time ?\nThe wise teacher will recognize that there must be a careful examination of the sub-\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF THE\n\nGRADE\n\nTEACHER\n\nject of music in order that every unnecessary element be eliminated, and that such a part\nof the whole be selected for normal-school work as will best reach the needs of the grade\nteacher whose work is to be planned by an unknown supervisor. I am frank to say that\nthere is but one phase of musical instruction which appeals to me as unquestionably first\nin the equipment of the grade teacher, and that is reading. Whatever system is used b)the supervisor under whom the grade teacher works, the teacher who reads music is the\nonly one who is fitted to carry out the directions given. Without the ability to read,\nappreciation of music, enthusiasm over its uplifting influence, and a repertoire of songs\nlearned by rote serve very poorly as a preparation for intelligent teaching.\nI would not be construed as despising any work in music which tends to make appreciative listeners, in fact, I believe that nothing is more distinctively the aim of school music\nthan the development in children of that power of concentration and alertness of mind\nwhich make good listeners. But the grade teacher who does a large share of this work\nmust read music in order to meet the simplest requirements toward this end. There is\nmuch scoffing amongst educators at the attempt to teach any theory of music in the public\nschools. This has no doubt come as a protest against the work of some supervisors who\nhave given undue prominence to technicalities. There are musicians whose own training\nand experience have led them to believe that the whole structure of a musical education\nrests upon a clear understanding of scales and chords, cadences and progressions, as seen\non the printed page. That this is a false basis for public-school work, I am prompt to\nadmit. On the other hand, the superintendent who finds fault with the music teacher\nwho requires quick recognition of the symbols of music and correct use of technical terms\nwhenever terms are needed, forgets that in order to read understandingly, one's knowledge\nof the symbols which express the idea must be accurate knowledge. A teacher of music\nneeds sufiicient familiarity with musical symbols to be able to make blackboard illustrations, as the need arises, and in so doing to give correct, not false, pictures to her pupils.\nThe normal school then should so present music to the prospective grade teacher that\nshe acquires the ability to read the music she must teach, and use the technical terms and\nmusical symbols freely and accurately. In so far as it is possible, she should be taught to\nsing with a sweet and free use of her own voice. The training of teachers for kindergarten\nand first-grade music requires special stress on song singing and voice work, and normal\nschools with a kindergarten department should supply this, in connection with other\nkindergarten work.\nBut, I hear it asked, is there no song singing above the first grade ? Song singing\nbelongs to all grades, but the development of the voices of children must depend upon the\nsupervisor, not the grade teacher. No teacher can be trained in this most subtle of all arts,\nvoice culture, in the classroom. Private lessons with the highest authorities on the voice\nare none too good for the one who directs the training of children's voices.\nThe problem of the normal school is not to teach music in its entirety, but so to train\nthe teachers it sends out, that they possess the knowledge upon which they can build\nmost successfully, a knowledge which enables them to carry out intelligently the plans of\nthe supervisor under whom they teach.\nAs to what should be expected of normal schools in the equipment of music supervisors, Imust confess that I see no reason to expect anything, unless opportunities for\nextensive musical training are available. In normal schools where it is feasible either to\noversee the musical education or to test it thoroly, it ought to be possible to prepare\nsupervisors of the highest type, as the opportunities for the study of methodology and\nfor practice-teaching must be superior to those of any other class of schools. Thoro\nmusical training combined with a broad view of educational methods in all lines, definite\nand systematic methods in music, and the practice of actually teaching children in the\nvarious departments of music work, are all necessary to the adequate training of the\nsupervisor.\nThe normal-school music teacher who expects to send out supervisors of music must\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nbe a musician, but something more than musicianship is requisite. Normal training\nshould promulgate general educational principles, not personal, prejudiced opinions.\nInstruction in methods of teaching should be of a kind that will enable the supervisor to\nmeet the varying demands of the communities by whom he is employed, to select materials\nsuited to the needs of the pupils, to adapt his plans of work to the particular school in which\nhe is teaching.\nThe seeds of sincere desire for progress should be sown, so that the young supervisor\nstarts out with the knowledge that if he searches he is sure to find others who are doing\nbetter work than he: that at the feet of such he should be ready to sit, a humble learner.\nIt is important that he learn to guard against the tendency of becoming so wrapped up in\nhis own work that he forgets to investigate the work of others.\nNothing is more important in normal training than honest dealing. Without thoro\nmusical training a supervisor is not well equipped. While a grade teacher may do\nher work without special voice culture, without a knowledge of music history, harmony,\nmusical form, without a broad knowledge of music itself, a supervisor absolutely requires\nthis training; and for a normal school to recognize any equipment less than this, as sufl&cient for a supervisor, is certainly a mistake.\nAnd so, in a word, we may sum up what should be expected of normal schools in the\ntraining of supervisors in this wise: Unless normal schools are equipped for training or\ntesting musicianship, they should neither be expected or allowed to send out music- supervisors. Ifthey are equipped to add pedagogical to thorough musical training, the highest\nand best results may be expected of them.\nIII.\n\nDAVID\n\nR.\n\nGEBHART,\n\nDIRECTOR OF\nKIRKSVILLE,\n\nMUSIC,\nMO.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBefore me lies a compilation of the music courses in twenty-three normal schools,\nselected indiscriminately from Rhode Island to Washington; from Minnesota and North\nDakota to Alabama and Texas.\nJudging as best I can from the courses outlined (and I would say, in passing, that\nthe courses are very poorly described) and explained in the catalogues of these schools,\nmusic in the normal schools is a sham and farce. Thirteen of the twenty-three have one\nteacher each in music; these must be dreadfully overworked, and work as hard as they\nmay it would be impossible to cover systematically and thoroughly the courses prescribed.\nOutside of Missouri there is but one school in the lot. Cedar Falls, Iowa, that has an\nadequate force of teachers, yet even in Cedar Falls the course is not complete.\nSeven maintain orchestras, while six have brass bands or mandolin clubs. One must\nfeel very sorry for the musical culture that cannot progress beyond the latter organization.\nSix appear to have regular classes in the history and biography of music; four seem to\nhave a little of this subject instilled by the \" lecture process.\" All have some form of sightreading classes, and almost all oJBfer opportunities for individual instruction in instrumental\nand vocal music. But only one offers the individual instruction without extra charges.\nWhat a system of graft! What would be thought of an institution, a state institution,\nwhich taught the \"A-B-C's\" or tables of multiplication, addition, and subtraction, and\nthen charged extra for literature, Enghsh, science, or mathematics in higher forms?\nThis is not right, and until it is corrected, music in the normal schools can never take its\nproper place.\nSome of these schools actually offer diplomas in vocal or instrumental music. What\nright has a normal school to attempt this ? No student can carry a regular program of\nacademic and professional studies and at the same time have sufficient time to give to\npractice to gain proficiency to the extent of receiving a diploma as either a vocal or instrumental artist.\nThis is not only a fraud on the student, but a fraud on the state which is not supposed,\nat the present day, to pay even a pittance of a salary to enable her institutions to com-\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF THE\n\nGRADE\n\nTEACHER\n\n867\n\npete, through cheapness of instruction, with the colleges and conservatories of music.\nThe normal school and private schools of music cannot and must not be competitors.\nEach has its distinctive mission. The normal schools are to prepare serious-minded,\nsteady, conscientious men and women to instruct, and create a love in the heans of the\nchildren of the country for the very best there is in music, and to instil this knowledge\nscientifically and without waste of time or experimentation after reaching the schoolroom. To do this the normal schools must give a sound foundation and general musical\neducation covering in its scope everything from classes in simple sight-reading to form and\ncomposition, including instrumentation and orchestration. Enough individual instruction should be given to insure proper tone production even in a mediocre voice, with\nsufficient knowledge of the piano to enable the teacher to accompany during rehearsals,\nchoral, and other works. The violin being an excellent substitute for a poor voice, in an\notherwise good teacher, is a very important adjunct and therefore should be taught at the\nexpense of the state. This is a field purely for a normal school; the colleges and conservatories ofmusic are not eqmpped to do thoroughly this work, their faculties being\nmade up largely of foreigners who are specialists in their lines, oftentimes out of sympathy\nwith, and having no knowledge of, the educational principles of our country.\nSome states have at present a law requiring proficiency in music of the teachers in\ntheir schools and require a license by examination. Where can the teachers get this\nrequired knowledge if not in the normal school ? Teachers are never fabulously wealthy\nfrom their salaries, and if the state is to require this musical knowledge the state must\nfurnish it at the same reasonable rates and include it in the curriculums of her normal\nschools, and not subject her teachers to the graft of specialists even at a low figure per\nlesson, for the lower the price the poorer the teacher, hence the greater the graft.\nSome seem to think that the normal school should prepare the teacher for the grade\nschool only, leaving the preparation of high-school teacher and supervisor to other and\nhigher institutions. This is the old story over again that an inferior, or any teacher will\ndo for beginners in music. This pernicious idea has long prevailed in private music\ninstruction and for a long time dominated in public-school music and is accountable for the\ngeneral poor standing of music in the schools at present.\nThere is one kind of school, not yet mentioned, that is doing excellent work in the\npreparation of the elementary teacher and supervisor of music. This is the \" summer\nschool\" as conducted by some of the much-berated book companies. These schools are\npractical to a degree that the normal schools might well imitate. They are \"short\" on\ntheory but \"long\" on practicability. Their usefulness is necessarily limited by the shortness of their terms and the long intervals between terms and they must, by force of circumstances, beschools of suggestion.\nIt is not so much a question of. What can be done for music in the normal schools, as\nwhat must be done if music is to take her place as a subject of educational value in our\nschools. It is only a matter of time until, as state after state requires the teaching of\nmusic, the music departments of the normal schools will be enlarged and given due credit,\njust as the study of English has at least reached its rightful place.\nTo sum up then: \"What can be done in music in the normal schools?\" We wish\nto state that everything can be done, to better advantage, in a normal school for the preparation of the public-school music teacher or supervisor than in any other institution.\nThis is a peculiar possibility of the normal school, through the sympathetic correlation of\nacademic, professional, and cultural subjects in relation to their actual application in\nthe public schools.\nDISCUSSION\nIV.\n\nMISS\n\nCLYDE\n\nE.\n\nFOSTER,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nYPSILANTI,\n\nMICH.\n\nThe musical education of the masses rests with the public school. If music, ihis\ngreat art subject, is to be a potent factor in the life of a great nation, if America is to produce\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\na music-loving people, then the music in the public school must steadily advance in the\neducational march of progress.\nIt is most interesting to note the marked progress, in the past decade, in the methods\nof presenting music, the awakened interest of educators, and the stride made in accomplishing great results, but is there not much more yet to be done if the goal is to be reached ?\nThe grade teacher is the means thru which the child is educated in music. The\nteacher who comes in daily contact with the child, who knows each child as an individual\nto be loved and helped, it is she who can do most in music. A noble mission hers, to be\nable to touch the child's life with the vitalizing force of music for a song singeth in the\nheart alway and,\nDoth not song to the whole world belong,\nA heritage for all ?\nThe joy experienced in teaching the same class of children each day, studying the musical\ngrowth of each child, noting the power of music to vitalize his life, and further, what it\nmeans in the development of his very being — this cannot be measured and is something\ngreater than any glory that comes to the supervisor.\nHow can we as thoughtful, serious-minded supervisors lead the grade teacher to\nrealize that the teaching of this subject is one of her opportunities for doing the greatest\namount of good, rather than imposing another burden ? For a desire on her part to know\nand to do is the first requisite. Again, how can the quality of teaching by both grade\nteacher and supervisor be improved ? It is a fact, readily conceded, that the preparation\nof the grade teacher is inadequate, or of the kind that fails to meet the demand of modern\nmethods. The supervisor is often the musician, not the teacher. One of the encouraging signs of the times is the increasing number of prominent schools making the publicschool music department a leading feature; another, that superintendents are demanding\ntrained supervisors of ability.\nIt has been said that the normal school is not doing her part in the musical education\nof the grade teacher. Whereas the condition is not yet ideal, I believe that the normal\nschool is doing an earnest, conscientious work, that credit should be given her for what\nshe is doing, and that help should be extended by every teacher, enabling her to do more\nand to see greater light on a live question of no little magnitude.\nWhat should be the equipment of the grade teacher to do effective music teaching ?\nBriefly stated: it is a stimulating interest in the subject, a keen sense of musical taste\nand appreciation; a development of the power of interpretation and expression; a cultivation of whatever musical ability she may possess; power to present a song in a simple,\nlight, sweet musical voice, untrained though it may be, with some degree of musical\nintelligence; a mastery of the simple music elements; and lastly, some training in\naccepted methods of presentation. And for the ideal music supervisor, what should be\nthe requirements? Musical ability; good scholarship; love of subject; sympathetic\ninterest in and knowledge of children; teaching power; professional training, and a broad\nmusical culture — this, and even more.\nThe Conservatory of Music affiliated with the State Normal College of Michigan,\nunder the authority of the State Board of Education, has completed twenty-five years\nof notable service in genuine musical culture. Frederic H. Pease, its founder and present\ndirector, musician, composer, conductor, and teacher, beloved and revered by all, the man\nwho, for many years, has molded the musical thought of Michigan and is still doing active\nservice; he who has tutored her sons and daughters and launched them in the field of\nmusical endeavor; it is to him we gratefully acknowledge our keen appreciation of this\nvalued service in the cause of music.\nAll music classes in the Normal College, free of expense, are opened to normal as well\nas conservatory students. Classes are offered in voice culture, elements, harmony, music\nmethods in primary grades, grammar grades, and high school, history and literature of\nmusic, counterpoint, form, and composition.\nTo those students preparing to be primal^\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenti\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF THE\n\nGRADE\n\nTEACHER\n\ngrade teachers a twelve weeks' course in music, covering the work of the primary grades, is\nrequired. The other classes are elective and credit is given. A class combining elements\nand methods is offered to meet the demand of students preparing to teach in the grades,\nwho because of limited time can give but one term to the course. For those more ambitious, provision is made for an advanced class in music methods, which must be preceded\nby twelve weeks of elementary work. A credit for a teacher's course is allowed in this\nclass. The crowded condition of method classes demonstrates the desire on the part of the\ncollege student for musical knowledge, and is a recognition of the place of music in the\nschool curriculum.\nThree special two-year courses for music supervisors are offered: public-school music,\nmusic and drawing, music and physical training. These include, besides the required\nmusic classes, psychology, general methods, advanced English, and twenty-four weeks of\nstudent music-teaching in the grades of the training school, under the personal supervision\nof the music critic. It is here that the student learns to assume greater responsibility to\nplan and give a lesson according to pedagogic law, to observe illustrative lessons, and to do\nthe petty round of routine work, as well as prepare and present a children's artistic musical\nprogram.\nThe music supervisors graduated this year numbered twenty-six bright young women,\nthe most of whom have already accepted good positions in the states of Michigan, Indiana,\nOhio, Wisconsin and Washington.\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — H. B. Brown, president, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Ind.\nVice-President -James Ferouso.v, Department of Commerce, H.gh School, San Francisco, Cal.\nSecretary — James S. Curry, Commercial Department, Central High School, Cleveland, Ohio\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, June 30, 1908\nThe Department of Business Education of the National Education Association met in\nthe Assembly Room of the Spencerian Commercial School, Cleveland, at 9:30 a. m., and\nwas called to order by the President, H. B. Brown.\nAn invocation was ofifered by Rev. H. D. Fleming, Lakewood, Ohio.\nA vocal solo was rendered by Miss Frances Walton, of Lakewood, Ohio.\nThe President's address was delivered by H. B. Brown; subject, \"The Genius of\nBusiness.\"\nIrving R. Garbutt, director of the Commercial Department of the Central High School,\nread a paper on the topic, \"The High School Commercial Course: Its Subjects; Their\nPractical and Educational Value,\"\nThe next paper, subject, \"Proper Methods of Instruction in Shorthand,\" was read by\nSelby A. Moran, director of shorthand department. High School, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nThe last paper of the session was read by H. M, Rowe, educational publisher, Baltimore, Md. Subject, \"To What Extent May Commercial and Industrial Training Be\nProperly Included in the Grammar-School Course?\"\nThe President appointed the following committees:\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nD. W. Springer, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nH. M. Rowe, Baltimore, Md.\nI. R. Garbutt, Cleveland, Ohio\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nS. R. Hoover, Cleveland, Ohio.\nMiss Olive Pittis, Cleveland, Ohio.\nD. W. McMillan, Detroit, Mich.\nThe Department then adjourned to meet at 9 o'clock Wednesday morning.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday\n\nMorning, Jxjly 1\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:00 o'clock by President H. B. Brown.\nThe topic, \"What Should Be Done to Encourage College Education beyond the\nCommercial Course in High Schools?\" was presented by Pemberton J. Twiggs, director.\nCommercial Department, East High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nS. R. Hoover, president of Commercial Club High School, Cleveland, Ohio, led the\ndiscussion of the above paper. He was followed by Dr. Charles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y.\nand D. W. Springer, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nThe second paper was read by Cheesman A. Herrick, Central High School,\nPhiladelphia,\nPa. Topic, \"How to Get Teachers of Commercial Subjects Who Are\nBe\nBetter Prepared, and to Improve Those Now at Work.\"\nMr. Herrick's paper was discussed by Edward Rynearson, director of high schools,\nPittsburg, Pa.\n871\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThe next topic, \"Standards of Commercial Teachers, Present and Ideal; Comparison\nwith Standards for Other Teachers,\" was read by Durand W. Springer, High School,\nAnn Arbor, Mich,\nThe last topic of the session, \"Methods of Preparing Teachers in Germany,\" was\npresented by Charles DeGarmo, professor, science and art of education, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following:\nFor President, S. R. Hoover, director, Commercial Department, West High School,\nCleveland, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President, D. W. McMillan, director, Commercial Department, West High\nSchool, Detroit, Michigan.\nFor Secretary, H. C. Spillman, Commercial Department, Butte High School, Butte,\nMontana.\nOn motion, the report of the committee was adopted and the nominees were declared\nelected as officers of the Department of Business Education for the ensuing year.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report:\nResolved —\nFirst, That we express our appreciation of the fact that there has been and continues\nto be marked improvement in the quaUfications of teachers of commercial subjects, and\nthat we recommend a still higher standard of general preparation. To this end we pledge\nour loyalty to the Department of Business Education of the National Education Association as one of the valuable agencies aiding in this direction.\nSecond, That we recognize the advance of confidence in the higher value of commercial courses, as recently enriched, among the members of the general commercial\ncommunity.\nThird, That we manifest in all proper ways our approval of those colleges which, in\nincreasing numbers, admit students from commercial courses on the same basis of opportunity for advanced work as they do those who come from other courses.\nS. R. Hoover\nOlive Pittis\nD. W. McMillan,\nCommittee\nOn motion the resolutions were unanimously adopted.\nThe department then adjourned.\nNote. — The Department of Business Education this year enjoys two noteworthy\ndistinctions; viz., the largest attendance since the organization of the department, and the\ncomplete rendering of the program as published.\nJames S. Curry, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE\nH.\n\nB.\n\nBROWN,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nGENIUS\nOF\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nVALPARAISO\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nVALPARAISO,\n\nIND.\n\nAs a part of the great National Education Association we are met not\nmerely for social purposes, tho this means much, but as a body of thinking\nmen and women to discuss important questions which should be for the\nbetterment not only of business education, but to advance the cause of general\neducation as well. This department has to do with the working out of the\nprinciples of a general education; or in other words, the apphcation of knowledge in such a way as to bring about satisfactory results. Without a knowl-\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nGENIUS\n\nOF\n\nBUSINESS\n\n873\n\nedge of how to apply an education it is almost without value. A business\neducation then consists not only of a knowledge of accounts, mathematics,\nscience, literature, but also of the power to give direction how best to use\nthe knowledge derived from these sources.\nLooking at it from this standpoint the Department of Business Education\noccupies no mean place among the departments of this great educational\ngathering. The department is to be congratulated on the work already done.\nIt has not only advanced the cause of business education in the past, but it\nhas had the good sense to foresee the needs of the future. The high ideals set\nforth in the early history of this department have enabled its founders to meet\nthe changing conditions of the business world.\nNot many years ago it was thought that a general education was not necessary. Whatever the notion may have been the schools of commerce in the\npublic schools and universities, as well as the private commercial colleges, now\nrealize the necessity of careful academic training as a prerequisite to a satisfactory business career. This idea has taken such a hold upon the public\ngenerally that now the business men who did not have the advantage of a highschool or college training (or having had the advantage did not avail themselves\nof it) are so impressed with the idea of its necessity that many of them are\nentering our schools and colleges and taking regular courses of study. Others\nemploy private instructors. There are very few men who are not aroused to\nthe value of college training.\nThe time has come when everyone must know for himself, and it is the\nbusiness of the commercial schools not only to train young people for routine\nwork, but to train them so that they may be able to direct any business enterprise no matter of what magnitude.\nBusiness men, however, do not undervalue the practical part of their work.\nThey are already knocking at the doors of the schools of commerce for many\nother departments, as is shown by the lecture system in our large cities. But\nthe schools are alert and I am sure will forestall every need that may arise.\nThis department has always advocated a high standard of work. I congratulate ion\nt the progress it has made and the value it has been to the advancement of the commercial interests of the country.\nFor the few moments taken in opening this session I shall confine myself\nto what may be considered an abstract subject; nevertheless it is thoroly\npractical — The Genius of Business.\nWhat is genius ? As we understand it, genius is not the power of one mind\nover another, it is not the power to do things that have already been done, but\nit is, in reality originaHty — the power to think things that had never been\nthought of before and to do things that have never been done before, and in a\nbetter way than they have ever been done before — the ability to take the\ninitiative. Many are followers, but few are leaders. There are plenty of\nmen who can do very well if they have some one at hand to stimulate and\nencourage them, but who lose heart unless some stronger personality is\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nnear to brace them up, reassure them, give them advice. Such people ever\nlook without and not within. They use another's power, not their own.\nThey do not think for themselves. The old adage, ''He who will not work\nshall not eat,\" should read, ''He who will not think shall not work.\" Any\none by practice may possibly improve a work already done, but this does\nnot indicate genius; it is merely following a well-beaten road. Genius makes\nthe way. Nor must it be thought that genius is the application of some mysterious gift by means of which a thing may be accomplished without effort; it\nis not a sleight-of-hand performance nor is it simply an accident. Men of\ngenius have always kept in view the injunction \"He that loses his hfe shall\nsave it.\"\nI think it was Newton who, in reply to the whimsical utterances of some\nof his contemporaries who thought that he had peculiar power or skill by\nwhich he accomplished certain things, said, \"If I have done anything worthy\nof notice or of service to the world it has been owing more to industry and\npatience of thought than to any extraordinary sagacity. In developing any\nnew theory I kept the subject constantly before me and waited until the first\ndawnings opened slowly, little by litde, into the full clear Hght.\" In other\nwords, his great lessons to the world were the result of constant, unremitting\nlabor, diligence — unwearied diligence; and not only Newton, but other great\ngeniuses, such as Herschel, Demosthenes, Plato, Horace, Edison, and hosts\nof others were the\" most untiring workers of their times.\nThe Scripture admonishes us through David in the same way: \"Great are\nthe works of the Lord, sought out of all men who have pleasure in them,\" but!\nthey must be sought out. One day after having completed a certain work a]\nyoung man approached a sage with the question \"Don't you think I am a\ngenius?\" and he received the following very pertinent reply:\nHas your diligence been greater as the difficulties which you met increased, like\nHerschel ? Have you been content to advance in knowledge, little by little, like Newton\nHave you pined and lost relish for all other objects when you have lost communion with'\nyour books, like Petrarch ? Has not a single day passed without a line devoted to your\nlabors, like Apelles?\nHave you kept your composition nine years under your eye, as'\nadvised by Horace, and all that time, by day and by night, examined the writings of those\nwho have lived before you ? Have you labored to conquer physical defects and struggled,\nas it were, against nature, like Demosthenes?\nHave you become so interested in your\nundertaking that you would forget to eat or sleep, like Edison ? Have you always done\nmore than you were paid for doing ? Have you been so loyal to your employer that you\nwould sacrifice an opportunity for your own promotion that his might be advanced ?\nHave you used your every power and then waited year after year, patiently and honestly\nfor results ? If so, then you are a genius.\nIf you have been unwilling to do like things^\nif you have been a murmurer and a complainer, you have been a failure and the writer of\nthe following evidently had you in mind many centuries ago when he wrote this:\nWith much ado, his book before him laid,\nAnd parchment with the smoother side displayed;\nHe takes the papers; lays 'em down again;\nAnd, with unwilling fingers, tries the pen:\nSome peevish quarrel straight he strives to pick;\nHis quill writes double, or his ink's too thick;\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nGENIUS\n\nOF\n\nBUSINESS\n\n875\n\nInfuse more water; now 'tis grown so thin,\nIt sinks, nor can the character be seen.\nO wretch, and still more wretched every day!\nAre mortals born to sleep their lives away ?\n\nGenius has not a peculiar cell in the mind which in some mysterious way is\nunlocked, letting in new light; rather, it opens the way patiently and laboriously until after a while the light may be seen and a new world discovered.\nGenius shows itself in so many ways. He who plans a more beautiful landscape than has ever before met the eye is a genius in a humble degree; but\nhe who plans and executes a stately edifice in which symmetry and utility are\nmore practically united in all the parts, both exterior and interior, than mankind has ever yet beheld is a genius of a high order. In other words, he who\ndoes anything better, more enduring, more useful than it has ever been done\nbefore is a genius. It is not a gift; it has its own price which is work —\npatient, eternal work. I have been trying to show that genius is the highest\nform of concentrated effort; that it is nothing more than painstaking, persistent work, ''one-tenth inspiration and nine-tenths perspiration, \" as someone\nhas said.\nBy possessing the spirit of true genius (which is hard work) man may\naccomplish whatever he wills, because he possesses the power which originates,\nthe power which gives him faith in himself, the power to see the future; and\nthough ofttimes the days may be so dark that he cannot see his way, yet,\nhaving experienced the results of genius, he does not falter. And as each\nsucceeding day he has the added power of all the days gone by and though now\nhis work might be accomplished with less effort, still he knows that he must\nput forth even greater energy and grow stronger and overcome all difficulties\nin order that he may realize his loftiest dreams.\nSuch a man murmurs not. He does not exploit his work, but he lets it\nspeak for itself. This man is honest with himself and honest with his friends.\nHe is valuable not only to himself but to those about him, and many of the\nshortcomings of others are silently carried by him. He accepts his full share\nof the burden of the community in which he lives. He builds up but does not\ntear down. He sees beauty and goodness in all places, in God and in humanity.\nThe life of such a man is not alone a useful life, it is a beautiful life as well.\nWhy have I written this ? Lest those of us who are intrusted with the\nbusiness education of the youth of our land, who confide in us, who believe in\nus, forget in this age of frenzied finance that the way of success still Hes along\nthe old beaten highway of work. Lest we forget that man's fortune lies in his\nown brain and character, and thsitfate is inside and not outside the young man\nwho enters the field of struggle, and that it is our business to teach him to\ndepend upon himself, upon his own inherent powers cultivated as he may\ncultivate them; that he should not be deceived by the exterior sign's and symbols\nof the career of the man who has made his way and found his place among his\nfellows, but rather by what the man has really done. Money obtained as\nthe result of the application of the man^s brain^to his work and the uses of the\n\nft\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nman's opportunities by a man's character, is a substantial and honorable\nevidence of inward power; and behind every fortune worthily made, behind\nevery kind of work effectively and honorably done, there is an immense moral\nelement from which it can no more be separated than fruit can be grown apart\nfrom the tree which produces it. Lest we forget that we should use our utmost\npower to prevent the maddened rush for ill-gotten gain and check, as far as\npossible, the onward growth of this spirit and keep our youth in the paths of\nhonesty, integrity, purity, and loyalty. Lest we forget that our country, if it\nshall stand, must be built upon a strong foundation of truth and justice, and\nthat this foundation must be supported by brave young people whose lives\nare too pure to be turned aside from duty, who realize that to accomplish a\ngreat work they must be free, and to be free they must be honest without and\nwithin.\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE:\nITS SUBJECTS,\nTHEIR PRACTICAL AND EDUCATIONAL VALUE\n\nIRVING\n\nR. GARBUTT,\n\nDIRECTOR OF COMMERCIAL\nSCHOOL,\nCLEVELAND,\n\nDEPARTMENT,\nO.\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nAn education is a development by culture and experience of that which\nis in the individual, to the end that his best destiny may be accomplished.\nClassical, literary, industrial, and scientific are terms generally understood as applied to the ordinary plans of education ; but just what is meant by\ncommercial education or \"business education\" is not clear even to the average\nschoolman, to say nothing of the general pubHc. If they have an idea at all\nit is generally very narrow and limited to a knowledge of two or three subjects,\ni. e., bookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting, with penmanship, perhaps,\nthrown in on the side.\nBut school people in particular and the business public in general are\nbeginning to awake to the fact that a commercial education means far more\nthan the teaching of bare commercial subjects. They have learned that commercial needs demand a larger and better adaption of education; that it\nmeans that form of general education which prepares young people to serve\nintelligent apprenticeships in business pursuits. They have learned that, to\ninsure the success of the large and increasingly larger army engaged in\nindustry and commerce, they must have a broader view of things in general\nand a training which will make them at once more intelligent and efficient.\nBusiness at the present day is a new occupation and requires a broad\ntraining, more extensive and thoro than was necessary under former conditions. Positions of responsibility require intelligence, with rapid thought,\nsound judgment and accurate conclusions — powers that education alone can\ngive. Production, manufacturing, transportation, the organization of any\ngreat industry — all these offer a field of great practical utility, and those who\nundertake to handle these great problems will succeed or fail as they are\nable to analyze these situations and meet their demandsfactorily.\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSE\n\n877\n\nThe school cannot create the tendencies of the age, and therefore will\ndo wisely to adapt itself to them; safety lies in rightly interpreting the past\nand planning for the future.\nThe wars of the future are to Ije wars of competition, their commanders\ngreat captains of industry, and the victories of the twentieth century are to be\neconomic victories, and they will rest with the people that can best utilize the\nagencies of modern, industrial and commercial life. If we are to win in this\nnew warfare we must equip those who enter the great strife of commerce and\nindustry with the ingenuity to invent, the skill to adapt, the leadership to\norganize, and the intelligence to extend.\nThe great crying need of business today is absolute integrity and the best\nprotection against business dishonesty is for the business man to know how\nto secure an honest gain. Men in business need a training that will enable\nthem to see in their business more than the profit or the giving or taking advantage. The school should impart by atmosphere and example these great\nbusiness essentials and its ultimate aim should be to educate to make a man.\nGranting then that special training for business is necessary and possible,\nwhere should it begin, how long should it be continued, g,nd what studies\nshould be included in the list to be pursued ?\nIn order that the public-school system may do the greatest good to the\ngreatest number it is advisable to begin this training as early as is consistent\nin the grammar grades, the seventh or eighth at the latest. I do not mean\nthat a separate course should be given in these grades for this work but that\nthe work of the grades should be such that on its completion the boys and\ngirls will have a working-knowledge of things pertaining to business. Some\nof the reading should be on commercial matter of general information; the\narithmetic taught should mean more than to get the answer in the book, or\nthat 6 per cent, a year is one-half of i per cent, a month: it should have some\nbearing on the practical problems of everyday life and the child should be\nmade to realize and understand that is what he is studying it for, not merely\nto add, subtract, multiply, and divide correctly.\nThe geography presented should not be limited to the position of countries\non the globe, their cities, lakes and rivers but should include the reason why\nthe great cities are located where they are; what has caused their growth and\nmaterial importance; the value and importance of the lakes and rivers as\nas their position should be\nof commerce and transportation as well\nhighways\n.\nI\nshown\n\nThe history should reveal not so much of war and disaster but the early\nbeginnings of agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce and how the early\nbeginnings have developed and grown to be the world wonder of today.\nThe foundation principles of keeping accounts should be taught here so\nthat those who are so unfortunate as not to be able to continue further than\nthe grammar school may have the ability at least to keep their own accounts.\n\no. ..............\n\n........\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Busfaew.\n\nStudy so arranged that they may pursue both cultural and special commercial\nsubjects in such a way that a broad, liberal education may be acquired,\ntogether with a practical knowledge of the technical subjects pertaining to\nbusiness, commerce and industry. This course should be placed on an\nequal basis with the other courses and should continue, at least, four years.\nThe foundation subject of this course should be English, real English. In\nthe earlier years it should include composition- writing with attention to spelling,\nsentence and paragraph structure, short essays on famihar subjects and an\nintroduction to the history of American literature. Every exercise, every\nsubject and recitation should be made an English recitation until accurate\nexpression becomes easy and habitual. Good form and correct expression\nmust be one's constant resource for daily and hourly use; because fluent,\nnatural expression, either in oral or written discourse, is most effective. The\nbusiness world does not need great orators but it does need those who can\ntalk — and talk sensibly and convincingly — on a given matter. Letter- writing,\nas to form and subject-matter, should be studied and practiced until correct\nform and ease of expression are acquired. English, therefore, should be\nstudied thruout the course of four years.\nAt least one other modem language should be studied besides English, and\nthe language to be chosen in framing the course must depend largely on the\nlocality because of its local commercial value and use. In New England, for\nexample, I should say French; in Cleveland, German, and some other locality,\nperhaps, Spanish; the language once begun should be carried long enough to\nmake its cultural value felt.\nWhat has been said regarding the study of history in the grammar grades\nwill apply equally well in the high-school course, especially in English and\nUnited States history.\nMathematics should form an important part of the training of this course\nbecause of the exactness of this science; accuracy in all things is absolutely\nessential, not only from a bookkeeping standpoint but from a success-in-business\nstandpoint as well. The mathematics should include algebra for its developing\nof the reasoning powers; arithmetic with its commercial applications especially\nemphasized (to which I shall refer later), and plane geometry as a training\nin logical reasoning, with special emphasis given to principle of measurements.\nFrequent drills on short methods and rigid mental exercises should be of\ndaily occurrence. These latter can be made of great practical value as well\nas an important factor in the developing educational process.\nCommercial law should have a prominent place in this course, not with\nthe idea of making lawyers of those who pursue it, but that a knowledge of\nthe many papers used in every-day business may be acquired; not only their\nforms but their legal status should be emphasized because by attention to\naccuracy in form and relation to the little matters of detail in business larger\nand more complicated difficulties may be avoided.\nThe new science of commercial geography should also be included because\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSE\n\n879\n\nof its great possibilities for a broad culture as well as a practical workingknowledge of the commodities and conditions which have made this country\ntoday the greatest agricultural, manufacturing, commercial and industrial\nnation on earth. Production, transportation, manufacturing, mining, forestry,\nand farming offer a wonderful field for individual research. As classwork,\nreports and papers on the many phases of these great industries by the students\nbefore the class afford an opportunity for a training and culture that can be\nacquired in almost no other way. Here is the teacher's great opportunity\nbecause in no other subject is it possible to show so clearly man's dependence\non mother earth for his daily sustenance and the relation of one part of the\ncountry to other parts and the whole to other nations.\nCivics and economics should be studied so that the student may know and\nunderstand local municipal organization as well as the workings of the general\ngovernment; with this knowledge he will understand and realize his individual\nduty and responsibility to the whole and thereby become a better citizen.\nIt now remains to consider the technical studies which aim at its application.\nIn the secondary school, bookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting are\nthe subjects to be considered. I have read and have heard it stated that\nthese and similar subjects have no cultural or real educational value; and\nit is more to be regretted that these statements sometimes come from those\nwho are engaged in educational pursuits; it is unfortunate for them because\nit goes to show the lack of an appreciation and breadth of the knowledge and\nculture they are supposed to possess.\nIf any subject is studied solely with the thought of the material gain which\nit will produce in the future there is little culture in it that is worth while,\nbut, on the other hand, if the poorest subject is studied with the idea of getting\nat the foundation principles upon which it is based, and their application to\none's future life and conduct, there is bound to be a culture derived which\nhonest effort and application in study always produces.\nIn the first year the principles of bookkeeping should be thoroughly\npresented .by the teacher and, by oral recitation and written class work, be as\nthoroughly mastered by the pupil. The old method of giving a boy a textbook with a few rules of debit and credit and some printed forms and outlines to follow and then leaving him alone to sink or swim in this, to him, new\nscience sea, according to the determination he has or, in some instances, amount\nof tuition he has paid in advance, has done much toward putting this admirable\nscience into pedogogical disrepute. There is no reason why this subject should\nnot be, and every reason why it should be, presented to a class as a whole,\nand that all in the class should study and recite on the same lesson each and\nevery day.\nTo my mind this is one of the most important pedagogical points in teaching this subject; the method of letting each student work along by himself\nis pedagogic ally bad because the principles involved in each transaction are\nnot brought out and made clear, the inspiration, help and interest always\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nJS/ATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Bi\n\nderived from a well-directed class-recitation is lacking; the slow student\nbecomes slower and, as the work gets harder and more complicated, becomes\ndiscouraged, quits and drops out, while his brighter classmate works out the\nsets in a mechanical way without knowing much of the why he does it.\nOn the other hand, if a lesson is assigned to the class as a whole and at\nthe next recitation the pupils are called upon to give an oral recitation,\nbringing out the principles and their application to the matter involved and\nthe teacher giving such explanation, help and direction as is necessary, I know\nthat the class will then be able to write out the work more intelligently. The\nslow pupil will soon forget he is slow by seeing that he is up with the class\nand the bright pupil's work will be more satisfactorily done.\nIn the second year sets of special application involving special columns\nmay be introduced and worked out in the same way, and as the bookkeeping\ntransactions become more complicated, and the arithmetical calculations\nmore difficult, the two subjects should be taught as one, first, because of their\nclose relation to each other, and second, because the pupil will understand the\napplication of the one to the other if they are put together. To illustrate:\nA bill of merchandise is bought on terms of 3-T0, «-6o; the purchaser\nwishing to take advantage of the discount offered has his note discounted at\nthe bank for such an amount that the proceeds will pay the bill less the discount. Anyone familiar with these subjects will see at once that trade discount, bank discount, and the general principles of percentage are here\ninvolved. The pupil will see more clearly the relation the arithmetical part\nbears to the bookkeeping part and that the latter will not amount to much\nunless the former is absolutely correct.\nAt the beginning of the third year, after the pupils are well started in\nthe course and a good English foundation laid for it, shorthand and typewriting should be presented. I believe at this point an elective should be\noffered, e. g., it should be so arranged that, if a boy desires, he could take\nmanual or industrial training instead of shorthand because many are naturally\nso inclined and as such training would have a greater bearing on the work\nwhich he is to pursue. The subject that is chosen should be continued\nthrough the rest of the course, that is the last two years.\nAs shorthand is essentially a new language, or an old language written\nin a new way, the cultural value of this subject is broad because the very\nessence of sounds and structure must be gone into; and in its successful\napplication an absolute knowledge of phrasing, paragraphing, punctuation\nand spelling must be acquired. The business man is wiUing to pay the\nlargest salary to the stenographer who can cover up his multitude of rhetorical\nsins by putting his ideas into good form and correct English for him.\nIn the fourth year time and attention should be given to office practice\nand the application of bookkeeping to a variety of kinds of business; not that\nwe should attempt or pretend to teach \"actual business practice\" because\nthat would be absurd, but that the pupil may have an opportunity to apply\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nSHORTHAND\n\n88l\n\nthe principles he has learned to the needs of the many kinds of business and\nto illustrate, as nearly as possible, how it is done in the actual business world.\nThis course should be at once a preparatory and finishing course, broad enough\nand practical enough so that those who complete it creditably may enter the\nbusiness world or go on to higher institutions of learning for the continuance\nof a similar course.\nI believe if this or a similar course is well pursued under the direction of\nwell-trained, broad-minded instructors it will give at once a broad culture and\na practical training of lasting value, and I trust that the time is not far distant\nwhen all colleges will recognize the merits of such a course and will accept\nthe credits or points given it and will, on proper certification by principals\nof high schools, accept those who have finished it successfully to courses of a\nsimilar character. I am sure if this is done that a larger percentage of the\nhigh-school graduates will enter colleges, that the present courses will not\nbe impaired and that a broader field of usefulness will be the result.\nTHE\nSELBY\n\nTEACHING\n\nA. MORAN,\n\nOF SHORTHAND\n\nINSTRUCTOR\nIN SHORTHAND,\nANN ARBOR, MICH.\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nProper methods of teaching shorthand depend largely upon the preparation\nof the teacher and the proper conception of his duty. Without these the teacher\ncannot discern between good and bad methods. Even if good methods are\nexplained to him, he will not be able to make intelligent use of them. I shall,\ntherefore, speak first of the preparation of the teacher, because the proper\npreparation means the intelligent application of proper methods. I shall also\ndiscuss several features which are often ignored in the treatment of this important subject.\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nPROPER\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF THE TEACHER\n\na) The most, tho not the only, important thing is good, general education. During recent years the one thing that has worked the greatest discredit\nto shorthand is the lack of a good, general education of the teachers, an education that would place the instructor on the same plane with teachers of other\nbranches, which would enable him to understand what is good and what is\nbad in the system taught; what are good and what are bad methods of teaching; and especially to know that there is a difference in methods. Fortunately the tide is turning. It is not unusual, however, even today to find,\nin large and well equipped schools, teachers of shorthand who have only the\ntraining obtained in some small high school or a few months' course in some\ncommercial school. Often such teachers have made up for their deficient\neducation by outside study and by wide experience, and have become capable\nand successful instructors. Such successful teachers are the exception. It\nis natural, therefore, that high-school men should hesitate about placing in\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLBusiness\n\ncharge of their shorthand department teachers deficient in general education.\nb) The teacher should have, in addition, a thoro knowledge of some\ngood system of shorthand. By \"thoro\" I mean all for which that word\ncan possibly stand. He should know its principles and their proper application so completely that every question may be answered instantly and correctly. He should also have a good general knowledge of all the leading\nsystems of shorthand and be able to make intelligent comparisons between\nthem. He should be able forcefully to present every possible argument in\nfavor of the system he uses. Otherwise he will be sure, at times, to be placed\nin an embarrassing position.\nc) He should thoroly understand the historical development of his\nsystem. He cannot appreciate its merits and its present state of perfection\nif he does not understand the various stages of its development. Such knowledge is the foundation for a thorough understanding of any system of shorthand. Idesire to say in this connection that no system of shorthand can be\nsaid to be perfected and sure of an enduring existence, and therefore worthy of\ngeneral adoption, which has not successfully stood the crucial test of at least\na generation br more of general use and has shown itself capable of producing\nmany high-grade reporters. All the really good and enduring things are of\nslow growth.\nd) The successful teacher must have more than ordinary skill in explaining\nthe principles. He should be able to make them so clear that even the dullest\nstudent cannot misunderstand them. He should thoroly understand that\nin shorthand, unlike other studies, the principles of outline formation must be\nso firmly grounded that instantly, and while under great stress the student can\ndecide correctly upon the proper outhnes for difficult words and not be confused byoutlines which he has never written before.\ne) He should have at least some practical experience. He cannot possibly\nunderstand or appreciate the many little practical things about which he must\nadvise his students unless he himself has done shorthand work.\n/; The shorthand teacher must develop, if he does not possess, a sympathetic\nnature. The learning of shorthand requires an unusual amount of patience\nand a great deal of monotonous practice. Unless the average pupil feels\nconstantly that he has the teacher's hearty sympathy, he will become discouraged and very likely give up.\ng) The teacher should understand much of ordinary student nature that\nhe may readily percef^e the strong points as well as the weaknesses of each.\nHe should know how to appeal directly to each one that he may inspire him\nto put forth his best efforts. Without a painstaking study of each student in\norder to discover what personal help and encouragement each should receive,\nhe cannot possibly obtain the best results. This is more true of shorthand than\nof any other study, because the successful reporter must have more thoro\nand painstaking training and drill, along both mental and physical lines, than\nin any other branch of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\nII.\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nORDER\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nMETHOD\n\nSHORTHAND\nOF\n\n883\n\nPRESENTATION\n\na) The proper sequence in the introduction of the principles is especially\nimportant. The teacher should be able to appreciate the standpoint of the\nstudent; that he is ignorant of even the most elementary principles. He should\nintroduce new principles in the order of their increasing complexity. As far\nas practical, related principles should be grouped. It is a mistake for a teacher\nof Pitmanic shorthand, for example, to introduce the halving principle, one\nof the most difficult in the system, at almost the very beginning of the\nstudy.\nb) He should utilize as many as possible of the five senses. First explain\neach lesson thoroly; then have the pupil study the principles from the textbook; then write and re-write many times a large number of words and\nphrases illustrating each principle. He will thus utilize at least three senses.\nThe impression thus gained will be increased geometrically, that is, it will be,\nnot three times, but six times more firmly fixed than if he had only heard it,\nor merely read it, or had tried to learn the principle by writing only. This\nwould eliminate almost entirely the danger of acquiring bad habits which so\ngreatly ,handicap many reporters.\nc) When best to begin practice for speed is important. Careful study of\nthe development of the working of the mind and best methods of acquiring\nphysical dexterity will demonstrate that the best method is to study only a\nsingle principle at a time, this to be followed by an abundance of practice\ninvolving the use of that principle. Each exercise should be written many\ntimes or until the beginner is able to write it readily and accurately at a rate\nof 100 words or more per minute. This method permanently fixes each\nprinciple in mind and gives the student a great deal of speed practice. There\nis decided economy in this method.\nd) Material for practice is rarely given enough attention. Recently I\nvisited two shorthand classes. One teacher was using for his beginning class\nin speed practice a copy of McGuffey's First Reader. The matter was necessarily simple and especially well adapted to beginners. The students wrote it\nreadily and translated promptly and accurately. The students were encouraged because they could see that they were accomplishing something. In the\nother class, the teacher was dictating to a class of beginners from a translatipn\nof Homer. The struggles of the pupils to devise outlines for the many new\nand strange words and their fruitless endeavors to translate their notes were\npitiful.\ne) Fitting shorthand to the English language deserves attention. To\nillustrate: in phrasing, the word *'the,\" which always relates, grammatically,\nto the following word, is almost invariably joined to the preceding word.\nThere is no good reason for this. No time is saved and legibility is diminished\nby all such violations of grammatical phraseology. Proper recognition of the\nphilological relation of the different parts of words, and the grammatical\nrelation of words to each other, would bring about a great deal of improvement\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nin shorthand without sacrificing a single necessary principle of speed or legibility. This objection is common to all systems.\nf) Imaginary \"short cuts\" should be discarded. A single illustration\nwill suffice. A dot may be written much more quickly than a disjoined stroke\nlike that for the ending \" -ing.\" It is, therefore, concluded that the \" -ing \" dot\nis the quicker, hence nearly all teachers and Pitmanic textbooks recommend\nthe dot whenever \"-ing\" is final in a word. A careful test will prove that the\njoined \"-ing\" in the word \"coming\" can be written from to to 20 per cent,\nmore quickly than by using the disjoined dot. The explanation is simple.\nThe lifting of the pen requires more time than the writing of either the stroke\nor the dot. Many similar objectionable features might be eliminated from\nevery system of shorthand.\ng) The number of words and phrases for which contracted outlines may\nbe used to advantage and the method of teaching the word and phrase signs\nshould have careful attention. A wide difference of opinion exists in regard\nto these matters. An abbreviated outline for a word or phrase becomes a real\nhindrance to speed unless it is one which occurs with sufficient frequency to\nenable the average stenographer to recall instantly the proper contraction.\nOne which does not occur with sufficient frequency to enable the stenographer\nto recall the contraction without the least hesitation will cause a loss of more\ntime trying to recall it than it would take to write the entire outline several\ntimes. I believe Benn Pitman has the best judgment as to what words and\nphrases may best be represented by contractions. He gives considerably less\nthan a thousand such signs. The good teacher will be conservative in this\nmatter and not attempt to have his students learn long lists of abbreviations\nmany of which will be a real hindrance rather than a help.\nThe best method of learning the word signs is to introduce a very few in each\nlesson, those being selected which are based upon the principle being studied.\nThe student should fix these in mind by writing them over and over again in\nnatural sentences illustrating the use of the principle given in the lesson.\nh) The teacher should recognize human limitations. Many teachers\nexpect too much from students. They do not understand the average student's\nlimited natural endowments, as well as lack of adequate preparation, and failure\nto receive any help in the home.\nm.\n\nMAINTAINING\n\nTHE\n\nINTEREST\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDENT\n\nThe average teacher of shorthand neglects this very important part of his\nwork. The peculiar nature of shorthand makes very important the work of\nmaintaining the continuous interest of the student until the end is reached.\nThe following are some of the methods which may be utilized:\na) Frequently relating interesting stories of what has been accomplished\nby young men or women who have mastered the art. A teacher can readily\nrecall numerous instances in which some ordinary young man or woman has\nstuck to his shorthand through all kinds of discouragements and has in the end\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nSHORTHAND\n\n885\n\nmade a brilliant success. Current history is full of interesting stories of this\nkind and the proper telling of them will prove a powerful incentive to students.\nh) Do not emphasize too strongly criticisms of pupils' errors. Do not\noverlook errors, but give more attention to and say more in commendation of\nwhat the student has done correctly. If the student is judiciously praised for\neverything that he writes correctly, the little that may be necessary to say about\nhis errors is not likely to discourage him.\nc) Appealing to one's pride has a powerful influence over the average\nstudent. The same idea may be applied by making the student feel ashamed\nto fall behind and give up while his classmates are going ahead successfully.\nd) Offering prizes is another method by which the interest of the pupil\nmay be maintained. Usually offering a very simple prize has a marked effect.\nIt is often possible by this means to induce a student to do twice as much work.\nIV.\n\nHOW\n\nBEST\n\nTO\n\nDEVELOP\n\nSPEED\n\nThe old saw, \"practice makes perfect\" is altogether too general and too\nmeaningless a term. How to practice, what to practice upon, when to begin\nspeed practice, how long to practice at a time, and whether to write the same\nmatter over and over again or whether to write new matter continually, are\nquestions deserving the attention of every teacher.\na) How to practice. Practice work should be just as nearly as possible\nlike actual work. Always practice from dictation. The wise teacher insists\nthat his pupils write all their exercises from hearing the words spoken that\nthe ear may be trained to hear every word distinctly and the mind trained to\nformulate the proper outlines as the words are heard and instantly to form\npictures of them for the hand to copy. These operations should be developed\nsimultaneously that each may be carried on at the same time at high speed.\nThis can be accomplished only by writing what one hears and not by copying.\nThe student who cannot have somebody dictate to him should always speak\neach word aloud as he writes it. He will, by so doing, become a better\nreporter.\nh) While learning a principle, practice matter should consist of simple\nsentences containing many words involving the application of that principle.\nThese should be given to the student in great abundance and written over and\nover again. General speed practice should never be undertaken until after\nthe principles have all been thoroly learned and carefully reviewed. Material which will enable one to develop a voluminous shorthand vocabulary\nshould be used at first. Following this, material as nearly as possible Hke the\nmatter the student will have to write in an ofi&ce should be selected. The\nlarge majority of shorthand students become amanuenses in business and\nprofessional offices and their work is principally letter writing. Therefore\nletter writing is the most suitable material for practice work. Better still if\nthe student is given actual business letters for practice. Some teachers of\nshorthand make it a part of their business as teachers to handle the correspond-\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nence of some business firm for this especial purpose. The student will derive\nmore benefit from writing a hundred such letters than from writing a thousand\nletters which he knows will go into the waste basket.\nc) When to begin speed practice. It should begin with the very first\nlesson. The first exercise should consist of words involving only the use of\nthe principles introduced. The student should first learn how to write such\nwords correctly and then write them at dictation many hundreds of times.\nThere are three distinct advantages in this:\n(i) It is the best way firmly to fix the principle in mind.\n(2) It thoroly overcomes the student's tendency to form the habit of\ndrawing his characters.\n(3) It develops speed at the start.\nThe student who does this from the beginning always finds that the time\nnecessary to acquire a working speed is reduced about seventy-five per\ncent.\nd) It is far better to write an article many hundreds of times or until it\ncan be written with absolute accuracy and neatly at a high rate of speed than\nto write hundreds of articles each one time. The explanation of this is simple.\nIn writing new matter one is continually hesitating while he formulates\noutHnes for unfamiliar words. This acts as a distinct clog to the necessary\nharmonious development of the ability to receive a continuous volume of\nwords, to formulate proper ou dines for each one, to produce a mental\npicture of each, and to record that picture on paper. The only way that\nthese various processes can be uniformly developed and the faculties trained\nto work in perfect harmony and rapidly is to do work under such conditions\nthat there will be nothing to interfere in the operation of any of them, and to\ndo it over and over again.\nV.\n\nTHE\n\nACQUISITION\n\nOF A LARGE\n\nSHORTHAND\n\nVOCABULARY\n\na) Its importance cannot be overestimated. The more extended the student's\nknowledge of shorthand outlines and familiarity with the use of them, the more\nreadily will he be able to do all kinds of reporting work and the more rapid\nwill be his advancement. The teacher should thoroly understand this and\nsee that the student have at the proper time such exercises for practice as\nwill increase his vocabulary of shorthand outlines as much as possible. Usually the better plan is to make selections for practice for this particular purpose\nfrom a great variety of dictation material — scientific, historical, legal, medical,\ncommercial, etc. The student should practice on such articles slowly at\nfirst, until he is capable of writing them correctly and rapidly.\nh) Such practice is especially valuable as it increases one's shorthand\npower in every way. It develops ability to decide instantly and without a\nmoment's hesitation upon outHnes for new words.\nc) Such practice also increases the student's translating power and as such\nit is especially valuable.\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nVI.\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHING\nTHE\n\nPUPIL\n\nOF\nTO\n\nSHORTHAND\n\nREAD\n\nSHORTHAND\n\n887\n\nRAPIDLY\n\nMore students fail in shorthand because of inability to read their notes\nrapidly, or at all, than from all other causes. This may be accounted for in\nseveral ways.\na) Lack of knowledge of words is one of the chief causes. The limited\nEnglish vocabulary of most young people is something appalling. If the\nstenographer does not understand the meaning of a word the chances are\nthat he will not hear the word correctly or not write the proper outline for it.\nh) Inability to get it all down. This is due to lack of sufficient speed\npractice. The only remedy is for the teacher to insist that the pupil be kept\nat speed practice ujitil he is able fully to meet necessary requirements.\nc) Failure to apply the principles correctly. One of the greatest troubles\nthe average teacher of shorthand has to contend with is the failure of pupils\nto apply principles correctly. They do not realize that in actual reporting\nthey will make the same errors. Unless the teacher insists constantly that all\nstudents be painstaking and accurate, serious trouble is sure to follow.\nd) Another important source of trouble in translating is failure to make\nuse of the context. Exercises especially prepared to give the student drill in\nthe use of the context should be used freely. The pupil's attention should\nbe frequently called to the benefit which may be derived by constantly considering the relation of the words to the thought which is being expressed.\ne) Ability of the student to concentrate his mind upon his work. Failure\nto do so means poor writing. Poor translations are sure to follow. To overcome mind- wandering is an important part of the work of shorthand teachers.\nf) Few teachers give sufficient practice in reading shorthand notes. Most\nteachers seem to think that the all important thing is to \"get it all down.'*\nThe idea prevails quite generally that if a person can write a thing, he can\nread it. This does not follow at all in shorthand. The teacher should remember that it requires an entirely different mental process to recall the word from\na shorthand outUne from that required to recall the shoi;thand outhne\nupon hearing the word. One must have training in reading as well as in\nwriting. The one requires quite as much training as the other. The teacher\nshould see to it that the student make it a practice, and adhere to it rigidly,\nto read over at least once (twice would be a great deal better) every outline\nhe writes. The student who does this faithfully will read his shorthand notes\naccurately and quite as readily as he writes them. The teacher should make\nit a part of his daily work to overcome the inability of his students to read\ntheir notes. If he does so his pupils will accomplish a great deal more in a\ngiven time and will become far better stenographers.\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "SJ58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nTO WHAT EXTENT MAY A COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL\nTRAINING\nBE PROPERLY\nINCLUDED\nIN THE\nGRAMMAR-SCHOOL COURSE?\nH.\n\nM.\n\nROWE,\n\nAUTHOR\n\nAND\n\nPUBLISHER,\n\nBALTIMORE,\n\nMD.\n\nConsidering the crowded condition of the grammar-school curriculum,\nany discussion looking to still further additions to it might seem useless.\nTo those of us who believe in the doctrine that public schools should supply\nthat kind of instruction which is most helpful and of the largest practical\nuse to the greatest number, the situation does not seem so difi5cult, because\nwe have recourse to the privilege of selection and elimination. Most of us,\nI think, who believe in this doctrine feel that there miglit be some changes\nmade in our present curriculum without loss to anyone.\nThe finishing school for many. — The grammar school is the finishing\nschool for over 70 per cent, of those who have advanced beyond primary\ninstruction. Seven out of ten are not able to go on to secure the more advanced\ntraining of the high school. They have received just enough education\nto be something better than mere manualists in the world's work, but not\nenough to take advantage of the larger opportunities that will come to them.\nThe ideal education is the one that best prepares the boy or girl to meet\nthe conditions of his or her environment. The best education for this 70\nper cent, is utilitarian first, and cultural afterward, because the most pressing\nproblems of environment have to do with earning a respectable living, and\nwith the supplying of creature necessities and comforts.\nWorthy manhood and womanhood and good citizenship rest upon honorable self-support. It would be difficult to conceive of a seK-supporting member\nof society who is not to some extent a commercialist or an industrialist.\nThe rights of the majority. — It would seem that no argument is necessary,\nin view of what has been said, to justify our claim that more attention should\nbe given to those studies which will be useful for these seven out of ten. No\nmatter what our own opinions may be as to what should be included in the\ngrammar-school course, we must give heed to the pleadings of these young\npeople who say to us in effect, \"We are not able to go on to high school; we\nmust go to work. We want you to give us that training in the last years of our\nschool life which will best fit us to meet the problems and requirements of\nthe new life — the life of labor and of self-support upon which we are about\nto enter. This is our necessity. We want the state to do this for us so that\nwe can return to the state the largest measure of usefulness in being productive\nfactors in its support, and in securing for ourselves and those depending upon\nus the largest degree of comfort and of happiness and of contentment.\"\nThis, my friends, is the proposition that is before us. The rights of this\n70 per cent, who are hedged about by circumstances that limit their opportunities place upon us, as educators, a responsibiHty which, I am free to assert,\nhas not always been met in the spirit in which it should have been met.\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departitientl\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n889\n\nWe know that in the last two years of the grammar school we have only\nso many school days of so many hours, into which we can put only a certain\namount of work. This time is now fully occupied, so there must be some\ncutting out and paring dow.n to make room for that which we believe should\ngo in. I shall not attempt to point out what should be cut and pared. Opinions will differ as to that; but in any event it is a simple process of elimination\nand substitution.\nThis brings me to the main inquiry of my subject. To what extent may\ncommercial and industrial training be properly included in the grammarschool course ? I think it is a fair and sound general proposition to assert\nthat this training, if included at all, should be included to such an extent that\neach pupil will get a sufficient amount of the particular special training he\nneeds most to make it of practical value to him after he leaves school.\nEfficiency for the workers. — Labor is of two kinds — manual and intellectual.\nThere may be, and there usually is, a combination of these two, the manual\npredominating in some instances, the intellectual in others. The service of\nthe manualist becomes much more valuable to himself and to others if it\nis supplemented and directed by an inteUigent mind, whereas intellect\naccomplishes little unless it has the supple body and dexterous hand to give\nexpression to its activities. It is the combination of a well-trained mind\nand a well-trained body that promises the largest efficiency for the individual;\nand it is from those studies which will contribute most in the least time toward\nthis combination that we must draw for the benefits we have in view.\nCommercial and industrial are in many respects synonymous terms in the\nsense in which they are used in this connection, the latter referring specifically\nto manufacture — to creation; the former to marketing — to exchange. Taken\ntogether, they cover pretty much everything that pertains to doing things —\nwith head and hands; consequently commercial and industrial branches of\nlearning loom up with a tremendous importance for these young people in\nthe grammar schools who must get ready to do things with the only implements at their disposal — their heads and their hands.\nSubstitution not elimination. — Let us now consider some of the branches\nwhich we believe might be particularly helpful to those who must seek employment, and which might be substituted for some of the present branches without\nweakening the course or interfering seriously with the plans of those who\ndesire to go on to high school.\nManual training, which may be classed as an industrial branch, has\nalready become a fixture in most grammar-school courses, and it should be\ncontinued, especially in the direction of the manufacture of some of the more\nsubstantial and simpler forms of woodwork, and in the care and use of tools.\nFreehand and mechanical drawing have their place, and go hand in hand with\nthe manual training, cultivating proportion and the creative faculty. Regular\ncourse work should be carried in both for at least one year.\nLittle can be done in the way of preparation for any of the trades, although\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nit is to be regretted that manual-training work could not be carried at least\nfar enough to reveal to the pupil what his preference in the choice of a trade\nmight be. If it were possible to do this it would be of inestimable value to\nthe many young people who select a trade only to find later that they have\nmade a mistake in their choice.\nThe commercial group. — Of the commercial branches bookkeeping is the\nmost important. A course in bookkeeping, including business papers and\nforms, with training in their preparation and use, should extend over at least\none full half-year, with daily recitations. Commercial arithmetic should\nbe allotted for the other half of the year. These two may supplant the ordinary\ncourse of arithmetic in the last year without interfering with the pupil who\nis preparing for high school to any appreciable extent; in fact, I am convinced that it would strengthen him in his preparation, because it would give\nhim a considerable understanding of business and its methods, how it is transacted, the principles of exchange, and the instruments of commerce.\nBookkeeping involves arithmetic, and in a mathematical sense it is an\nexpression of a continuous equation; but it is much more than that, and I\nconsider that one-half year spent in a good course in elementary bookkeeping\nand business papers and forms, with the other half given to commercial arithmetic, would be an improvement over the usual eighth-year work in advanced\narithmetic and general review.\nApplied English. — Business letters and correspondence might profitably\nbe substituted for much of the composition work found in the last grammarschool year. This substitution offers an attractive diversion from the usual\ngrind and repetition in English, because it brings the pupil into relation with\nthose things with which he is more or less familiar from his contact with the\nbusiness life about him. This substitution I admit might detract slightly\nfrom the purely literary flavor of eighth-year English.\nSome explanation of a few of the important principles and forms of contracts, with some understanding of the parties thereto, their rights and obligations, some explanation of those business papers which set up contractual\nrelations between the parties, with especial attention given to the responsibility\nof indorsers to commercial paper, should be included.\nThe extent to which each branch may be considered has already been\npartly indicated in the time suggested. One-half year's instruction in bookkeeping will permit of a sufl&cient amount of work to fix pretty thoroly\nthe principles of debit and credit as applied in keeping personal accounts\nand the ordinary real and property accounts, with a very practical understanding ofbusiness forms, the making of deposits, the keeping of a bank\naccount, and the elementary details of business practice. The half-year's\nwork in commercial arithmetic can be made to cover very thoroly the\nsubjects of percentage, ratio and proportion, and practical measurements,\nwith drills in quick and accurate calculating, which enters so much into all\nsorts of business problems. The instruction in business letters and corres-\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "COLLEGE\n\nDepartment]\n\nEDUCATION\n891\n\npondence is really nothing more than giving a business expression to the\n•English work. It may be profitably interspersed throughout the regular\nwork for one year; and the work suggested in the elements of commercial\nlaw is sufficient, if carefully selected, to advise the pupil against foolish contracts and hasty agreements which he might otherwise enter into, to his future\nembarrassment and loss. His manual training and drawing, running through\none year, will teach him the use of his hands and of his mind in co-operation,\nand he will thus be much better equipped for almost any of the manual trades\nwhich he may later select as his calling.\nIt will be seen that the suggestions I have offered are not revolutionary in\ntheir effect upon the present grammar-school course. I believe a modified\ncourse would leave the pupil in a better position, considered from any point\nof view, either in his preparation for high school, or in his preparation as a\nwage earner, than the present course.\nI am fully aware that just as it was with the introduction of the commercial branches and the commercial course into high schools, so now there\nwill be antagonism and prejudice against even the limited introduction of the\ncommercial and industrial branches which I have suggested. I am fully\nconvinced that their introduction might be carried considerably further without any serious interference with the interests of the three students who want\nto go to high school, and with very great benefit to the seven who must go to\nwork. Like all educational movements, however, we must be satisfied with\na little at a time.\nIn conclusion, it is encouraging to state that already very important steps\nhave been taken in the direction suggested in this paper. Buffalo, Baltimore,\nDetroit, Cleveland, and many other cities and towns, have at least part of the\nbranches I have suggested covered in the advanced grades. In our own city\nof Baltimore increased benefits have accrued to between two and three thousand\nyoung people every year who have studied elementary bookkeeping; and the\nsame is true of Buffalo. I am confident that it is only a question of a short\ntime until substitutions such as I have suggested will become quite general,\nin keeping with the tendency of the times, to give due importance and consideration to everything that pertains to our commerce and our industries — those\ndepartments of our economic life which are more closely interwoven with the\nlives of the great mass of our people than any other.\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD\nBE DONE\nTO ENCOURAGE\nCOLLEGE\nEDUCATION BEYOND THE COMMERCIAL\nCOURSE IN HIGH SCHOOLS?\n\nPEMBERTON\n\nJ. TWIGGS,\n\nDIRECTOR\nCOMMERCIAL\nDEPARTMENT,\nSCHOOL,\nCLEVELAND,\nOHIO\n\nEAST\n\nHIGH\n\nJohn Mason Taylor says \"The object of education is fulness of life, health,\nvigor, joy, and efficiency.\" E. S. Martin, in the July Success magazine, says\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n\"The chief end of parents and schools is to train children in wisdom and\nknowledge, that they may be able to take care of themselves.\" If these men\nare right, as we believe they are, education should be as nearly universal as\npossible. We all desire fulness of Hfe, we know the value of good health.\nJoy is natural to the possessor of a healthy body, and there is a no more\npitiable picture than a really inefficient man or woman — one who cannot\nmake a living.\nThe fixed course of study which compels all students to pursue the same\nstudies, regardless of likes and dislikes, talent or no talent, life plan or no\nlife plan, has kept large numbers from obtaining an education.\nThe modem idea of fitting the educational plan to the individual instead\nof the individual to the educational plan will hold and educate the greater\nnumber. Ready-made clothes are cheaper, but they do not always fit. A\nfirst-class tailor can \"fit\" a very bad figure. This same principle applies to\neducation. Yet some educators seem inclined to make each individual fit a\ncertain machine.\nFrom this point of view I shall attempt to show that a graduate of the\ncommercial course of a high-grade high school should be admitted to college\non his certificate of graduation.\nIn our Cleveland schools he has had the same mathematics, practically\nthe same English and history; but takes commercial subjects instead of\nsciences and other languages. He is not allowed to elect a modem language.\nThe subjects he takes have a strong educational value. Why should not\nthey be substituted for other subjects? The commercial-course graduate\nwill hold his own in college if he is given an opportunity.\nThe average pupil, on entering high school, has not yet reached an age at\nwhich he is capable of deciding for himself what his future occupation shall\nbe. His parents frequently decide for him and place him in the course\nwhich will prepare him in the shortest time for self-support. Some of these\npupils \"find themselves\" while in high school and wish to attend college.\nThese should be credited for what they have done and allowed to enter college.\nWhen in college they should not be required to take exactly the same languages,\nand the same quantity that college-preparatory pupils take.\nThe college says to them: \"If you have taken a certain kind of medicine\nand a certain quantity of it you may be admitted;\" it does not care how strong\nand vigorous the candidate has grown on some other kind of medicine.\nIf the candidate is a graduate of a reputable high school, the college should\nso adjust itself that he may be admitted. The commercial student who thus\n\"finds himself\" and is permitted to enter college will make good and be a\ncredit to his high school and college.\nThere seems to be a wholesome fear of anything practical among college\nfaculties. From their point of view a subject that can be utihzed must of\nnecessity be of no value from an educational or cultural point of view. A\nlanguage must be a dead one, and the deader it is the better it is. We can\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nEDUCATION\n\n893\n\nimprove in other lines, but educational and cultural studies must come\nfrom the dead past in order to bear the stamp of college approval. They are\nnot broad-minded enough to see that all human beings cannot be cast in their\nstrictly classical mold. In refusing to be so cast, a very large number fail to\nreceive the advantage of a college education.\nWe are in danger of overlooking the educational value of bookkeeping and\nstenography. During my eight years' experience in commercial college, and\nseventeen years in the Cleveland high schools, I have never, to the best of my\nrecollection, found a student who could master all the difficult problems that\nare a part of bookkeeping. The following arithmetical subjects are purely\na part of bookkeeping and all high-school teachers will admit the weakness of\nhigh-school graduates in them: Compound numbers and measurements;\npercentage and its applications; simple interest and discount; that difficult\nsubject, annual interest; true and bank discounts; stocks and bonds — these\nare all practical every-day subjects of educational value, yet none of our highschool graduates have mastered them, not even those of the commercial\ncourse. We do not have the time. The speaker overcame these subjects in a\ndistrict school, where Ray's Higher Arithmetic was epidemic every winter\nand he always caught the disease.\nAgain, friends: How many of your graduates can change a set of singleentry books to double entry; partnership to corporation; adjust interest\namong partners; transfer an interest-bearing note in part payment of a bill\non which a trade discount is allowed, or even make a balance sheet into which\nall the difficulties possible have been injected, and not make a single mistake ?\nIt has been said that \"An open confession is good for the soul.\" The\nspeaker has never yet been able to graduate a class in which each member\nis proficient in all of the above subjects. Some will do remarkably well, but\nnone seem thoroly to understand all of them. This proves that bookkeeping\nis a real difficult mathematical subject of educational value. The student\nwho is proficient in bookkeeping is capable of thinking and reasoning.\nNow as to stenography: How many become really expert? Why?\nBecause of the difficulties of a new language, which it really is, and the need\nof a better training in practical everyday EngHsh. Are our high-school\ngraduates remarkable for their proficiency in punctuation, spelling, and composition ? Ask the hard-headed business man who is looking for a competent\nyoung office man.\nThese are subjects that call for hard work and careful study.\nThe commercial-course graduate has a real practical tool in his hands\nwhich will enable him successfully to complete his college course. Stenography\nand typewriting are especially helpful. He is a product, when graduated,\nthat is ready for the market.\nUntil a few years ago a high school was a college-preparatory school. If\nwe are to prepare for college at public expense why should not the requirements be based on mental strength and training, not simply on a certain\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nwell-defined quantity of a special thing ? In other words, the college holds\nthat only certain studies educate. A student may be a giant mentally, but\ncannot be admitted to college because he has trained with the wrong crowd.\nWhile I am on this particular phase of my subject I wish to say a few\nwords in favor of allowing the commercial student to elect manual training.\nAs a general proposition the commercial students are the ones who would\nbe benefited most by that subject. They would be more helpful around\nthe home of the parents and later on in life would be much better home-makers.\nBy all means allow these pupils the right to take manual training. Education\nis a kind of life preparation that our country gives to its future citizens and\nrulers and should not be so hedged in as to prevent anyone class from gaining\nits benefits. We were not all created free and equal, the United States Constitution to the contrary notwithstanding, and we cannot be changed and\nmolded by educational methods so as to be similar products. So long as\nthese educational straight jackets are inforced, the loss and waste will continue.\nThe intelligent manufacturer has learned that which he formerly wasted has\nnow become one of his greatest sources of income.\nWhen are we educators going to learn this same lesson, and turn this\ntremendous loss into a splendid, finished, self-sustaining, and independent\nproduct?\nDISCUSSION\nS. R. Hoover, director of Commercial Department, West High School, Cleveland,\nOhio. — ^We heard much yesterday of statistics wherein it was shown how small a percentage\nof those who enter the first grade emerge from the eighth; of these how few enter the\nhigh school; the still further decrease in the number who ever enter any college. All this\nis true. But Ifet us not forget that among those who dominate the civilization of the world\nas leaders in matters political, literary, scientific, and commercial, the college man is very\npredominantly in evidence. While it is the few who complete a virile college course, it takes\nonly a few to lead, and it is so vitally important that these few shall lead aright in the\nblazing of trails which the multitudes may safely follow that the value of the higher education cannot be estimated by the number who secure it but by the things for which they\nstand.\nThere remains here and there a moss-backed croaker who has no use for college training, but he is such a rara avis that he can very properly be classed as a mere antique. The\ncollege man has become the leader in the business world. It becomes a pertinent question\nif it shuts its gates, holds up its hands, and calls a halt against those students who reach it\nby any other road than the one from which most others have been admitted, what the\ncollege is for ? With its laboratories, museums, libraries, and other expensive equipment\ndoes it meet the measure of its duties if those who knock at its gates are denied admission\nbecause, forsooth, they happen to have reached their present state of development and\ninquiry without a knowledge of Latin or Greek ?\nOn the one extreme is the college which shouts \"impossible\" to the ambitious commercial student because a hard and fast, iron-clad \"course\" is laid down and he has the\nmisfortune not to fit exactly into the first cogs of the wheels which compose it. On the\nother is the institution which makes the whole curriculum an elective \"go as you please,\"\nand is humiliated by the necessity of turning out graduates who have picked out just enough\nof the easy subjects to make the minimum of passing units.\nOne is too narrow and the\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF COMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n895\n\nother too broad, A system of elective groups by semesters, each containing opportunity\nfor reasonable selection yet requiring the pursuit of such combinations as would involve\napproximately an equal result in culture from all, would obviate both of these difficulties.\nThere was a time within the memory of most of those present when the pupil who\nwas too weak for any other course or failed somewhere else was shifted to the commercial\ncourse because \"anybody could pass in that course.\" But that time is no more. The\ncommercial course has been enriched and strengthened until the pupil who has taken it\nis crowding the classical and scientific pupil tremendously for the commencement program\nand the valedictory — and he is taking them oftener than his turn comes. He is worth a\nplace in the college, and when he desires that place the college must give it to him. The\nsame system of grouping electives in the high-school course as suggested for the college\nwill go a long way toward clearing the fog that has surrounded us. We are to serve all the\npeople, both those who may find themselves able to go to higher institutions and those who\nare under the necessity of going to work at an earlier or later date in their course. Both\npay their taxes, and we must neglect neither.\n\nPREPARATION\nCHEESMAN\n\nA.\n\nAND\n\nIMPROVEMENT\nTEACHERS\n\nHERRICK,\nDIRECTOR\nHIGH\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF COMMERCIAL\n\nOF SCHOOL\nOF COMMERCE,\nPHILADELPHIA\n\nCENTRAL\n\nAt the meeting of the Department of Business Education in 1901 a committee was authorized, to which was later assigned the task of preparing a\nmonograph on commercial education in the American public schools. After\nnumerous meetings and discussions the report of this committee took the\nform of a suggested curriculum for public high schools, with a discussion on\nthe educational value of the several subjects of this curriculum.\nThe report above mentioned was presented in tolerably complete form at\nthe 1903 meeting of this Department, and the committee w^as further directed\nto proceed with its completion and publication. The report was later brought\nout as a monograph by the University of the State of New York at Albany,\nand it is fair to say that this monograph has had a wide circulation, and that it\nhas served a useful purpose in estabhshing sound notions on commercial\neducation in high schools.\nBut no sooner was the monograph on commercial studies completed than\nthere was an obvious necessity of doing something more definite to aid in the\npreparation and improvement of the teachers of commercial subjects, and at\nthe 1905 meeting of this Department a resolution was adopted as follows:\nWe look upon the preparation of teachers for commercial schools and departments as a\npressing problem of commercial education, and we commend this question to our higher\nschools of commerce and university schools of education, to our normal schools and to\nfurther consideration by this body.\n\nAt the same meeting a committee on the preparation of commercial teachers was appointed, and this committee was empowered to add to its numbers, and was directed to make a study of the whole question, and to report\nback to the Department.\nThe failure to hold a meeting in 1906 delayed somewhat the discussion on\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nthe preparation of commercial teachers, but at Los Angeles, in 1907, it was\nmade the main topic of discussion, and it is being further considered in 1908.\nIt is the hope of the committee that, at an early date, a well-rounded study\nmay be made ready for publication.\nThe needs for such a study as is proposed are obvious. From every side\nare evidences of a deep concern in the professional equipment and continuing\nimprovement of teachers, and at the present time other departments of this\nassociation are devoting themselves to a topic very similar to that here being\ndiscussed.\nSome of us have had the duty of selecting teachers of commercial subjects\nin our own schools, and it is not an unusual experience to be requested to\nsuggest eligible persons for vacancies elsewhere, and we all know how difficult\nit is to name someone who seems to have the proper preceding preparation and\nin whom we have confidence. The rapidity with which commercial schools\nand courses have been inaugurated threatens a teacher-famine and should\ngive much concern. If capable teachers are not secured for commercial\nsubjects their introduction into the public high school is a mistake. There is\nnothing in the subject matter of commercial education which will prevent\nincompetent and unsympathetic teachers from making a failure of an enterprise\nfor which they have neither aptitude nor inclination.\nUp to the present the ranks of commercial teachers in high schools have\nbeen recruited mainly from private business schools.\nSimilarly, commercial\nhigh schools, at the first, adopted the textbooks and methods of private schools;\nbut these were in many particulars illy suited for the ends to be attained or the\nmeans used to accomplish these ends, and later the textbooks have been\nmodified so as to furnish a body of material for instruction purposes which is\nsuited to the aims and methods of work in high schools.\nIt is no criticism\nupon the private schools to say that teachers who may be well suited for work\nin them may not be suited for service in the high schools. By almost common\nagreement, those who have made a study of the preparation of teachers for\nhigh schools have held that those who serve in these schools should have at\nleast a college education. This standard is none too high, and a commercial\nhigh school cannot afford to fall below it. Not that there is any mysterious\npower in the college education, but that it represents the breadth of view,\nthe outlook, and the educational sympathy which should be possessed by one\nwho has to train young people through the four years of a high-school course.\nThe private schools are almost exclusively practical and the work in them is\nsure to be mechanical; high schools are primarily academic and whenever\npractical studies find a place in them there is need of a breadth of view in the\nteaching than can come only from a liberal education of the teacher.\nIt must\nbe granted that some private-school teachers without a college education, who\nhave come into positions as commercial teachers in high schools, have done\nwell. They have \"sized up\" to the educational meaning of the work and have\nfitted into the scheme being carried out; but a somewhat extended observation\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPREPAR^iTION\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n897\n\nleads to the conviction that private-school teachers, as a class, do not satisfactorily meet the requirements of high-school positions.\nTwo observations should be made at this point. Private-school teachers\nshow much desire to get into the public high schools and they have been thus\nfar almost the only source of supply. In general public high schools pay\nbetter salaries, they require fewer hours in the teaching day, offer longer\nvacations, and more secure tenure of office than do private schools. It is not\nstrange then that private-school teachers have so largely secured places with\nthe public schools as seriously to cripple the private schools. If one sets\nfor himself the standard that commercial teachers are to be college graduates,\nhe limits his choice to a very few persons. The writer has been made aware\nof this repeatedly in the last ten years, but never more so than when a principal\nof a normal school, which is to inaugurate a course for the preparation of\ncommercial teachers, recently requested, as a directing head, a college graduate\nwho had an acquaintance with technical business subjects. Within the past year\nrequests have been made twenty times at least to name a man of this sort, in\nmost cases at salaries from $1,500 to $1,800 a year, and there are almost no\nmen to meet the requirement. At the same time numbers of good men are\nseeking position as teachers in the old-line subjects. If it were not for some\nstriking exceptions one might almost proclaim that the liberal training and the\ntechnical commercial studies are as impossible of being united as are the traditional oil and water, and yet there is nothing in the nature of the subjects\nthat should make this true. More regard for the real needs of those being\neducated, better appreciation of their own interests on the part of prospective\nteachers, and a correction of the false notion of the dignity and importance of\ncommercial subjects: these and other influences are sure to operate in changing\npresent conditions.\nOne error has carefully to be guarded against; namely, that because one\nknows a subject he is thereby qualified to teach it. Of course one cannot teach\na subject without knowing it; but knowing a subject is no guarantee of an\nability to teach it. One familiar with a foreign tongue is not necessarily a\ngood instructor in that tongue as is evidenced by the unsatisfactory experience\nin American high schools with native teachers of French and German. It\nwould be a strange educational doctrine that one who knew English is perforce\nqualified to teach this language. But the statement is no more false than is\nthe one that a carpenter is prepared to teach woodwork or a blacksmith forgepractice in a manual training high school; or that a bookkeeper is prepared to\nteach bookkeeping or a stenographer shorthand writing in a commercial\nhigh school. There are fundamental laws of these subjects which should be\nunderstood by those who are to guide others in the attempts at their mastery,\nand equally important, there is a necessary knowledge of the one being taught\nif the instruction is to be most effective.\nIt is not possible to escape from the necessity of preparing and improving\ncommercial teachers by seeking refuge in the fallacy that ** teachers are born\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nand not made.\" The United States Commissioner of Education has come\nnearer to the truth in a statement that teachers are both born and made and\nthat above all else they must be discovered. What commercial education\nparticularly needs at the present time is provision for the preliminary preparation of commercial teachers and some well-thought-out plans for the improvement of those already at work.\nThe ideal is obvious, first, as broad an academic training as possible; a\ngeneral college course first, with special preparation afterward both in the\ntechnical subject-matter and the methodology of presentation is not too much.\nHigher schools of commerce that parallel the traditional college course would\nalso seem a good preparation. Many studies in the higher commercial schools\nare the same as are those presented in more elementary form in high schools,\nand the studying of these in the advanced institutions gives much in suggestion\nfor their presentation in the secondary schools; but the plea for college education, whether college of commerce or otherwise, is not alone for subject-matter.\nThe college course gives a general ''setting up\" which is desirable for one who\nis to stand for high ideals in secondary schools.\nWhat seems a second indispensable qualification is a familiarity with\npractical matters and an acquaintance with men of affairs. The one who\nlooks forward to a commercial teachership should travel as widely as possible\nand know at first-hand the conditions and life in and products of different\nsections of his own country and some of the other principal countries of the\nworld. Then the commercial teacher should have. had experience with practical business matters. He should be willing to serve gratuitously as an\nemployee, and, if need, be to pay for the privilege of getting behind the scenes\nand learning how business is carried on ; and a man trained and alert, who\nknows what he wants, will be prompt at learning the practical aspects of business. Not only might the one making his preparation for a teaching position\nuse his vacations for gaining insight into business, but those actually engaged\nin teaching might also do this with profit.\nA desirable course to be followed in connection with or supplementary to\nthat mentioned above is found in studies in education and the art of teaching\neither in universities, normal schools, or other institutions now turning their\nattention to this matter. Schools of the sort just mentioned have demonTitrated their right to be, and commercial studies cannot afford to remain an\nexception to the range of training which they supply. Evidences are not\nwanting that schools of education are giving themselves to a new regard for\npractical studies; some normal schools have announced departments for preparing commercial teachers, and have gone to the extent of introducing technical courses for training in the subject-matter for such studies as bookkeeping\nand shorthand. Some of the private institutes and certain of the normal\nschools have announced short courses of one year which are designed to give\nprofessional finish and which are opened only to mature persons who are\nprepared to profit by them.\nThus, in the present tendencies, there is much\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n899\n\nto give heart and hope as we consider the means of preparing the commercial\nteachers of the future.\nOne serious obstacle is the absence of a literature bearing directly on commercial education. There is next to nothing on the pedagogy of commercial\nstudies and yet this is a profitable an.d suggestive field for those who look to\nteaching such subjects; but with the obvious need for such treatises, and with\nthe demand for them in the normal schools and special courses of other institutions, the professional treatment of commercial subjects will soon be forthcoming.\nIt remains to speak of the need of continued education for commercial\nteachers and to suggest some of the ways in which this can be furnished. A\nrecent writer makes a statement, which our observation will likely confirm,\nthat quite 80 per cent, of those who go into teaching do not continue with any\nsystematic study or reading. Reading circles, study classes, graded promotions dependent upon examinations, these and other devices are utilized to\nstimulate teachers. All these seem necessary under different conditions and are\n;surely worthy if they result in teachers continuing to improve their preparation.\nWhile the above statements of the need for continued study are true of\nteachers in general, they are particularly true of commercial teachers. Those\nin the old-line subjects have a tolerably well fixed subject-matter of instruction;\nthose teaching practical subjects have a constantly changing material and the\nnecessity is laid upon them, if their instruction is not to fail, that they keep\n[abreast with the changes constantly taking place. Practical textbooks well\nillustrate what is here meant.\nSome of them are no sooner prepared and\n[printed than they are out of date and need to be superseded by others. The\nnecessity of the commercial teacher being a student is well illustrated by the\nexperiences of Alice when she went to that strange country which lies Through\n[the Looking- Glass. On one occasion the queen of that land told Alice that\nthey were- to run. Alice put down her head and ran very long and very hard,\nand after thus running she looked up and saw that she had all the while been\nunder the same tree. She then protested against running any more, on the\n[ground that they were not getting anywhere, but she was promptly informed\n[by the queen that in her country it was necessary to run as hard as one could\norder to keep in the same place. So it seems a commercial teacher should\n)e everlastingly digging if he is to keep pace with the progress of the subjects\nle is to impart.\nAlready the suggestion has been made of travel and practical experience\n[as a means of improvement of teachers. Vacation courses, summer schools,\nitc, are also to be strongly commended. One of the wisest and most successful of the private commercial school proprietors in the present generation so\n[highly appreciates this fact that he conducts, at his own expense, a summer\ninstitute which his teachers attend, and the information is at hand that he\n)ays salaries to his teachers while they are thus in attendance. We should\njxpect this to be a profitable investment on the part of the proprietor.\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "900\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThere is much to commend in the commercial teachers' summer school\nrecently started, and in the various courses for commercial teachers introduced into the summer schools of some of the colleges and universities. Observation on the success of these enterprises, however, leads one to say that commercial teachers have not responded as promptly or as largely as they should\nhave done. Either they have not realized the need or are not aware of their\nopportunities; otherwise the few summer courses would be overflowing with\nnumbers.\nCorrespondence schools are not without value, and to those who feel the\nneed of stimulation and instruction they may serve a useful purpose. Several\nreputable institutions are now offering opportunities to do work by correspondence, and when this is carried forward in connection with attendance on the\nsummer school of the same institutions, very desirable results may be attained.\nThe correspondence course and the summer school open a way for the\nsupposed academic distinction of a degree, and some persons, well termed\n''degree hunters,\" pursue these courses in the hope that they may thus find\na short and easy road to the coveted end of a degree. Degrees are thus\nsometimes sought for the professional or financial preferment which they are\nsupposed to bring, but degrees in themselves mean nothing; what is vastly\nmore important is substantial w^ork, and such work is more certain of its\nreward and appreciation than is any empty degree.\nNot the least important of the ways in which continued education can be\ncarried on is the systematic and well directed reading of the teacher. The\nWoMs Work and The Review of Reviews offer valuable material; good\nnewspapers form different sections of the United States and abroad are also to\nbe commended. A representative list would include such papers as the\nweekly editions of The Springfield Republican, and The Portland Oregonian;\nand the Saturday editions of The New York Evening Post, and The Boston\nTranscript; and the weekly editions of The London Times and The\" London\nCommercial. Articles of much value appear in all of these papers and the\nreading of them tends to broaden the teacher's knowledge and keep him up\nto date.\nIt goes without saying that in addition to the magazines and papers here\nmentioned a commercial teacher should read from time to time books which\nmake contributions to his own special subject of instruction, the broader\ntreatments of his field of education and works of more general cultural and\nliterary character.\nThe preceding statements are made with the desire to avoid scoldings of\ncommercial teachers on the one hand or preaching to them on the other, but in\nthe hope that attention may be called to obvious tendencies and some practical suggestions offered toward raising the standard for those who are to go\ninto commercial education, and to render more efficient those who are already\nin service. With this accomplished, teachers and school administrators will\nbe happier and the young people whom they serve will be great gainers.\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF COMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n901\n\nDISCUSSION\nEdward Rynearson, director of High Schools, Pittsburg, Pa. — If 85 per cent, of the\nequipment of the school rests in the teacher we cannot emphasize too much the subject of\nDr. Herrick's excellent paper. The need everywhere, no less in schools than in business,\nis for men and women of scholarship, of power, of faith; men and women who have aims,\nwho have foresight as to results, and who know how to secure results. Hence the range\nas well as the quality of the education of every person who presents himself as a candidate\nfor a teacher's position is an important factor to those who select.\nMost of you are better prepared than I to say definitely what is the best preparation\nfor commercial teachers. I am sure that all grades of our schools in this country, from\nthe kindergarten through the secondary schools, are suffering from either too little preparation on the part of the teacher or that the teachers, if specialists, have not seen their respective subjects in the proper perspective. As Dr. Herrick says, the standard for a teacher\nin our schools of commerce cannot be too high. Men often fail to meet the requirements of\ntheir positions when unexpected complications arise because they work mechanically. The\ntest of every teacher is: \"Can he teach the child ?\" not \"Can he develop the subject?'*\nThe systematic study, the contact with master minds, the association with the best young\npeople in college offer great advantages to the future teacher. It is with the teacher as with\nthe business man, the wider the horizon the greater the likelihood of success.\nThe colleges that have their ears to the ground are offering courses for those who wish\nto prepare themselves to teach in secondary schools. A person who expects to teach in\nschools of commerce must not be satisfied with a four-month term of bookkeeping in some\nprivate school. He should avail himself of the high-school training, followed by a fouryear course in commerce as is found in many of our best colleges.\nThe teacher who comes before his classes with a fresh bit of knowledge, from day to\n\n11\n\nday, has solved most of the difficulties of discipline. Decline in a teacher's efficiency begins\nwhen the study of subject matter and educational problems ends.\nWe must know much\nmore than we teach.\nWe can't teach all we know.\nScholarship and habits of study are essential factors for efficiency in every teacher who\ncontinually increases his usefulness through two or three decades of service. The teacher\nwho yields the best and the most powerful influence in the school and in the community at\nlarge is he who takes time not only for the thoro preparation of his daily work, for studying professional philosophy, but also for some special interest from which he broadens his\nsympathies and deepens his culture.\nThe more efficient the teacher, the more his services have cost him and will continue\nto cost so long as he improves himself. The school that secures him is securing so much\nenergy, health, mind, and enthusiasm. No one can measure the success of the teacher in\nterms of the business man. The public raises or lowers the standard of teachers and\nschools in a community by the scale of wages paid. On the other hand, greater efficiency\nand superior qualifications in teachers will go far to call out from the public a better appreciation ofthe value of their work. Do we not make a mistake in attributing the deficiencies of the teachers to the low rate of wages ? Is not the converse usually true : the low\nrate of wages is caused by the deficiencies of the teachers ?\nThe schedule of salaries should be so constructed that a premium is placed upon\nefficiency in the classroom and growth in professional and general culture rather than upon\nlength of service alone. The introduction of this merit plan of increase of salary will\nmeet with much dissatisfaction frorti teachers who have ceased to study and to keep abreast\nwith the pedagogical progress of the past quarter of a century. It is possible to formulate a\nplan by which efficient teachers can be promoted faster than the inefficient who are a\nlittle too good to drop and not good enough to promote, and who receive all the pay that\ntheir services are worth. The salaries paid for instructors should be such that some of the\nbest business men will be attracted to our highschools.\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nPromotion by test is the only way to secure efficiency in a corps of teachers. Any\nadequate test of efficiency must include investigation of —\n1. The teacher's personal qualifications, character, health, manners, habits, love\nfor the young, adaptability, tact and loyalty to his principal, his school, his fellow-teachers\nand the teaching profession.\n2. His theoretical knowledge of the art and the method of teaching, and\n3. His actual experience as a successful teacher.\nNothing less than all these can furnish an adequate test of fitness for promotion.\nA schedule of salaries based upon years of service levels the highest efficiency to the grade\nof the lowest efficiency. The merit promotion does the opposite. The merit promotion accomplishes the advancement of the teachers who deserve advancement without wronging others who, while doing fair work, have not shown that interest in it or effort to attain\nthe excellence that has characterized the others. Would not the merit plan of promotion\nencourage many enthusiastic, capable young men and women to enter the profession of\nteaching ? The professional pulse is weak when teachers descend to the formation of\norganizations that champion the cause of those who cannot stand on their own merits\nPromotion should be merited; any other is a dishonest basis.\n\nMETHODS\nCHARLES\n\nOF PREPARING TEACHERS FOR COMMERCIAL\nSCHOOLS IN GERMANY\n\nDE GARMO,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF THE\nSCIENCE AND ART\nCORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nGermany is in a social and economic position to secure as teachers an\nadequate number of men with any degree of general and professional preparation she sees fit to impose. The fact that she can do this arises from several\nconditions that do not obtain in this country. In the first place, practically\nall higher education in that country is professional in character, the leading\nprofessions being law, divinity, medicine, teaching, civil service and the various\nbranches of technology. If a man goes through the long arduous course of\ntraining and practice necessary to qualify for one of these callings, he finds it\nunnatural and impracticable to undertake anything else. It is out of the\nquestion to change professions, while he and his friends would regard it as a\nloss of caste to descend to any non-professional occupation. But the number\nof men any given profession can absorb is in direct ratio to population. At\nthis point Germany is confronted with the condition which makes it so easy\nfor society to get men, and so hard for men to meet the requirements for\nentrance to the higher callings. During the last thirty years, owing to universal industrial prosperity and the advancing tide of democracy, the number of students in universities, and doubtless likewise in all higher technical\ninstitutions, has grown twice as fast as the population. In these higher\ncallings as a whole, therefore, there are two men for every position. Now,\nunless there can be, as in this country, an easy transfer of men from one\noccupation to another, such a condition can only be met by lengthening the\nperiod of preparation and shortening that of service. It is in this latter way\nthat Germany is meeting the situation, and this is the explanation why Ger-\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n903\n\nmany can get any degree of preparation she sees fit to ask for, while we must\nput up with what we can get.\nWhen I asked the director of the Continuation Schools at Halle what qualifications were necessary in order to teach in them, he replied that candidates\nmust first qualify as regular teachers, whether elementary or secondary, and\nthen go out and learn practically the business for which they wished to train\nstudents. According to the reports of the German Association for Commercial\nInstruction, there Has been much difference of opinion as to the qualifications\nof commercial teachers in continuation schools. Some have wanted successful merchants; but this demand has been met by the difiiculty that the bom\nmerchant does not often prove to be a bom teacher and certainly does not\nusually desire to abandon a profitable calling for one that will furnish him at\nbest but a bare subsistence. Others think that a normal-school training is\ninadequate to produce that free, far-seeing personality so necessary to commercial leadership. But the Report for 1905^ says that the general conclusions\nthat follow from the discussions are as follows:\n1. That demonstrated fitness to teach commercial subjects, not prescribed technical\npreparation, shall be the accepted test as to a man's natural gifts and technical skill,\n2. That the leader of a commercial continuation school — whether a \"born\" or a\n**made\" teacher — must be a cultured and stimulating personality.\n3. That though the road shall not be barred to any who have demonstrated their\nability to teach, the man who would lead a commercial continuation school must, as\nregards mastery of all obligatory subjects, sit firm in the saddle.\n\nThe association is of the opinion that this method of trying out ambitious\ncandidates has produced a more energetic and efficient body of commercial\nteachers and leaders than could have been supplied by any prescribed formal\ntechnical preparation, however rigorous.\nThe general scholastic qualifications of any class of certificated teachers\nin Germany are quite adequate to any demands that continuation schools\ncan make upon them, for the pupils of these schools come wholly from the\nranks of elementary education, and since the required attendance is only some\nsix hours a week for three years, there can be no considerable advance into the\ndomain of general secondary scholarship. The case is different, however,\nwhen we come to the middle and higher departments of commercial training,\nfor here the student is devoting all his time for three or more years to work\nof regular high-school or of college grade. Moreover, his technical instruction isfar more fundamental and comprehensive than is possible in the continuation schools. Then, again, even if the technical difficulties of the situation did not demand a long and arduous preparation, the social and professional standards of German enducation most certainly would. For both these\nclasses of reasons, therefore, we find the preparation of commercial teachers\nfor the middle and higher schools almost or quite as rigorous as for other\ninstitutions of similar rank.\nI Griindung Einrichtung und Verwaltung von obligatonschen Kauf-Mannischen\nFortbildungsschulen, Leipzig, pp. 48-52.\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "904\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThe Prussian Ministerial Rescript for March 3, 1907, has the following\nprovisions concerning the certification of commercial teachers:\nTHE\n\nEXAMINING\n\nCOMMISSION\n\nThis commission is made up as follows:\n1. A chairman named by the minister for trade and manufacture in connection with\nthe Minister of Education.\n2. The chairman of the Advisory Committee of the commercial high school.\n3. All the head teachers of the commercial high school.\n4. Such subordinate teachers as may be named by the chairman of the examination\ncommission, these, appointments being made a year in advance.\nCONDITIONS\n\nFOR\n\nELIGIBILITY\n\nIn order to be eligible to examination, the candidate must submit to the\nchairman of the commission in writing the following data:\n1. An outline of his life and education, composed and written by himself.\n2. If a teacher, the certificates of examinations already passed.\n3. It not a teacher, his school certificates and also those pertaining to his commercial\nexperience, the conditions being that if a graduate of a nine-class secondary school he must\nhave had one year of commercial experience, and, if not a graduate, five years of such\nexperience, including his years of apprenticeship.\n4. Evidence of at least five semesters' study at some German institution of higher\neducation, at least two semesters of which shall have been at the commercial high school in\nwhich his examination is to take place.\n5. Written evidence of having attended the various courses of lectures and exercises,\nas well as proof of participation in the pedagogical seminary and of practice teaching in a\ncommercial continuation school.\nSUBJECTS\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nEXAMINED\n\nUPON\n\nThese are as follows:\ni. Business technique (bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, and correspondence).\n2. Economics, including the science of finance.\n3. Law, especially that pertaining to trade in its essential relations.\n4. Commercial geography.\n5. English or French.\n\nThe examination is in two parts, one oral, and the other written under\nsupervision.\nTHE WRITTEN\n\nEXAMINATION\n\nThis covers:\n1. Business technique.\n2. Economics.\n3. One modern foreign language.\n4. Either law or commercial geography, as the candidate may elect.\n\nFor the foreign language not more than two hours are allowed, and for the\nother subjects not more than four each .\nA candidate who has \"unsatisfactory\" in two subjects is not admitted to\nthe oral test.\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] PREPARING\n\nTEACHERS\nORAL\n\nFOR\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n905\n\nEXAMINATION\n\nThe oral examination covers the following topics:\n1. Business technique (bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, and correspondence).\n2. Economics, with especial reference to money, banking, and board of trade operations; and to social economy, trade, and commerce.\n3. Principles of private and public rights, with special reference to departments\nimportant to commerce.\n4. English or French.\n5. Principles of commercial geography.\n\nIn the oral examination the student's record in the commercial high school,\nespecially his success in the teachers' seminary and in practice teaching, are\ntaken into consideration. In cases of doubt the commission may require a\nsample recitation to be conducted in their presence. The subject for the thesis\nwhich the candidate is to discuss may be chosen from either business technique or commercial geography, at his election, and is announced 24 hours\nbefore the examination.\nSix candidates may be examined at one time.\nELECTIVE\n\nSUBJECTS '\n\nThe commission is authorized at the wish of the candidate to extend the\nexamination to other subjects taught in the commercial high school. The\nmanner and compass of these supplementary examinations are determined\nby the commission.\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF\n\nPASSING,\n\nETC.\n\nThe judgment for each branch is indicated by the examiner over his\nsignature. The following marks are admissible:\n1. With distinction.\n2. Good.\n3. Satisfactory.\n4. Unsatisfactory.\n\nThe rank for the written work must be given separately.\nThe candidate has not passed if the grade \"unsatisfactory\" is given in\ntwo separate subjects, unless made good by other favorable marks. The\nextent to which such an equalization may exist is decided by a majority vote\nof the commission, the chairman casting the deciding vote in case of a tie.\nA certificate is issued to each successful candidate which records the result\nof the examination as a whole and the rank attained in each subject. It is\nsigned by the chairman and all other members of the commission.\nIn case of a failure to pass, no new examination can take place before six\nmonths have elapsed and only one re-examination is allowed.\nThe comparison between the requirements for a secondary teacher in the\nGymnasia and for one in the commercial secondary and higher commercial\nschool is as follows:\nThe minimum for the Gymnasia is three years in the primary schools, nine\nin the Gymnasium, three in the university, one in examinations, one in the\nseminary of the Gymnasium, and one in trial teaching — eighteen years in all.\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "906\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThe minimum for the commercial school is (i) in the case of teachers in\nthe general field, the passing of the examinations for ccmmercial teachers,\nwhich necessitates at least a year's attendance in the commercial school, and\nthe requisite practice and pedagogical study; (2) in the case of students not\nteachers, attendance of regular schools until the gymnasium course or its\nequivalent is completed, one year of commercial practice, and then the five\nsemesters of university work, including at least two in the commercial high\nschool, and as before the regular commercial examinations and pedagogical\nstudy and practice.\n,\nIn amount of time, and in difficulty of work required, the two teaching\ncourses stand upon a substantial equality.\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILU-STUUY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — William H. Burnham, professor of pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nVice-President — William L. Bryan, president, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.\nSecretary — H, Austin Aikins, professor of philosophy, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 1908\nPresident W. H. Burnham called the department to order in Euclid Avenue Baptist\nChurch, Cleveland, at 2:30 o'clock.\nThe President read an address on \"The Scientific Study of Children.\"\nJohn M. Tyler, professor of the Department of Biology, Amherst College, Amherst,\nMass., presented a paper on \"The Study of Growth in Children.\"\nGeorge E. Johnson, superintendent of the Playground Association, Pittsburg, spoke\non \"The Study of Children on the Playground.\"\nThe papers were discussed by Professor Joseph Jastrow, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., and Dr. Winthrop T. Talbot, of Holderness, N. H.\nThe President appointed the following Nominating Committee:\nHenry H. Goddard, Vineland, N. J.\nEmma C. Davis, Cleveland, Ohio.\nWilliam F. Book, University of Montana,\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Afternoon, July 2\nA joint session with the departments of Special Education and National Organization\nof Women was held in Euclid Avenue Baptist Church at 2:30 o'clock.\nPresident Burnham introduced President E. R. Johnstone, of the Department of\nSpecial Education, Vineland, N. J., who presided at the meeting.\nThe following papers were read:\n\"Physiological Age and Child Labor\" — Robert W. Bruere, secretary of the New\nYork Committee on the Physical Welfare of School Children, New York City.\n\"The Physical Basis of Attention\" — Winthrop T. Talbot, director of the Lake School,\nHolderness, N. H.\n\"The Visiting Nurse and the Children Requiring Special Education\" — Helen MacMurchy, M.D., special commissioner for the Feeble-Minded for Ontario, Canada.\n\"What the Regular Class Teacher Should Know of Mental and Moral Deficiency\" —\nE. B. Sherman, superintendent of State Industrial School, Kearney, Neb.\nThe discussion was participated in by Maximihan P. E. Groszmann, of Plainfield,\nN. J.; Mrs. Florence Kelley, secretary of the Consumers' League, New York City; Miss\nSadie American, executive secretary of National Council of Jewish Women, New York\nCity; L. Pearl Boggs, of the University of Illinois, and President G. Stanley Hall, of Clark\nUniversity, Worcester, Mass.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION,— Thursday\n\nEvening, July 2\n\nPresident Burnham called the Department to order at 8:15 o'clock.\nThe following papers were read:\n\"Recent Advances in Child-Study\" — G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University,\nWorcester, Mass.\n\"What England Is Doing to Secure Healthy School Children\" — Earl Barnes, lecturer\nof the American Society for Extension of University Teaching, Philadelphia, Pa.\n907\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "go8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CMd-Study\n\n\"The Study of Exceptional Children\" — Charles A. J. Miller, supervising principal,\nPublic Schools, Baltimore, Md.\nMiss Jane Addams, of Hull House, Chicago, spoke briefly in discussion of the paper\nof Professor Earl Barnes.\nThe Nominating Committee having reported, the follow^ing officers were elected for\nthe ensuing year:\nFor President, George E. Johnson, superintendent of the Playground Association,\nPittsburg, Pa.\nFor Vice-President, A. Caswell Ellis, associate professor of science and art of education, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.\nFor Secretary, W. G. Chambers, State Normal School. Greeley, Colo.\nAfter closing remarks by the President, who expressed the thanks of the Department\nto the officers of the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church, the local committee, and the teachers\nand people of Cleveland for their many kindnesses, the Department adjourned.\nH. Austin Aikins, Secretarx\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE\nWILLIAM.\n\nH.\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nBURNHAM,\n\nADDRESS\n\nSTUDY\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nWORCESTER,\n\nOF CHILDREN\n\nPEDAGOGY,\nMASS.\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe first meeting for the study of children in connection with this Association was held at the World's Congress in Chicago in 1893. In the fifteen years\nthat have elapsed since that time the field of child-study has widened\nenormously.\nThe attempt is now made to study the child's psycho-physic organism\nobjectively and scientifically under varying conditions just as one would study\nany other organism. The varying conditions under which it has been studied\nmay be classified roughly under five heads as follows:\nVariations due to growth and development.\nVariations due to disease.\nVariations due to changes in nutrition.\nVariations due to changes of stimuli and to suggestion.\nVariations due to learning.\n\n•\n\nWe may group the different investigations in a similar manner. This\nof course is not a rigorous division, not perhaps a logical sequence; for the\nvariations due to growth and disease are largely caused by conditions of nutrition and of stimulus. But it is sufficient for my present purpose, which is\nmerely to sketch the briefest outline of the field and leave it for other speakers\nto treat some of the topics more in detail.\nFirst, Variations due to growth and development. Most of the genetic\nstudies come here. There have been a great variety of these from the early\nmass studies of physical growth by Quetelet and Bowditch and the individual\nstudies of psychic development by Tiedemann, Preyer, Darwin, and the rest\nto the more concrete studies of special functions, such as Garbini's study\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n909\n\nof the development of the voice or Raehlmann's study of the development of\nvision.\nThe result of the studies thus far has been a great change of attitude toward\nchildren. Instead of looking upon the school population as made up of\nchildren of different sizes and different ages, it finds them composed of different\nphysical and psychic types, and it finds that the individual child passes through\ndifferent physical and psychic stages. Thus it is coming to be demanded that\nin school grading there should be considered besides scholastic attainment\nnot only age and physical conditions as regards height, weight, and health, but\nalso the stage of individual development, the physiological age, as it is sometimes called.\nDefinite and significant results of this genetic study have already been\nobtained showing the different physical and psychic conditions at different\nstages. These of course are most marked between the young child and the\nadult — physical difference of great significance, the grosser differences in\nstructure and the relation of parts; the differences in the alkalinity of the blood,\nand according to Weil in the number of leucocytes with bactericidal power,\ndifferences in the lymph apparatus, the different type of circulatoiy system,\nthe ratio of the heart to the width of the aorta in the case of the child being\nmuch less than in case of the adult; the great diffeierces of nutrition connected\nwith growth; the differences due to undeveloped organs, like the eye, which\nhas not yet acquired either its structural or its functional development, etc.,\netc. And on the mental side, psychic differences, some of which are now\nbeing definitely determined by experiment.\nSecond, The important contributions that have been made in the study\nof disease in school children. Investigations in many countries show that\nfrom 25 to 50 per cent, of all school children are likely to be suffering from\ndisease or from physical defect. Such children are found in every school.\nTheir presence cannot be ignored, and the study of them is important not\nmerely for the sake of preventing and curing disease, but also for determining\nwhat kind of work such children can do, under what conditions they can best\nwork, and in its bearing on questions of grading, the period of study, and the\nlike.\nFor a concrete illustration take the common disease, tuberculosis. It is\nnow thought that perhaps the majority of cases of tuberculosis are contracted\nbefore the close of school life. Most of these remain latent until a later period.\nThe presence of a large number of children with this disease in an incipient\nstage puts an increased emphasis on the need of cleanliness in the schoolroom\nand an adequate air supply; and the fact that a considerable number of cases\nbecome active during school life makes it essential that such children be\ntaken from the regular classes and educated in a special school conducted\nout of doors and with special care to avoid over-exertion and the like. Such\nschools have already been established in Germany, and one is in successful\noperation in the city of Providence in this country.\nNow the question is\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "9IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nraised: Why should not children who are well have the same advantages as\nthose who are ill, and the Belgian Society of Pedotechnie urges that the experiment be tried of a school out of doors for normal children.\nThe result of all this has been to show definitely and emphatically that the\nschool must reckon with this large percentage of children who are diseased and\ndefective, and that medical inspectors, and sanitary conditions, and instruction of teachers in school hygiene and the like are as essential as an adequate\nteaching force and pedagogical equipment.\nThird, The studies of children under different conditions of nutrition,\nespecially the studies of the optimum conditions of brain work. A vast number of investigations bearing upon this have been made — studies of the effect\nupon brain activity of drugs and alcohol by Kraepelin and his students; of the\nweather in general by Dexter; of temperature by Lehmann and Pedersen;\nand the seasons of the year by Schuyten and Lobsein; of nasal breathing by\nKafemann; of posture by Jones, etc. As the ability to resist fatigue is\ndetermined by the blood supply to the brain on the one hand and by the\norganism's ability to resist and carry off the toxic products on the other hand,\nthe numerous studies of fatigue come under this general class. While the\nresults of many of these studies have been discredited, one result of prime\nimportance has been obtained, for the problem itself has been made definite\nand the complexity of it has been shown.\nThese differences of nutrition are varied and sometimes unsuspected.\nFor example, Mr. Jones's study of the relative ability to perform intellectual\nwork in the horizontal posture as compared with the vertical posture shows\nthat for some processes, adding for example, the horizontal position is more\nfavorable, apparently because in this way the nutrition of the brain is increased.\nSuch technical studies are not so remote from the practical problems of the\nschoolroom as at first may appear. It is well for the teacher to know something of the complexity of the conditions of brain activity. Mr. Jones cites\nSir Lauder Brunton, who relates that, driven one night after a weary day to\nprepare a paper, his mind refused to work. As the blood. would not flow to\nhis brain, he tried the experiment of bringing the brain down to the blood.\nBy putting his head flat on the table, he found he could think, and he wrote\nhis paper in this way. If Sir Lauder could do no intellectual work without\ndropping his head on the desk, it may on certain occasions be asking too much\nto require a child to sit erect while performing school work. The apparent contradiction between cerebral hygiene and somatic hygiene need not disturb us.\nThe result of these studies of variations in children due to nutrition has\nbeen the insight that where the essential conditions of brain nutrition are\nlacking, these must first of all be supplied, and that we cannot expect the brain\nto function efficiently if its food supply is cut off. Hence the practical significance of the studies of fatigue, of adenoids, sleep, posture, ventilation, and the\nrest.\nFourth, Variations due to stimulus and suggestion.\n\nThese may be grouped\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n911\n\ntogether because suggestion may be considered as merely an indirect method\nof presenting a stimulus. Hence this group of variations includes all of those\ndue to environment in the narrower sense. A great variety of studies have\nbeen made here, studies on the playground, in the home, and in the school.\nThe school is really an organized effort to control stimuli and reactions in the\ninterest of formal education. Especially interesting is the modern movement\nfor studying school conditions and school methods experimentally, the movement called in Germany experimental pedagogy. This aims at studying\neducational methods and educational processes under controlled conditions.\nIt is really a new name for an old method of study; for many of the important\nstudies in experimental psychology have really been of this class.\nThe great advantage of this experimental method is that it brings one into\nclose contact with all the facts connected with an educational problem or\nmethod; and just as the merit of experimental psychology is its aid to introspection, so one of the great advantages of experimental pedagogy is the fact\nthat it gives the experimenter prevision for many conditions overlooked in\nordinary school observation.\nFor a single illustration of the kind of investigations that have been made\nin this field we may take the experiments that bear on the psychology and\npedagogy of questioning; and questioning I need not remind you is largely\nthe teacher's function. A great many laboratory experiments bear upon this\nsubject. In fact all experiments in association are related to it. In the wellknown association reaction the experimenter mentions a word and the subject\nmentions the first word suggested to him. A great many experiments of this\nkind both on children and adults have now been made and the time of the\nassociation reaction accurately recorded. Thus we may say that an association experiment is an abbreviated question, asked and answered under\nlaboratory conditions. And an ordinary question, on the other hand, is an\nassociation experiment without laboratory conditions.\nCertain facts of great significance have been shown by such association\nexperiments. First it has been shown that the association reaction time of the\nchild is very much longer than that of the adult. While for the adult it is\nlikely to be about two seconds, for the child it may be six or eight or even ten\nor twelve seconds; and further it appears that the quicker the association reaction time in children the less valuable are the answers. The practical\nsignificance of this is obvious. In questioning children haste defeats its\nown end. The teacher who requires as quick an answer from a child as may\nbe expected from an adult is requiring a result that the child's associative\nmachinery is not fitted to produce, and while teachers may succeed in getting\nquick answers, the result is likely to be relatively worthless.\nAnother class of investigations upon memory throws hght on the pedagogy\nof questioning. Many studies have shown that errors of memory are much\nmore frequent when a person is questioned about an event than when one\nwrites a report spontaneously.\nEspecially is this true in the case of children.\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "912. . , ■\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n_ — _i\n\n[Child-Study\n\nA question is to them a suggestion, and a mnemonic error is pretty sure to result.\nWhile some questions are much more suggestive than others, all questions\nperhaps should be considered as forms of suggestion. These facts throw\ngrave suspicion on certain common methods of the classroom.\nPutting together the results of these two different classes of investigations\nwe have the following important inferences in regard to this method of school\ninstruction. A question is an association experiment without controlled\nconditions. A question further is a suggestion. If one wishes a true report\nfrom memory this should be given spontaneously without interruption or\nquestioning. If one desires to give suggestions, questions are justifiable; but\nthey should not be used in a way to bring about erroneous ideas, as this leads\nto confusion and interference of association; and a quick answer is likely to\nbe a worthless answer.\nBy such methods experimental pedagogy studies the concrete problems\nof the schoolroom, the child's ability to attend and to remember, the most\neconomical methods of learning, etc., etc.\nThe most important things in a child's environment are other children\nand adults. A large number of special studies have concerned this social\nenvironment of the child. The studies of Schmidt and others show, for example, that a child alone is a different creature from a child in a group. The\nchild in a group can do more work with the ergograph, he can turn a wheel\nmore rapidly, he can remember more accurately, he can perform arithmetical\noperations more correctly, and in fact under the stimulus from the presence\nof other persons a child's performance is greater and better in almost every line,\nexcept such occupations as composing in the mother-tongue or the like, which\nrequire special individual reflection.\nThe more general studies by Scott and White and the movement for\nSozialpddagogik in Europe promise to revolutionize our conception and our\nmanagement of the social group we call the school. The study of social\npsychology has the most vital connection with pedagog)\\ Already it is raising\npertinent questions. For example: If phylogenetically the impulse to linguistic development was the desire to describe a thing to somebody else, how,\nit asks, can we hope for successful linguistic training from the vapid and\nartificial stimulus of conversation with a private tutor ?\nThe result of all these experimental studies and the Hke has been to show\nthat pedagogical questions cannot be satisfactorily solved by a mere pooHng\nof opinion, but that definite experiment must be resorted to in many of the\nconcrete questions of method and in some of the large questions of\nmanagement and the like.\nFifth, Variations due to learning in the narrower sense and to the selfdirecting power of the individual. In human evolution we have to reckon\nwith the remarkable fact that the individual's own self-activity can modify\nthe course of development. As soon as an individual can profit by his own\nexperience a new factor in evolution appears.\nImportant studies of learning\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\nOF GROWTH\n\nIN CHILDREN\n\n913\n\nin animals and in children have now been made; and yet for the most part this\ndivision of our subject represents an open field, where it is desirable that many\ninvestigations should be made, studies of the self -directing factor in the individual and studies of variations due to practice and experience.\nAs suggested at the outset, no definite line of division can be made between\nthese different classes of varying conditions. Learning is determined by suggestion. Stimulus determines activity; and activity within certain limits\ndetermines nutrition; and nutrition again largely determines growth and\ndevelopment. Each individual will make his own classification. For a simpler scheme we might divide the scientific studies of children into two large\nclasses: first, those that have had to do with physical activity, and physical\ndevelopment, and physical health; second, those that have to do with mental\nactivity, and mental development, and mental health. Some of these investigations will be illustrated in our program more in detail. The importance\nof the studies that concern physical development and physical health is now\npretty well recognized. In school hygiene a rich literature has accumulated in\nthe last fifteen years. The general interest is shown by the associations and\ninternational congresses abroad; and in this country by the American School\nHygiene Association, and its periodical, School Hygiene.\nThe special result of all this study is a changed attitude. On the one\nhand, the attitude of science toward the child as the highest and latest product\nof evolution, not only reminiscent but prophetic; on the other hand, the attitude of the teacher, who has learned anew from child-study the lessons of\ninfinite patience with the slow processes of development, the significance of\nindividuality, respect for personality, the relative worthlessness of any scholastic product, the infinite value of the healthy child. The past of child-study is\nalready significant. Its future is promising.\nIts problems center around the five things I have mentioned : the mystery\nof growth and development, the tragic changes of disease and degeneration, the\nfar-reaching changes effected by nutrition, the effect of environment in the\nnarrower sense — stimulus and suggestion — and, finally, the power of learning\nin the narrower sense of self-direction and of profiting by one's own experience.\nTHE\nJOHN\n\nM.\n\nSTUDY\nTYLER,\n\nOF GROWTH\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nAMHERST,\n\nIN CHILDREN\n\nBIOLOGY,\nMASS.\n\nAMHERST\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nEducation is far older than man. Mammals and birds train their young.\nLong ago Nature framed and enacted her system of compulsory education.\nThe aim of this system is survival and progress; power, efficiency, and fulness\nof life. Nature's first and chief means of education is the home and family.\nSchool and college are mainly artificial devices to make good the deficiencies\nof home and early surroundings and to prepare for the fuller education of life.\nWhat the home cannot do the school must.\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "QI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIChUd-Study\n\nA century ago home and farm could furnish physical and manual training\nand nature-study; could train children to industry, economy, endurance,\ningenuity, to forethought and responsibility. The chief business of the\nschool was to give the knowledge of books which the home could not\nfurnish.\nNow old-fashioned farm hfe has disappeared, and its valuable training has\nbeen lost; the educational efficiency of the home has been narrowed and\nweakened. Hence the responsibility and burdens of the school have been\nvastly increased. It must develop a race of men and women who can meet\nthe emergencies and endure the nervous strain of modern sedentary life in\ntown and city. This is no small nor easy problem. School and college must\nbe institutions not merely of learning, but of physical and moral vigor, of\nefficiency and power. They must develop as well as instruct and discipHne.\nThe school must furnish a tough, vigorous body as well as a keenly disciplined\nmind.\nWe all recognize that health and growth are the main business of the\nbaby and the child. How big a man's life and power shall be depends primarily on how fast and how far he can grow. The chief business of the home\nand the lower grades of the school is to promote growth, not learning or mental\ndiscipline. Healthy growth in the child is to be promoted by the use of the\nmuscles rather than through mental training, though this also is important.\nWhen the child runs and plays, he is increasing his appetite for food, enlarging\nthe lungs, strengthening the heart, and stimulating the growth of all his vital\norgans. On the growth and development of these vital organs Hfe and health\ndirectly depend. He is also fortifying the nervous system against hysteria\nand weakness during adult life. The strategic center of health and growth in\nthe child lies in the muscles rather than in the brain. Hence the early\nyears of school life should be years of muscular education mainly through\n• plays and games.\nThe child would gladly play most of the time; he cannot sit still; he\nhungers for movement as for food. The craving for muscular exercise is as\nnatural, normal, healthy, and beneficent as the hunger for food and drink.\nHe craves and needs the exercise frequently and in small doses; only thus can\nit be riiost efficient in stimulating and promoting growth. To rob the child of\nhis exercise is as really a sin as to nourish him insufficiently.\nYou say that the home is the place for play and physical training. This\nis true. But where can the city child play and run in a flat or in a microscopic\nback-yard? The school should promote growth and not hamper it, as it\nusually does.\nMost of the brain of the child is very immature, almost embryonic, and\nneeds very little exercise. Much thinking does it more harm than good. A\nfew moments' talk with the teacher several times during the day gives it all\nthe exercise and stimulus which it needs. Our question should always be:\n\"How much work will most benefit the child?\" not: \"How much can he\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nGROWTH\n\nIN\n\nCHILDREN\n\n915\n\nstand without evident injury ?\" Between these \"recitation\" periods the child\nis supposed to be busy at his desk. His brain is weary; his muscles clamor for\nexercise; but he must sit still. He learns to sit over his work and not think\nabout it, to dawdle and loll over a book, and think he is studying. If he must\nsit still at his desk over his' book, it will injure him less to dawdle than to\nstudy, even though the bad habit becomes ineradicable. But why not send\nhim out on the playground and give him the exercise which he craves ? It is\nfar better for his mind as well as his body.\nHe can actually learn more on the playground than at the desk. The playground isthe school of focused attentioa, quick thought, and right action;\nof getting on with his fellows, which he cannot learn in the small family at\nhome; of making friends, of self-control, of fair play, and of a host of social\nvirtues. On the playground he \"grows and waxes strong,\" which is about\nall that the Bible ever tells us of the childhood of its heroes. The years before\nten, and especially between six and ten, are golden years for growth. Their\nevery possibility should be fully realized. The child is Hke a caterpillar\nstoring up material for the trying changes and metamorphoses which immediately follow.\nLet us watch the girl a moment. Between ten and sixteen, and mostly\nbetween twelve and fifteen, she will change from a lank, angular child into a\ngraceful, rounded, developed woman. The caterpillar becomes a butterfly.\nEvery organ in her body is modified; most of them are transformed. Old\nmaterial is removed and new added. A very large amount of waste is produced and thrown into the blood, clogging and poisoning all the organs. She\nbecomes pale, loses her appetite, is irritable. She tires easily and quickly, and\nprefers sitting over the furnace register to a brisk walk in the cold air. Her\nbrain is dull and her studies may become difficult. She loses interest in her\nwork, and becomes inattentive in class.\nHer appetite needs to be stimulated to furnish the material for growth and\ndevelopment. But above all her blood must be cleansed, purified, and\nenriched. Many a girl has been conditioned at school because of poverty of\nblood mistaken for mental or moral inability. The waste must be burned\nand the blood purified by oxygen brought in at the lungs. The most important question about the girl of ten or twelve is : \"What is her lung capacity ? \"\nnot: \"What is her head-girth?\" The latter will take care of itself in due\ntime. With proper physical training her lung capacity will increase during\nthese years with marvelous rapidity, as Anderson has shown. But usually\nshe does not get the needed exercise. She does a little housework at home\nor \"picks up\" after the boys just enough to keep her indoors, and sits still and\ntries to study at school. Her mother adds lessons in music ; her aunts tell her\nnot to be a tom-boy ; her teachers urge her to study harder. No one notices\nthat the real seat of the difficulty is in the lungs and vital organs. During\nthese years the better scholars have the larger lung-capacity. If lack of oxygen\nand poverty of blood continues we have invalidism or worse at nineteen or\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "9l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\ntwenty. Then when the horse has long been stolen, we carefully lock the\nstable door.\nThe greatest need of our grammar-schools today is rational physical\ntraining, and the best form of physical training is free, hut not too strenuous.\nplay in the open air.\nUnder our present system physical disorders and morbidity rise to a maximum of frequency at about thirteen, and again at seventeen or eighteen, with\nbut slight diminution between in the case of the girl. The physical condition\nof girls entering the high schools in our towns and cities is frequently or usually\nlamentable. This has been proven beyond doubt by medical examination in\nsome of our cities, and is probably true, to a great extent, of all. Yet threefourths of all the disorders at puberty and of the invalidism at twenty could be\ngreatly mitigated or avoided by a sensible system of physical training applied\nduring childhood.\nWe have no time or need to study conditions in high school or college.\nIn the older pupils the brain has become the chief center of development and\nof education. Still physical training is needed, but the muscular system is no\nlonger the all-important center which it ^\\as in childhood. Development has\nshifted from one system to another, and our plan of education must shift its\nemphasis accordingly.\nWe are fast becoming a sedentary people living in offices and studies, or\nbehind desks and counters. The American woman almost never uses her\nheavy muscles, but only those of finger or hand. The whole strain of Hfe and\nwork falls on the nerves, which are least fitted to bear the heavy and continuous\nstrain. A woman with a sound healthy nervous system is therefore a rarity\namong us. \"Health comes in through the muscles, and flies out through the\nnerves.\" Our neglect of the nervous system in school and in life is costing us\ndear. The home cannot or will not remedy the evil. The school must do\nwhat it can, or the nation will pay the penalty.\nMany of our most useful virtues and some of our most disagreeable vices\nare physical even more than mental. The dyspeptic can have neither faith,\nhope, nor charity. Courage, hope, calmness, cheer, endurance, all spring from\nthe motor fully as much as from the mental centers. They are attained\nthrough muscular exercise more than through the study of books. If the\nteacher will develop strong pupils, she must first of all be strong herself.\nOnly healthy parents can breed healthy children. Health of body and of\nmind must be insured and fortified in childhood. Hence physical even more\nthan msntal training is the great business of the child at home and at school.\nIf we neglect or forget this fact, we shall find ourselves fighting against Nature\nand ultimately against God.\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n'\n\nGEORGE\n\nON THE PLAYGROUND\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nE. JOHNSON,\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF THE\nASSOCIATION,\nPITTSBURG,\nPA.\n\n917\n\n.\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nThere have been three studies of children of great sociological interest —\nHall's Story of a Sand Pile, John Johnson's Rudimentary Society Among Boys,\nand the George Junior Republic. The first gives a vivid picture of the social\nactivities of a group of boys, pursued under conditions of nearly perfect\nautonomy and spontaneity. The Sand Pile was essentially a drama. The\nchildren reproduced community life in a country village as they saw it. It was\nan imitative, idealistic interpretation of village life in play. Everything was\nreproduced in miniature, people, town hall, roads, farms, houses, bams, horses,\nwagons, cattle. The boys assumed personahties in accord with the puppets\nthey manipulated, defined social and governmental relations, and participated in\npubhc institutions. The study shows how intimately and minutely children\nmay identify themselves with social customs and pohtical institutions in play,\nand suggests a field for the educator almost wholly neglected.\nThe study by Johnson describes the evolution of society among the group\nof boys having free range and control of eight hundred acres of field and woodland. In the case of the McDonogh boys the social relations and acts were\ngenuine and practical, and not idealistic, imitative, and playful, as in the case\nof the Sand Pile. They evolved out of the play life of the boys and were\ndesigned to regulate it. Here the autonomy was nearly but not perfectly\ncomplete. The study shows that the evolution of society among the McDonogh boys was similar to the evolution of society among primitive peoples.\nCommunity of ownership, land tenure, legislation, judicial procedure, industry, and trade developed in the manner familiar to students of primitive\nsocieties. The study suggests a science of social embryology.\nThe playful, imitative, and idealistic social activities of the Sand Pile and\nthe spontaneous, automatic evolution of boy society at McDonogh's are less\nin evidence in the George Junior Republic. Here we have a copy by children\nof modern society and for a serious purpose. Autonomy and spontaneity are\npresent in details but absent in the general aim and development. The\nRepublic suggests a method of transition from play to active participation in\nmodern civic life.\nThese three studies are of great interest to teachers and sociologists, the\nfirst offering material suggestive to general education, the second material\nsuggestive to students of sociology, and the third material suggestive to practical philanthropy, yet none offers adequate suggestions for a general method\nof social education.\nIt is the purpose of this paper to seek from the playground further suggestions inregard to the social training of children. In doing this it will be\nwell to add to the above studies mention of certain historic instances of spontaneous social relations among adults.\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "gi8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chad-Study\n\nFor example, in the year of 1848, in California, there was a remarkable\nexhibftion of order without law, of social control without organized government. In Ross's Social Control we find these statepients: ''Scattered over\na large territory, the men of the various camps dwelt together in peace and\nharmony;\" \"Legal forms and judicial machinery were as nearly non-existent\nas it is possible to imagine in a civilized country; \" \"There was no theft and no\ndisorder; few troublesome disputes occurred about boundaries or water\nrights;\" \"It is simply and literally true that there was a short time in California when crime was almost absolutely unknown, when pounds and pints\nof gold were left unguarded in tents and cabins, or thrown down on the hillside,\nor handed about thru a crowd for inspection. Wash-basins of gold would\nsometimes be left on the table in an open tent while the owner was at work\non his claim a mile away.\" This order without law and social control without\norganized government Ross terms \"natural order\" — i. e., order without\ndesign or art. This natural order, of which there have been other notable\ninstances, occurs only under conditions favorable and stimulative to the\nnatural conscience — i. e., according to Ross, under freedom and equality\nwhich, please note, are essentially the conditions of the playground. To this\nsocial order the individual contributes, according to Ross, the following traits\nof personal character: sympathy, sociability, sense of justice, and resentment.\nLet us inquire whether child-study on the playground can shed any light upon\nthe development of these traits which Ross claims are primarily the individual's\ncontribution to social order.\nThe first contribution of the individual to social control is sympathy.\nSympathy is instinctive and manifestation of it appears very early in childhood,\nbut while the first show of sympathy may be the result of instinctive reaction,\nit is peculiarly dependent for development upon exercise. Now the exercise\nof sympathy depends upon the imagination and experience. Children are\ncruel often through ignorance and through lack of experience, through lack of\nimagination \"stuff.\" As Miss Tanner says, the sure cure for lack of sympathy is a wide experience and a constant exercise of the imagination in\n\"putting your self in his place.\" A little kindergarten boy took huge delight,\nwhen marching, in kicking the legs of the boy in front of him. Talking did\nnot persuade him to forego this pleasure. Finally the teacher said, \"Why,\nJohn, didn't you know that it hurts awfully when you kick Walter ? Now I\nam going to show you. Draw back your foot and kick yourself in the leg.\"\nJohn smilingly drew back his foot and gave himself a vigorous kick just below\nthe calf of the leg; his face changed, and he gave out a yell that brought the\nteachers of the building to their doors, but he was effectually cured.\nThe playground offers to the observer many hints regarding the development of sympathy, the exercise of the imagination, and the acquiring of experience as related to social conduct. In his play the child sphts up, as psychologists express it, into his other selves. He becomes a horse, a dog, the\nmotorman, the conductor, the milkman, the cowboy, the policeman, even the\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\n919\n\ndrunkard and the thief. He is in turn the pursuer and the pursued, the caught\nand the catcher, the loser and the winner, the boss and the bossed, the ''it\"\nand the \"not it.\" Here all experience is broken up and remodeled in the\nimagination and lived again in ideal action. It is this constant adjustment\nof self to environment and of environmnet to self, of one's own personality\nto other personalities in play, that gives the widest possible opportunity for the\ndevelopment of sympathy as a contribution of the individual to social order.\nRoss's second role is that of sociability. This also is an instinctive trait\nof children. In its early manifestation it is a herding rather than a social\ninstinct. Ross calls attention to a curious fact and that is that sociability is\nrelatively weak in the Teutonic race, the race to which the world owes its most\nnotable co-operative achievements, while in some of the most backward races\nare found the best instances of instinctive adaptation to social life. The proper\nbalance between the old and the new has not been fully maintained. The\ntraits that have weakened sociability in the Teutonic race have been aggressiveness, capacity for fighting, and love of conquest. ''For sixty generations or\nmore,\" says Ross, \"circumstances tended to breed out of him his primitive\namiability. Then for a score or so of generations circumstances have tended\nto breed out of him some of his acquired ferocity.\" By this selective process,\nthere has resulted a somewhat clannish but self-reliant individualistic type\nof man, best illustrated in the American.\nAgain, as Ross notes, the force that impels the Anglo-Saxon to union has\nbecome economic rather than ethical, and he is receding farther and farther\nfrom the primitive ties of fellowship. How is this individualistic, self -regarding, economic American to be amalgamated with all the nations of immigrants\nwho have come to our shores; or, if the Anglo-Saxon American is to be the\nforce to amalgamate the other nations and ally them to himself, how is this\nto be done? Child-study on the playground, I believe, will help solve the\nproblem, and it is a real problem. Already one person in three in America\nwas bom of foreign parents, one in two in New England, and almost two in\nthree in Massachusetts. On the cover of a report of the Pittsburg Playground\nAssociation is a picture of a group of fourteen children of one playground, and\nten different nations are represented. Where can the bonds of sympathy,\nthe natural ties of fellowship of these children of the nations be so well developed as on that purest of democracies — the playground ? Where else can so\nwell be dispelled the instinctive distrust of different peoples, so well established\nthe mutual respect for each other's worth ? One of the largest of Pittsburg's\nplaygrounds is in the heart of a colored district, but the white population is\nalso considerable. It was found necessary to refuse the ball grounds for the\nplaying of matched games between white and black teams, on account of the\nfighting and rioting of the \"fans\" of different colors. But this point is to be\nnoted, that all the trouble arose among the spectators, while at no times was\nthere difficulty or ill-feeling between the contending teams. Consider, if\nyou will, the influence of the play of little children of various nationalities\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chfld-Study\n\ntogether on the properly supervised playground in the smoothing away of race\nprejudice thru social contact in these tractable years; the value of organized\nathletic teams whose numbers represent various nations; of systematized\nsports, under public control, between various sections of a city, when the teams\nmay be largely either Teutonic, Slav, Celt, or Latin. Consider the probable\ninfluence in extending the boundaries of sociability of a play festival like that\nheld in Chicago, oi Washington, or Pittsburg, or that to be held in this city\nnext Friday, where all sections and nationalities of the city meet in one grand\ngala day of play, where children of all ages enter the games suited to their years\nor dance, perhaps in costume, the folk dances of every nation. It is then that\nthe thought of Paul, unconsciously, it may be, gains ground in every heart:\n''God hath made of one blood all nations of men, for to dwell upon the face\nof the earth.\"\nThe third role mentioned by Ross is the sense of justice. It should be\nnoted that while sympathy and sociabiHty have their beginning in instinct,\njustice is a child of the reason and the intellect. Sympathy might oppose\njustice. It was counted remarkable when a stem Roman condemned his own,\nthough guilty, sons to death. And yet, the sense of justice implies a point of\nview, which, at first, may have depended much upon sympathy. We noted\nunder sympathy how the personality of the child splits up into the other\npersonalities, cultivating a habit of doing things from another's point of view.\nAll writers upon the value of play from the very earliest have noted the playground's influence in the matter of justice. Fair play is the Anglo-Saxon\nboy's slogan. Play fair ! A square deal ! Disputes among boys in games are\ndisputes over fact, and not over the application of the rules. Boys on the\nplayground do not escape on technicalities, if men do in court. What is the\nfact, and what is the rule, is all that is asked. The sense of fairness has developed most in the most capable races. This reflects, according to Ross, the\nsense of power, the feeling of magnanimity. The strong can afford not to\ntake advantage. This is certainly the attitude of play and sport at their best.\nIt was finely illustrated in an international tennis tournament in England a\nfew years ago. In the finals, an Englishman and an American were matched\nagainst each other. At a critical stage of the game, set, and series, the American made one of those unaccountable slips that the best of players sometimes\nmake. It was an accident rather than a misplay, but it placed the American\nat a decided disadvantage. The Englishman, instead of seizing the advantage, deliberately made a similar bad stroke, thereby restoring to his opponent\nthe ground he had lost. It is interesting to note that chivalry developed\ncontemporaneously with the tournament and the joust. I am convinced that\nif unsportsmanlike conduct has crept into school and intercollegiate sports it\nonly emphasizes the gross neglect by school authorities of one of their gravest\nresponsibilities.\nBut I believe the playground has more subtle moral influence than this.\nThe incidents of the playground are so infinite and so interwoven with the\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\n92I\n\nmoods and passions of life itself that it brings the moral nature of the boy into\nconstant trial. Cariisle says somewhere, in substance, that the true man lives\nthe truth and when he has once accepted certain principles he is ready to\nadjust his conduct always to them whatever may be the consequences. It\nwould be difficult to say how much the intellect and reason are diverted from\nthe truth by sympathy and the feelings. As blood is thicker than water, so\nprejudice is often deeper than the reason. The reason cannot always detect\nthe prejudice that has prostituted it. Sincere men south of the Mason and\nDixon line found in the Bible convincing arguments for slavery. Men north\nof the Mason and Dixon line in the same book found convincing arguments\nagainst slavery. Eight Republicans and seven Democrats composed the\nElectoral Commission to determine whether Hayes or Tilden had been elected\nPresident of the United States. The eight Republicans were convinced that\nHayes had been elected. From the same data, the seven Democrats were\nconvinced that Tilden had been elected. If there is any school where the\nreason can learn to rise secure above the interference of inclination and prejudice, its season is childhood and its best opportunity is play. Incidents like\nthe following are not insignificant. Some grammar-school boys formed a\nball team. They were of that age when the individual is just beginning to\nsubordinate himself to the group, and the organization of the team was weak.\nTrouble began. A boy came to the teacher and said, ''The boys don't want\nme to be catcher. I got up the team. I am captain. I own the catcher's\nmask. I am the only one that has a catcher's mitt, and I have got a fivedollar chest-protector. Don't you think I ought to be catcher?\" ''But,\nGrosvenor,\" said the teacher, \"can you catch ?^^ A new association track\nslowly opened up in the boy's brain. He had a new point of view, reason\nasserted itself over inclination, and the boy became a better captain and, I\nbelieve, thought straighter and truer in social relations ever after.\nIn a certain historic intercollegiate football game, which perhaps some of\nyou may have witnessed, came a moral crisis to the captain. His side was\ngaining steadily. There lacked but a few moments till the close of the game.\nOne more noble effort like the last would secure a touchdown and the game\nwould be won. The spectators were at the height of excitement, one side wild\nwith expectant joy, the other depressed and dismayed. The man who had\nbeen making the gains was known to be good for another. The captain\nwavered between reason and inclination. The signal was given. The ball\nwas passed, not to the hero who deserved the honor, but to a fellow society\nman of the captain's. The play was blocked and the game was lost. Something like a groan passed through the great crowd, and the captain and every\nman present realized instantly that he had not been true to his trust, that his\nopportunity had come and found him wanting. That such failures are rare in\ncollege sports emphasizes the rarity of social graft on the playground. But\nthe incident illustrates the intensity of moral activity in games and the swift\nand blasting public opinion which follows moral failure.\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nResentment is the next role mentioned by Ross and the last that I shall\ndiscuss. Among primitive men and boys of equal age it is thought cowardly\nnot to retaliate when suffering an affront. But in highly developed society,\nman ceases from personal retaliation and has recourse to law and its representatives. Itseems to me that the next step in the evolution of resentment isthe development of resentment against injustice to society as a whole.\nIt has already developed universally as regards limited groups, and in some\nmen as regards society as a whole. The expression of resentment, of course,\nwells up out of the fighting instinct. In crude society it is thought to be the\nexpression of manliness, and we have an instinctive distrust of the man who\ndoes not resent, although we discriminate as to the manner of his resenting.\nOut of the instinct for fighting may come the very issues of a rugged moral\nlife. To fight, but to fight for righteousness in one's heart and for righteousness in society — on this kind of fighting depends the rate of the moral progress\nof the race. Tell me what subject in the curriculum of the school is designed\nto develop manhood, courage, hardihood, endurance, self-possession, control\nin excitement, and magnanimity ? In school, through literature and history,\nideals of such are formed, but ideals are vitalized only through action. Conduct is emotion expressed in motor discharge. In childhood and youth,\nemotion leaks away if long restrained from motor expression, and the emotion\nitself may, by continual divorce from action, lose its power as a moral stimulus.\nPresident Walker, you all remember, long ago sounded his note of warning\nthat even protracted study, apart from putting that study to practical use,\ntended toward paralysis of the will and disposition to stand shivering on the\nbrink of action. If this is true of intellectual study, how much more is it\ntrue of the emotions? Where else can the instinct for fighting be so well\nconserved and rightly directed as on the playground ? The moral vertebrae\nof the race depend upon the right training of this instinct. Under right conditions, boys are more ready to play fair than to play foul, to fight with a high\nideal than to fight with a low. But fight, contend, they must, if there is ever\nto be moral sand enough in them to keep their feet from slipping on every\ndifficult slope. I cannot believe that this is inconsistent with the Christian\ndoctrine of non-resistance. Jesus forbade personal retaliation and enjoined\nthe return of good for evil, but his whole life was one of resistance and resentment of evil, in the individual heart and in society — a life of supreme\nexemplification of every hardy virtue.\nIt was a great step in advance for society when individual retaliation gave\nplace to the retaliation of society through law. It will be an additional step\nwhen the feeling of resentment is aroused by injustice to society, as it once was\nby injustice to the individual.\nSympathy, sociability, sense of justice, and resentment — these are four lines\nof the individual's contribution toward social control. In the evolution of\nsociety from a simple to a highly complex form there is a danger that a perfect\nbalance will not be maintained, a tendency toward the weakening of sym-\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\n923\n\npathy, the narrowing of sociability, the dulling of the sense of justice, and the\nperversion of resentment. Child-study on the playground suggests that in\nplay we have the best opportunity for conserving and directing these traits\nin the individual.\nIf the playground develops sympathy as related to social conduct, if it\nextends sociability beyond the bounds of family and clan, if it quickens the\nsense of justice, if it refines resentment and turns it from personal to social\nends, has not the teacher among all her glorious opportunities the additional\none of great social service through championship of the playground ? Let us\nnot despise the playground; let us not fail to hearken to the voice of childhood; let us not consent to abandon the recess, to exterminate spontaneity\nand to leave the playground a desert waste of neglected opportunity.\n\n, DISCUSSION\nProfessor Joseph Jastrow, University of Wisconsin. — There can be no doubt that\nthe conventional attitude of attention to school details tends to blind us to more real and\ngeneral interests. All vi^e have heard has been a protest against this, and as such a protest,\nit is of very great value. When your president asks me to add something of my own to\nthis discussion, I am reminded of one walking through a village after a hailstorm, where\nhe sees that the carpenter has patched his broken window with a piece of wood, the tinsmith with a piece of tin, and the shoemaker with a piece of leather. Each uses what he\nhas on hand. And so, if I am to add anything it must be from my own standpoint and\npresent interest in the subconscious. And we can restate many of the problems from this\nstandpoint: How much of all our acquisitions shall be conscious ? How much shall be\nsubconscious ? In the past our child-study has been much with the conscious, yet after all\nmost of a child's mental furniture is not of that sort; not of the sort that can be tested by a\nspelling contest. When we read the lives of great men we are likely to forget that they\nare also men — that most of what they did was very commonplace. This side of their lives\ngets suppressed in the biographies. And there is a side of everyone's life and thought that\n'gets suppressed in our work-a-day world. A vast amount of thinking is romancing —\nnobody is hopelessly sane. We shove the nonsense aside for company, but it is there, and\nIoften it shows on the playground.\nOne of the tasks of child-study is to discover the subconscious. Most of our teaching\n[tells too much — there is over-explanation. Children should often -do things not because\njthey know the reason why, but because they don't. The only way to make them do this is\nby cultivating sensibilities. These express themselves best when they are not too much\nIin the full light of consciousness.\nDifficult temperaments arise when that which should be suppressed has come to the\n[fore. Such temperaments are hard to describe — a three-minute description of anything\n[is misleading, and we can't stain a temperament to bring out its different features, as a\n!microscopist stains his slides. Yet, temperaments determine character, and we ought to\n[know them. We can study them to best advantage when we see them exaggerated into\n[well-marked abnormalities.\nWiNTHROP T. Talbot, Holderness, N. H. — ^What I have to say is purely from the\nstandpoint of an outside man and a physician, and my one word is, \"Back to the farm.\"\nIt seems that the successful fine men and fine women of the country have had the privilege\nof the training of the farm — the sound, substantial body, the substratum of power, the\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\ntraining of self-control in play, and that individualizing between man and man, and woman\nand woman, the importance of which has been so ably stated by Dr. Jastrow. With our\ngreat cry for air and cry for freedom, the slogan of education in this country should be,\n\"Back to the farm.\"\n\nPHYSIOLOGICAL\nROBERT\n\nAGE AND\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\nW. BRUERE, SECRETARY OF THE NEW YORK COMMITTEE\nPHYSICAL WELFARE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN\n\nON THE\n\nMay I preface what I have to say upon the relation of Dr. C. Ward Crampton's studies in physiological age to child-labor, with a word of congratulation\nto the people of Cleveland and of Ohio, upon the child-labor law that went into\nforce on the first day of July, 1908 ? The law as finally enacted has remained\ninaccessible to me, although I have made repeated efforts to secure a copy of\nit. From newspaper reports, however, as well as from the preHminary draft\nof the bill, I know that it contains many provisions destined to safeguard the\nphysical welfare of children who are compelled by economic necessity to enter\nfactories. Every such statute should be heartily welcomed not only because\nof the good it aims to accomplish for children, but especially because it indicates an awakening public conscience. It marks another step from brutal\ncompetitive barbarism toward an enlightened life-loving socialized civihzation.\nBut it is just at the moment when the advocates of beneficent child-labor\nlegislation are celebrating their triumph that an appeal for increasingly intelligent service needs to be made to educators.\nNo one who has closely followed the progress of legislation restricting the\nconditions under which children work has failed to see that one of its important by-products is the revelation of the unfitness of our elementary school\ncurriculum, as it is at present organized, to meet the needs of that very large\nmajority of pubhc-school children who are destined to serve the state not\nas clerks or as professional men, but as mechanics. There is a period between\nthe grammar school and the time when boys and girls receive their workingpapers, in which children in all of our manufacturing cities are either turned\nadrift to shift as best they can upon the street, or, tempted by a not unpraiseworthy desire for healthful and gainful activity, to become lawbreakers by\ndoing work before they are entitled to do so by the statute. This fact should\nnot be brought, as I have often heard it brought, as an indictment against\nhumane advocates of child-labor legislation. The responsibility for the grave\nsin of omission, of which the ''lost year\" is the striking symptom, rests not at all\nupon the advocates of liberal child labor legislation, but upon the educator.\nI shall not soon forget the conversation which I recently had with the foremost advocate of such legislation in our state. I was calling her attention to\nsome of the facts which I am about to present to you, facts which show that\nsome children need to be put to work, whether in workshops or in properly\nequipped schools, before the age of fourteen; and that many children at the\nage of fourteen are as little fit to bear the strain of physical labor as children of\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPHYSIOLOGICAL\n\nAGE\n\nAND\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\n925\n\ntwelve. I suggested that the fitness of a boy or girl for labor should be determined not by an arbitrary chronological age-standard, but by a thorough physiological examination which would determine what the state of the child's\nmaturity was, what the fitness of the child to undertake labor of any kind\nwhatsoever, whether in a factory or the trade school, at the time of the examination, might be. With a flash of zeal, undoubtedly inspired by long\nfamiliarity with cruel conditions in schools as well as in factories, she declared\nthat she would fight to the last trench any suggestion, however well grounded\nin scientific facts, that threatened the minimum age-limit, that tended to\nshow that any child under fourteen was fit for any kind of physical work;\nand that as for trade and technical schools, which I was especially advocating,\nshe preferred to see boys and girls ranging free upon the streets to seeing\nthem subjected to daily imprisonment, if only during a period of five hours,\nin the schoolroom. What I particularly remember was her statement that\nthe generation now growing up, when it arrived at the age of forty, would\nlook back upon us of this generation as peculiarly callous to all the needs and\nrights of childhood, and would rank our educators as second only to the more\ndrastic factory employers among the enemies of childhood.\nIn spite of the many beneficent changes that have taken place in our school\ncurriculum during the past four or five years, her criticisms of educators was,\nI believe, for the most part just. Our schools are still encumbered by a false\ncultural tradition, inherited from the Middle Ages when knowledge of letters\nwas synonymous with education and when work was a brand of inferiority,\nand which leaves children destined for the mechanic trade entirely unequipped\nat the end of their school course for the useful work which they must do in the\nworld. Nevertheless, it seems to me a question as to whether we are wise to\nexchange the Procrustean bed of our present school curriculum for a Procrustean bed of calendar years, however nobly inspired the zeal that establishad the standard of calendar years may have been. It was because Dr.\nCrampton's investigation seemed to throw much needed scientific light upon\nthe very difficult problem of adjusting education to the practical needs of our\nindustrial life that the New York Committee on the Physical Welfare of School\nChildren associated itself with him this last winter, with a view to completing\nhis studies upon physiological age among the children in the New York public\nschools.\nAs early as 1902 Dr. Cramp ton, as assistant director of physical training,\nobserved that boys not yet pubescent (as to the pubis) were smaller and weaker\nthan those who were pubescent. He found that he could easily distinguish\nthe pre-puhescent or immature by a complete absence of hair, and that he could\ndistinguish the post-pubescent or mature by their very well-defined coverings.\nHe accordingly classified the boys who came under his observation as prepuhescent or immature, pubescent or maturing, and post- pubescent or mature.\nThe results of his examination of forty-eight hundred boys are shown in the\nfour following tables.\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\n926\n6\nTable No. i below gives the population of the half-year groups 12. 50-13 . 00 to 17 . 50- %\n18.00 with reference to physiological age, and demonstrates the important fact that the\nchronological age groups are not homogeneous.\n85\n\nTABLE\n\nI\n24\n% Groups\nPhysioloc.icai. =5\nAge\n\n69%\n\nAge in Years\n\nMaturing\n\nImmature\n12.50\n13.00\n13.50\n14.00\n14.50\n15-00\n15.50\n16.00\n16.50\n17.00\n17.50\n\nMature\n18\n\n28\n26\n\n13.00\n13.50\n14.00\n14.50\n15.00\n15-50\n16.00\n16.50\n17.00\n17.50\n18.00\n\n55\n\n28\n\n26\n16\n\n20\n\n9\n5\n2\nI\n0\n0\n\n10\n4\n4\n2\n0\n\n41\n\n630\n9\n100\n\nFrom this table it will be seen that up to 17.00-17. 50 each age group has its varied\nconstituency of immature and mature.\n6\n4\n\nTABLE\n\nII\n\n31\n\nAverage Weight in Kilograms\nAge in Years\n\n1\n\nImmature\n\nMaturing\n\n70\nMature\n\n12.50\n13.00\n13-50\n14.00\n14.50\n\n13.00\n13-50\n14.00\n14.50\n\n44.3\n(50.8)\n\n15.00\n15-50\n16.00\n16.50\n\n17.00\nSIGNIFICANCE\n\nOF\n\nPHYSIOLOGICAL\n\n37-9\n36.6\n\n35-45-2\n3\n35-0\n36.7\n37-9\n36.8\n35-2\n(42.5)\n(40)\n\n15.00\n15 50\n16.00\n16.50\n\nAGE\n\nIN TEEMS\n\nOF\n\n37-2\n38.3\n38.6\n(41.5)\n41.8\n3839.8\n-0\nSTRUCTURE\n\n.\n\n45-4\n47-7\n49-3\n43-8\n\nAND\n\n47-2\n53-5\nFUNCTION\n\n51-6 sign,\nIf the immature differed from the mature in no other way than this particular\nit would hardly be worth while to segregate these groups. The classification shows,\nhowever, that there is a striking physical change in the progress from immaturity to maturity. At characteristic ages, the mature are more than ;^^ per cent, heavier, 10 per cent,\ntaller, and 33 per cent, stronger than the immature, as indicated by the Tables No. II, III,\nand IV.\n\nFrom Table II it is evident that any statistics which do not include a reference to\nphysiological age are faulty and incomplete in so far as weight and allied features are concerned. Practically all of our statistical work must be viewed in the light of this evidence\nor disregarded completely.\nTable III shows the different average heights of these three physiological age groups\nfor each half year. The error of previous statistical work is clear, and the wisdom of\nrecognizing the basis of physiological age in grouping statistical and other records is\nthoroly demonstrated.\nTable IV is of the strength of grip of the right hand taken with a two-bar dynamometer.\n\n11\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSIOLOGICAL\n\nDepartment!\n\nAGE\n\nAND\n\nTABLE\n\nIII\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\n927\n\nAverage Height in Centimeters\nAge in Years\nImmature\n12.50\n13.00\n13.50\n14.00\n14.50\n15.00\n15.50\n16.00\n16.50\n\n13.00\n13.50\n14.00\n14.50\n15.00\n15.50\n16.00\n16.50\n17.00\n\n145-7\n144.0\n144.2\n147-3\n146.6\n149-8\n149-8\n151. 0\n(I53-)\n\nMaturing\n147-5\n148.7\n150.4\n151-7\n151-5\n150.6\n152.4\n153. -4)\n1\n(151\n\nMature\n150.5\n153-9\n155-9\n157-9\n160.7\n158.9\n\n165.4\n162.6\n164.6\n\nTable IV demonstrates again that the immature are radically different from the\nmature. These three tables present a reiteration of proof of the importance of this classification, upon which it is unnecessary to enlarge.\nTABLE IV\nStrength in Kilograms\nAge in Years\n\n12.50\n13-00\n13.50\n14.00\n14.50\n15-00\n15.50\n16.00\n16.50\n\n13.00\n13.50\n14.00\n14.50\n15.00\n15.50\n16.00\n16.50\n17.00\n\n26.3\nImmature\n\nMaturing\n\n26.6\n27-3\n\n28.2\n28.1\n\n6\n\n30.4\n\n43 8\n3\n\nMature\n\n2\n\n29.4\n27.6\n\nI\n\n29.6\n32.5\n31-7\n(27-5)\n\n30.4\n30.2\n30.8\n29.6\n3I-I\n\n9\n8\n3\n5)(32\n\nIn view of these great physical differences, it is not surprising that there are demonstrable differences in mental ability.\nFor a compendium of the great mental and social differences between the immature\n33-2\n\nand mature, it is only necessary to refer to G. Stanley Hall's Adolescence and other publications of a similar nature; altho their data are based upon \"puberty\" and not upon\nany objective sign, their results are beyond question.\n40\nSo far in our investigation we have obtained records only for high-school boys, and\n2\nhave taken success in scholarship as an indication in mental ability. The immature boys 4\n48\nat all ages fail to pass the work of any grade much more than those who are mature.\n\nInasmuch as I have had the privilege of collaborating with Dr. Cramp ton\nin the formulation of the recommendations which he has based upon the foregoing tables, I venture, with his permission, to set them down here as they\nwere set down in a recent issue of the Pedagogical Seminary.\nEDUCATION\n\nOur educational plan fails to take any cognizance of the difference between the immature and the mature, and of the vast development of existing and latent abilities, and the\naccession of new traits which occur during pubescence.\nNevertheless, the trend of our educational endeavor is rapidly changing. That every\nchild entering the kindergarten must proceed regularly through the elementary school, high\nschool, and college, is no longer the end and aim of our system. Our practice is being\ndirected toward life as well as toward culture.\n\n11\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nIt is being recognized that the world provides little room for the scholar, and much\nroom for the mechanic, clerk, and merchant, and it is idle to endeavor to transform any\ngrowing generation of children into an adult generation of scholars.\nHitherto education has succeeded in rejecting all of the children who fail to keep in\nline with the lockstep, and it has done its work fatally and well. Only those who could\nendure a system frankly fitted to subserve the ends of higher education remain in school.\nOnly those are rejected who have failed in scholastic promise and accomplishment. These\nfailures must perforce adopt other than scholastic or professional activities to gain a livelihood.\nDropping out of the lockstep into life-work is in one respect a most salutary thing for\nthose unfitted for scholastic development, but our compulsory education law demands\nthat the child be kept in school until he is a certain age, and has completed school work of\na certain grade.\nThis retains the deficient scholar in school long after he has reached maturity, and we\nfind in the lower grammar grades (from 5a to 7a in New York City) thousands of mature\nchildren, who are, have been, and always will be poor scholars, more out of sympathy with\nschool work than ever before, resistant to all school authority, turbulent, unruly, wasteful,\nand useless burdens merely cumbering the scholastic ground till they become habitual\ntruants, or finally succeed in getting their \"working papers.\" A preliminary investigation shows that in the fifth, sixth, and seventh years in the elementary schools in NewYork City the poor scholars are on the average 37, 40, and 46 per cent, respectively more\nadvanced in maturity than the good scholars. This is quite contrary to the conditions\nshown in the high schools.\nThe fundamental fact is wholly disregarded. A child commences to feel his newly\nacquired neuro-muscular ability when he matures, his increased mental grasp occasions\na change of attitude toward life, and he begins to fit himself for a place in the scheme of\nadult affairs, and to exert himself for a livelihood and a competence. The instinct for lifework, the \"earning instinct\" is awakened. Those who have been successful scholars will\nfind themselves well advanced in school, and can with assurance of success look forward\nto a scholastic or professional life; those who have had poor success as scholars will turn\nto the world of affairs and strife, of mechanics, industry, or business, for their maintenance.\nAt this time it is essential to the mental and moral health of the boy to engage in something\nin which he may succeed. Our present system tends to confine him to a dull routine of\nschool failure.\nRecommendation I. In the light of the foregoing facts it is recommended that children\nwho mature in the lower grammar grades be given the opportunity to obtain such form of\ninstruction in the elementary school as will directly prepare them for immediately taking a\npart in active life.\nTrade education, business practice, mechanics, etc., in short, industrial education,\nshould be introduced for the purpose of releasing these children from the educational\nlockstep and affording them an opportunity to become useful citizens. Our great body\npolitic is not essentially scholastic — to train for scholarship alone is undemocratic.\nIt is at this point the educational system on the inflexible basis of chronological age fails\nin its functions; it suffers from a lack of rational classification wherever mature and\nimmature children are brought together in the same class. Measured by the Procrustean\npedagogical system all children in the same grade are relatively equal in scholarship; but ,\nour educational control contemplates no cognizance of other and more valuable traits than\nthose related to school success, traits the mature possess in such a marked degree, and\nwhich the immature lack. In the upper grammar grades and in the high schools the\nmature are probably not so much better in scholarship than the immature, but they have a\nwhole range of latent abilities applicable to success in life, which, if trained at this point,\nwould lead to personal benefit and industrial efl&ciency; neglected, they become relatively\nuseless or perverted.\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSIOLOGICAL\n\nAGE\n\nAND\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\n929\n\nRecommendation II. Where mature and immature children are now brought together\nin the same class in the elementary or high school, they should he separated into different\nclasses, so that the pedagogical, ethical, and social treatment to which they are subjected may\nbe better adapted to their disparate and distinct requirements and abilities.\nIt is agreed that a further division on the basis of success in scholarship would add to the\nefficiency of teaching since the present idea of the school function is that it is almost purely\nscholastic. With the growth of the ideal of practical utility as the function of school work\nand the fitting of our curriculum to the divergent abilities of these two classes the need of\nthis secondary classification will disappear.\nCHILD-LABOR\n\nThe problem of child-labor is clearly reduced to a formula by our fundamental thesis.\nIt is demonstrated that the mature are from 30 to 50 per cent, stronger than the\nimmature, and that pubescence marks the beginning of the period of rapid increase in\nweight and strength, regardless of the chronological age. On the merits of the case it is\nclear that the immature who are weak should not be allowed to work, and that the mature\nwho are weak should not be allowed to work, and that the mature who are mo»-e fit to\nwork be allowed to engage therein. At present there is a division on the age basis which\nallows some immature to work and prevents some mature children from working, causing\na hardship to both classes. This is contrary to common-sense, and the feeling of the\ncommunity is justly against such arbitrary method. That this is being realized with becoming clearness is evidenced by the last report of Commissioner Draper, of the New York\nState Education Department (Commissioner's Special Thesis; Annual Report 1908;\n\"Our Children, Our Schools, and Our Industries\"), and the report of P. Tecumseh Sherman, Commissioner of Labor, New York State, 1907, who states that \"there should be\nadded to our law a requirement of a fixed minimum standard of physical development\nas a condition to granting a certificate of fitness to work in a factory.\"\nRecommendation III,\nChild-labor legislation should he based upon physiological age.\nIt is agreed that no child found physically or mentally defective should be allowed to\nengage in any but the lightest tasks.\n\nIn conclusion may I relate an experience which Dr. Crampton and I had a\nfew days before my coming to Cleveland, at one of the great public swimmingpools in New York City ? In order to foster the intelligent use of those great\npublic institutions, the baths, we had organized swimming competitions\namong the boys of the upper elementary grades. The observations of that\nday illustrate the whole range of the problem of the physical welfare of school\nchildren. We directed our observation to a group of about two hundred and\nfifty boys who entered the swimming-pool at one time. Among those boys\nnine-tenths confined themselves to the shallower end of the pool, jumping up\nand down and shrieking Hke monkeys. About one-tenth of them, being able\nto swim, enjoyed the full range of the pool. Among the first and larger group\nwe observed many cases of undernourishment, a well-defined case of syphihs,\ntwo cases of ringworm, and innumerable cases of conjunctivitis. The undernourished boys illustrated the need for education not only in personal hygiene,\nbut in diet. Both the boys and their parents sorely needed instruction in\nintelligent feeding. The other members of this group who were suffering\nfrom contagious diseases showed how inadequate our medical inspection still\nis and how sorely we need not only an examination for physical defects, but\na follow-up system which will correct them, and thus not only save the health\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Chfld-Study\n\nof the afflicted individual, but also of other individuals who are exposed to\ncontagion. The teacher in charge of these boys informed me that on the first\nday of the competitions he had ventured into the pool to instruct the boys, with\nthe result that he contracted a severe case of conjunctivitis.\nBut it was among the tenth who were swimming in the deeper half of the\npool that the facts appeared which I wish especially to emphasize here. Among\nthe swimmers, the most expert, and the one most perfect in physical development, was a thoroughly matured boy who was distinguished not only for his\nskill at swimming, but also for his backwardness as a student. He was not,\nmind you, mentally deficient; he was a victim of a curriculum which takes it\nfor granted that all healthy students must be good scholars. What this boy\nneeded was work. Both Dr. Crampton and I were convinced that if it had\nnot been for the physical training department this lad would long ago have\nbecome a truant and a candidate for the Juvenile Court. In both of our\nminds it was a serious question as to whether boys like him would not be\nbetter off in a factory than in a school which has no regard for his individual\nneeds.\nI wish here again to emphasize the fact that what I am pleading for is not\na reduction in the child-labor age-standard, but for a suitable education for\nsuch boys as the one I have just described. His case showed the inadequacy\nof a medical examination which looks exclusively for symptoms of disease\nor for physical defects. Nothing short of an examination for physiological\nage would have suited his case, for such an examination, if officially recognized, would have resulted not in a prescription for medicine or in an operation\nfor the removal of adenoids, but in a prescription for total change of environment and for employment at work as wholesome as the play in which he was\nindulging, as rich in happiness, and infinitely more useful to him and to the\ncommunity which the school should have been equipping him to serve. He\nwill never become a scholar. He might have been made an admirable mechanic. As it is, he may become a criminal and a burden upon the state.\nIn the light of this story I wish to present to you for discussion the question\nas to whether the time has not come for supplementing the working papers\nbased upon physical health and the prescribed number of years at school with\na physical examination which will scientifically determine the state of the\nchild's maturity and his physical fitness for work ?\nDISCUSSION\nMaximillian p. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N. J.— If Mr. Bruere's conclusion is true,\nit may have a bearing upon the child who remains in school. If such a one is prematurely\nmature, might it not be desirable for him to quit school, or at least to have an entirely\ndifferent set of school influences ? Is it not a much broader question than merely one of\nlabor ?\nMr. Bruere. — You are quite right. One of the difficulties is that the advocates of\ntrade schools, in the fear of being called faddists, have introduced into these schools\nsomething of the sordid conditions of the factory.\nPossibly we may look forward to the\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nPHYSIOLOGICAL\n\nAGE\n\nAND\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\n931\n\nday when the trade school will be free from these sordid conditions, and then a child will\ngo to work as he now goes to play, with courage and happiness.\nMrs. Florence Kelley, secretary of the Consumers' League, New York, N. Y. — The\ntrouble with Dr. Crampton is that his work has been carried on in delightful ignorance of\nthe factories. He has never been in a cotton mill, or a glass mill, and he does not know the\nchildren in them. And he does not know the physicians in the foreign colonies, with\nwhom a two dollar fee, and the desire to help a patient's child to get work, can procure for\nalmost anyone a certificate of fitness. With such people to deal with, the substitution of\nphysiological age for age in years will reduce the whole law to a farce.\nMr. BruI:re. — Competent and conscientious examiners would give reasonably reliable\nstatements. The fact that some certificates are now given by physicians of the other sort\nis no reason why we should make anu nreasonable law, equally liable to evasion, instead\nof a reasonable one, based on scientific principles.\nMiss Sadie American, New York City. — I would like to ask Mr. Brufere if the ignorance\nof a large body of facts concerning the conditions into which the child may be forced if\nphysiological age is substituted for chronological age, according to Dr. Crampton's recommendation, entitles the investigation to be considered thoroughly scientific, as he has\ninsisted.\nIt would not appear to me to be such.\nDr. Krehbiel. — Mr. Bruere has told us how the swimming-pool is used, utterly\nregardless of the regulation that requires each bather to take a shower bath first. If such a\nsimple rule as this is neglected, what reason have we to believe that other regulations,\ndepending wholly upon the conscience of the individual examiner, will be observed ?\nDr. Groszmann. — Mr. Sherman has spoken of the force of suggestion. Defective\nchildren are much more subject to the influence of suggestion than normal children. It\nis important that they should not be given bad suggestions, or enough suggestions of any\nsort, to confuse them and inhibit each other, but parents do not realize this. In this\nrespect, therefore, a deficient child has more chance in an institution than in an ordinary\nhome.\nL. Pearl Boggs, University of Illinois. — The discussion of the welfare of the\nchild by specialists in other lines besides the educational during the present convention emphasizes the necessity for a broader training for the teacher. He has\nbeen trained to educate the mind of the child so that he can pass a certain number\nof examinations, whereas he should endeavor to produce a healthy, intelligent child,\nwho is an embryo citizen and understands right social relations. The teacher,\ntherefore, should study child-physiology and hygiene and child-sociology, in order\nto understand his broader obligations. Special courses dealing with these subjects should\nbe given in order that the teacher who wishes to know these subjects need not pursue a halfdozen courses in physiology and home economics, or in sociology, in order to know this\naspect of child-nature. There are no courses offered so far in these lines, excepting one\ncourse in child-hygiene in one university, but the material available for such courses is\nabundant. At the same time the lawyer of our Juvenile Court, the probation officer, and\nthe school physician and nurses could be more effective if they had something of the\ntraining of the teacher.\nPresident G. Stanley Hall, Clark University. — I have very high regard for Dr.\nCrampton's work, but in none of his studies has he touched upon the very important\nquestion of psychological age. A number of very promising studies, not yet published,\nhave been made within the last two years regarding the psychological age. It does not yet\nappear how this is correlated with physiological age, but I am expecting great results from\ninvestigations.\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nI do not think we should contemplate legislation until we know about these two ages.\nBut the facts do seem to indicate that there ought to be a change of environment when the\ntwo sets of inward changes occur, especially if they come together.\nAt the \"psychological\" age there is a touch of openness of mind, of plasticity and\nreceptivity, even in the defective, as though their restrictions were about to be removed,\nand as though, perhaps, at that time, the defective child could be saved if proper means\nwere only taken. At that time the defective mind seems to grow with more of a spurt than\nthe normal.\n\nTHE\nWINTHROP\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nT. TALBOT, DIRECTOR\n\nBASIS OF ATTENTION\nOF THE LAKE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nHOLDERNESS,\n\nN.\n\nH.\n\nThis discussion deals with physical conditions among those school children\nwho pass as normal. Gross defects of the special senses such as partial blindness or deafness, which impair attention, must be passed by without consideration, as ordinarily they are discovered and treated by the medical inspector\nor teacher. In every school there are many children whose power of attention\nis impaired by definite physical defects or needs, which pass unobserved.\nThere exist underlying physical causes why school children fail to pay attention\nto their work, and give constant annoyance by whispering, wiggling in their\nseats, biting their finger nails, chewing gum, or reading forbidden books.\nThe lessons themselves may be interesting, the schoolroom seats and desks\ncomfortable, the teacher efficient, but something induces inattention. What\nmay it be ? First, let us agree to ignore the psychologic and pedagogic aspects\nof attention. Their acknowledged importance would obscure the point at\nissue, which is the physical.\nBefore attempting to supply any definite explanation of physical inattention itmay be worth while to consider a few specific clinical cases. Possibly\nthus we may be led to modify our conventional mode of regarding inattention\nas the fault of the pupil himself, and instead consider whether inattention may\nnot be due in largest measure to physical errors permitted or encouraged in the\nhome or in the school.\nThe following cases are drawn from a series under the personal care of the\nwriter.\nCase A. — A boy of fifteen, stocky and well built, capable in athletics and\nwith manual dexterity, desired to regain his place in his class from which he\nhad been dropped, and was aided in every way to this end, but to no avail.\nHe could not fix his attention long enough on any subject to do consecutive\nwork. Adenoids had existed, but were removed. The most careful medical\nexamination failed to show adequate cause for inattention. On living with the\nboy and watching him in his sleep it was found that at night, unconsciously, he\nwould turn on his abdomen. The pillow under which his arms were stretched\nas he lay prone would necessarily elevate the chin, the head would be forced\nback, breathing would become heavy, almost stertorous. The blood, through\nimpeded respiration, would become deprived of oxygen, the face and lips\nblue, the boy would begin to strangle, make a great convulsive effort, turn on\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nATTENTION\n\n933\n\nhis side and begin again to breathe normally. This process of semi-strangulation occurred nightly, and the periodic venous congestion of the brain was\nintense. Pillows were removed, the boy was aroused to assume, of his own\naccord, a correct posture in sleeping — the nightly suffocation was ended, and\nwithin six months the boy was able to give entire attention to his studies.\nPosture in sleep rarely has such marked results as in this case but incorrect\nposition will always have some effect on mental power.\nCase B. — A boy of eighteen is incapable of continuous study or attention\nunless his interest is thoroughly aroused in some subject, such as stampcollecting. On this he works until 12 or i o'clock at night — his parents\nbelieving him to be in bed and asleep. Cigarette smoking is an additional\ndisturbing factor. Sleeping out of doors for eighteen months, winter and\nsummer, removed the craving for cigarettes, and long hours of early sleep\nenabled the boy to gain nervous poise and so increase the length of his study\nperiods from a brief ten minutes to the normal period of an hour at a time.\nComplete oxygenation of all the organs of the body by out-door sleeping in\nproper postures may prove a potent means of increasing attention.\nCase C. — The son of intelligent parents of large means — a boy of eighteen,\nof excellent mentality, has been surrounded by fellows interested chiefly in the\nnimble-toed sylphs of the comic opera — in brief he is stage-struck, and has\npractically no other interests. He is of large frame with inadequate lung\ncapacity and slight muscular strength ; in his lessons his mind acts capriciously,\nenjoying only the sweets of study. Hard concentration is a thing unknown\nto him. Five months on a farm, chopping, riding, snowshoeing, etc., increased\nhis lung capacity from 244 to 312 cubic inches and his strength 60 per cent.\nHe was enabled to return to his class in college with greatly increased powers\nof attention, and, in his own words, having learned, for the first time in life,\nto think. In this case inadequate physique rendered the boy weak in nervous\ntone so that he could not withstand social distraction.\nCase D. — ^A boy of fourteen in very moderate circumstances had fallen out\nof his class, although originally bright and intelligent beyond the average.\nDermic hypertrophy giving rise to long continued local irritation had stimulated and weakened the central nervous system and affected his vision as well.\nHe was unable to give continuous attention to any book- work. In this case a\nlocal operation relieved irritation, and was followed by steady and gradual\nimprovement in his mental attitude and powers.\nOftentimes operative procedures are essential; the danger lies in deferring\nthem. It is to be remembered that vicious habits are begun oftentimes as\nearly as eight or ten years of age and may always be prevented.\nCase E. — A mouth-breather of thirteen years with little appreciation of\nthe difference between meum et tuum — a trait often associated with respiratory\ndefects and cigarette smoking — has a large adenoid growth removed and gains\ngreatly in power of attention. His main interest lies in accumulating a varied\nassortment of the choicest specimens of slang probably ever collected.\nIt is\n\niL\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nopen to question whether there was not in this case a close association between\na slipshod mode of speech, expressing lack of muscular control, and a corresponding infirmity of power of attention.\nSpace does not permit the citation of other cases, but in these instances\nit was evident that important causative factors of inattention might be impeded\nrespiration and circulation; sub-oxygenation of tissues due to late hours and\ncigarette smoking, nervous excitement thru diversity of social interest,\nirritation at an early age of the sexual nervous system. The combination of\nadenoids, cigarettes, and slang is a trio of adolescent acquirements deserving\nfuller appreciation by teachers and parents.\nThe needs of the respiratory system in the child even more than in the\nadult, the necessity in the young for deep breathing of fresh air day and night,\nis so clear to anyone who has studied the subject as to require no further\nemphasis; but the relation of food to attention is not so clear. Something has\nbeen said of late regarding semi-starvation in public-school children; httle\nstress, however, has been laid upon the chronic poisoning of boys and girls\nby incompatibles in diet and the overloading of the system with materials\nnutritious in themselves, but supphed in improper proportions and injudicious\nmixtures. For example, acid fruits are wholesome, milk is wholesome, but\nthe combination of strawberries or peaches with milk or cream commends\nitself neither to the student of nutrition nor to the epicure. Children eat\ngreasy doughnuts and candy at the same meal, subsist on a diet of meats\nand sweets, drink insufficient water, form the boarding-school habit ot bolting\nfood in order to get a second help quickly, and suffer from countless other\ndietetic errors. Much more should be said upon this topic as a cause of\ninattention.\nOf the casts of teeth made by the writer from thirty boys, lo per cent, showed\nabnormal occlusion to such a degree that no lateral movement of the jaw was\npossible, thus -precluding mastication, with the result that the boy was\nobliged to ingest food in bulk without adequate nutritional return, in\norder merely to sustain life. These boys were all very thin; almost\nemaciated.\nAny drain upon the nervous system due to poisoning through insufficient\noxygenation, the accumulation of toxic, burned-up food-material in the intestines, isure to result in impaired attention. Lack of sleep or sleep disturbed\nby noise, as of trains and trolley cars, may also be blamed justly for inattention\nin the schoolroom. Sexual stimulation through physical abnormalities or the\nstimulation and alteration of blood pressure by means of promiscuous companionship ofboys and girls in city high schools, novel reading, cigarette\nsmoking, lewd pictures and theater posters, or any other stimulus affecting\nthe emotions and thus weakening the will, all have a physical reflex upon\nattention. Enough has been said to indicate clearly certain conclusions, and\nchiefly that if a child is inattentive at school, in most cases it is wise to lay the\nblame, not upon the child, but primarily upon ourselves or the child's environ-\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nATTENTION\n\n935\n\nment, and try to discover what will be found to exist in most cases, namely,\na physical cause for this abnormality.\nThe question which naturally comes at once into the mind of the teacher in\nconsidering the actual treatment of individual cases of inattention is what\nmeans can be adopted to counteract physical defects which are giving rise to\nineffective work. First let us consider in what regard schools may be at\nfault. Instances immediately come to mind of school buildings where expensive ventilating plants have been installed at the cost of many thousands of\ndollars which do not ventilate — buildings where windows are not allowed to\nbe opened because of interference with the ** system,\" and, owing to the\ncomplexity of the plant or a janitor's inefficiency, the air in the rooms is usually\nfoul. One of the best-ventilated buildings of a public nature is the Children's\nHospital in a city of central New York, where for years cotton screens have\nbeen used in place of glass in the upper part of a window in each room. Three\nscreens are used in cold weather, the layers of air between the screens not\nconducting the heat, and so an equable temperature is maintained, but fresh\nair filters through the meshwork of the cotton cloth continually. Any room may\nbe successfully ventilated by the writer's simple device of covering an ordinary\nmosquito or fly screen with a layer of cloth tacked on either side of the screen,\nthe window lowered and the screen inserted in its place. No school is too\npoor to supply this device; no family is without sufficient resources to permit\nventilation of a child's bedroom thus without draughts on the coldest days\nof winter.\nSecond, Weekly records should be taken with a spirometer of the lung\ncapacity of each child in the schoolroom, and the records publicly posted.\nIt will be found that the child's record of academic work will be favorably\ninfluenced as his lung capacity increases and the children themselves will\ndevelop a real interest in studying methods of increasing their lung capacity\nwhen they find that those who do best in their spirometer records are apt to do\nbest also in their athletic sports. They may even succeed in converting their\nparents to such a degree that they will permit them to have a litde fresh air to\nbreathe at night. Those who have observed children sleeping in an ill-ventilated\napartment have noticed the shallowness and rapidity of the respiration;\non flooding the apartment wath cool fresh air the rate of the respiration falls,\nand each breath becomes deeper, oxygenation is more complete, and the child\nawakes in the morning refreshed and far more inclined to do school work.\nThe increase in summer camps in twenty-two years from two, with about fifty\nboys, to over six hundred, with nearly twenty-eight thousand boys, is due in\nthe main to the vastly increased efficiency, mental as well as physical, during the\nwinter following the camping experience.\nThe next logical step, naturally, is the establishment of the public-school\ncamp. This suggestion is offered by the writer as being practicable and\neconomically advisable.\nThird, A statistical record in the classroom of the actual bed hours and\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nhours of sleep of each child, compared with his class standing, is of practical\nservice. These records could be kept by a committee of the children themselves.\nFourth, There should be an organized scientific investigation of incompatibles in the diet with promulgation among parents of the conclusions\nreached.\nFifth, Definite action should be taken by this and other associations and\nby the government, to carry on scientific investigation of deficiency among\nschool children, based upon systematic and careful observation of physical\nconditions as correlated with academic work.\nTHE\n\nVISITING\n\nHELEN\n\nNURSE AND THE CHILDREN\nSPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nMACMURCHY,\n\nREQUIRING\n\nM.D., SPECIAL\nCOMMISSIONER FOR THE\nMINDED FOR ONTARIO,\nTORONTO,\nCANADA\n\nFEEBLE-\n\nTeaching is the most influential of all professions, and the fact that teachers\nhave not yet come to their own retards the progress of civilization. It is not\nonly that our hopes all point to the schoolroom, but our activities, it seems to\nme, all lead us there, sooner or later. Preventive medicine, public health,\npatriotism, national progress — whatever we are interested in, some day it\nbrings us to the schoolroom door. So it has been with my study of the feebleminded. began\nI\nin the hospital but soon reached the school.\nWe have two topics to consider — the visiting nurse, and the child requiring\nspecial education.\nI need not remind you that the rise of nursing as a profession for women\nwas one of the great events of the nineteenth century.\nThe spirit of thoroness added to her feminine sweetness and the deep wisdom that\ncomes from knowledge and suffering and labor manfully attempted constitute the greatness of Florence Nightingale, the Mother of the Nursing Profession\nIt is half a\ncentury and more now since the days when in these \"long arcades at Scutari\" dying men\nsat up to catch the sound of her footsteps or the flutter of her dress, and fell back on the\npillow content to have seen her shadow as it passed, and it is good for the glory of her\nnative country to think that she is still honored among us and that her failing years are\npassed in peace and cheered by the gratitude of the sons and daughters of the generation\nshe succored.\n\nSuch was the founder of the nursing profession and such are her true\nfollowers. One of the truest of these is the visiting nurse, or the school nurse,\nwho is a visiting nurse with special work in the schools. Miss Honnor Morten,\na member of the London School Board, induced the managers of an elementary\nschool in a poor district of London to ask Miss Amy Hughes, a trained nurse,\nto visit the school once a week and relieve the \"small ills of the children.\"\nThis work was so much appreciated that it led to the founding of the London\nSchool Nurses' Association in 1898. In 1900 the London School Board,\n(now called The Education Committee of the London County Council) under\nthe inspiration of Sir Shirley Murphy, medical health officer of London,\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nVISITING NURSE\n\n937\nEngland, and Dr. James Kerr, their own school medical officer, appointed\none school nurse as an experiment. It was not an experiment long. There are\nnow fifty school nurses in London (each having charge of 25 schools), 35 in\nLiverpool and many in other places.\nThe first school nurse in New York began her work in 1902. It was one\nmonth's experiment by one nurse who was sent by Miss Wald of 265 Henry\nStreet. But the work was such a help that the Board of Health then appointed\ntwelve school nurses and there are now about seventy in that city. There are\nindeed few cities in the United States which have not at least one school nurse.\nSpecial education, of course, in principle, differs in no way from education\nin general, which perhaps never was defined better than by Matthew Arnold\nin these words — *' Education develops the powers of the mind, and gives us\naccess to vital knowledge\" — a definition in which every word is significant\nand emphatic. No matter why the child requires special education, it is\nobvious that he must have the power to profit by instruction. The public\nschool is not a prison, a hospital, or a place of custodial care. But when the\nchild can profit by instruction, we are bound to provide it for him. We have\ncompelled him to come to school, to be educated, and he can be educated,\ntherefore we must educate him and adapt our instruction to his needs. This\nof course cannot be done in our large classes. These children must be placed\nin special classes by themselves, a class numbering not more than twelve or\nfifteen, and under the charge of special teachers — teachers of more than\naverage skill, resource, sagacity, and humanity. The watchword should be:\nForward teachers for backward children.\nThe teacher has the real power — the school nurse or visiting nurse is only\nthere because she can help the teacher and the children.\nThere are, of course, two great classes requiring special education — the\nphysically defective and the mentally defective. In the former class are those\nwhose special senses are affected, who are wholly or partially deaf or dumb\nor blind. There are also those who have been cruelly disabled by disease or\naccident, so that their powers of locomotion are in some way impaired, or\nthose who are suffering from tuberculosis, rickets, etc. In some one way or\nother they are not as others are. They are set aside, often left behind. But\nthey need a chance. They need to be placed on the common level of humanity, which is the only safe ground for us all. They can nearly always do\ntheir share, if we will let them. They only need the chance to work and to\nlearn, Hke their patron saint, St. Giles. We are far too ready to excuse them\nand separate them and cut them off from the vital currents that we enjoy.\nAnd that kindness is a mistaken kindness. I am persuaded, ladies and gentlemen, that your attitude is not the attitude of the general public, which does\nnot understand, to the physically disabled, the Guild of the Brave. You know\nwhat they need —\nDestroy me not, O friend, I pray,\nWith thy well-meaning sympathy;\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nGive me no pity, but a place\nWhere falls the sunlight on my face.\nGod showeth me no special grace,\nAnd why should'st thou ? Yield me my place —\nThe right to strive — and spare me, pray,\nThy well-intentioned sympathy.\n— Helena Coleman.\n\nThey make their lives effective and fruitful and successful, and how often\nsweet, with all the odds against them, and all the prizes won by somebody else ;\nthe race that is to the swift run by others and the battle that is to the strong\nfought on fields that their fetters will not let them reach.\nIn the routine of medical school inspection not long ago, I met a girl of\nnineteen who had fought such a battle against tuberculosis as makes one\nwonder as much at the courage of the patient as at the cure of nature. There\nwas no limb without its scar — and the very profile, the very attitude of the\ngirl showed the power of the enemy. Many a soldier has won the Victoria\nCross for heroism not so great and courage not so enduring.\nLet me say again that what these people need most is a place in the firingline. We should be ashamed to think so much of their disabilities and to\nforget their abilities. How often do they put us to shame! Did you see in\nthe New York World ten days ago (June 20, 1908) about Joseph GiUighan\nat Morris Plains, N. J. ? Joseph was run over by a trolley car in Brooklyn\nwhen he was eight years old, and he lost his right arm, and both his legs and\nthree fingers from his left hand. That was ten years ago. Since then, he\nlearned to swim. His parents got him artificial hmbs and on June 20 he was\nsitting showing these artificial limbs to some boys, having unstrapped them\nfor the purpose, when he heard a cry for help from the pond near by. He got\nthere somehow, without waiting to put on the limbs again — plunged in, swam\nto Alexander Patterson and Augustus Monaghan who were drowning in ten\nfeet of water, pushed one of them in front of him as he swam to shore, and\nthen went back and rescued the other. How many of us with our four limbs\ncould have done that !— and he did it with one limb and two fingers, and then —\npathetic touch — the boys whose lives he had just saved carried him home to\nget dry clothing.\nWe who know these pupils, know them at their best and worst, are the ones\nwho are most sure that they should have, for the public good as well as for\ntheir own good, special education. There is only one condition — namely, that\nthey should be able to profit by such special education. And in order\nthat they may profit by it, we must first of all use great study, care, and\nknowledge in adapting this education to their needs. The first and greatest\nthing we can do is to prevent impairment of mental and bodily powers,\nif we can. The school doctor and the school nurse will discover many an\nincipient case of hip-disease or knee-joint disease (the old \"white swelling\")\nand send them to the special classes now held by forest, stream, and sea — all-\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nVISITING NURSE\n\n939\n\nthe-year-round open-air schools, where the children fight the enemy and escape\nthe scars and disabilities that else so often are a life-long burden and handicap.\nThe open-air schools were begun in 1904 at Charlottenburg in Germany\nand are now held at four other places in Germany, Berlin having just voted\n$70,000 for this purpose. At Charlottenberg 100 children were sent. At the\nend of three months, 23 per cent, of the children were cured of anaemia,\ntuberculosis, etc., and 45 per cent, had greatly improved. The average gain\nin weight of the 100 children was one-half pound a week. And not only were they\nbetter, but the educational results were good. On return to school nine-tenths\nwere able to resume places in the ordinary classes at once.\nIn England there are now six open-air schools — one at Knolls Green,\nManchester, one near Bradford, and Bostal Wood, Forest Hill, Shooter's\nHill, and Kentish Town, the last four being under the London County Council.\nYou will be still more interested in the Providence, R. I., Fresh- Air School,\ndescribed in Charities and the Commons by Walter E. L. Kruesi, secretary of\nthe Boston Association for the ReHef and Control of Tuberculosis. It was\nopened in January by the school trustees of that progressive place. The children either had tuberculosis or had come from homes where there had been\none or more cases of tuberculosis. First, as to the schoolroom: It is very\nlarge and there are very few children in it. The south wall is all windows, open\nall the time, so there is really no south wall. The little chair and desk of each\nchild is on a movable platform, so that the child's back is always in the sun\nand the platform follows the sun round the big room all day. There is a\ngood old kitchen stove which heats the soup the children get at twelve and the\nsoapstones for their feet. The Providence Tuberculosis Committee provides\nwarm gloves and a bag of warm thick quilting into which the children put\ntheir legs. This bag also comes up right over the back. The children always\nkeep their hats, coats, and mittens on.\nI need not say, ladies and gentlemen, that fresh-air schools have a great\nfuture before them. It is also evident that the relation of the visiting nurse\nto them is an organic relation. We cannot do without her. She is the life\nof such a school.\nThe proportion of physically defective in any community is about one in\none thousand. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Italy, Germany, are all beginning to make provision for them. Germany has thirty-three \"schools of labor,\"\nwith 2,660 pupils — they have succeeded in making 90 per cent, of the physically\ndefective wage-earners by means of special technical schools.\nIt is to be remembered that the arts of war and the arts of peace, as well as\nscience, have been enriched by the genius of those who though disabled by a\ncruel fate yet discharge with marked heroism and success the duties of life.\nWhat has already been said about prevention has a wide application.\nReduce scarlet fever by thoro medical inspection and you reduce the number of deaf by perhaps 50 per cent. So with blindness. The report of the\nNew York Asscciation for the Blind says that two-thirds of the blind in New\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nYork state lost their sight after school age. This is astonishing and shows the\nneed of the school doctor and the school nurse.\nLiverpool one hundred years ago was the first town in Great Britain to\nbuild a school for the blind and now the people of that great city have done\na far better thing in devoting part of St. Paul's Eye and Ear Hospital to the\nspecial care of that dread disease — ophthalmia neonatorum — which causes\nfar more blindness than all other causes put together. The British Royal\nCommission made out that each blind person cost the state ;^5o a year and\nthat sum of money for three blind people, if expended in paying the salary of\na visiting nurse to prevent (and it is so easily prevented) infection occurring at\nbirth, would save the expenditure of thousands of pounds when the damage\nis done. Prevention should be our aim and prevention will prevail some day,\nbut meantime special education is the best thing for what we cannot prevent.\nThe occupations and studies of the blind are necessarily different from those\npossible to the deaf. Thus the blind learn to walk securely and at a rapid\nrate, to swim, to ride, to use sewing machines, to cane chairs, and to act as\nbarbers. They make expert telephone operators, typewriters, and piano\ntuners.\nWe must take the far look and remember that education is a preparation\nfor life. One great danger for our special children is that they may never\nemerge from a condition of dependence. It must be our aim to secure for\nthem through special education the noble privilege of being independent so\nthat they can live their own lives. In this, special schools and special classes\nhave been very successful and vindicated their right to recognition as a successful part of general education.\nTo sum up a little what the visiting nurse does for the child requiring special\neducation we see that her work in the school is ameliorative and in the home\npreventive. She builds the bridge between the home and the school so that\neach can reach the other. She explains the situation to the parents and makes\nfriends with them. She shows the mother how to do things ; she sees that the\nchild has necessary medical attendance ; she makes the parents understand the\nstate of the case from an outside point of view. Perhaps I can best illustrate\nthis work by giving an outline of the work of the school nurse in the special\nschool attached to the Passmore Edwards Settlement in London, in which we\nall feel an interest because it is Mrs. Humphry Ward's settlement.\nThis nurse is well qualified and has not only seen service in English hospitals but on plague duty in India and finally in the Boer War. A visiting\nnurse can never know too much about the world. The day's work begins at\n8:30 A. M., when she accompanies the ambulance that brings the children to\nschool. Then she has to oversee the dinners of the children, paid for by nearly\nall the parents at the rate of one penny or twopence. The ordering, accounts,\netc., are in charge of the nurse who is also responsible for the health and cleanliness ofthe children and has many dressings, etc., to do. Then there are physical\nxercises to be supervised, and then from three to five ambulance duty again.\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nVISITING NURSE\n\nThe salary is ;,£8o, which is far too small. The nurse has three districts under\nher care, Hoxton, Shoreditch, and Whitechapel, and makes a point of knowing\nthe parents of all the children. There are now in Tondon not only a great\nmany special classes but two special schools entirely devoted to special education, the one at the Passmore Edwards Settlement and the other at Osborne\n941\nPlace, Whitechapel, which was opened in April, 1908, and in a few weeks had\n85 children in attendance, including children suffering from paralysis, hipdisease, heart disease, and also mentally defective children. Mrs. Humphry\nWard appeared before the London School Board in 1898 to plead the cause of\nphysically defective children and thus the one class at Passmore Edwards\nSettlement was begun. Sir Thomas Barlow gave the ambulance, and the\nsettlement gave the schookoom and the nurse. Among 857 children attending\nthe school now, more than half are tuberculous, there are 77 cardiac cases and\n162 cases of paralysis.\nI must not forget to mention in this connection schools in Chicago and\nelsewhere, and the school home and hospital for physically defective children\nwhich was built in memory of Josephine, the wife of Mr. Widener of Philadelphia. Surely her husband built for her a monument more enduring than\nbrass when he gave her name and memory to this noble institution.\nIt would seem to be necessary to make some provision for the meals of the\nchildren attending special schools. And of course the visiting nurse once more\nholds the key to the situation. As a rule she can buy the food materials with\nthe pence the children bring, but the kitchen, the utensils, and the cooking must\nusually be paid for by the school. In one school in England ;£io6 paid for\n13,000 dinners.\nThe school nurse has many opportunities to help the children to develop\npublic spirit and social gifts, in a word, unselfishness. Many will make a\nsacrifice and walk a block or two so that the ambulance can pick up more\nchildren, and the opportunity of acquiring manners at table is invaluable.\nNo human being is a negligible quantity and we have made a great mistake in the past in thinking that the school could neglect the feeble-minded\nchild. No feeble-minded child is a person you can neglect. You could\nalmost protect the next generation from the problem of the feeble-minded if\nthe school and the state did their duty. The feeble-minded can and ought to\nbe educated to be useful to themselves and not harmful to others. The special\nclass should be a clearing-house where the 66 per cent, or more of special\nscholars who will always be dependent and need lifelong care may be recognized, carefully studied, and placed in home schools or parental schools which\nwill be their permanent home. This is their ''firing-line.\" This is the only\nway of dealing with the problem.\nThe feeble-minded are difficult to define but not difl&cujt to recognize.\nThey can profit by training and instruction. They are capable of useful\nwcflrk. It would be almost impossible to mention any business or trade at\nwhich they could not do something, if under skilled and efficient supervision.\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nThey can do almost anything in this w^ that a normal person can do, but\nsomeone must supply the brain power. What they cannot do is to manage\ntheir own affairs. \"What they lack is prudence, self-control, will-power, judgment, restraint — they cannot take care of themselves. For them book learning\nis thrown away very largely. A good many can be taught to read and write,\nand perhaps to count a little. That is all. An hour a day seems to be the\nlimit for \"book learning.\"\nAll they learn should be of use to them in after life. They can do what\nthey are told. They can imitate, so we should teach them habits of imitation\nwhich will do instead of habits of reason.\nThey may and often do become self-supporting, or nearly so, but never\nself-controlling. At Starcross, near Exeter, in England, I have seen them\nworking with ease and comfort at about twenty different trades, making\nbeautiful Honiton lace, weaving cloth, or executing orders for wood-carving\nwhich brought in much money besides all the benefit of the work. They\nneed most skillful care; physical defects are twice as common in feeble-minded\nchildren as in normal children.\nThe first class for the feeble-minded was opened in Halle, Prussian Saxony,\nby the principal, Herr Haupt, September 28, 1859. England, the United\nStates, France, Finland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, have since\nestabhshed special classes. There are at present in Germany 203 special\nschools with 13,100 pupils. England began in 1892, the United States in\n1894. In New York there are now 41 special classes with 731 pupils. I have\nhad the privilege of visiting some of these classes, and it is an inspiration to\nthink of the work that goes on there under Miss Farrell and Dr. Thompson.\nPhiladelphia has ten special classes and one special school for the feebleminded. Boston and Chicago are also doing a great w^ork for mentally\ndefective children, and other places are following fast.\nEstimates of the proportion of the feeble-minded to the general school\npopulation under fourteen vary froni i per cent, to one-tenth of i per cent.\nThe school nurse is all-important to the success of this work. In no\ndepartment of special education is tact, kindness, and readiness of resource\nmore needed than here. The home is the strategic point. The first step is\nto get the child to school at all. The best years for training the feeble-minded\nare from three to thirteen and this means much assistance in getting the child\nsafely conveyed to and from school and also a permanent and influential\nplace for the nurse in the counsels of the home. It is often a matter of great\ndifficulty to get the parents to do what is best for the child, yet what you can\ndo for these special children is so much worth while that the work is\nits own reward. These children come to be to us an absorbing interest and\ntheir welfare worth living for. Merely as a preventive measure and for the\ngeneral good I know of nothing that counts more certainly than the care and\nspecial education of feeble-minded children.\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "b\n\nMENTAL\n\nDepartment)\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\nE. B.\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nDEFICIENCY\n\nREGULAR CLASS TEACHER SHOULD\nMENTAL AND MORAL DEFICIENCY\n\nSHERMAN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nKEARNEY,\n\nSTATE\nNEB.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\n943\n\nKNOW\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIt is well that both mental and moral deficiency are included in our title,\nfor when one begins an investigation of either, he is very likely to end up with\nthe other. I have often been surprised at the similarity of the two classes in\nregard to both characteristics and needed method of treatment. It is my\npurpose to speak of certain facts, true among those admittedly moral deficients,\nor mental deficients of the highest grade, those most likely to be found in the\nregular classes.\nLet us agree immediately that deficiency is a quantitative not a qualitative\nterm, that the mind of the mentally deficient and the conscience of the morally\ndeficient is the same in kind as that of the normal child; that the difference is\nin degree, not in kind. Assuming this, our discussion becomes valuable to the\nteachers of normal pupils as well as to the teachers of subnormal pupils.\nFirst, the teacher has a twofold duty, a duty toward each child as\nan individual, and a duty toward the children as a school or a class.\nThe requirements of our subject give us the teacher with the class\nand the class including an indefinite number of deficient pupils. On\nthe one hand, the teacher should leave the individual to his fullest\npossible developn^ent; on the other, the class as a class must not be shghted\nin time or energy. The teacher finds these duties continually conflicting.\nSometimes the interest of the individual child requires immediate and\nextended attention, but at the same time his duty to his class as a whole\nwill not permit it and the supposed duty is left undone. Sometimes it is\nnecessary to leave unexplained the tenth problem in an arithmetic lesson of\nten problems, when nineteen out of the twenty pupils in the class understand\nit. The duty to the one is to explain the problem to him; the duty to the\nnineteen is to pass to work that will be of advantage to them. Again, it is\nsometimes necessary that the mischievous boy be shut out of school in order\nthat the interest of the others may not suffer. I do not underestimate the duty\nto the child or the value of the child. The value of a child cannot be measured\nin piles of coin, or foot pounds of work, or hours of patience; the value of the\nchild is infinite, measured in terms of anything except other children. What\nwould one take in exchange for his arm or his eye ? Yet sometimes the arm\nmust be amputated, the eye must be plucked from its socket, in order that the\nremainder of the body may have health. So it is with the school. It might be\nthat some skillful teacher might be able to do well by the member and subberve\nthe interests of all, just as sometimes the arm or eye might be saved by a great\nsurgeon, although the country practitioner with his meager skill can do no\nmore than save the body.\nSo the first duty of the teacher who has deficients in his class is to analyze\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n. [ChUd-Study\n\nhis overlapping duties, and when a conflict comes, let him not shirk his duty,\nbut take up his problem, weighing this on the one side, that on the other, coming to the conclusion carefully and prayerfully, remembering that he is performing an act which is a care to God himself — the shaping of human\ndestiny.\nIn the second place, the appeal of the square deal is no less effective to the\ndeficient than to the normal. The teacher or administrator who can build\nup a reputation for square deahng has an advantage which will carry him\nalong in even doubtful situations. On the other hand, the one who has\nacquired the opposite reputation finds himself at a disadvantage in every case.\nIt is comforting, therefore, to observe that what boys and girls think of as a\nsquare deal is the mental state of the administrator, rather than the actual\ndecision. Whatever may be the opinion of the children in regard to this\njustice of a decision, if they believe in the honest intention of the administrator, they still respect his squareness, though they may condemn his reasoning\nability. In the highest sense no punishment is just until the offender himself admits the justice of the punishment. On the other hand, the hurt of\nthe unfairness is greater to most children, deficients as well as normal, than the\nsting of punishment.\nIt is comforting also to know that even deficient children appreciate that the\nsquare deal not only allows but necessitates different treatment for different\nchildren.\nIn the third place, the course of study should be arranged in order to suit\nthe situation. It is absurd, for instance, to use the ordinary city course in a\nreformatory institution, even tho most of them seem to regard it as ideal. The\ncity course is planned for from eight to twelve years of consecutive work. The\nfifth grade omits certain important things because they have been given in the\nfourth grade, or will be given in the sixth. For instance, in one large city the\ngeography of the home state is taught in but one grade, the sixth, while the\nduty of a voter to participate actively in public affairs is touched upon only in\nthe eighth grade. The boy who comes to the reformatory has usually had\nslight schooling. He is on the average from three to five grades behind the\nordinary child. His term in school will average say eighteen months. After\nhe is paroled his schooling will be practically nothing. He should therefore be\ngiven the most efficient training possible in this brief time. How foolish then\nit appears to throw him upon the moving sidewalk of the city school-system.\nThe ordinary child stays on the sidewalk long enough to take a round trip.\nThe deficient child in the reformatory is thrown on and in a few moments\nhe hops off.\nThe proper course for an institution school is therefore one in which the\nfull cycle of the essentials is traversed in the average term of commitment.\nThere should be a succession of schools, gradually increasing in scope and\ndifficulty from elementary to advance. Each child as he enters should be\nassigned to the one best suited to his ability. He should remain there until the\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nDEFICIENCY\n\n945\n\ncourse is covered. The course should be so arranged that a child can go on\nwith the class in most if not all of the studies, no matter where he begins.\nThere is no need whatever for a promotion scheme and there should be no\nuseless machinery. If the child is strong enough to do harder work, he should\nbe put into a harder school. Tf he has worked through the course of one\nschool, let him put be into the course of a more advanced one. Let no striving\nfor effect in the making of an elaborate system or in the aping of the methods\nof the city schools blind us to the fact that it is our business to do the greatest\npossible good to the children in the time they are given to us.\nIn the fourth place, the importance of teaching from a point of personal\ninterest is greater than with normal pupils. W hile it is really important that\nthe. city teacher be able to teach in a true sense, it is absolutely necessary for\nthe teacher of both mental and moral deficients to be a real teacher.\nIt is of very little use to set a lesson and expect the pupil to do the rest. He\nwill do something, but it will not be ''the rest.\" In one reformatory school\nwe have found it best, even in advanced grades, to cut down the time for recitations and to combine recitations and study periods into study recitations.\nIt is necessary also to find the point where the lesson touches the interest of\nthe pupils and to start from that point ; for instance, we try to teach geography\nby studying the countries from which the boys in the school have come.\nAbraham Cirian came from Italy. We study where Italy is, how we could\nget there, how far it is, what the country looks like, how the people dress,\nwhat they do, how they are governed, etc. All this is studied as connected\nwith Cirian's old home.\nWe omit much that does not appeal to the child's sense of utiHty. Technical grammar we ignore, except in so far as it is necessary in order to make\nplain the rules of composition, such as the agreement of the subject and\npredicate. In arithmetic we work mostly in measurements, denominate\nnumbers, and business problems. In physiology and hygiene we push hard\non the hygiene. In every lesson in all studies the teacher must first find the\npoint of personal interest and must work from that point. There is nothing\nespecially new in this, but it is of permanent importance. In ordinary schools\nthe gaining of interest is beneficial to work, in schools for the deficient it is\nabsolutely necessary.\nIn the fifth place, moral as well as mental deficients retain in youth a certain\nunexpected innocence or naivete due to arrested development. In mental\ndeficients this is what we expect; but it is surprising to the observer unfamiliar\nwith such cases to notice childishness even in the street gamin. Boys who are\nadept in snatching a living and other things from the city street, who are pastmasters in street-craft, often exhibit ignorance and interest in the most unexpected circumstances.\nWe find also a curious similarity in knowledge and opinions between the\ndeficients of eleven and the deficients of eighteen years of age. There probably is no one keener in retort or more forcible in street English than the\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nStreet boy of eleven; but at eighteen he seems a little wiser or shrewder.\nWhile at eleven he is more than a match for the town boy of fifteen^ at eighteen\nhe is his inferior. It is doubly important for the regular class teacher to know\nthis, because it is by the opening-up of new channels of thought and new\nworlds of information that she can give impetus and opportunity to the petrifying mind; and only by doing this can there be mental and moral awakening.\nA hobby or a fad is of actual advantage to the teacher here. It matters\nnot so much what it is as that she have it hard. Flowers or weather or historical characters or snakes — anything will do, so long as there is behind it the\nspirit that the pupils may catch.\nIn the sixth place, the teacher should know that she must expect as a\nmatter of course egregious failures in understanding, as well as disappointing\ncases of laziness, deceit, and instability. The mental attitude of the teacher\nshould be that of patience towards stupidity and desire to try the same thing\nin another way. I have been told that in the west there is a district where but\none crop is raised in two years because of the scanty rainfall. The farmer\ntherefore plows his field, but plants nothing the first year. He cultivates the\nempty field after each rain, breaking the crust and conserving the moisture.\nThe second year he plants his crop, tends it faithfully and reaps a bountiful\nharvest. We teachers of deficients must expect to wait long for our results,\nand be not surprised or chagrined if the results be still meager.\nIn the moral deficient we must expect frequent falls from grace. We trust\nthe boy, he fails us. After a time we trust again and again. Again probably\nwe trust him, and again we are disappointed. But there comes a time when\nour trust is kept. The boy has become trustworthy and our end is gained.\nThis trust should be bestowed for educational reasons, not for reasons of\nconvenience. I believe that the trust system is flagrantly abused in that\nemployees and officers put children on trust because it is the easiest way to do\nthe work and not at all with the idea of the effect on the boy. It is flagrantly\nwrong to place a boy or a girl in a position of temptation without first estimating his weakness. The lazy, thoughtless, or incompetent employee is\ncontinually placing in jeopardy the beginnings of moral uprightness. Let it\nbe known that trust is an educative and reformative agency first and above all,\nand, used thus, let there be no loss of faith in the eflScacy of short mental steps\nand carefully placed moral trusts.\nIn the seventh place, there is less tendency to clannishness among moral\nand mental deficients than among normal children.\nAs a matter of fact, such lack of clannishness is what we might expect.\nThe law of the gang is based on faithfulness to a supposed duty. It is in\nessence a moral law, not an immoral law, in that most of the adherents of the\ngang believe that it is right to protect fellows in any extremity and wrong to\n** snitch\" under any circumstances.\nIt is the failure of deficients to respect even this law that occasions most of\nthe defections from the gang in schools for deficients.\nThe chance for\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nDEFICIENCY\n\n947\n\npersonal safety or advantage is sufl&cient to outweigh the small conscientious\nscruples in betraying a fellow.\nLet it be admitted at once, however, that there is a minority whose action\nin not cleaving to the gang is due to the belief that the duty to society is above\nthe duty to the gang, a minority who appreciates the high duty of a citizen,\nlarge or small, old or young, to give witness and to give information that evil\nmay be suppressed and society be protected. Such persons can hardly be\ncalled moral or mental deficients, and their cases may be omitted from our\nconsideration. The fact that the regular class teacher should know is that\nshe may prevent combinations and conspiracies among deficients of either\nkind, and that her own influence may outweigh the influence of leaders or\nof a beginning gang. Let the teacher build up the duty-to-society idea, and\nshe may lead her pupils up through the province of the gang to the plane upon\nwhich lives the active free citizen among his respecting and confiding fellows.\nIn the eighth place, the power of suggestion and the value of its use is\ngreater in proportion than among normal children.\nWe have found a marked decrease in attempts to escape since all conversation concerning escaping has been forbidden. We have found an increased\nrespect for persons, for the rights of persons, and for authority since we have\nforbidden the use of all nicknames.\nIt is not enough that we eliminate harmful suggestions. I am convinced\nthat the greatest advances possible in moral growth will be along the line of\nthe utilization of the power of suggestion. It is being admitted that the better\ngrade of men as employes is valuable largely because of the suggestion of good\nin a good man. I am strongly in favor of women in the work for the same\nreason. The value of carefully kept promises, clean back yards, as well as\na clean campus, careful work in secluded places, as well as in the show spots,\ngood pictures, tasteful buildings, neat uniforms, clean underclothing, good\nmusic, affable supervision, honest work for exhibitions — :the value of all these\nthings is in a large part the value of suggestion.\nFinally, the teacher should know that beyond the imparting of instruction,\nmental and moral, there is a great advantage to be gained, the greatest probably, by the training of proper habits. It is certainly the business of the\nteacher to teach the suitable parts of the suitable studies, and to teach them in\nthe right and most effective way. It is her business to see that everything in the\nschool suggests the right and not at all the wrong. It is her duty to induce her\npupils to measure their lives by high ideals. It is her additional duty to see\nthat so far as the Ufe of the pupil Hes in her control his acts are in accord\nwith these ideals.\nHigh ideals are truly of the first importance, but, unless they are real working ideals, their value is soon lost. Many a man, many a boy apd girl fixes his\ngaze on the mountain top in the distance, and never begins the climb of even\nthe foothills. What is needed is not only the long-range ideal, but also the\nshort-range ideal. Let there be the desire to be a Lincoln and Edison, a\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chnd-Study\n\nRoosevelt, or a Florence Nightingale, but let there be minor goals all along the\nroad. In some way let it be accomplished that each day's right living and\nright doing is the accomplishment of an ideal. Here it is that the teacher may\nstart the child along the line and may see to it that for a time he follows it.\nAnd just as the power of suggestion is stronger with mental and moral deficients, so will there be a, greater likelihood that the deficient will live along the\nlines suggested by his ideal and made easy by habit.\nThe two forces, the force of ideals, which is merely the force of a continual\nsuggestion, and the force of habit, combined, will accomplish that object\ntoward which we are all working, moral regeneration.\nRECENT\nG.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nADVANCES\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nIN CHILD-STUDY\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nFrom modest and rather feeble beginnings a score of years ago, child-study\nin its larger ranges occupies today the very center of the stage in both the\ntheory and the practice of education. It is not too much to say that now he or\nshe who commands its resources commands the chief attention when they speak\nor write, and usually say the decisive word when most great vital problems\nare discussed. From the first, it has been largely, though by no means entirely,\nan American project. But as it has spread to every civilized country, and as\nacademic chairs, journals, and truly scientific literature devoted to it have\nincreased, as its methods, at first crude and severely assailed, have grown\ncomplex and logical, and its chief results have been everywhere accepted, the\nvoice of criticism has been silenced on the part of all who know it. Only a\nvery few of the older leaders, and some who manage this greatest of all associations ofteachers in the world, hold aloof and strive to maintain an attitude\nof detachment from it. But it has won at least the good-will of nearly all the\nyounger and progressive minds in nearly all pedagogical fields; so that the\nfuture is now secured and we can see already the signs of a new danger — viz.,\nthat the results of child-study will be accepted prematurely and uncritically.\nLike the revolution of Copernicus, from a geocentric and a heliocentric\nview of the world, so child-study has made men realize, as it had sadly come to\nneed to realize, that the school is for the child and not the child for the school,\nand that everything from kindergarten to university must be plastic and\nsubordinated to the nature and needs of childhood and youth.\nIs it a question of hygiene, either general or special, of eyes, ears, nose,\nteeth, exercise, playgrounds, athletics, food, seats, light, heating, methods or\nmatter of each topic in the curriculum, the best time of day and the best season\nfor studying different topics, the recess question, juvenile crime, moral, industrial, aesthetic education, dancing, games, drawing, emotions, elimination\nup the grades, feminization, form of type and printed page of textbook,\ninterest in culture stages, or even the larger question of race suicide\nor the supply of children, nursing, milk supply, defectives — it is in the\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmcntl\n\nADVANCES\n\nIN\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\n949\n\nbibliography of child-study that the pedagogic world even in remote,\ncolonial lands, seeks guidance, information, and solution. Few really scholarly\nand helpful papers that have attracted general attention or exerted wide influence within the last few years have not been for the most part, consciously or\nunconsciously, based upon genetic data, that is, upon the empirical studies\nof childhood. The influence of this work is profoundly felt in several departments of medicine, particularly in the milder and contagious diseases of\nchildren and in the forms of adolescent and sex perversion. Some medical\nschools are even beginning to offer courses for the training of school physicians.\nThis work is slowly revolutionizing the methods of religious training of the\nyoung in the various Sunday schools. Juvenile crime is now a specialty, and\nits hbrary is the literature of child-study. Philology has found in the study of\nlanguage of children a field fertile with new problems. And even the study\nof the human soul in the college and university is being slowly revolutionized.\nGenetic knowledge is the most perfect type of knowledge, and the best and\nonly scientific definition of anything is a full description of its stages of growth.\nInsightful and ambitious students of education are now everywhere demanding this knowledge, as the best investment of time and money, to equip themselves for educational leadership.\nThis is the only science that teachers, by furnishing data, have materially\ncontributed to create and advance. Thus it is in good part your work and\nyou can do yet more for it if you will, for it was never advancing so fast as now\nand never in greater need of your aid. Careful laboratory work now summarized by Judd, and especially by Huey, has placed the question of textbook\ntype and length of line on a scientific basis, with great economy for eyes, space,\nand cost. Lay, Neumann, Dewey, and Phillips have solved problems of\nelementary number-work and taken them out of the field of non-expert discussion. Stern and his school have formulated the norms of error and success in\nobservational and object-lesson work. Thus too, in a dozen special studies,\nage curves for the reading interest of boys and girls are now plotted.\nStarbuch, Leubar, Dawson, and others have established important laws for the\nreligious interests and capacities of the young. The manifold and profound\nchanges of adolescence are now, to some extent, an open book to those who\nwish to read of them; and Cramp ton's new norms of psychological age have\nfar-reaching practical applications in grading. Even the methods of history\nand geography are beginning to appear. The problem of measuring general\nability, baffling as it is, already reveals at least some of its dimensions. In\ndrawing, the way is pointed out very clearly, and where antiquated systems\nwere not too firmly intrenched has wrought a wondrous change; and the\nsame is true of school music. In moral education, perhaps the greatest and\nmost important of all pedagogic questions, we see the way and lack only\nthe courage to walk in it. We have formulated the rationale of plays and\ngames, and new methods are already being put into operation in the great\nplayground movement,\nHodge in Nature Study and Jewell in Juvenile\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Stud,\n\nAgricultural Education have blazed a well-graded pathway. Tanner, Kirkpatrick, Swift, O'Shea, and others have written texts that should be in every\nthoughtful teacher's hands. The founder of the juvenile court tells me that\nour literature has been the lamp to his feet. The dancing movement from the\nkindergarten to the university gymnasium is based on genetic principles and so\nis the children's theater, which is only the crest of the great dramatic wave now\nadvancing over the world; and the story-tellers' league, with five-thousand\nmembers and branches in most cities, looks to child-study for its justification.\nThe work of the society for moral prophylaxis, which seeks to prevent vice\namong the young and which was represented by the significant congress of\nMannheim, the proceedings of which have recently appeared, rests on special,\nstatistical studies of young men by Cohn and others, as to the prevalence of\nvice and venereal disease. In English and language-work, our norms are\nwell defined, though as yet but little operative; in high-school physics, the last\nthree textbooks mark a distinct new departure against the excessive, mathematical tendency that has steadily reduced the percentage taking this study\nduring the last ten years. In the blind and calamitous high-school Latin\ncult, the faint beginnings of reaction to normality that reserves Latin for those\nwho can go far enough to profit by it are discernible. EngHsh literature is\nstill hag-ridden by philology, in our universitized high schools and colleges.\nIn the training of Indians and Philippinos, we can point to the new pedagogy\nsuggested by Coffin's study of the indigenous education of the lower races.\nIn the feminization problem, child-study can only show what might, could,\nwould, or should be done, but reform is yet impracticable; while in the vast\nand impending question of industrial education, we can only show a few\npreliminary studies on child-labor, etc. Here we are, so far, as powerless to\nsuggest adequate steps to be taken as are all the others. In the training of\nbhnd, deaf, and subnormals, we have clear and consistent policies, methods,\netc.\nBut child-study is vaster than all these applications to pedagogy. Teachers\nas such see but a small part ofi ts field; and even those who give their time to\nit now have to specialize in some portion of this large domain. Best of all,\nperhaps, we are working out the answer to the great question ''What Is a\nChild ?\" We know that he is neither the congenitally depraved being Calvin\nthought, nor a Wordsworthian little deity trailing clouds of glory direct from\nheaven, all pure and good. We know that children are not so desirable as to\nbe wanted in unlimited numbers, especially if they be the spawn of families\nlike the Jukes; nor are they to be especially prevented by mothers who prefer\nsociety to the nursery. The child is first of all a bunch of keys, large and\nsmall, capable of unlocking most of the secrets of the entire history of life; a\nfew of the keys are lost, some distorted, some locks are rusty or not yet found;\nbut for science, the child is geologic ages older than the man. Adult traits of\nbody and soul are novelties lately added, new and less substantial stories built\non ancient foundations.\nHence the child is not so much the father of man as\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADVANCES\n\nIN\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\n95 1\n\nis every remote, primitive ancestor. The human infant is a very unique\nspecimen of human nature, a relic or memento of a past vastly older than recorded in history. Under the guidance of Mother Nature, he is cHmbing\ndaily, at first with almost break-neck speed, up the uncounted rungs of the\nevolutionary ladder, the bottom of which rests deep in the protoplasm of the\nprimitive sea, while its top touches the superman that is to be so much nobler\nthan we are today. Thus science looks with new awe and reverence upon this\ncandidate for humanity. The infant inherits not only scores of organs but\nas many instincts and feelings from a past older than man. It does or tries\nto do a little of about everything that all the creatures in its lines of descent did.\nThis is the scientific side of child-study.\nThird, it has certain general, practical lessons. It teaches that it is the\nduty of every healthful man and woman, with no special impediments, to\nmarry and bear children and that betimes; that this is a duty that we owe the\nworld and society, which is quite as imperative upon all those who are fit as it\nis to vote, pay taxes, or fight, if our country is in danger. Biologically, the\nchief end of man is to transmit the sacred torch of heredity, undimmed, to the\nfuture. Nothing is so worthy of love and reverence and service as the bodies\nand souls of the children who will people the earth when the fifteen million\npeople now living, who are but a mere handful compared to those who are to\nspring from their loins, are dead. Again, we must everywhere study nature and\nget out of her way: take crying, it is about the only vigorous exercise possible\nto the child who cannot yet walk. It irrigates the whole body with blood,\nexpands arteries, veins, heart, and lungs, develops the voice, helps digestion,\npolarizes the soul between pleasure and pain, and has its own physiology,\npsychology, and hygiene. Once more, nearly half the infants in this country\ndo not creep naturally. They roll, hitch, and sufl^er many abnormalities\nfrom premature, uprightness. Creeping is necessary to bring out the chest,\nthrow back the shoulders, strengthen the larger muscles of the back and neck\nwhich hold up the head, to develop the arms, shoulders, hips, to put the\ndigestive organs in their proper relations at that age. Again, nursing at the\nmother's breast is indispensable, even as an exercise for the lips, throat, palate,\ntongue, and fauces, all of which suffer arrest or perversion by the easy method\nof the bottle. Mother's milk contains everything which soul and body need\nfor the fijst months, and neither cow's milk nor any prepared foods can take\nits place. Statistics from many lands show that infant mortality, which is\nincreasing everywhere, is from four to six times as great among babes under one\nyear of age, artificially fed, as among those breast fed. Roses' statistics\nshow that the breast-fed child is heavier, taller, at every stage of hfe, lives\nlonger, has better teeth, and that every three months of natural feeding adds\nimmeasurably to all these quantities. Thus, in Germany, it is proposed to\nfine all mothers who can but will not nurse their offspring, up to five-hundred\nmarks. The stature of the French soldiers has also been reduced from this\ncause, so that a witty writer represents La Grande Nation as saying \"Suffer\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nlittle children to come unto me and forbid them not for of such is the army of\nFrance.\" But there is time for only the merest glance at these vast themes.\nThe world is going to think more deeply and speak more plainly upon problems that afifect the future of the race. The child is the consummate flower\nof the cosmic process. Its quality is the best test of fatherhood and motherhood, for those are the best men and women who can produce and bring to\nfullest maturity of body and soul the most and best children. It is weakness\nto evade, and folly to dispute, this conclusion. It is the nucleus of the newest,\nhighest, richest philosophy of life. The child is not a man or woman of reduced\ndimensions of body and soul, but is as a grub is to a butterfly, or an egg to a\nbird. Their prime need is to develop to the uttermost each of the stages\nthrough which they pass, and to be retarded more than accelerated; to linger\nin the paradise of the recapitulatory stages is the new ideal of Hberal humanistic\nculture, which is that each should experience all the essentials that the race\nhas experienced in its long pilgrimage upward.\nWHAT\nEARL\n\nENGLAND IS DOING TO SECURE\nSCHOOL CHILDREN\nBARNES,\n\nLECTURER\n\nON EDUCATION,\n\nHEALTHY\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nIn England, more than in any other country in Christendom, it would\nseem that everyone must be driven to see that a nation's best asset is her men.\nFor England has constantly to maintain three great armies: the one that in\nblue and scarlet and khaki fills the regiments at home and abroad and mans\nthe ships of the Seven Seas; the one that in black coats administers the affairs\nof India, Egypt, South Africa, and the islands of the seas; and the one that in\ncorduroy drives the factories and delves in the mines. For India alone, seventy\nthousand men in scarlet and sixty thousand in black must be sent out and constantly reinforced. And these must be the best the land can breed, for they\nmust live scattered among a vast native population, where only steady nerves\nand strong muscles can be trusted to do the work. This army also leaves few\ndescendants and they must be brought to England in babyhood if they are to\ngrow up into vigorous men and women. We must also remember that where\nmonogamy prevails each male lost means a female useless for futurity.\nIt was Claudian who, in the days of Roman decadence, sang: \"For the\nharvest of men has failed.\" In any great empire you can train levies of native\ntroops to fight, but they must be led and supported by forces from home.\nEngland has known this and yet she has been content to go on enormously\nextending her native empire, while the native population of Ireland — once a\nparadise for the recruiting sergeant — drifted over seas to run American politics;\nand while at home her yeoman farmers have steadily given way to scattered\ngame keepers in preserves rented by American millionaires. The proletariat\nof East London, Manchester, and Liverpool is not of the stuff that rules\nempires.\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nHEALTHY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n953\n\nAnd so one wonders that England so long failed to realize that her navies\ncannot be run without men; and that in India, as in Ireland, long occupation\ndoes not necessarily mean that the native population so loves its ruler that it\ncan be trusted to go on alone. Still England has believed until yesterday, to\nuse her own phrase, that she \"would muddle through,\" and she has refused to\nconsider seriously the problem of her future supply of men.\nWhy is this ?\nAll aristocratic governments have been built up in the beginning by leaders,\nwho, in return for special services, have secured special privileges for themselves and for their descendants after them. With the passage of years, these\nspecial privileges are no longer justified by the national needs, and they are\nthen maintained through the power of custom and the ignorance of the masses.\nAny inquiries that tend to awaken public interest in social and psychological\nquestions are therefore dangerous to those in authority, and are frowned down\nor at least neglected. Some such reason as this must be sought to explain the\nfact that England still has no important department of sociology or experimental psychology in her higher institutions of learning, and that the people\nas a whole have, until very recently, had little or no interest in such investigations.\nIt is true that individual workers in England have long been distinguished\nfor investigations in these lines. Francis Galton has spent a long lifetime in\nurging his countrymen to study themselves and the social conditions under\nwhich they live; recently he has given a fund to establish a chair of Eugenics\nin London University, and has been influential in initiating the new Sociological Society. Dr. Francis Warner has measured and studied thousands of\nchildren and through his writings and the work of the Childhood Society he\nhas sought to awaken an interest in genetic studies. The British Child-Study\nAssociation, with its various branches, has been active; and the Royal Sanitary Institute has constantly appealed to the public. The Royal Family has\nsteadily patronized the great hospitals until London has become a medical\ncenter second to none in Europe. And still the mass of people has remained\nuntil just now comparatively indifferent to sociological and psychological\ninvestigations.\nSince 1870, however, the growing industrial competition of the educated\ndemocracies of Germany and the United States has filled English statesmen\nwith apprehension. The South African war brought the nation face to face\nwith disaster. Her best soldiers were defeated, captured, or shut up in towns\nhke Ladysmith or Mafeking by a small number of energetic and capable\nBoers. Then she began to realize that we have passed the time when a nation\ncan muddle through her diflficulties.\nAs the result of this industrial and military awakening, great efforts are\nnow being made to find the causes of national inefficiency and to remedy\nthem. Throughout Great Britain the people have embarked on a series of\nimportant experiments. The great municipalities have bought lands and\nerected dwellings for the poor; when industrial plants have displaced dwell-\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nings their owners have been required to provide equal housing for the dispossessed tenants. Building laws have been made so severe that in some\ndistricts it has become difficult to erect houses that will meet the requirements.\nFood inspection has been made more rigorous; boards of health have been\ngiven added powers; municipal boroughs like Battersea have secured suitable\nmilk for young children; while boards like that of Poplar have issued circulars\nto mothers on the proper care and treatment of infants.\nThe whole problem of physical efficiency was brought powerfully before the\nBritish mind by the Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical\nDeterioration, of 1904. This commission was composed of some of the most\ninfluential men in England.\nIts directions were broad and yet definite:\nIt was to determine, with the aid of such council as the medical profession are able to\ngive, the steps that should be taken to furnish the government and the nation at large\nwith periodical data for an accurate comparative estimate of the health and physique of the\npeople; to indicate generally the causes of such physical deterioration as does exist in\ncertain classes; and to point out the means by which it can be most efifectually diminished.\n\nThe committee held repeated meetings during a year and examined sixtyeight witnesses from all parts of the British Islands. These witnesses were\nmedical men, anthropologists, representatives of charitable and other institutions, and members of Parliament. The committee embodied the results of\nits labors in an extended Report which is certainly one of the most important\ndocuments ever printed on the development of human beings.\nWhile recognizing that there were no records of physical development\nfrom the past with which present conditions can be compared and that\nhence we can not determine whether the English race is deteriorating or\nnot it still believes that the present conditions are such as to fill patriotic\nEnglishmen with alarm. It recommends a thorough reorganization of the\nvarious agencies and societies at present working for improved conditions and\nlays especial emphasis upon the necessity for a comprehensive census of the\nEnglish people along the lines of physical development. It feels that this\ncould be begun by examining and recording measurements of the children in\nthe state schools, of candidates for the army and for civil service appointments.\nEvery school man should read the volume of this report in which the Committee\nsummarizes its conclusion.\nMeantime, in the state schools of England, medical inspectors had been\nemployed for several years, and their duties had been steadily broadening.\nThe reports of Dr. Kerr in London show how much this was needed. Writing\nin 1906, he says that the working co-operation of teachers is secured only in the\nminority of cases, and that some teachers meet the medical inspector as an\ninquisitor, and even object to his visits. On the other hand, a committee\nwhich reported to Parliament in 1905 speaks highly of the teachers' co-operation. The work has gone steadily forward, whatever the attitude of the\nteachers, and now twenty assistant medical officers give to the schools of London pretty thoro inspection. The following up of the cases, Dr. Kerr says, is\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTHY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n955\n\nstill very imperfect as the parents in the poorer homes seldom attend to the\nwarnings sent them.\nOf 73,000 children recently examined in London, 11,000 were found\nverminous and many were suffering from skin diseases, such as ringworm. A\nstaff of thirty-two district nurses is doing much to remedy these conditions,\nwhich most often occur in families where parents can not be forced to attend\nto their children except by appealing to the court. The condition of the teeth\nis lamentable; of 1,000 children examined by Dr. Marion Hunter, but two\nused toothbrushes; in spite of facilities which the hospitals furnish, only two\nin 6,000 had had any teeth filled. In two schools, containing 640 children.\nDr. Hanson found 1,188 teeth needing filling and 1,161 that needed to be\nextracted. Where the recruiting ofi&cers reject the candidates of the army\nbecause of defective teeth, such a condition as this indicates a great national\ndanger. The children in the English poorhouses have far better teeth than\nin homes of the poor, owing to efficient inspection and care.\nAs a result of this medical inspection in schools, public opinion has been\naroused to a remarkable degree. Three years ago the school department of\nLondon declined a gift of five thousand pounds offered by an American resident in London to establish a center for the examination and measurement of\nschool children; now the same board has established such a center from its\nown funds, and it will soon be in operation. The government report of 1905,\nalready referred to, summing up the results of medical inspection, declares\nthat it has produced comparative control over the spiead of infectious diseases;\nthat greater cleanliness and freedom from vermin have been secured, with a\nconsequent improvement in the morale of the school. They say that more\nattention is given to defective children; that overstraining of the eyes has often\nbeen stopped, with the consequent disappearance of many headaches and much\napparent stupidity; that some progress is being made with the more difficult\nquestion of defective hearing; that ventilation is better attended to; and that\nteachers are more interested in the physical welfare of the children.\nBut medical inspection in London, as elsewhere, opened up endless social\nproblems lying at the back of inefficiency. Everywhere the inspectors found\nunderfed children, whose ill-nourished bodies were hotbeds of disease. Englishmen are ready to see that if you do not put in coal you cannot get steam,\nand that a hungry child is poor material for education. And so an agitation\nfor feeding children in the schools of the poorer districts sprang up. An InterDepartmental Committee on Medical Inspection and Feeding of Children laid\nan influential report before parliament in November, 1905, and leaders as\nfar apart in general politics as Sir John Gorst and Mr. MacNamara gave the\nmovement vigorous support.\nLooking to the experience of the Continent the leaders found that Berlin\nhad fed necessitous school children for ten years with no appreciable increase\nin the number of applicants. The year before, she had expended $10,730, of\nwhich the city furnished only $730, the rest coming from charity. Vienna was\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntChild-Study\n\nfurnishing a million school meals yearly, the city paying $17,750, and charity\n$6,500. Other Austro-Hungarian towns were doing the same work. Paris\nled in the movement, spending $200,000 annually to furnish between ten and\neleven million meals, distributed by tickets which parents could buy or which\nthe poor could have by asking. Italy appropriated $24,000 annually to buy\nfood and clothes for school children; and Switzerland set aside one-tenth of\nher liquor revenue for the same purpose. Brussels spent $75,000 yearly for\nthis work, and Sweden fed and clothed the needed children in her schools.\nIn the meantime, many of the Enghsh cities had been distributing meals to\nschool children for several years, generally under the direction of charitable\nbodies, sometimes aided by the Poor Law guardians 1 Bradford, a city very\nadvanced in social movements, had distributed meals for several years. In\n1903, Leeds furnished 325,000 meals at an expense of $8,500; Hull, 215,000\nmeals, costing $5,000; Shefl&eld, 177,000 meals, costing $4,200; and York,\n29,000 meals, costing $875.\nEven with this experience, and continental example, England hesitated.\nShe feared to weaken parental responsibility; and it seemed difficult to take\nthis form of poor relief out of the hands of the Poor Law guardians without\nconfusion; many of the teachers, too, objected to the added work at mealtime.\nIn 1906, however, necessary legislation was passed enabling school authorities\nto administer charitable funds for this purpose and to supply money where\nnecessary; but they must make the parents repay the cost of meals given to\nchildren where possible. During that year, Bradford distributed 48,000\nschool meals at an expense of $3,000 to the city, and only 250 meals were\nrepaid by the parents.\nBut underfeeding was only one of the social ills that medical inspection\nbrought to public notice. A prominent medical inspector told me that, in his\njudgment, bad shoes, in the damp cHmate in London, caused more disease than\nunderfeeding. Overcrowding in homes, bad ventilation of houses, wretched\nclothing, and uncleanness have all received great attention of late. Local\ninvestigations, like those made in Dundee, have laid bare a mass of details\ntouching these matters that has awakened wide unrest.\nDefective children of all classes in the state schools have received a great\ndeal of attention. Beginning in 1902, Leicester estabhshed special classes, and\nsimilar work was begun in London the following year. There are now in\nLondon alone some eighty centers for backward children, special schools for\ncripples, and eleven schools for the blind and twelve for the deaf. This work is\nunder the direction of the school authorities, and in some cases they have\nestabhshed residential schools to meet special cases. In all parts of England\ntoday there is a very lively interest in the education of the defective classes.\nOnce awakened to a national need, England has unprecedented facihties\nfor arousing public opinion. Her vast system of state schools, developed since\n1870, gives her means on which we generally depend. Enghsh people are also\nhabituated to recognizing and accepting able leadership.\nParliament is still\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n957\n\ndeeply respected; royal commissions, reporting to Parliament, have great\nprestige, and such a commission is now about to report on certain phases of\ninefficiency, especially connected with the feeble-minded. Another great\ncommission is investigating the poor laws. The British Association for the\nAdvancement of Science deeply influences all the thinking people in the\nworld. England seems to be awakened, and, if she is, students of social problems connected with education will find England the greatest field for observation during the next few years.\nBut the administrative problem is herculean. The land must be restored\nto the people. At present 30,000 owners control the natural resources, including the land, used by nearly 50,000,000 inhabitants of the British Islands.\nIndustries must be overhauled; young workers protected; and the great mass\nof older workers that is now scrapheaped, and that makes up a steady army\nof unemployed, must be provided for. An impending old-age pension act\nwill help, but not remedy, this problem. Possibly England may be driven\nto abandon her long-established faith in free trade if she is to hold her markets\nagainst protected Germany, France, and America. Ireland must be settled\nand set to work. Great changes must take place in domestic affairs. A\nchurch, which represents only a fraction of the people, must cease to dictate\nthe national policy on living issues. Training schools for teachers must be set\nto training modern teachers. Technical schools must be reorganized and\nstrengthened. The municipal universities, like London, Manchester, Birmingham, and Leeds, must be enabled to do the work so long neglected by\nOxford and Cambridge. The lower classes must be cleaned up, educated, and\ngiven hope.\nMuch of this work is now under way, and the strong growth of labor and\nsocialist parties gives great hope for the future. Vested interests die hard, and\nold aristocracies are difficult to overthrow. But if she is to hold her empire,\nGreat Britain must create wholesome and happy conditions for her workers,\neven if she has to accept wide-reaching socialistic principles to accomplish it.\nTHE\nCHARLES\n\nA.\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nA. J. MILLER,\n\nSUPERVISING\n\nCHILDREN\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nBALTIMORE,\n\nMD.\n\nWhat constitutes an exceptional child ? Classroom experience has shown\nthat although there are not two children alike either mentally, manually,\nmorally, or physically, yet there is an average child of average ability. The\nstandard for this average may vary according to the individual teacher's\nconception of what is to be expected of a pupil coming to him for instruction.\nMost teachers, however, will agree that the average child takes fairly well\nto the subjects of the school curriculum, has some manual ability, is at times\ntardy, mischievous, talkative, diso})edient, untruthful, and is occasionally\nindisposed. Every marked variation from this average, whether hereditary\nor accidental, marks an exceptional child.\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nEDUCATION\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\n[Child-Study\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1. The mentally bright of normal physical strength.\n2. The mentally bright of less than normal strength.\n3. Children of average ability or just below the average with exceptional will-power and\nambition.\n4. The mentally bright in language, literature and history, or music and drawing, yet\nalmost deficient in a sense for mathematics.\n5. The mentally slow, especially in regard to number or any subject involving pure\nreasoning, but of unusual manual ability.\n6. Foreign children unacquainted with English, of average ability, much retarded for\nwant of previous schooling.\n7. The mentally dull and slow of splendid physique.\na) Children that impress the casual observer as bright, but almost completely lack\nany aptitude for school work, except perhaps some manual work,\nh) Foreign children of certain nationalities.\nc) Children of other than Caucasian stock.\n8. Children of arrested mental development and the feeble-minded.\n9. The mentally bright or dull with bodily afflictions that hinder them from being taught\nwith other children.\na) Children with very imperfect sight, hearing, or voice.\nh) Epileptics, certain children afflicted with chorea, consumptives.\nc) Cripples that cannot come to school without assistance.\n10. Moral defectives.\na) Children of uncontrollable tempers.\nh) Children so quarrelsome and meddlesome as to make them unfit for the regular\nclassroom.\nc) The morally unclean.\n^\nd) Sporadic truants and inveterate late-comers.\ne) Inveterate truants beyond the control of parents or guardians.\nf) Children without any moral principles to which to appeal.\n\nExceptional children ought to have exceptional treatment. The validity\nof this statement is still hotly contested especially by such pedagogues, boards\nof education, and educational institutions as tenaciously cling to iron-clad\ncurricula and methods. Public opinion, however, influenced by the comprehensive research-work of the pedagogical departments of our universities, the\nachievements of the leaders in special education and progressive school\nsuperintendents, and by the untiring efforts of mothers and high-minded\nwomen throughout the land, is beginning to demand special consideration for\nspecial children.\nFor years we have had with us the exceptionally mentally bright of normal\nor less than normal strength, the average child with exceptional ambition,\nthe linguistically and artistically bright; but little was done for them. The\nexceptional of the exceptional of course forged ahead, made a name for their\nrespective institutions of learning, and added lustre to the cause of education;\nand the dazzling brilliancy of such stars blinded the eyes of teachers and\npublic ahke to the many failures.\n'Tis true here and there a great deal of attention was paid to individual\nscholars, but little of such conscientious work became known to the general\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "DcpartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n959\n\npublic. The rule was that classes moved as wholes, and pupils, irrespective\nof special abilities or subnormalities, had to fulfill certain conditions before\npromotions could be obtained.\nThe first systematic effort to get away from this lockstep procedure in\nBaltimore was made by Mr. James H. Van Sickle. The various grades\nwere divided into B and A divisions and where there were a number of classes\nof the same grade and division, these respective classes were again arranged\naccording to working power — B, B 2, B 3, or A, A 2, A3. In the secondary\nschools various courses were outlined from which those that enter have the\nprivilege of choosing the courses to their individual tastes and abilities. All\npublic-school children were very much benefited by these changes, especially\nthose included in the first four divisions of my classification. It was thus\nmade possible that certain children could do six years' work in five, but it was\nfound that still more could be done for my first, third, and for certain ones of\nmy fourth class of exceptional pupils that wished to take up a college course,\nor enter the Polytechnic Institute where no Latin is taught, or get some of the\nsecondary school work in their elementary school course.\nAt the end of the sixth school year, at about the age of twelve years, pupils who have\ndone well up to that point may take up, in classes known as Preparatory Classes, the\nstudy of Latin and either French or German in addition to their other studies. The\ncredits thus earned by pupils in the last two years of the elementary school are made a part\nof their high-school record, and count toward the high-school diploma.\n\nPersonally, I have been for five years connected with the work in these\nclasses. I can positively state that much good has been accomplished. The\nwork has been appreciated by the teachers of the secondary schools. The\npupils have generally done well, a f aij proportion extraordinarily well ; a small\nnumber have failed to accomplish w^hat had been expected. This last group\nhas received my closest attention. In almost every instance of failure it\nbecame evident that the pupil ought not to have entered upon the special\nwork. In a few instances failures were recorded in new lines of study at the\nhigh school, for which no direct preparation had been made in the special\nclass. It was also brought to light that the exceptional ambition of the child\nin some instances was but that quality in the parent or guardian, Mr. Van\nSickle's circular-letters regarding the work in these classes will give more\ndetailed information. Similar work is done in Worcester, Mass., and Mannheim, Germany. A brief description of the Mannheim schools will be found\non pp. 43-47 and 121-23 of Bulletin No. 376, Bureau of Education.\nMy fourth class of exceptional pupils fare well in the elementary schools\nand preparatory classes, fairly well in the secondary schools, but strike a rock\nat college or the university, if mathematics form a part of their course, as\naccording to long-respected custom it will almost invariably do. There is no\nreason why a young man or woman whose mind will not take in higher mathematics— possibly due to some defect in the brain-center for mathematics —\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLChild-Study\n\nshould have extraordinary difficulties in getting a degree, or possibly fail to\nwin this honor.\nNow that manual training has been generally recognized as a legitimate\npart of the curriculum, the child mentally slow especially in regard to number\nor any subject involving pure reasoning, but of unusual manual abiHty, is\nreceiving more consideration, A teacher of such a child should be careful\nthat his talent for manual work be recognized and appreciated, both by himself and the class, just as much as the accomplishments of the quick cipherer,\nthe ready talker, or the deep thinker. In promotion from grade to grade such\na pupil should receive credit for his exceptional ability and due allowance be\nmade for other shortcomings.\nForeign children of average ability unacquainted with English, if in sufficient numbers in any one school, should be taught in an ungraded class, if\npossible, by a teacher acquainted with the language of the foreigners. If such\na teacher cannot be gotten at home, the board of education ought to find him\nelsewhere, even though a higher salary would have to be paid for such acquisition.\nThe mentally dull and slow include a large class of children partly American bom, white or colored, and partly foreign born. For years I have been\nwatching and studying these children. Most of them become factory hands,\nunskilled mechanics, laborers, and domestics. Now the great cry of sociologists, political ecnomists, and public orators is, \"Dignify labor.\" How and\nwhere can \"labor\" be dignified better and more effectively than by the school\nand in the school ?\nGranted that the school is the best agent for accomplishing this noble end,\nit must also be admitted that due provisions be made whereby the school can\nfulfill the expectations of its patrons and the public. I therefore advocate that\nevery large school have \"industrial\" or \" domestic economy \" classes where the\nmentally dull and slow of splendid physique are to be placed. I should change\nthe course of study for these children so as to include all forms of manual work —\nnamely, wood-work, gardening, light housework, cooking, baking, laundering,\nsewing, and crocheting; in short everything that is to be done in and round\nabout the house. The children that had taken this course would really\nhave an asset for future life of such worth as they could not have obtained even if\nthey had stayed in school till eighteen and had received instruction in the usual\nbranches. I believe that in this way the vexed servant question can be solved\nand with its solution there would be more and better homes with all their\nconcomitant blessings. Personal experience has taught me that in our\ncolored elementary schools not more than 25 per cent, of the pupils can hope\nto get the benefit to be derived from the ordinary school course for the higher\ngrades. When in charge of about 2,000 colored children, I called attention to\nthe fact that there ought to be two distinct courses for them, one the \"common\"\nfor about 25 per cent., and the other an industrial or domestic economy course\nfor the remaining 75 per cent. Since my severance with these schools, the\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n961\n\ncolored high school makes provision for all kinds of industrial work in its course.\nI believe, however, that a still greater benefit will accrue both to the children\nand the public if the elementary school will be so constituted that industrial\neducation can there be given to classes of pupils of whom it is indisputably\nknown that their livelihood later on in life will have to be made by their hands.\nChildren of arrested mental development are generally detected in the\nkindergartens or in the lower grades. The rule used to be, \"Keep them there\ntill they graduate or freeze them out.\" There are still those that claim that\nthe public school is not the place for these people. These opponents say,\n\"Let the state teach the feeble-minded in separate institutions.\" But if the\nstate has no institutions, or those that it has are full and have a waiting list,\nshall these unfortunates be neglected or chloroformed? Nay, the public\nschool must and will provide for them. In some cities there are public day\nschools for the deaf and the dumb, for cripples that must be carried to school,\nand in Baltimore the Public School Board ordered that two special classes for\nepileptics be organized experimentally. It has fallen to my lot to observe the\nwork in these classes. Three months after their organization I presented the\nfollowing report to the superintendent:\nThe epileptics in our care up to date can be divided into three classes\nfrom the standpoint of ability: (i) The bright, (2) The mediocre, (3) The\nweak-minded.\nThe first class, the bright, of whom there are but few, take up all the school\nwork as readily as the ordinary healthy child. The second, or mediocre class,\nupon whose minds the disease has made considerable inroads, are like children\nof arrested development; they gradually but very slowly take to the various\nstudies and manual work and profit thereby. The third class are those whose\nminds have possibly been permanently weakened by the disease. Even these\nare educable.\nWe of course take the word educable in its widest sense and claim that we\nare succeeding if through our efforts in school we are effectually teaching our\npupils: (i) The common school branches; (2) Manual work of some kind;\n(3) Obedience, attention, manhness, and fortitude, the acquisitionof which is\ndoing away with needless petting and humoring; (4) More correct habits\npertaining to personal cleanliness, exercise, eating, drinking, sleeping, etc.,\nthe practice of which is producing better physical condition and greater cheerfulness and hopefulness.\nThe conclusion that we are compelled to draw from classroom experience\nin our work with epileptic children is, that they are educable; seme are making\nmarked progresss in the common branches, all are accomplishing something;\nall are doing well in their manual work which is tending toward a vocation\nthat may bt pursued at home, e. g., sewing, basket-making (later on we shall\ntry cooking, housekeeping, willowbasketry, chair-caning, broom-making,\nmodern cobbling). All are hopeful, cheerful, and grov/ing in power of attention and concentration; some are establishing better personal habits and\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nfollowing to a limited extent rules of hygiene. In fine, the general progress is\ngood.\nSince the writing of these notes I have had three more months of observation\nand study. I now think that for some of the children the ''common school\nbranches\" should not stand at the head of the list of desired acquisitions, that\nthey should not be taught formally, but be gotten rather incidentally, as\noutgrowths of things done or made in the classroom, of games played in or out\nof doors, and of garden work. In fact the instruction should not — because\nto be good it cannot — follow any fixed course. Each child is a study and may\nform a class of one. Since this is the case there should not be more than ten\nin charge of one teacher. Furthermore, on account of the psychical and\nphysical condition of these children and the nerve-straining intensive work\nto be done by their teachers, but one session of three hours should be held per\nday. The afternoon for the teacher is to be devoted to preparation of work\nfor the next day and to necessary visiting of the homes of epileptics. To\naccomplish the greatest good the home must be in complete harmony with the\nschool and this can be accomplished only by frequent visits for which those in\ncharge must have time. At the home too, by skillful questioning, much valuable\ninformation as to heredity, parental idiosyncrasies, and family life and conditions, can be secured. This knowledge will influence the kind of treatment to be\ngiven in school — whether restraint or indulgence is to be resorted to ; will give\nthe instructor many valuable hints as to the natuie of work to be given, and\nmay lead him to call to his aid the officers of public or private charities. The\nvalue of home visiting is forcibly presented in Bulletin No. 376, Dep. Int.\nBureau of Education. The highest aim of the teacher of epileptics should be to\nmake these defectives self-supporting, or at least partially so; to give them\nopportunities for accomplishing simple enjoyable things, and to teach them\nto find satisfaction in them, be they ever so humble.\nConsumptive children are to be found amongst the badly housed and\npoorly fed families in large and populous cities. If the state or private charitable institutions cannot take care of them the public school may be compelled to make provision for them. Dr. Buckler, of Baltimore, one of the\nschool phy.-;icians, lately advocated a plan of building schoolhouses in or near\nthe public parks. If such a plan were realized it would be very easy and\ninexpensive to have in such buildings a room or two for consumptives.\nMoral defectives are represented everywhere. Whether such defect,\ncaused by some brain-lesion, is due to heredity, temperament, or environment,\nmatters not; it must be treated. Protection of the 98 or 99 per cent, generally\nmorally whole demands some effective measure. Experience has taught that\nsegregation of the bad certainly will remove the source of contamination from\nthe good. But more than this not only the good are benefited, but there is\nevery reason to believe that the defectives themselves are much improved and\nnot infrequently cured. Opposition to the ungraded class of the disciplinary\ntype is steadily weakening, because those who will must see that when the\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE STUDY\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n963\n\nclass is not too large — fifteen the maximum number, ten still better — when\nthe room or rooms are properly equipped in respect to sunshine, light, air,\nfurniture; when the teacher is of the missionary kind with plenty of determination: success does accompany the work.\nInveterate truants, of whom it is proven before court that their parents or\nguardians have lost control over them, are sent to the parental school, because\na large city could hardly employ attendance officers enough daily to bring\nsuch wayward people to the ungraded classes scattered throughout the city.\nI have briefly described to you ten classes of children more or less exceptional, found everywhere, to whom special care and attention are due on part of\nthe public school, if it, as one of the factors of our civilization, is to accomplish\nsuccessfully that for which it was instituted. Alone, however, it will not be\nable to succeed; certain foundation work must be effectively laid and continually strengthened by the home and the church whose special spheres of\naction it cannot and dare not enter upon.\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Irving O. Palmer, scieace master, Newton High School, Newtonville, Mass.\nVice-President — Frank F. Almy, professor of physics, Iowa College, Grinnell, Iowa.\nSecretary — ^Henry Kerr, principal, Excelsior Union High School, Norwalk, Cal.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— TxJESDAY Morning, June 30, 1908\n\nPresident Irving O. Palmer opened the sessions of the department at 9:30 o'clock in\nthe Second Presbyterian Church of Cleveland.\nIn the absence of the secretary, the president appointed, as acting secretary, N. Henry\nBlack, science master, Roxbury Latin School, Boston, Mass.\n1. Topic: Geography.\na) \"Home Geography\" — Martha Krug Genthe, associate editor of the Bulletin of the\nAmerican Geographical Society, Hartford, Conn.\n6) \"Geography in the Elementary School\" — R. H, Whitbeck, supervisor in the Model\nSchool of the New Jersey State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.\nDiscussion — led by W. N. Clifford, superintendent of schools. Council Bluffs, Iowa,\nc) \"Geography in the Secondary School\" — George D. Hubbard, assistant professor of\ngeology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nGeneral Discussion — led by James F. Chamberlain, Department of Geography,\nState Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\n2. Topic: Physics.\na) \"The Function of the Demonstration Lecture in Secondary School Physics\" — :\nRobert A. Millikan, associate professor of physics in the University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111.\nDiscussion — led by Franklin T. Jones, registrar and science teacher. University\nSchool, Cleveland, Ohio; N. Henry Black, science master, Roxbury Latin School,\nBoston, Mass.\nOn motion, the chairman was authorized to appoint the usual nominating committee.\nThe session then adjourned.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Evening, July 2\nPresident Palmer announced the nominating committee as follows:\nCharles H. Smith, Chicago, 111.\nW. M. Butler, St. Louis, Mo.\nH. W. LeSourd, Milton, Mass.\nThe program of the evening was as follows:\n1. \"Preservation of the Natural Resources of the United States,\" by Herbert A.\nSmith, editor of The Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.\n2. \"Scientific Agriculture in the Secondary Schools,\" by Liberty H. Bailey, director,\nNew York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\nThe nominating committee reported the following nominations:\nFor President — Otis W. Caldwell, assistant professor of botany. University of Chicago.\nFor Vice-President — Franklin T. Jones, University School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nFor Secretary — N. Henry Black, Roxbury Latin School, Boston, Mass.\nThe report was accepted and the nominees were elected as the officers of this department for the ensuing year\n965\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nGilbert H. Trafton of New Jersey moved that the President appoint a committee of\nseven to consider what constitutes the fundamentals of a course in geography for secondary schools, and, if practicable, to outline such a course.\nThe motion was seconded and carried. The President later announced the appointment of the following committee:\nJames F. Chamberlain, chairman, professor of geography, State Normal School,\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nR. H. Whitbeck, supervisor, Model School, State Normal School, Trenton\nN. J.\nMartha Krug Genthe, assistant editor of the Bulletin of the American Geographical\nSociety and instructor in the Beacon School, Hartford, Conn.\nW. H. Snyder, 116 West Avenue 53, Los Angeles, Cal.\nW. L. W. Field, master in Milton Academy, Milton, Mass.\nMark Jefferson, professor of geography. State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nWilliam C. Moore, head of Department of Education, Mt. Holyoke College, South\nHadley, Mass.\nOn motion the President was authorized to appoint a Committee of Three to determine what scientific material can be found that would be useful in the Forest Service of\nthe National Government.\nThe President later announced the following committee:\nW. N. Clifford, chairman, head of the Department of Commerce, Southern Manual\nTraining Boys' High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nClifton F. Hodge, professor of biology, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nFrank A. Sheldon, science master, Volkmann School, Boston, Mass.\nThe Department then adjourned.\n\nN. Henry Black\nActing Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND\nHOME\nMARTHA\n\nKRUG\n\nGENTHE,\n\nOF\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nGEOGRAPHY\nTHE\n\nBEACON\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nHARTFORD,\n\nCONN.\n\nThe name of home geography admits, perhaps, more different interpretations than any other subject of the public-school course. To some, it means\nelementary geography; to others, a general introduction into the sciences;\nto still others, object-lessons on a great many useful things which have no\nother relation to geography but their existence on the globe. Home geography is, in this respect, still suffering from the traditional misconception of\ngeography itself — ^namely, that it is a receptacle for all kinds of disconnected\ninformation for which no other place can be found in the course of study. A\nlesson on cork, for instance, is not a lesson in geography; neither is a lesson on\nthe manufacture of Bessemer steel, nor on the revolution in Russia. Yet I have\nseen these and many similar subjects enumerated on lists of geographical\ntopics. No one will deny, of course, that geographical factors are at play\nin each of them; but the study of these things for their own sakes is botany,\nor technology, or sociology, not geography. Likewise, elementary naturestudy is not elementary geography, or home geography as we call it, even tho\nthe study of objects of nature forms part of it. The difference is that, in geography, these objects are not studied for their own sakes, but only as the material for geographical deductions. Not what things are, but where they are,\nconstitutes the problem of geography and, as earliest impressions are also\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n967\n\nmost lasting, the teacher of home geography ought to be especially careful lest\nhis teaching give the pupil that erroneous conception of geography which I\ncharacterized above. This danger is especially great in home geography\nbecause the beginner possesses only a very limited amount of information\nabout the things themselves, so that at first real object-lessons must be inserted\nbetween the purely geographical work. But in proportion as the child's\ngeneral knowledge increases, the teacher's conscious efforts must tend more\nand more to eliminate that kind of teaching and make the lessons genuinely\ngeographical. Every transgression into mere object-study carries with it\nthe danger of mistaking the by-path for the main road and thus being led astray\nfrom the true goal.\nIf the final purpose of geography is the training of the pupil to find his\nway intelligently in any part of the globe, the purpose of home geography is\nthe same in regard to his nearer surroundings.\nWhat is necessary to reach this purpose? First, to become acquainted\nv^ath the home by personal observation as far as possible; second, to acquire\nthe ability to learn, from the observations of others, what we cannot learn\nfrom our own experience. Observation is therefore necessary at the beginning\nof every step that is going to widen the geographical horizon. The power\nto observe is more or less present in every child; but it needs careful training\nin order to reach its state of highest efficiency. The elements of such training,\nof course, are object-lessons pure and simple. The children must know the\nthings themselves before studying where they are, and each one of the various\nstages of this course — the schoolroom, the school-grounds, the district, the\ntown, etc. — must include a certain amount of work not strictly geographical,\nso that the children may know what they are talking about. It is certainly\nnot a geographical statement that the blackboard is of wood, or that the\ncrayon is white; but if the discussion is undertaken with a view finally to\nlocate these things and to draw a diagram on which they are recorded, and\non which the children can recognize the relative places of the objects, the\ndigression is justified. If, on the other hand, we should indulge to enter into\na discussion of the manufacture and uses of these objects, we should have\nsinned against the spirit of geography. Or, in studying the school-yard, we\ncannot help telling the children the names of the trees and flowers in it, so\nthat they may be able to properly locate the same; but lessons in botany or\nhorticulture would be out of place. We misuse the time allotted to us if we\ndo not concentrate all our efforts in the endeavor to convey to the child an\nunderstanding of the characteristics and consequences of a given location,\nhowever interesting the rest may appear. It is the point of view that makes\nthe difference; the point of view of the naturalist is essentially another than\nthat of the geographer, even in treating the same subject. This the teacher\nshould never forget.\nFor all these prehminary exercises, the relative locations, right, left, etc.,\nwill be perfectly sufficient. The names of the cardinal points need not be used\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Scienc\n\nbefore the children know, from actual observation, that the sun appears at a\ngiven place in the sky at a given time of the day. Such observations on sun,\nmoon, and stars ought to be made between the regular classroom work whenever possible, and continued thruout the course. If we limit ourselves to\ntelling the child that south, for instance, is where we see the sun at noon, it is\njust possible that one of them will look up to see; but ten to one the other\nninety-nine will take the teacher's word for it and believe on authority what\nshould have been acquired by observation. To believe is so easy, but to look\nand see for oneself requires an effort. Yet in elementary education, more\nthan anywhere else, we should make it an iron rule for ourselves never to let\nwords take the place of facts. It is for this reason, probably, that many\ncompetent educators wish that the true movements of the heavenly bodies shall\nnever be spoken of to the child at this stage. The child's power of abstractive\nthinking is yet so undeveloped that if we force him to do what he cannot do,\nwe educate intellectual hypocrites who pretend to understand when in fact\nthey believe only. To understand the apparent movements of sun, moon, and\nstars is difficult enough; but it can be achieved by continuous careful observation. Let us be satisfied with this, as was humanity in its own childhood.\nMoreover, when the apparent movements are once well understood, and the\nchild knows what he sees when he looks up to the sky, it takes comparatively\nlittle effort for the advanced pupil to realize the true stages of things, because\nthe concrete knowledge makes the abstraction less formidable.\nWe cannot banish abstraction too rigidly from elementary teaching.\nAmbitious teachers often sin in this respect, because they think they must\nteach the child how to reason. They forget that reasoning is the privilege of\nthose who know, and that conclusions and generahzations which are not based\non a liberal amount of facts are merely self-deceit. The discovery of those\nabstractions which we call laws of nature has in every instance been the result\nof years of observation and experience, and it would be contradictory to all\npsychological and historical truth to deduct laws and generalizations, as it\nwere, from the one or two things that the child knows. Let him open his eyes\nand see things, let him tell plainly and intelligently what he has seen, let him\ntry visual reproduction by means of pen and pencil, and the rest will take care\nof itself . A child who says: ** Cedar Hill is very high. It is so steep that we\nget very tired cHmbing it. It is harder to climb from Berlin than from Wethersfield, because it is steeper on the Berhn side. Therefore few people from\nBerlin go to Wethersfield, but the Wethersfielders used to cross the mountain,\nand settled the place where Berlin now stands. Nobody lives on the mountain because it is so high and there is no water on the top. It is only covered\nwith wood\" — such a child shows thereby as perfect a physiographic and\nontographic understanding of mountains as can possibly be expected of one\nof his age, while one who recites from the textbook: \"A hill is an elevation of\nthe land,\" or: \"Mountains are obstacles to traffic,\" may become a voluble\ntalker, but his actual knowledge will never amount to much.\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nHOME\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n969\n\nIt is a sign of the times that in the attempt to raise the standard of elementary teaching many well-meaning reformers begin at the wrong end. They\nthink to raise the quality of teaching means to introduce into it the methods\nof the university. This is a pardonable mistake, as long as the supply of professionally trained pedagogues is scanty among those who teach geography;\na young graduate fresh from college understands teaching to be the inculcation\ninto the minds of the young of the contents of his physiographic notebook;\nbut all of us who bring to the work, not only the training of the geographer,\nbut also that of the teacher, ought continually to protest against this nuisance,\nso that, if not entirely abated, it may at least be publicly known as the great\nobstacle to accurate and scientific work, in geography as well as in other\nbranches. Reciting the results of other peoples' work is not science. The\nschoolboy who throws a stick into the brook to see what way it flows is a better\nscientist than the college graduate who has crammed a whole textbook full of\nphysical geography only to forget every word after examination. Science is\npersonal effort; science is honesty. Simply to appropriate the results of other\npeople's efforts and believe them one's own property is not only unscientific ;\nit is dishonesty toward oneself.\nIn the last decade the working-out of geographical types has become a\ngreat favorite among geographers, with the result that some schoolbooks\nfairly teem with types. The child who opens his home geography finds\ntherein, almost as the first thing, a \"typical\" farmhouse, a ** typical\" village\nstreet, a ** typical\" valley, etc. What in the world does ''typical\" mean to a\nchild who just begins his studies ? Does anyone who thus flings types at the\nchildren's heads realize what it means to establish a type? This always\nreminds me of a young German friend who, after having been visiting with me\nless than a week, characterized everything new that she saw here as \"typically\nAmerican.\"\nI suppose she, too, was brought up on a \"typical\" textbook.\nI do not want to depreciate any of my fellow-workers. But facts are\nfacts. The proper thing to do Is to look for the causes and try to find a remedy.\nThe cause is plain enough. Home geography is an individual course for every\nsingle town, and as long as we have not as many different textbooks as there\nare towns, those in use must make a \"typical\" concoction of everything tkat\nmight possibly apply to any one place, and just like a political speech that is\nintended to win the Democrats without estranging the Republicans, the result\nis neither black nor white, but a brew devoid of color and taste, unfit for any\nhuman intelligence to swallow. There will be no permanent change in these\nconditions until every town in the country shall have had a devoted teacher of\ngeographical and pedagogical training, one to whom his work would be, not\na job, but a mission, who would settle down there and spend a lifetime in\nbecoming so one with the place that he could write a home geography of it.\n* This is the means, by the way, by which the German schools have\" their\nfine home geographies. For there is not any one royal road, nor any one\nscheme or system that will work in one place as well as in another.\nIn a hilly\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "970\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ncountry the course must be different from one given on the plains, and again\ndifferent in a shore town.\nThe technical system has Httle or no place in home\ngeography.\nSystem, here, is the logical sequence of observations which the\nlocal conditions render possible.\nIt is not until the observational training has\nopened the children's eyes to the characteristics of the concrete objects that\nthey will be able to realize, by association and synthesis, that which they cannot see with their physical vision. To a child who has seen the streams near\nhis home all run down hill the laws governing running water will be more than\nmere words.\nEven then, however, generalizations should always be supported\nby facts observed or read about.\nIf that is so, words may be wisely used to\ncreate for the mental eye pictures which the physical one cannot see: then the\nstudent will be ready to utilize observations made by others without merely\ncopying their results, for he has observations of his own to connect with them.\nThere are two ways in which observations made by others are accessible' to the\npupil: the spoken or written word, and the map.\nJust as, after recording his\nown observations for some time, the student will be ready to use intelligently\nthe observations of others recorded in words, so he will, if his ramblings about\nthe home have been put down in the form of diagrams and maps, be able to\nuse a simple map.\nThe topographical map is out of the question in this stage\nbut the reading of simple maps should be exacted.\nThe abihty to find his\nway to an unknown part of the town by means of a plan or diagram should\nhave been secured now, and Hkewise the beginning of the map-habit in reading.\nHow far the political aspect of geography should be considered here is a\nquestion on which hardly two people agree. The negative is easiest to state:\nwhen political and natural divisions are not identical, the latter should predominate, in the beginning at least. For practical purposes, the pohtical\ndivisions cannot be ignored; but even then their coincidence with physiographic ones, or their divergence from them, ought to be especially emphasized. Especially in the eastern states and in European geography the evolution of the political boundaries forms most interesting chapters in anthropogeography and contains a great deal that is intelligible and interesting even to\na young child. So is the origin of place-names.\nSo are the foundations of\ngovernment.\nAll this, as far as any geographic conditionahty can be noticed\ntherein, comes within the range of home geography.\nIt will not only enlarge\nthe child's knowledge but, by the genuine interest which similar work creates,\nit will contribute to endear his home to the child. He will love the spot of\nearth which he makes his home because he knows it. We cannot love what we\ndo not know.\nIf these instructions are given in the proper spirit, we shall\ncertainly see the day when true patriotism will no longer be measured by the\nnumber of superlatives that a person uses in describing his heme country or\nstate: the greatest, the biggest, the best ever. Who are we that we should dare\nto make such sweeping statements, and to teach the children to make them ?\nAre we the only people endowed with superior wisdom that we should be able\nto appreciate all the different countries with equal justice and decide which is\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "GEOGRAPHY\n\nDepartment]\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nthe best? True patriotism, like true courage, is not magniloquent. True\npatriotism, like true love, loves because it understands. It is not blind to the\nshortcomings of the beloved one; but it understands their sources and feels\nthat they, too, contribute to make up this very individuahty that is dear to us. 71\n9\nSo it is with true patriotism. We feel that, for ourselves personally, our home\nis the best, with which no other can compare; but this does not mean that it is\nthe absolutely best. Says Byron: \"England, with all thy faults I love thee\nstill.\" True patriotism is not flag-waving; it is honest appreciation and\nfaithful service. We see the lights and the shadows of the picture; we do\nnot overexalt it for the one, nor condemn it for the other, because we understand that it had to be just so and not otherwise; but we promise to ourselves\nto contribute while we live that the former shall become brighter and brighter,\nand the latter, lesser and lesser. With such a standpoint, we shall be able\nalso to be more just with regard to other countries; they cease to be rivals of\nour own which we must belittle, because this country, being ours, cannot\nhave any rivals; but they have their lights and shadows as we have, and we\nhave no right to exalt ourselves unduly. All this can be taught to the young\nby a scientific, conscientious, and patriotic teacher of geography, not excepting home geography.\nPhrases confound, but facts convince.\nGEOGRAPHY\nR. H. WHITBECK,\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSUPERVISOR\nIN THE MODEL\nSCHOOL,\nTRENTON,\n\nSCHOOL\nN. J.\n\nSCHOOLS\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nAll pupils in the elementary schools are required to study geography\nbecause it is regarded as a necessary part of even an ordinary education. It\nis not put into the schools chiefly to train the imagination, the observation, or\nthe reason. If intelligently taught, it ought to do, and does do, all of these.\nThis training of the imagination, observation, and reason is an inevitable\nproduct of the whole educative process. We do not need to make the attainment of culture a conscious aim in teaching geography. The pursuit of knowledge in any legitimate field gives training. It should be our aim to teach sane\nand sensible geography, and the mental culture will take care of itself.\nI am persuaded that the immediate aim in the teaching of elementary\ngeography is to give pupils intelHgence about geographical matters: about\nthe earth, the countries into which man has divided it, the great cities which\nhe has built, the various peoples which inhabit the lands,- the geographical\nconditions under which they hve, the great industries which they carry on;\nall this with a constant use of the question ''Where ? \" and a frequent consideration of \"Why?\" In the very nature of the subject-matter, comparatively\nfew of the facts of general geography can be learned by observ^^tion on the\npart of the pupil, and very little can be reasoned out by children between nine\nand fourteen years of age. In the end, it will be found that the major part\nof our fund of geographical knowledge has been learned from others and has\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfScfcnce\n\nbecome a matter of memory. It seems to have been the fashion in the recent\npast to belittle the memory and its work, and to consider memorizing of facts\nas antiquated. There was good reason for criticism of the older education\nbecause of too much memorizing and too little thinking. Yet the criticism has\ncarried us far in the other direction. The memory is a highly useful faculty.\nAny theory of geography-teaching which ignores this will lead to grievous\nerror. And this implies no disparagement of observational and rational\nwork. The more of such work we can do within sane limits, the better. But\nwe must not blind ourselves to the fact that most of our knowledge of the world\nbeyond our horizon, that knowledge which goes to make the well-informed\nman, is a matter of memory. Of course this does not mean mere mechanical,\nunthinking memory.\nGeography, as a study in the school curriculum, has a distinct responsibility. There is a body of knowledge which every grammar-school graduate\nis expected to possess, and which geography, and no other study, is held\nresponsible for furnishing. This body of knowledge is largely made up of\nfacts about the more important countries, and parts of our own country, and\nabout the activities of the people who dwell there. The danger lies in the\ntendency to teach too many facts, to teach a host of mere details, and to make\nlittle distinction between things of very large importance and things of only\nincidental and passing importance- I believe that one of the greatest services\nthat a superintendent can do for the cause of good geography-teaching is to\nprovide his teachers with a carefully made syllabus of the things which are\nto be emphasized, to be drilled and reviewed in their respective grades. This\nlist will form scarcely a fourth of the things which will be taught, but the things\nin this list ought to be taught so that they will stick. This list will contain the\nthings which are to he known. The other and larger list consists of the things\nwhich are to have been known.\nMy first thesis, then, is this:\nThe primary aim in teaching elementary geography is to give geographical\nintelligence; to teach jacts that are likely to he useful in practical life; to differentiate hetween things which are fundamental and those which are only incidental, and so to impress the fundamental that they shall hecome a permanent\npossession of the pupil.\nIs a knowledge of \"Where?\" an essential or an incidental aim in the\nstudy of geography ?\nIn the days of our boyhood, the ''where\" was given much emphasis, too\nmuch. Too many places were located. The mistake became apparent and\nin correcting it, some of us went as far in the opposite direction. The textbook\nwhich initiated the reform placed great emphasis upon physiography, and\nvery little upon the study of location. That book started a reform but it\nupset geography-teaching in many places, and those teachers who followed it\nsent up to the high schools a lot of pupils who knew about highlands and\nlowlands, divides, drainage basins, agents of waste, and physiographic pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "P73\nDepartment)\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\ncesses generally, but who could not tell whether Liverpool is in England or in\nthe Crimea.\nLet us be sane. There unquestionably are a number of countries, rivers,\nmountains, bodies of water, and cities, which every intelligent person ought\nto know the approximate location of. The list is not so long as to be burdensome. There is greater danger of making it too long than of making it too\nshort. But, having decided upon what ones are to be located ''for keeps,\"\nthese ought to be taught and taught thoroly. I believe that every course\nof study in geography ought to give minimum lists of countries, cities, rivers,\nmountains, etc., a knowledge of whose location is to be insisted upon. Those\nwhich figure most in the world's affairs and hence appear oftenest in the\npublic press ought, as a rule, to receive the emphasis. One of the best geography teachers that I know has a set of home-made wall charts upon which\nare lists of cities of North America, cities of Europe, rivers of the world, etc.,\nwhich she from time to time places before her classes for rapid review. It\ntakes three to five minutes to run thru one of these lists, and it is time well\nspent. I note that pupils who have been thru this teacher's classes can\nusually be relied upon in the high school to show intelligence in locating places\nwhose names arise in later studies. I cannot dissuade myself from the belief\nthat one of the very things that geography is for is the teaching and impressing\nof this knowledge of location. I cannot escape the feeling that map-study\nand a considerable amount of map-drawing and rapid sketching are two of\nthe highly valuable forms of geographic work. It is this study of maps, this\nworking over maps, that prints them on the mind and enables the person,\nyears later, to visualize them and see, when he desires to recall them, places in\ntheir relative positions. Maps, to serve this purpose, need to be simple and\nclear, not covered with a multitude of names.\nMy second thesis is:\nThe study of location, within sane limits, is an essential, not an incidental,\naim in elementary geography.\nTo what extent should the purely physical side of geography be taught in\nthe elementary grades ?\nFollowing the report of the Committee of Ten, a reform movement in\ngeography-teaching spread over the country. This new geography placed\nmuch emphasis upon the purely physical side of the subject. The pioneer\ntextbook of the new movement had a tremendous sale. It contained page upon\npage of text describing in considerable detail the various mountain ranges of\nthe world; treating of the steepness of the slopes, width of valleys, shape of\npeaks, hardness or softness of rocks, snow-covering, glaciers, drainage, and\nmuch more of the same nature. This kind of treatment was not confined to\nNorth America but was carried to all of the grand divisions. As nearly as I\ncan compute it, about 26 per cent, of the text of that book is devoted to general\nprinciples of physical and mathematical geography, and 42 per cent, more to\nthe physiography of the continents.\nThus, about two-thirds of the book is\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "gy^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nphysical geography in which man and his work has only an incidental reference\nhere and there. The plain fact is, that sort of geography does not appeal to\nchildren. It is dead, dreary, meaningless description, far removed from the kind\nof world in which children Hve. The mistake was soon discovered. The book\nwas revised. The 42 per cent, of text deahng with the physiography of the\ngrand divisions was so thoroly removed or disguised that it shrank to\n5 per cent. The proportion of space devoted to political and human geography\nwas doubled. The political and commercial maps which, in the first book,\nwere relegated to the rear, came back to their proper places in the revised\nbook. Every year or two since, a new series of elementary school geographies\nhas come forward. None of them has gone back to the type of textbook of\ntwenty-five years ago and none has repeated the mistake of this pioneer book\nin the new movement. The tendency is plainly away from the overemphasis\nof the purely physical, toward a greater emphasis upon the human side of the\nsubject — man and his work. This is not because the facts of physical geography are less important than formerly, or because they are not an integral\npart of the subject. It is because children are not interested in such facts\nunless they are closely associated with the lives and doings of people. We are\nrecognizing this and we are not teaching so much about primary and secondary\nlowlands but more about the people who dwell there, and how their lives are\ninfluenced by the mountains, or the valleys, in which they live and work and\nplay and build cities. A physiographic basis in general geography is desirable,\nbut in the elementary school there must be a constant association of the human\nactivities with the physical conditions.\nMy third thesis is:\nThe bare facts of physical geography do not appeal to children, because not\nwithin the realm of their natural interests. Physio graphic facts, as a rule, should\nbe associated with their consequences as seen in the lives and doings of the\npeople.\nTo what extent is it wise to emphasize causal relations in the grades ?\nThe causal idea is unquestionably the keynote of modern geography. It is\nevident in all of the recent textbooks. It has come to stay and I believe it is\nwelcome. The question is not \"Shall we teach causal relations,\" but \"How\nmuch shall we try to teach ?\" That depends upon another consideration —\nnamely, How far are young children able really to grasp the meaning of\ngeographical causes ? It is one thing for a teacher to formulate statements\nof the causes which have promoted the growth of Cleveland or of London, and\nto teach the pupils to repeat those statements, and quite another thing to\nbe sure that children comprehend them. Memorizing and reciting reasons\nwhich another person has deduced is not reasoning. Children who have\nlearned from a book or from a teacher the reasons for the remarkable industrial growth of Germany may be as truly memorizing as those who learn\nthe capitals of the states. Yet, it may be equally true that they have memorized akind of facts which are exceedingly useful in developing the power to\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n975\n\nreason^ and exceedingly useful in developing the attitude of mind which seeks to\nknow reasons. This, in my judgment, is the virtue of the modem treatment of\ngeography. Not that pupils actually reason out effects from causes, tho\nthey may sometimes do this, but that the causal treatment tends to cultivate\na cause-seeking frame of mind toward geography. The desire to know why\nis in the child, and it may be utilized to advantage, for there is no doubt that\nthe teaching of many of the simpler causes, which help to explain why things\nare as they are, is a distinct educational gain. Yet there are a lot of things\nin geography that are worth knowing, but whose explanations are difficult\nand complicated.\nIn such cases teach the fact and let the cause wait.\nIt is only a commonplace to say that the amount of emphasis to be laid\nupon the causal side increases with the age of the pupils. With fourth- and\nfifth-grade children, very little of this is practicable; in the seventh and eighth\ngrades more is practicable, providing only simple causes are introduced and\nthey in the vocabulary of the child. Mill, in the International Geography,\ntakes the ground that elementary geography should deal mostly with facts,\nand college geography with causes and relations. My knowledge of geographyteaching in this country, however, does not lead me to fear that too much of\nthe rational element is being introduced. The opposite is probably true.\nEnough of the cause-and-effect idea should be introduced to create in the mind\nof the learner the feeling that there are pretty definite geography reasons for\nsuch facts as the location and growth of cities, for the kind of industries followed in a region or country, for the routes taken by railways, or for the character of our trade with Great Britain, Brazil, or other countries. We are as\nmuch after an attitude of mind as after actual knowledge of causes.\nThesis four:\nChildren in the grades are too young to do much original reasoning in\ngeography. Simple causes and their effects should now and then he pointed\nout in order that pupils shall form the habit of at least mentally asking ^^why ?\"\nThe primary aim in the grades, however, is to learn facts rather than reasons.\nIs there any good reason for laying special emphasis on commercial geography ?\nA few years ago, there was a notable awakening of interest in physical\ngeography in the high schools. That wave has been followed by a similar,\nthough smaller, wave of interest in commercial geography. There is a present\ntendency toward emphasizing commercial studies. The spirit of the age\nencourages it. The danger, however, lies in reducing the study to a memorizing of encyclopedic matter, more or less statistical, and hence ever changing.\nThere are hundreds of articles which enter into commerce. Many of these\nare, or may be, produced in dozens of places. The difficulty lies in knowing\nwhere to draw the line on the number of commercial products to be studied,\nand the number of producing regions to be enumerated for each. The inevitable tendency is to teach too many, to load the memory with a multitude of\ndetails many of which are mere lumber, affording little educational return in\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLScience\n\n970\neither the getting or in the having. Yet, I am disposed to believe that, if\nchildren were required to decide between learning pages about commercial\nproducts, their sources, markets, and methods of production, or pages about\nmountain-slopes, divides, drainage-basins, and general topography, they would\nchoose the former. It has more of human interest, and appears more useful,\nwhether it is or not. The commercial phase of elementary geography is\nimportant, but the multiplication of details defeats the very ends which we\nare seeking to attain. The commercial products which enter into our foreign\ntrade are legion, but those which deserve attention in the grammar grades are\ncomparatively few. One might teach ten or more agricultural products of\nFrance, a dozen important products of her mills, and as many more items\nwhich she buys in quantity from us. He might do the same for Germany,\nthe United Kingdom, and many other countries. No one defends such\nteaching, yet our textbooks and our teachers are constantly tending toward\nsuch a practice. It is difficult not to do so. And here is one of the places\nwhere the course of study can be of genuine service by supplying maximum\nand minimum lists of commercial products, exports, etc., of any particular\ncountry, and specifying what ones are worthy of mere mention, and the one,\ntwo, or three, which ought be emphasized.\nThesis five:\nThe facts of commercial geography appeal to the pupil as being useful, and\n\nhence are welcomed by him. To counteract the teacher^s tendency to multiply\ndetails, the course of study ought to distinguish between items that may be properly\nmentioned and those which are of large importance in the commerce of the\nworld.\nIn conclusion, may I enter a plea for the recognition of the following ideas\nin the teaching of elementary geography:\n(i) The need of sifting of the vast amount of geographical material which\nmight be taught, and the preparation of a syllabus which shall outline a limited\nbody of facts that inherently deserve emphasis.\n(2) Such a selection of material having been made, that both teachers and\npupils be held rigidly responsible for the thoro teaching and knowing\nof this body of essential knowledge. Local needs and personal preferences\nof teachers may guide in selecting the rest of the things to be taught.\n(3) The value of studying maps and making maps, to the end that clear\nmental pictures of these may be impressed and may remain, to serve their\nowner a thousand times in later life.\n(4) The limiting of the amount of attention given to pure physiography\nand the relating of that which is taught to the life-conditions; delaying to the\nend of the grammar-school course most of the treatment of mathematical\ngeography and the scientific discussion of the winds; a reduction of the list\nof productions, manufactures, exports, etc., usually given in textbooks.\n(5) The introduction of enough of the cause-and-effect idea to create in the\npupil the habit of thinking that behind the facts of geography always lie the\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n977.\n\ncauses, even though he may not at present know those causes; and at the\nsame time a recognition by teachers of the truth that the grammar-school age\nis the time for learning facts rather than for groping after reasons which only\nadults can appreciate.\n(6) The need of remembering that, however valuable the stereoscope,\nstereopticon, and geographical museum may be as auxiliaries — and they are\nvaluable — yet they supplement, not supplant, textbook study, oral recitation,\nreview, and drill along the old lines.\nDISCUSSION\nW. N. Clifford, superintendent of schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa. — I have been very\nmuch interested in the papers which have just been read on \"Home Geography\" and\n\"Geography in the Elementary School.\" There is no doubt whatever in the mind of\nanyone who is interested in the study or teaching of geography that too much attention\nhas been given to the countries far and remote and too little attention to home geography.\nThe teachers are not entirely to blame for this. Subject-matter on home geography is\nvery hard to get.\nI Hve on the Missouri River in Iowa and I know how difficult it is to get descriptive\nmatter on the city, county, and state which is suitable to put into the hands of pupils.\nEven subject-matter for the teacher is not abundant. Hence, many teachers give their\npupils the primary geography simply because it is easy to obtain. But home-geography\nmaterial is becoming available and teachers will do better work in this subject in the next\nfew years as they are alive to the importance of it.\nThe paper just read is full of helpful suggestions and calls attention to some of the\nprimary aims in teaching geography. The one which I wish to emphasize especially is\nthe importance of the study of industries in connection with grammar-school geography.\nThis is what may properly be termed \"Elementary Commercial Geography,\"\nIt has been my privilege to give some attention to this subject. I have felt that many\nplaces on the map did not mean much more to children than a mere spot and that the real\nlife ought to be studied by visiting these places, if possible; if not, at least by collecting\nsamples of the different industries for careful study. Take, for instance, the sugar industry;\nhow little children know of the real life of the South where our sugar-cane is produced.\nHow meager is their knowledge in regard to the beet-growing states, and then add to this\nthe scanty knowledge of the New England states in which the maple sugar is found.\nChildren see the finished product. How much more alive their interest would be in\nthe different parts of the United States if they could trace the sugar story in its entirety.\nIt was my privilege some years ago to take to Louisiana a party from Council Bluffs\nwho were teaching the United States in geography, to study the sugar-cane industry at\nfirst hand, collecting samples of the cane and bottled specimens of all the processes thru\nto the finished product. Later it was my privilege to go to Brooklyn, New York, and get\nsamples of the refined products. At another time a trip was made to Nebraska to trace\nthe study of the beet-sugar industry. Adding to this the maple sugar and honey, the full\nstory of sweet as furnished from the different sources was presented to the children.\nThis information was given thru descriptions, both oral and written, thru bottled\nspecimens from the raw to the manufactured product, thru stereoscopic pictures and\nlantern slides describing the different processes, and the result was more than satisfactory.\nUpon visiting one of the classes after the story had been worked out, the question was\nasked of the class as a whole, \"What do you find to be the value of this study?\" A\ngirl of twelve years raised her hand and said, \"Grand Island, Nebraska, is a real place to\nme now because they have a beet-sugar factory.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "gyS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nOne other point mentioned in the paper just read to which I wish to call your attention:\nthat is, the danger of spending too much time teaching the mere location of places. An\nattempt has been made during the past year in our schools at Council Bluffs to pick out a\nfew important cities and work out more in detail the information that is available about\nthem. Take Boston, for instance; trace its early settlement and development, from\ncolonial times until the present, when it now stands as the leading city of historical importance, one of the most important cities commercially, and a great intellectual and social\ncenter.\nThe use of post cards has been a great aid to us in this work. A sufficient number of\nsets has been procured so that each pupil in the class is provided with a picture of the\nimportant places. A visit to Old North Church and a set of post cards tracing the route\nof Paul Revere out thru Concord has helped very much in the teaching of both history\nand geography.\nI do not want to overemphasize the study of the industries in the schools, and I do\nwant to emphasize all the geography in regard to position and place that has ever been\ntaught, and then try to give the children an idea instead of a word, a concrete thought\ninstead of an abstract one in regard to places. We hail with joy the progress that is being\nmade in this study, and no good system of schools can be said to be well equipped at the\npresent time without having in addition to a good library of geography, a fine collection\nof mounted pictures, sets of post cards, stereoscopes and stereographs, lanterns and lantern\nslides.\nIn addition to the above equipment, collections of the diflferent industries from the\nraw to the manufactured product ought to be found in every school.\n\nGEOGRAPHY\nGEO.\n\nD.\n\nHUBBARD,\n\nIN THE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nASSISTANT\nPROFESSOR\nOF GEOLOGY,\nUNIVERSITY,\nCOLUMBUS,\nOHIO\n\nOHIO\n\nSTATE\n\nThe report of the Committee of Ten which gave us so many suggestions\nconcerning courses in geography, geology, and meteorology in secondary\nschools is now about fifteen years old. Some of it is still serviceable, some\nwe have outgrown. Since the issue of that report many papers and not a few\nbooks have been produced which carry suggestions valuable to teachers of\ngeography in high schools. I think I recognize their various positions and\nfeel the importance of what they have said, yet you will pardon me if I make\nbut few references to this literature but speak for myself. I do not wish to\nclaim originality because much that is in my mind is there in consequence\nof my contact with my fellow-teachers and coworkers in the field of the science\nof geography.^\nAt present in our secondary schools we are giving physical geography or\nphysiography, often very satisfactorily, to pupils in science and literary courses;\ncommercial geography to pupils in the business course, and occasionally\ngeology and meteorology as electives. In the large majority of schools each\ncourse above named is \"completed\" in a half-year. Of the two electives, the\nlatter is coming and the former is going. This is right. Geology, altho\ntried for a dozen years or more, has not gained a footing in the schools, and\n'■ After this paper had taken shape the March and April, 1908, numbers of the Journal of Geography\n<:ame to hand with a valuable symposium on \"Secondary School Geography.\" If this symposium is at all\nrepresentative there is much interest and thought now bemg given to the subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n979\nmight now well be laid aside except where special local conditions make its\npresentation very desirable. But meteorology in an elementary form may\nprofitably be retained and pushed simply as an elective in the third or fourth\nyear. Some day its real utility will be more fully recognized, and then we\ncan give it a better place.\nBut we ought to go farther in secondary geography. There should be a\ncourse in what may be called general or regional geography, the comparative\ngeography of Ritter, but not that of Markham in Britannica; a geography that\noutlines the main physiographic regions of the earth, studies their physical\nfeatures and conditions, and their human distributions and occupations, but\nis specially concerned with the simple and complex relations existing betwe.en\nthese physical and human elements. Such a course could well be extended to\ncover one or even two years in the upper part of the high-school curriculum.\nBy extending the physical geography in the better high schools to cover\nall the first year, required, and regional geography to occupy a place in the\nsecond or third, or even both years, required, with meteorology and commercial geography — not commerce and not statistics — electives, in either of\nthe upper years there could be made a course of much practical value, of real\ncultural worth, and of scholastic interest, and one comparable in all three\nrespects with the four years of Latin or three to four years of history.\nThere are now some points to be made in favor of such a course as this,\nsome answers to be made to arguments raised against it, and a few comments\nto be made on the constitution of the course.\nFirst, other studies consist of a series of sub-topics and cover a number of\nyears as is here proposed for geography, thus avoiding the superficial study of\na host of short courses by substituting for them one connected series of studies\nin one broad field. For example, mathematics under three or four subjects\nruns thru three or four years. History can be taken three years, biologic\nscience at least two, Latin and EngUsh each four years, and other languages\ntwo or three years each. The proposition here is to give to geography a\nsimilar place.\nSecond, when one takes account of the training in observation, description,\nanalysis, classification, and synthesis, the comparison, argumentation, and\nreasoning involved in these geography courses, he must grant that for disciphne and broadening culture there is certainly nothing much better. And a\ncourse of study that lays before the student in the proper way the condition\nof the people, their occupations, and their interests; and shows the reasons\ntherefor, in so far as they have been due to the influence of physiography,\nclimate, resources, or position, will undoubtedly elicit in the pupil a healthy\nappreciation of the reahty of peoples in other lands and a toleration for their\npeculiarities. And then, as he works out the reasons for the production of\nvarious articles in special places, and finds that each is produced in conditions to\nwhich it is best adapted, and comes to minister to our well-being, by routes\ncarefully adjusted to geographic conditions, he will, it seems to me, be bound\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "^So\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nto grasp a broad conception of the world and to learn fundamental lessons in\ninter-dependence and independence; and ultimately to develop the spirit of\ntrue citizenship and pride in his own country.\nThird, the average adult of today would use, if he had it, a knowledge\nof the regions of the world, their physiography, climate, industries, products,\nand the actual life of their peoples; and this liberal knowledge of geography\nis needed in reading current events, in business, in travel, and in social intercourse. Itis of nearly as universal use as the English and mathematics taught\nin high schools, without both of which one should never think of graduating.\nThese three preceding points show clearly that geography cannot consistently\nbe an elective in the high-school curriculum.\nFourth, some of those in best positions to know tell us that culture and\ndiscipline acquired in one field do not necessarily make one stronger for work\nin another. Then by all means the culture should come in studies which have\na practical bearing on the work the student is subsequently to do, for by this\nmeans it is possible for him to obtain both the discipline and the information\nwith one effort, and both in lines which he will subsequently follow or find\nuse for. Geography has both a cultural and a utilitarian value and every\npupil should have a chance to realize both. But the real disciplinary value\nof any course rests largely with the teacher. After all, geography is important, first, for knowledge, second, for training. In physical geography, one\nacquires knowledge, learns methods of getting knowledge, and discusses and\ncompares features and processes and in the doing comes the training and\nculture. Regional geography furnishes the best practice in synthesis; in\nfact, after its informational value, its chief strength lies in the fact that its\nmethod is essentially synthetic.\nFifth, thousands of our high-school pupils go out every year into teaching\npositions in the grades and in ungraded schools. They have been able to get\nhigher training than they essay to give in English, mathematics, drawing,\nhistory, and language in their high-school course, and I see no valid reason\nwhy they should not have equal opportunities in geography.\nWhile I am dealing with the teachers, a little more should be said. There\nshould be better training for teachers of geography below the high school;\nand the high school and normal school are about the only places to which these\nprospective teachers go, hence there should be those in schools of these classes\nwho can teach geography better. Some of the secondary-school teachers of\nphysical geography have learned to recognize the features and processes described inthe texts, but my experience has convinced me that many teachers\nin secondary schools do not know in the field the features they can describe\nin the words of the text. I have known two college professors who were trying to teach physiography and physiographic geology who did not know many\nof the forms in the field or on the maps. Think of a Latin teacher who did\nnot know an ablative absolute or a gerund ! We cannot expect good laboratory and field-teaching when the teachers do not know the forms either in the\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dfpartmrntl\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n981\n\nfield or on the map, and we certainly cannot expect those who go into teaching\npositions out of the secondary and normal schools to be able to do good laboratory teaching and most valuable field-work, when their teachers know how\nto give neither. We need, I say, all along the line, teachers better trained in\ngeography and physical geography and especially in laboratory and observation phases.\nSixth, as a collateral study of history and economics, or a basis for further\nstudy or practice in these two lines or in politics, commerce, and business, no\ncourse is more thoroly adapted. Multitudes of our high-school boys are\ngoing into business with no further training than that signified by the highschool diploma, and they will find geography more practical than some other\ncourses they now^ take.\nCertain objections will be raised to the extension of present courses in, or\nthe introduction of new courses into, the high-school curriculum. One of\nthese is the excuse that there is not room for anything more in the high-school\ncourses. I can see that they are crowded; but I verily believe that there is\nroom for the things of greatest value to the pupils; and I further believe it has\nbeen shown that in importance geography is, at least, one of the first four or\nfive subjects. Some less valuable subjects might be made electives, or eliminated.\nAnother argument raised against high-school geography is that it carries\nno college-entrance credit. In reply it may be said: (i) the secondary schools\nhave no business to build their courses primarily for prospective college students, but for the highest good of the largest number, the 85 to 90 per cent,\nwho enter life's productive enterprises direct from the high schools; and (2)\nthe colleges should credit training and experience, not necessarily zoology,\nhistory, and Latin. If equally well taught, one language is about as good as\nanother and one science as preparatory as another. The^ university should be\nrational enough to see that the function of the high school is not to prepare for\ncollege but for life, and, after specifying a few units out of the fifteen or sixteen, should expect to take freshmen with a minimum of training rather than\nwith a minimum of this and that subject. If well taught, the college will\ncome to recognize the training given in geography as it has been forced to\ndo for other subjects.\nA third objection is that there are few teachers prepared to present geography in the high schools. I grant this and more, there is small opportunity\nfor ambitious young people to submit themselves to training for this work;\nbut even now, with all this granted, we have not shown but that geography\nshould be a fundamental part of the equipment of the high-school graduate.\nMake use of all teachers that we now have who can do the work passably well,\ncreate a demand in full view of the institutions preparing teachers, and ere\nlong the supply will increase. A few educators are very much awake along\nthese lines, and scores more are aw^akening. With Professor Dodge of Columbia, Iam convinced \"the time is ripe for a systematic endeavor to establish\nthe kind of work that is now in the minds of many people.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "o82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nA fourth objection is occasionally raised that geography can and ought to\nbe finished below the eighth grade; and with it comes a similar statement\nthat geography, like the three R's, is too elementary to be carried over into the\nhigh school where the program is already packed. To this objection comes\nthe answer that English, French, German, and other European universities\nhave long recognized geography as sufficiently advanced for their curricula\nand have maintained chairs of geography for years; and that both the number of men teaching the science and the number of universities announcing\ncourses are increasing in Europe; and that a very few American universities\nhave begun to make provision for it. If it is not too advanced for the leading\nuniversities to grant degrees upon, certainly there can be found a sufiicient\namount of material of the proper quality for high schools. A few high schools\nhave found it already.\nUnder the heading of the constitution of the courses will be given a fewremarks beginning with physical geography. I anticipate that we are in\ncloser agreement in this branch than farther on.\nPhysical geography should come in the first year of the high school, because\nhere it becomes a fitting culmination and systematization of the bits of descriptive physical geography that have gone before. Here it also forms a basis\nfor other work in the three years to follow. Most subjects pursued in the\nsecondary schools are, because of their nature, related to and built upon\nphysical geography. Physical geography is fundamental both for all other\ngeography and also for zoology, botany, history, civics, and economics.\nThoro text work should be done, covering the subjects usually treated in any\nof the five or six better books; a very little collateral reading can be done,\nespecially where it is possible to utiHze books on the physiography of the\nstate, such as a number of our state geologic surveys are now preparing.\nThe subject-matter of the course must be largely descriptive, but the development idea should not be lost sight of. The systematization and classification\nof land and water forms should follow the descriptive part, but should not be\ncarried too far, remembering that pupils cannot classify until they have something to classify and know its characteristics. Use a classification based on\norigin and stage in development — a real genetic classification. Systematic\nphysiography can wait for full development in college.\nThe classroom work should be supplemented with pictures, lantern slides,\nmaps, and globes, and upon these should be conducted systematic laboratory\nwork, aimed at results, and not at entertainment. Keep the laboratory work\nwhere it develops reasoning or skill and not merely memory. The laboratory\nwork should be carried into the field for the identification of the real things.\nSome excursion work in both fall and spring, and conscientious laboratory\nwork all the rest of the year would give the pupil a knowledge of realitiefe upon\nwhich to base his conceptions of forms and processes which cannot be seen.\nThe wise teacher will remember that physical geography is not physics,\ngeology, petrography, nor chemistry.\nNor has it any business collecting\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n983\nspecimens. Pictures may be taken, and maps and sketches made with\nprofit.\nPassing over, for the present, commercial geography which, except in the\ncommercial course, should be elective, and meteorology, which should be\nelective in all courses, we come to the regional geography. \"Its educational\nvalue lies in its being a synthesis which in its simpler elements is obvious to the\nvery young, and, in its more complex ones, presents problems difl&cult enough to\nattract the keenest intellects, while its results have a direct bearing on national\nas well as on individual life. No other subject unless it be sociology gives the\ncomprehensive outlook on existing conditions which must be taken into\naccount in all the larger problems of life.\"' •\nIt was stated on a previous page that the physiographic region should be\nthe unit in this course; first the larger regions of the continents, then lesser\nsubdivisions. It is too late in the history of geography to make the political\ndomain the unit of study. I have suggested elsewhere^ that the actual\nregion studied \"might be one whole country, as Italy, or two, as Spain and\nPortugal, or only a part of one, as the Appalachian region in the United\nStates. Descriptions of the physical features and the cHmate and resources\nshould be coupled with explanations of these phenomena followed by\ndescriptions of the culture features, boundaries, towns, communications,\nindustries, and human distributions always causally connected with the\nphysical features.\" Geography with its half-dozen branches is a unit and all\nshould be carefully knit together. But geography is not history, economics,\nnor sociology.\nLongman's School Atlas (mainly physical), the atlas volume of the last\ncensus of the United States, and similar atlases from the censuses of other\ncountries, Bartholomew's Atlas of Meteorology, forest and crop maps, maps\nof mineral productions, and the political maps somewhat familiar from the\ngrade studies, furnish basal material for the laboratory work. Put side by\nside a rainfall and a forest map of the United States and attempt the interpretation ofthe distribution of forests. Then put maps of the distribution of the\nlumber industry, the great lumber markets, and the wood-manufacturing\ncenters over against the forest map ; watch the interest grow. Place rainfall,\ntemperature, and wheat maps together, rainfall and wool-production maps,\ntemperature, rainfall, and cotton-production maps together. Study ironproducing, iron-manufacturing, population, and transportation maps together.\nStudy topographic and population maps together; work out relations between\ntopographic and railroad maps. See how many ways one can go from the\nAtlantic seaboard to the Mississippi valley by rail, then in how many places\none can cross the Ohio-Indiana or Indiana-Illinois line, and from the topographic map see why. How many routes from Mississippi valley to Pacific\ncoast ? How do the railroads enter Cincinnati or Pittsburg and how do they\n' Herbertson, A. J., Geographical Journal, 1904, p. 426.\n' Educational Review, 1908, p. 396.\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "gS^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nenter Chicago, Indianapolis, Columbus, or Cleveland; then consult the local\nUnited States Geologic Survey topographic sheets to see why the differences.\nCompare the physical map of England or of Europe with a map showing distribution ofpeoples; then with these two and temperature and rainfall maps\nsee how many peculiarities in the distribution of the people can be explained.\nWind, temperature, and rainfall maps for January and for July will reveal to\nthe inquiring student the main features of the two rainy and two dry seasons\nof certain parts of the tropics. The monthly rainfall maps of the Upper Nile\nvalley will reveal the secrets of the Nile flood. Leete's map exercises in geography are very helpful along this line of geographic study.\nFor textbooks, probably the best all-round book for this high-school course\nis Mill's International Geography published by Appleton. It must be accompanied, however, with atlases and maps, and for best results certain pj^rts in\nthe treatment of several of the countries should be omitted. Appleton 's\nseries of Regional Geographies in twelve volumes, one for each of the larger\nregions, Hke North America, Central Europe, Britain and the British Seas,\nIndia, the Nearer East, and others makes a splendid series to accompany the\ncourse. Stanford's Compendium, new edition, is good for refereiKe work.\nBrigham and Semple have two admirable books on the geographic conditions\naffecting American history which might be helpful.\nA specific study of the United States for one year, and of Europe for a\nsecond year, or a general study of a number of world-problems for a year,\nwould be intensely interesting and of inestimable value to the pupil. Let me\nurge that he who would introduce regional geography into the secondary\nschool must reckon on a laboratory (map room) and a laboratory period in\nhis program; and he may also count on being, to some extent, a missionary\nin most communities. But in spite of indifference, inertia, open opposition,\nthe critics, crowded program, and all, I believe it will pay to put into some of\nour high schools a year in regional geography as a trial. Start slowly, give it a\nfair chance with other subjects, never call it a fad, and its practical and cultural values may prove it a member of our secondary schools well worth\nretaining.\nSome points in this paper mark ideal conditions not to be attained in a\nday. Work toward them; an approximation to the ideal is better than no\nstep toward it. If not a whole year for geography, then a half-year. If not\nboth parts — physical and regional — then one part.\nDISCUSSION\nJames F. Chamberlain, State Normal School, Los Angeles. — Geography has long\noccupied a prominent place in the curriculum of the elementary school, but not until comparatively recently did it receive serious consideration as a part of the work of the secondary\nschool. It is interesting to note in this connection that the introduction of geography\ninto the high school was not the result of the natural expansion of the work done in lower\ngrades, but rather was due to the influence of the college and the university.\nWhen these\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "n\n\nDepartmentJ\n\n^ DEMONSTRATION\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICS\n\n985\n\ninstitutions began to develop the subject of physical geography or physiography, the high\nschools, as a natural consequence, soon offered courses along the same line. Hence it is\nthat general or regional geography receives practically no attention in the secondary school.\nThat the study of physical geography requires observation, mental picturing, cleas\nthinking, close reasoning, accurate expression; that it deals with things and conditionr\nwhich vitally influence our daily lives, must be admitted by all. Physical geography lays\nthe foundation for the study of various other sciences as well as for general geography, history, economics, and commerce. That this subject should be one of the corner-stones of\nthe curriculum of the secondary school there is no doubt.\nEvery periodical devoted to the interests of geography-teaching and every discussion of\ngeography as taught in secondary schools reveal the fact that there is little agreement as\nto what constitutes a high-school course in this subject. That there should be some slight\ndifference of opinion is fortunate, but where the disagreement is so marked it is evidence\nthat earnest individual consideration, conference, and revision are necessary.\nThe function of geography in the secondary school, like that of all other subjects,\nis to prepare the student for the duties and opportunities of daily life, not to prepare him\nfor college. The great body of high-school graduates enter at once upon some business or\nprofessional career. These young people need a knowledge of geography which our\npresent course does not give them. Every high-school graduate should know more of\nthe lands and peoples of the earth than he is able to grasp in the elementary school; This\nknowledge is needed in every occupation, in reading, and in conversation.\nAgain, as has been pointed out by Professor Hubbard, a large number of high-school\ngraduates enter upon the profession of teaching. Their knowledge of that phase of\ngeography which receives chief emphasis in the elementary school is very meager. Until\nthis condition is remedied, we shall continue to have unsatisfactory teaching of geography\nin the grades.\nThe revision of the course in geography for secondary schools is, therefore, a matter of\ngreat importance. I favor the addition of a year's work devoted to generaf geography.\nThis second course should give a grasp of topography, climate, natural resources, industries,\ntransportation, commercial centers, and the many important influences of physical environment upon life.\nIf but one year can be devoted to geography in the secondary school, than one-half year\nshould be given to physical geography, and the remaining time to general geography. In\nthis case we may profitably omit some of the detailed study of land forms. In the course\nin general geography there should be, in addition to the study of the best books, the study\nof models, maps, diagrams, and pictures. The addition of such a course in geography\nwould vastly enrich the curriculum of the secondary school. It would give to graduates of\nthe high school a much better equipment for the various occupations than is now possessed bythem, and it would materially raise the standards of teaching in the elementary\nschool.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION OF THE\nSECONDARY\n\nROBERT\n\nA. MILLIKAN,\n\nASSOCIATE\n\nLECTURE DEMONSTRATION\nSCHOOL PHYSICS\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF CHICAGO\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nIN THE\n\nIN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nI have chosen to change the title of my address as announced in the program from the Function of the ''Demonstration Lecture,\" to the Function\nof the \"Lecture Demonstration\" in Secondary School Physics. The reason\nfor this change will be apparent as I proceed. When your president asked\nme to present my views before this body upon this topic I confess that I did\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "p86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nnot at once see how it could be made of any especial interest, since there\nseemed to me to be so little opportunity for difference of opinion in regard to\nit. And I am not certain now that I have anything to say which will not\nseem to you to be altogether commonplace. I have no radical innovations\nto propose, and if, as might be inferred from a glance at the history of pedagogical conferences in physics, the especial function of gatherings of this sort\nis to bring out violent differences of opinion, and under no circumstances to\nfoster an insipid and effeminating spirit of harmony, my address may perhaps\nfail of accomplishing the desired end. Nevertheless it often happens that\nwhere there is no wide difference of opinion as to what is ideally best\nour practice falls far short of our ideals, and if my observation of current\npractice, particularly in some of the smaller schools, is correct, there is at\nleast need of emphasizing the importance of the part which the classroom\ndemonstration should play in secondary school physics. I respond therefore\nheartily to the president's request to assign what seems to me to be the proper\nplace to this element of instruction in beginning physics.\nWithin the past twenty years the center of gravity of instruction in all\nbranches of study has been steadily moving away from the lecture table, and\nin my judgment the movement may with profit go much farther in many\nsubjects than it has already gone. As a general proposition, I feel ready to\nassert that in all branches of instruction the formal lecture is a most inefficient\nmeans either of imparting knowledge or of training the powers of the student.\nIt furnishes capital training to the teacher, but little or none to the pupil,\nand as a means of imparting knowledge someone has compared it to the\noperation of attempting to fill a score or more of narrow-necked bottles by\nsetting them up in a row at a distance of a rod or more and then throwing\nbucketfuls of water at them in the hope that a few drops from each bucketful\nmay by some lucky chance find their way into the neck of one or another of\nthe bottles. To carry on the figure, contrast the effectiveness of this operation with that of taking each individual bottle by its individual neck and\nholding it for a few minutes under the waterspout. Even in advanced work\nthe lecture system commonly degenerates at one extreme into time-wasting\ndictation, and at the other extreme into such a rapid presentation of an involved\nsubject that the student loses his bearings completely and spends his time in\nfeverishly writing down a mass of unintelligible notes — mere aural impressions— which he hopes by dint of hours of laborious reconstruction to piece\ntogether afterward into a more or less intelligible whole. Between these\ntwo extremes there is but little ground for a thoroly satisfactory lecture\nsystem of instruction to rest upon. It must of course be tolerated in some\nadvanced courses in which the material of the course cannot be made available\nto the students in other forms, but in this age of many books and cheap and\nrapid printing this is seldom the case. It is not too much to say that the\nlecture system as it exists in the German university is, like the German duel,\na survival of the barbaric age, when printing was unknown, and when, on\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICS\n\n987\n\naccount of the laboriousness of writing, the oral method of imparting knowledge\nwas the only feasible one.\nThe growing lack of confidence in the lecture system in our American\nuniversities is nowhere better shown than in the change which has taken place\nin the past fifteen years in nearly all our prominent law schools in the method\nof teaching law. The lecture system has been almost entirely replaced by\nthe so-called ca-^e-system, which is nothing but the laboratory method of the\nphysical sciences carried over into a non-scientific subject. The practical\ncase, that is, an actual experiment in law, is put before the students. They\nare asked to study it and draw their conclusions from it, and then, when\nthe class meets, these conclusions are analyzed and criticized by the class and\nthe teacher.\nWhether or not the lecture system is destined to vanish largely from all\nbranches of instniction, elementary or advanced, as it seems to me desirable\nthat it should do, it is certainly true that in secondary schools it has already\nvanished, having been replaced by some form of the textbook method. Let\nus then analyze the textbook method as it exists today in order to see what\nrelation the lecture demonstration in physics should bear to it. Altho,\nas indicated above, I am a most thoro believer in the textbook method\nwhen rightly used, I have no hesitation in asserting that there is no more\npotent cause of failure in the teaching of physics in secondary schools than\nthe improper and slavish use of the textbook. In the study of language or\nhistory the foundation facts of the course must, in the nature of the case, be\ntaken by the student upon authority. The material with which the subject\ndeals is not available to him at first hand. Arbitrary facts and arbitrary rules\nin great number must be learned. The type of training which is furnished\nby the study of these subjects is largely one of the memory. This cannot\nbe said of mathematics, and yet even here the material of the subject can be\njust as well presented to the student by the textbook as by the word of mouth\nof the teacher. As a matter of fact, in general, the presentation of the subject\nfound in the textbook is likely to be more logically arranged and in all respects\nmore intelligible than that given by the teacher. Even in some sciences,\nnotably in physiography as it is commonly taught, much of the material of\nthe subject is not available to the student at first hand, and in this case it is\njust as well, or perhaps even better, for him to get his first impressions of a\nparticular topic from the textbook as from the teacher. It is evident, therefore, that in practically all the subjects taught in the high school, excepting\nbotany, physics, and chemistry, the student is, and must be, diligently and\nthoroly trained in learning his lessons from the textbook. A given number of pages is assigned each day in advance and the pupil studies over these\npages in order that he may be able the next day to reproduce, either directly\nfrom memory or by a judicious combination of memory and understanding,\nwhat he has learned from his text.\nNow it is this sort of textbook habit to which the pupil is so diligently\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Sdrace\n\n988\nand so necessarily trained in almost all of his other high-school work, which\nconstitutes the most serious hindrance to his progress in grasping the method\nand the spirit of physics; and the first task which lies before the teacher in\nstarting a class in the study of physics is that of breaking the pupil of his\nformerly acquired textbook habit. The aim of the physics course is not to\nacquaint him with any set of arbitrary rules, nor to fill his memory with somebody's else formulations of so-called physical laws, tho this may not be\naltogether bad if done in moderation. It is rather to teach him to observe and\nto interpret for himself the physical world in which he lives. Hearsay or textbook knowledge of the facts of science is a woefully feeble and inadequate\nsubstitute for the knowledge which comes from seeing and handling these\nfacts themselves.\nThe first duty then of the teacher of physics, both in order of time and in\norder of importance, is to place the phenomena of physics directly before\nthe pupil by well-chosen classroom and laboratory demonstrations.\nBut in making this assertion, I wish to disclaim all sympathy with the\nidea that the physics class should be a place of amusement or of mere entertainment. The most fundamental aim of all education is to develop in the\npupil the habit of industry and application, the desire and the ability to stick\nto a problem until it is mastered; and any tendency in education which weakens\nor obscures this aim is to just that extent vicious. Note, however, that the\nawakening of the desire is a prerequisite to the acquiring of the ability. In\nother words, the pupil must be interested in his task, if the task is to be of any\ngreat value to him.\nWhere our physics courses fail in giving the student a thoro grasp of\nthe fundamental principles of physics, they fail, in general, for one or the\nother of two reasons. At the one extreme, instead of insisting that our pupils\nmaster the fundamental principles underlying particular physical appliances,\nwe make our study of these appliances a mere playing with toys. We have\nour pupils play with the steam engine, with the gas engine, with the wireless telegraph, in much the same way in which the child plays with his toys.\nWe teach theni what valves must be turned to make their new toys go, and\nwe give them the pleasure of seeing them go, but we leave them with about as\nmuch notion of the fundamental physical principles underlying the toy as the\nfive-year-old child has after he has learned what valves to turn and where\nto put the alcohol lamp in order to make his toy engine run. In this type of\ninstruction I see little to commend. It seems to me to be physics instruction\nturned exactly up-side-down. It tends to make chauffeurs of our students\nand nothing more. It doesn't train them to think, or give them the scientific\noutlook upon the world. The proper order seems to me to be first to present\nby a simple experiment the naked principle, then to drill the pupil in its more\nobvious and direct applications, and finally to study complicated mechanisms\nin the light of this and other principles similarly acquired.\nAt the other extreme, our physics courses fail to develop a grasp gf funda*\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICS\n\n989\n\nmental principles, because, altho the element of drill is present, the element\nof intelligibility is wanting. The subject is not brought down to the level\nof the understanding of the pupil. He is made to learn a lot of meaningless\nformulae, and to apply these formulae in stock problems, the method of\nsolving which he learns by rote. The course becomes to him useless drudgery,\nbecause he does not know what it is all about. In my judgment, the poor\ngrasp of principles, of which our college examiners complain, is more often\ndue to this type of course than to the former type. Into such a course I would\nnot infuse the element of amusement^ but rather the element of intelligibility,\nthe element of interest, which invariably follows as soon as the course becomes\nintelligible; and it is to make the course intelligible that I say that the first\nduty of every teacher, both in order of time and of importance, is to place the\nphenomena of physics, about which all physical reasoning is grouped, before\nthe pupil, both by laboratory exercises, and by classroom demonstrations.\nI am confident that I shall arouse no opposition when I say that every\nelementary course in physics which is worthy of the name must be built\nup about some sort of an experimental outline. It is therefore self-evident\nthat the performance of the experiment, or experiments, upon which a given\npart of the course is based should precede all textbook study of these experiments, or of the conclusions deduced from them. The chief, almost the'\nsole, aim of a text is to assist the teacher in the discussion and interpretation\nof experiments. It is in no case to relieve him of the necessity of doing experiments. Itenables him to cover very much more ground than could otherwise\nbe covered, since it makes it possible to abridge description, discussion, and\nillustration, wherever these are of such a nature that they can be just as well\nobtained from the text. It furthermore enables the pupil to study at his\nleisure, and critically, experiments and conclusions which have been rapidly\npresented in class.\nIn my judgment, the demonstration work of a class should not, in general,\nbe given in the form of set lectures. The experiments should be performed\nand informally discussed by the class and teacher, and this discussion should\nbe followed, first by the textbook's explanation and discussion of these, or of\nsimilar, experiments, and later by problems or questions involving applications\nof the principles learned. It need scarcely be said that every good teacher\nwill of course make the most intimate and vital connection possible between\nthe experiments of the classroom and the phenomena of daily observation.\nBut, someone asks, why have lecture demonstrations at all? Why not\nbuild up the course entirely about a laboratory outline, and let the student\nperform all of his own experiments? This plan has often been tried, and\nit has some advantages; and yet it too unquestionably represents a method of\ninstruction of very low efficiency, for there are many experiments which can\nbe performed with great saving of time, and with great saving of expense in\nthe way of apparatus, and at the same time without any loss in the pedagogical\nresults obtained, if they are performed by the teacher before the class, instead\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "ggQ\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nof being performed by each individual. For example: if expansion by heat\nis to be illustrated by the old ring and ball experiment, it is just as convincing\nto the student to see someone else trj' to push the ball thru the ring and\nfail, as to try to do it himself. Furthermore, there are many experiments which\nthe student can easily understand when he sees them, but which require, for\ntheir proper performance, a manipulative experience and skill which he does\nnot possess. Many of the projection experiments in optics fall under this\nhead.\nJust how the experimental outline of the course is to be divided between\nthe laboratory and the classroom, and just what type of experiment shall\ngo to the laboratory and what to the classroom, are matters of great importance\nwhich are often given very insufficient consideration. Perhaps the blunder\nof placing essentially laboratory experiments in the class work is more frequent than the reverse. The assigning of all qualitative work to the classroom and all quantitative work to the laboratory is an artificial and illogical\ndivision. There are many qualitative experiments, like those which have to\ndo with the reading of thermometers, or other instruments which but one or\ntwo observers can see at once, which go much better in the laboratory than\nthey do in the classroom. Again, there are other quahtative experiments,\n'like those met with in the study of static electricity, which the student must\ndo himself, and which he must perhaps repeat a number of times, if he is to\ngrasp their meaning thoroly. These, of course, should be assigned to the\nlaboratory. And incidentally what a refreshing thing an occasional qualitative\nexperiment in a laboratory manual is to the pupil !\nOn the other hand, there are some quantitative experiments, like the experimental verification of the laws of falling bodies by means of the inclined plane,\nwhich can be done as classroom demonstrations to very much better advantage\nthan as laboratory exercises, for the reason that they can be seen by a large\nclass and that the accuracy of the results depends upon a manipulative skill\nwhich a student will not in general have. There are other experiments, like\nthat of the verification of the parallelogram of force, which the teacher will\nwant to do roughly in class and afterward have the students repeat more carefully in the laboratory. As a general rule it is of course true that the quantitative experiments will go to the laboratory and the qualitative ones to the\nclassroom. But the point which needs to be emphasized most strongly is\nthat the students must not under any circumstances be left to get their knowledge of the experiments which constitute the backbone of the course from reading about them in the textbook. They must see them at first hand.\nA word as to the characteristics of a good lecture demonstration. They\nare: first, that it be observable to the whole class, and not merely to one\nor two; and second, that the principle to be illustrated be not confused by\nunnecessary complexity in the apparatus employed. In other words, the\ndemonstration ought to be, as far as possible, an illustration of one principle,\nnot an illustration of many. For example, experiments in induced electricity\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICS\n\n991\n\nmay be performed with a mirror galvanometer which throws a spot of light\nupon a screen. This satisfies the condition of being visible to the whole class,\nbut it violates the condition of not being as simply and readily intelligible\nas possible. It is better, if possible, to perform these experiments with a\npointer galvanometer, which doesn't involve an optical principle which the\nstudents may or may not be familiar with in addition to the electrical principle\nwhich it is desired to make clear. There is, however, no way of showing\nexactly what lecture demonstrations seem to me to be desirable and what\nundesirable except by going thru the whole range of physics and indicating\na complete list of demonstration experiments. Since this is obviously impossible in the short time at our disposal I have selected a few experiments which\nseem to me to be representative of good classroom exercises. They are of\ncourse not new and could scarcely be new, else they would have no place in\nelementary physics. The fi.rst has to do with the illustration of the principle\nof electro-magnetic induction ; the second with the classroom illustration of the\ndifference in wave-length of red and green light; the third with the darkening\nof the D Fraunhofer line when the beam of sunlight is passed thru incandescent\nsodium vapor, and the last with the classroom demonstration of the properties\nof electrons.\nDISCUSSION\nFranklin T. Jones, registrar and science teacher, University School, Cleveland,\nOhio. — The main point v^'hich I wish to emphasize in my discussion of this paper is— that\nthe demonstration lecture should be a time-saver. Before taking up that phase of the subject Iwish in a few words to champion the habit of memorizing certain things in all branches\nof science. We have come to look down on the teacher who drills on definitions. In history and literature in many schools it is true that the pupil is compelled to reproduce by topic\nthe substance of a certain paragraph. It is likewise true that some science teachers compel the same type of recitation. No defense can be offered for such a practice, but when we\nturn to the other extreme and say \"No memorizing,\" our position is equally indefensible.\nFrequently verbatim servile memorizing is the only way to assure the acquisition of a clearcut description which in the pupil's own words would be vague, inaccurate, and unscientific. Repetition of this statement with its added meaning as the idea becomes familiar\nmeans growth.\nThe only criterion I wish to propose for the selection of a lecture demonstration is that\nit be a time-saver. By that I mean (i) it must make possible the explanation of a fundamental principle in less time; (2) it must hasten the assimilation of the principle by the\npupil; (3) it must be something worth illustrating. A great deal of time is frittered away\neven by the best and most careful teachers in illustrating by experiment things that do not\nneed illustration. Adaption of experiment to the class to which it is to be presented is a\nproblem for the teacher to solve. Let him always ask when he performs an experiment —\nIs it saving time ?\nOne great source of time dissipation is the laboratory. Very frequently experiments\nthere given are more suitable for the lecture table and the pupil would learn just as much\nby seeing and calculating as by doing the whole experiment himself. Still further time may\nbe saved by eliminating long and tedious experiments whose results are mor.e easily obtained\neither by description or even on authority.\nHow much time may be thus saved and what is to be done with it ? Time-saving as a\nmotto will carry a teacher over the proper subject-matter of elementary physics in six\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLScience\n\n992\nmonths, twenty-four weeks, one-hundred and twenty exercises — a saving of one-third.\nShould the extra time be devoted to the explanation of the new theories, to pretty demonstrations, todoing advanced work ? Only in part. The major portion should be devoted\nto review, to the turning over of old facts from new points of view, answering suggestive\nquestions, working problems, thinking. As teachers we have much to learn from the\nmethods of the correspondence schools who emphasize fundamentals, stimulate thought,\nand inspire hard work by pointed questions.\n\nN. Henry Black, science master, Roxbury Latin School, Roxbury, Mass. — Since in\nthe main I agree with the two gentlemen who have just preceded me, I will not take your\ntime to point out the little things wherein we disagree, but will call your attention to the\ngreat value of the lecture-table experinient as a means of arousing genuine interest. The\nstudent's interest is bound to be kindled when he can quickly grasp the physical principle\ninvolved in an experiment. The subject becomes more real, concrete, and vital. In the\nlecture the teacher can throw in many side lights in the way of historical references, personal\nexperiences, and practical applications.\nIn order that the lecture-demonstration may do its work effectively, it is very essential\nthat it go. This means good apparatus, and considerable skill and practice in manipulation. Then, too, the demonstration must have a point which the student easily sees. This\nmeans simple and large apparatus; But it is also essential that the demonstration be not\nmerely a clever show which impresses the student much as a sleight-of-hand performance.\nIt should rather be a co-operative effort on the part of the teacher and the student. Often\nan experiment which apparently fails at first, may be made very instructive by finding out\nthe cause of the failure. Sometimes the students themselves can really help in the preparation and performance of lecture experiments.\nThis is especially true of lantern-slide talks.\nBut the fact is that in our efforts to develop the laboratory and inductive side of\nphysics in our secondary schools, we have neglected the lecture demonstration. Why is it ?\nThe teachers have had no special preparation for this work. In the colleges and normal\nschools, the professors, often too busy in the management of the laboratory work and their\nown research, do not take the time to prepare first-class lecture demonstrations. Much of\nthe apparatus in our schools for the lecture-table experiments (even what little there is) is\nflimsy and toylike. American apparatus dealers have done much to develop good school\nlaboratory apparatus. Now we want them to turn their attention to simple, large, strong\nlecture-table apparatus. Finally the greatest drawback in the way of good work in this\ndirection is the fact that not enough time is given the teacher properly to prepare himself\nand the apparatus.\n\nPRESERVATION\nDR. HERBERT\n\nOF THE NATURAL RESOURCES\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nA. SMITH, EDITOR \"FOREST SERVICE,\" UNITED\nDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE\n\nOF\nSTATES\n\nI am not here in order to talk on this subject simply as a matter of general\ninterest. I am here because I want to present it particularly to teachers. I\nbelieve that it has an important relation with the specific work and the problems of the teacher; and before I get thru I hope I shall persuade you that\nit is so. Otherwise I shall be sorry that I came.\nProfessor Baily and I are here to present to you what are really two different parts of one great subject. It is a subject which in sober words — and I\ndo not believe in sweeping statements — seems to me to be beyond all others the\nmost important which can now be brought before the American people. It\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESERVATION\n\nOE NATURAL\n\nRESOURCES\n\n993\n\nis the problem of how, by the application of deliberate forethought and trained\nintelligence, to make the most of ourselves as a nation.\nWe have, as we now see, suffered tremendously from waste — waste of natural\nresources and waste of human life. This is only one side, the minor side, of the\nmatter. Under all there is a much bigger thing than merely to cut off the\nwaste. When we total the amount we pour into the sea, let go up in smoke,\nand blot off the face of the map by the destruction of the productive power of\nthe land, the aggregate loss is a staggering one. When we think of the waste\nof human life thrown upon the junk heap and into the garbage pit of society,\nthe wreckage that fills our poorhouses, jails, and slums, besides our vast\nsacrifice to preventable accident and disease, when we appreciate what it\nwould be to society if all these men and women were efficient members of the\nindustrial body, we see that here also is enormous loss.\nBut that is the minor part of the thing. A possibility is before us so big\nthat it is hard for even the imagination to take in at once. Yet it is not the\nimagination of a visionary. Suppose we bring to bear this principle of the\napplication of trained intelligence to making the most of the land, the water,\nthe forests, and the mines, and making the most of the men and women whose\nlabor is the only thing that gives value to these resources; looking at it from\nthe narrowest and lowest, the purely economic standpoint, what a country\nthis would be to live in !\nBut there is something much greater involved than mere material progress.\nThere is a new conception of citizenship and service. To my mind President\nRoosevelt never spoke a more admirable word than the concluding passage\nin his address before the White House Conference in Washington last May.\nFinally [said the President] let us remember that the conservation of our natural\nresources, though the gravest problem of today, is yet but part of another and greater\nproblem to which this nation is not yet awake, but to which it will awake in time, and\nwith which it must hereafter grapple if it is to live — the problem of national efficiency,\nthe patriotic duty of insuring the safety and continuance of the nation. When the people\nof the United States consciously undertake to raise themselves as citizens, and the nation\nand the states in their several spheres, to the highest pitch of excellence in private, state,\nand national life, and to do this because it is the first of all the duties of true patriotism,\nthen and not till then the future of this nation, in quality and in time, will be assured.\n\nNow this is where the affair touches the teacher. There is here, if I see\nit aright, not merely an economic problem; there is a tremendous moral\nproblem. Will you permit me to say a few words as one of you, one\nwho was for a number of years himself a teacher, and has always had\na keen interest in the problems of the teaching world? A few years\nago we were in the midst of the fight between the cultural studies and\nthe scientific studies; then between the studies that were disciplinary on the\none hand and the studies that were either cultural or practical on the other.\nNow we have the question in the new form of vocational studies as against the\ntraining for citizenship. I believe that the great coming need in all education\nis going to be vocational education.\nThe same thing is true whether you look\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nat it as the right of the boy to himself, the principle upon which we prohibit\nhis engaging in employment and require his attendance at school, or whether\nyou look at it in the light of the need of the nation for his services in economic\noccupation. A man who is not able to earn a hving, or who is not able to\nsupport in decency and reasonable comfort his family, is not in a condition to\nmake a good citizen. It seems to me that it makes no difference how much\nof virtue we try to teach him in school; unless we give him a certain capacity\nfor economic success, he is not going to be the right kind of a man and is not\ngoing to bring up the right kind of boys and girls.\nBut we may carry our education for efficiency to the highest point, and yet\nhave a body of citizens who care nothing for the state. We may have men\nbrought up with no desire for service and no capacity for loyalty, one-sided\nmen, economic machines, pleasure seekers, money grabbers. Then how much\nbetter off shall we be ? No, we want the whole man. We cannot divide the\nmiiid into separate compartments and train this particular one and not train\nthat one without paying a penalty. We must educate the emotions and\nsympathies, the ideahzing side, the moral, spiritual, and reHgious side as well\nas the hand and the brain.\nThis has to be done thru the personality of the teacher as well as thru\nthe make-up of the curriculum. It is the man behind the gun, the way in\nwhich the work is presented by the teacher, which molds character. So it\nseems to me that this is a thing pecuHarly for you teachers of science to bear\nin mind in your training of boys and girls in the things that are useful and\npractical.\nYou must in that training make citizens who do not believe in wasting that\nwhich belongs to the nation. We must in many ways come to an entirely new\npoint of view. We must change our ways of thinking, our poHcies, our laws.\nWe shall have to change in some ways our ideas of the rights of property. I\nknow that begins to sound startling. You say \"Shall we begin to chase the\nrainbows of theory?\" No, we must go forward step by step, on hard, practical matters of fact. That is what I want to present to you — hard matters of\nfact — and then ask what is to be done about them. The only thing I object\nto is the man who says nothing can be done before we have looked to see\nwhat the facts are.\nHere is a crucial case: shall a man do what he will with his own ? Shall\na man destroy the capital, the assets, a part of what makes the property of the\nwhole nation, because it suits his purpose to do so ? Or shall we put some\nHmitation upon him? It does not concern me very much whether this be\ndone by an agency of the nation or the state. The important thing is that it\nshall be done, if it needs doing, and done by the one who can do it best. A\ngreat deal must be done by the individual states, and a great deal more by\nthe nation. How we are going to meet the situation is a question of details,\nto work out after we have the actual facts before us.\nWe have become a great manufacturing nation.\nOnly eight years ago\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department}\n\nPRESERVATION\n\nOF NATURAL\n\nRESOURCES\n\n995\n\nwe reached the production of England in coal, and now our production of\ncoal is nearly one and a half times as large as that of England. Our production of pig iron is nearly half that of the whole world, and two and a half times\nthat of England. You know quite well that industrial supremacy is determined more than anything else by iron and coal, or iron and fuel. Is there\nany danger of exhaustion of our supplies ? At the White House Conference\nlast May two such men as Andrew Carnegie and James J- Hill dwelt on the\nfact that our coal and iron are both being used at an appalling rate; that\ngreat economies might be brought about; and that our industrial future is\nseriously concerned.\nIs there anything that can be done about it ? We have to have the material that can be used only once. Why should we handicap ourselves and the\nmarkets of the world for the sake of the future, which ought to solve its own\nproblems in its own day? For answer, consider for a moment natural\ngas and oil. Originally this country was fortunate far above all other\ncountries of the world that are now in the industrial race in its supply\nof natural gas. Other countries have coal; but the gas, which is in many\nways the most efficient, the most manageable, and most available form of\nfuel, has been wasted in the boring for oil and in the taking of oil in a way\nthat is nothing short of national disgrace when we come to read the record.\nThe state geologist of West Virginia, Dr. I. C. White, who has made a special\nstudy of this, has said that there is row going into the air the equivalent of\na hundred and sixty thousand barrels of oil every twenty -four hours in the\nwaste of gas; that on the whole probably ten times the value of fuel in the\nform of gas has been wasted for every barrel of oil that has been obtained.\nYet this has gone on without any attempt at control by law except in one single\nstate — Indiana — where late in the utilization, laws were passed which prohibit\nthe taking of oil in a way that does not provide for the conserving of gas. Oil\nand gas are distributed under the ground so that when one man begins to\ndraw upon it he draws off from beneath the land of his neighbors. Hence,\nnaturally, a race when the development begins. Today in Oklahoma great\nquantities of oil are being pumped out beyond any capacity to take away.\nIt is stored in reservoirs where the oil deteriorates very rapidly, evaporates,\nsinks into the earth. And yet that is done, as you can readily see, under the\npressure of economic motive. And it is unavoidable as long as the law permits the securing of the oil under the present method. Do not these facts\nbring home to thinking men the necessity for doing something to conserve\nthis resource ?\nThen again there is the matter of waste in coal mining. One form of this\nwaste is the leaving in the ground of inferior coal because it does not pay to\ntake it out at the present time. This points to another important direction in\nwhich government action is necessary. The studies of the Geological Survey\nhave shown how inferior grades of coal for which there has been no demand\ncan be utilized in a gas engine very effectively. And just as we put restraint\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "pp6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niScience\n\nnow for the benefit of the community on the user of coal to prevent the smoke\nnuisance, we have a right within reasonable limits, in such a way as will not\nhamper industry, to put in effect such refquirements as will insure the best\nuse of the fuel resources in the long run. We can do perhaps more by education than in any other way. Here is an opportunity for the government,\nwhether state or national I do not care, in the interest of the public to study,\nto plan, to teach, to bring this country to use these resources in a way that\nwill contribute most to the well-being of us all.\nDr. White, of West Virginia, said in concluding his address at the White\nHouse Conference:\nJust ?s sure as the sun shines, and the sum of two and two is four, unless this insane\nriot of destruction and waste of our fuel resources which has characterized the past century shill be speedily ended, our industrial power and supremacy will, after a meteor-like\nexistence, revert before the close of the present century to those nations that conserve and\nprize attheir proper value their priceless treasures of carbon.\n\nThat summarizes the whole question from the point of view of the specialist— the man of expert knowledge — and the man on the ground, and it coincides with the point of view of such men as Carnegie and Hill.\nThe movement for the conservation of our natural resources began in the\nwinter of 1907, when communities in the Mississippi River Valley petitioned\nthe President to begin an investigation of the possibilities of waterway development for the benefit of the ccnr.merce of that region. The President appointed, therefore, a waterways commission. But instead of confining the\nstudy to the improvement of the waterways simply, the President said in\neffect — we never thought of the use of our streams as a whole. There is the\nuse for navigation; there is the use for irrigation; there is the use for power.\nAnd there is the waste which is caused by flood as well as the loss which comes\nfrom the shrinkage of the stream after the flood is past, and the damage done\nby the bearing down of soil into navigable rivers. Said the President, ''We\nmust have a comprehensive scheme.\" And the commission was instructed\nto make its report along these lines.\nNow to prevent waste in our water we must consider that every bit of\nwater that flows must be made to render its fullest service to man. How can\nthat be done ? Partly by storage reservoirs, partly by forests. For forests\nare like reservoirs, in that they hold water back, but imlike reservoirs, they also\nhold soil in place, and so keep the reservoirs from being filled up. We must\nregard water as an asset to secure from it ever}' bit of work that we can get out\nof it. If we get the most out of it, we shall not do away with the need of coal.\nThe total water power capable of development under present conditions in\nthe United States, unsupplemented by coal, is said to be somewhere in the\nneighborhood of the total amount of^power which we are now developing\nthru coal. The mere statenient of that fact is enough to make it clear that\nwe shall need the coal to supplement the water power. In this way we can\ntide over the low months in the year during which streams run at a minimum,\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESERVATION\n\nOF NATURAL\n\nRESOURCES\n\n997\n\nand so utilize their much higher power during the remainder of the year.\nSo the coal and the water power must go together. But the water must be\nmade to do all that it can for us, and that means not only that we must control\nit by our reservoirs and by our forests, but also that we must consider how we\nhandle the soil in agriculture and see what the water question means there,\nfor the two interlace.\nThe farmer is now losing actually from his farm no insignificant, no negligible part of its value thru soil wash. He is losing also no small value in\nfertilizing salts which are dissolved and carried away by the water. So far as\nsoil wash is concerned, the farmer's loss means not mere waste, but an active\nagency of evil turned loose. The question of agriculture has therefore to be\nstudied both in its relation to water and as itself a conservation question.\nThe very greatest of all conservation questions, of course, in the United States\nis that of the best use of the soil — of the practice which will enable our farmers\nto get the most possible out of it in crops, thru the best cultural methods.\nForestry was the ground breaker in this whole subject of conservation, the\nthing that has opened our eyes to the fundamental principle. The United\nStates has now about 168,000,000 acres of land in national forests. This land,\nif it had not been thus set aside, would doubtless by this time have passed to\nprivate owners in so far as it is valuable timber land, and would have followed\nthe same course which our private timber lands have taken in other parts of\nthe country. What is happening to it now? It is being put into use to the\nutmost possible limit, but ^ith the interest of every user considered; none\nunduly sacrificed to someone else, and with the interest of the future considered as well. The mature timber is for sale; but the government aees to it\nthat when timber is sold to a man he is permitted to cut only that which is\nmakire, only that which to maintain a continuously productive forest must be\nremoved. The young timber is left to grow bigger; and at the same time\nthe starting of new growth is provided for.\nBut more important still is the question of the farmer on the streams far\naway, who depends on the water fed from those forests for irrigation. Where\nit is necessary not to cut the timber in order to prevent a bad effect upon the\nstreams, there the government prohibits the cutting. So the highest and best\nuse to the community is obtained trom that land, both from the point of view\nof timber supply and from that of water supply.\nThen there is another great forest resource. These forests are also\nranges for a large part of the stock of the West. When the range was open\nand every man could go in with all the stock that he wished to take the chances\nof being able to keep alive, we had war between the sheep and the cattle men\nas well as competition between individuals ; and we had a waste of the resource,\nfor the scramble and overuse brought about a progressive deterioration of the\nrange. Now within the national forests the government sees to it that the\nland is not overgrazed. It also sees that the man who has the best right to the\ngrass gets it. It is now studying whether new grasses can be sown, and\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "Qg\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nwhether the grasses can be made to sow themselves so as to increase the amount\navailable. It is studying also to eradicate poisonous plants. In short, it is\nseeking in every way to make the land produce in forage its largest possible contribution tothe welfare of the community. So in the various uses of the national forests we see an example of the sort of thing which conservation means.\nIn concluding, there are two or three things which I want to say definitely\nto the teachers here. There is much valuable information for the teacher in\nthe city of Washington, which few teachers have learned to use.\nThe Forest Service, for example, has publications that should interest\nteachers, most of which may be had free. If you want in your teaching work,\nparticularly in geography work, pictures of the forests of the different parts of\nthe country, of the lumber industry, of forest products, of the effects of denudation offorests and soil erosion, or of the work of the Forest Service, write and\nask for what you want. These pictures can be sold you at cost price. If you\nwant lantern slides for illustrating lectures, if you want transparencies for\nschool museums, they can be made and sold to you, and it may be worth your\nwhile to write and inquire about that. Finally, if there are any parts of your\nteaching work in which you think the Forest Service might be able to help\nyou in any way, write and ask about it. You may be certain that any request\nthat you make will be attended to as carefully as possible.\nI should like to make a suggestion to this Department of Science Instniction. If your body v/ould appoint a standing committee, or empower your\nofficers to appoint such a committee, to be your representative in finding out\nwhat material valuable for the teacher there may be in Washington, either in the\nForest Service or elsewhere, and what useful material could be made available\nif it is not already, and having found out, to let your body J^now, I believe that\nsomething worth while might come of it.\nOne last word. I hope you will all, as you go among teachers elsewhere,\nlet these things be known. The government should do its best to help the\nteachers of the country in their effort to teach the boys who are soon going to\nbe the voters, and the girls who will 50on begin to be the mothers of a new\ngeneration. The politician knows that it is worth while to make friends with\nthe boys. With the same kind of foresight, it is for you to try to bring those\nboys to the right kind of view, to give them the right preparation for citizenship. Of that preparation, an appreciation of what the conservadon'of our\nnatural resources means to our future national Jife is no unimportant part.\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — William W. Hastings, International Y. M. C. A. Training School, Springfield, Mass.\nVice-President — Clark W. Hetherington, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\nSecretary — Martha J. Johnson, supervisor of physical education. Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 1908\nThe Departmeit met in the Second Presbyterian Church. The meeting was called\nto order by the president, William W. Hastings.\nThe opening; adlress by Dudley A. Sargent, M.D., director of physical education,\nHarvard University, Cambridge, Mass., was entitled \"Should the Director of Physical\nEducation in Public Schools Have the Training of a Physical Director and Instructor in\nHygiene, or That of a Physician ?\" Discussion of this paper was deferred until Thursday\nmorning.\nG. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., read a paper upon\nthe subject, \"Elements of Strength and Weakness in Physical Education as Taught in\nColleges.\" This paper was discussed by Charles F. Thwing, president of Western Reserve\nUniversity, Cleveland, Ohio, followed by W. P. Bowen, Michigan State Normal College.\n\" Elements of Strength and Weakness in Physical Education as Taught in Preparatory\nSchools\" was the subject of a paper read by Robert B. Nason, high-school principal,\nFrancis W. Parker School, Chicago, III.\nThe subject of \"Elements of Strength and Weakness in Physical Education as Taught\nin Public Schools\" was presented by George Wittich, physical director of public schools,\nMilwaukee, Wis., and his paper was discussed by Mrs. Frances W. Leiter, national superintendent of physical education, W. C. T. U., Mansfield, Ohio.\nThe president appointed Miss Marion B. Newton, Rochester, N. Y,, and A. H.\nMcClure, Yuma, Arizona, as a committee on nomination of ofl5cers for the following\nvear.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Morning, July 2\nPresident Hastings called the meeting to order at 9:30 A. m. and presented his address\nupon the subject, \"Systematic Training for the Teaching of Physical Education.\"\nThe general topic for the session was \"Training of Teachers of Physical Education.\"\nThe first paper upon the topic was presented by Dr. Jay W. Seaver, Chautauqua Summer\nSchool, who spoke on the \"Essential Elements in the Training of the College Physical\nDirector.\"\nMiss Marion B. Newton, physical director of public schools, Rochester, N. Y., spoke\nupon the \"Essential Elements in the Training of Teachers of Gymnastics.\" Her paper\nwas discussed by John A. H. Keith, president of State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.\nMr. J. Harlan Rush, physical director. University School, Cleveland, Ohio, discussed\nthe subject of \"Essential Elements in the Training of Teachers of Athletics.\"\nMr. A. H. McClure, superintendent of schools, Yuma, Arizona, discussed Dr. Sargent's\npaper of the previous day.\nA motion was made and adopted that a committee be appointed to memorialize the\nnext United States Congress, presenting an urgent demand for governmental action in\nsecuring national health and vigor thru a national system of physical education.\n999\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe following resolution was presented and adopted:\nResolved^ That, as a means to incorporate physical education into the curriculum\nspeedily and permanently, we favor the enactment of laws in the various states which shall\nmake systematic training compulsory for all pupils in all schools under public control.\nThe nominating committee made the following report:\nFor President, William W. Hastings, instructor in International Y. M. C. A. Training School, Springfield, Mass.\nFor Vice-President, W, P. Bowen, professor of philosophy of education, State Normal\nCollege, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nFor Secretary, Rebecca Stoneroad, director of physical training, Public Schools,\nWashington, D. C.\nMartha J. Johnson, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nSYSTEMATIC\n.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nW.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTRAINING FOR THE TEACHING\nPHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nHASTINGS,\n-\n\nINTERNATIONAL Y. M. C. A.\nSPRINGFIELD,\nMASS.\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\nSCHOOL\n\nFor all professions, the excellence of preparatory training keeps pace with\nthe popular demand for it. This demand depends upon general education in\nthe essential character and purposes of the particular profession.\nIt was primarily this fact of the success of the natural-born physician or\nlawyer, who merely read medicine or law, that retarded so long the development of medical and law schools. It is the recent vast multiplication of knowable facts thru research, and the popular knowledge of law and medicine\nwhich has compelled the development and patronage of these schools. Similar\ncauses are operating to retard, and to develop and systematize training for the\nteaching of physical education.\nThe modem city reaches out its tentacles for the trained mind, and for\ngood muscles and red blood to back this mind. Its hungry maw demands\ntireless energy, indomitable will, reserve force. Its insistent demand is that\nman become a good healthy animal, to stand the strain.\nThere is no agency strong enough, broad enough, constant enough to\ncreate and maintain national health and racial vigor but that of the state.\nIt is taking state and national legislation, state and national organization\nand supervision to assure such concerted action as will reduce illiteracy to the\nlowest possible minimum. National health is even more important than\nmental training. Only the same quality of organized effort will reduce\ndisease, debility, and deformity to a minimum, will give bodily vigor, intellectual poise, and moral stability to national character.\nOnly a national system of physical education, backed by public funds,\nsystematized by national organization and study of relations, and manned by\nteachers thoroly trained physiologically and practically, will insure national\nvigor.\nOur chief immediate needs are two: better material for the training schools,\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTRAINING\n\nlOOI\n\nand such a demand on the part of the public as will refuse to employ merely\na gymnast or athlete because of supposed personal adaptation.\nBoth ot these needs would be satisfied if the executives of our Young Men's\nChristian Associations, Young Women's Christian Associations, athletic clubs,\nplaygrounds, and educational institutions would send these heaven-bom\ndirectors to the schools for suitable training. The law of the survival of the\nfittest might return a goodly percentage of them to digging sewers and washing\ndishes, but such early elimination is beneficial to the system.\nBut the argument for the need of training, as based on the general proposition that thoro training is essential for success in the other professions, needs\nno prolonged defense.\nThe chief lack in our scheme of physical education is evidently that of\nfaciHties for the training of teachers. There is a very essential lack of breadth\nand perspective on the part of a majority of our physical directors, as will no\ndoubt- be pointed out to-day in the critical review of our profession by those\noutside of it; there is frequently a lack of even plain, ordinary common-sense\nadaptation of forms of muscular activity to the various ends to be sought;\nthere is much mechanical drill and following of the \"rule of thumb;\" but\nif these sad defects apply less glaringly to well- trained men and women of\nbroad culture and attainments, as they must, the contention for more training,\nbq^ter training, and better organized training is maintained.\nThe crux of the whole matter lies in the strength of organization back of\nthis training for physical education, and responsible for it. The present\ntraining schools are either limited in capacity or lacking in financial support.\nThey are all under private direction and supported largely by private contributions. The summer schools of physical education have done much\nto popularize saner methods of physical education, have paved the way\nfor the more extended courses in professional schools. The latter have\nbeen extending and broadening their schemes of training, until courses of\nthree and four years are now given in training schools proper and also in\ncolleges and universities, along with the general culture work leading up to the\ndegree of bachelor of physical education or bachelor of science, the first institution to outline such a course and to graduate students with such a degree being\nthe University of Nebraska.\nThese agencies are all good; they have been the saving of the profession\nagainst all the array of fads and isms; but when the combined annual product\nof graduates from a dozen or more training schools amounts to scarcely more\nthan half a hundred men and women each year, and the number in attendance\nat summer schools to perhaps five hundred, very many of whom are already\nteachers of physical education, one is impressed with the utter inadequacy\nof present means of preparation to meet the demand for teachers.\nIt is no more possible for private schools of physical education to meet the\ndemand for physical directors of the university and public-school systems than\nit is for a few private normal schools to provide teachers in science and litera-\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "I002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nture for the university and public-school system. Present agencies are inadequate to supply even the private institutions with physical directors, and they\ngive no promise of being able to extend their capacity enough to meet even this\nnarrower demand upon them.\nBut in dealing with this matter on a numerical basis, we have been ignoring\nentirely a most important element in the problem; namely, the adaptation of\nthe teacher to the field, and the necessity for a totally different type of teacher\nand training for such teachers in the Y. M. C. A., the college, and the publicschool fields respectively. The content of the training itself affects the practicability ofgetting it done, and points to the organization which should be held\nresponsible for the doing of it.\nAs long as mere ability to do gymnastic stunts was the chief desideratum\nin Y. M. C. A. gymnasia and Turnvereins, we had acrobats as physical directors. As long as athletic prowess is considered the one necessary qualification\nfor college and preparatory-school gymnasia, we shall have crack athletes as\nphysical directors. And as long as care of the physical ii^ public schools is\nconfined to the diagnosis of disease and the elimination of defectives, or the\npossible emphasis of medical and corrective gymnastics, we shall have medical inspectors with little or no practical knowledge of physical education as\na whole, to act as physical directors of public schools.\nBut a stage has been reached in the development of the subject at which\nwe are broad enough to concede the proper function of heavy gymnastics,\nathletics, and medical gymnastics; all we object to is such overemphasis of\nany type of exercise as would place the \"but-one-idea teacher\" in a position\nto do harm. In training teachers in any school of physical education, the\npurpose of exercise for health first must be made central, and the principle of\nadaptation of physical habits to the individual life be made the basis for the\ngiving of every kind of exercise.\nThere is unquestionably a growing tendency toward the proper emphasis\nof these principles in all the schools of physical education and among those\nwho teach in schools of expression, because physical well-being and the means\nto this end in adaptation of physical activity to the individual mean reserve\nforce, and this is a prime essential for public speaking, for athletic contests, or\nfor any department of life.\nThere is a most hopeful tempering of one-idea people and schools and\nsystems going on, and a most salutary assimilation of ideas from others;\nbut care must be had, however, that these ideas assimilated are best ideas, and\nnot those ready to be sloughed off from disuse, and that in becoming broad,\nwe be not spread out too thin.\nThis leads to the consideration of a most vital matter, that while on the\none hand natural selection has been calling athletic coaches, acrobats, and\nfancy dancers into the directorship without the accessory breadth of training,\nthe great demand for teachers has led most training schools to attempt to\nfurnish physical directors for totally different fields — colleges, preparatory\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depattment)\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTRAINING\n\nschools, public schools, social clubs, etc., with practically the same broad\ntraining, and frequently with little personal fitness for the position chosen.\nGenerally speaking, a college man is best adapted for the college or preparatory-school physical directorship, because he understands from experience the\ncollege atmosphere. He should preferably be a college athlete, because this\ncarries with it natural leadership in physical and social hnes. But he must\nbe also a man of thoro training in physiology, hygiene, and physical\neducation, that he may work for the physical welfare of the whole\nstudent body, and that he may be qualified and may teach at least one\nof these subjects in the regular college curriculum, preferably hygiene,\nand may have regular standing among the professors of the institution.\nHe must be also a man whose moral integrity and influence is beyond reproach.\nManifestly, then, the most suitable place for the major part of the training of\na college physical director in western or southern states is the state university;\nfor where his capacities are best known, he can best be influenced to develop\nthem, and if the proper facilities were provided in the state university, he could\ndo this while obtaining his bachelor's degree. Further specialization along\nphysiological or medical lines should be obtained at some leading university,\nor should ultimately be available at our national university at Washington.\nIn the East, where the function of the state university is assumed by the\nleading private universities, the course in physical education should be offered\nby such universities, and is being offered by one or two of them.\nThe physical director of the preparatory school should be bred in one of the\nbest preparatory schools, finished in one of the leading universities, and have\nreceived at least two years' technical training in physical education in such a\nuniversity or in a training school.\nThe physical director of the Young Men^s Christian Association should be\nselected from the leader's corps of the city gymnasium, should have preliminary training as assistant physical director in a city association, or as director\nof a small gymnasium, and be trained in one of the two Y. M. C. A. training\nschools; for there is a social and business as well as a religious atmosphere\nessential to the proper training of the Y. M. C. A. director which cannot be\nsuperimposed upon the man theoretically, but must be bred into him by\nenvironment.\nThe public-school physical director needs to have grown up in a progressive\npublic-school system of physical education from youth, to have learned at\ngiven ages the muscular movements adapted to those ages, and to have completed in a state normal school or state university his courses in the theory of\nphysical education, physiology, hygiene, and psychology.\nThe director of physical education in a great city needs, in addition to the\nforegoing training, further specialization along the same lines, with special\nemphasis upon hygiene and upon the study of defectives at a national university.\nAs the state is the real unit in the working out of this problem, it may\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "J004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nbe well to summarize from experience the internal workings and relations of\nvarious agencies in a state where the state university is the center of all educational movements.\nTo create interest^ there was organized or rather reorganized under the\njoint management of representatives of the athletic boards of the leading institutions of the state a State Intercollegiate Athletic Association; there was\nalso organized, under the joint management of a student and a high-school\nprincipal or city superintendent from each town or city, a State Interscholastic Association, which insisted not merely on clean sport but on such age and\nweight classification of teams and contestants as would insure the least possible danger of strain, and required a well-defined amount of preliminary\ntraining under care of a physical director; a State Physical Education Society\nwas organized as a section of the State Educational Association to discuss\nthose matters vital to the development of physical education in the state.\nThere was brought into its membership leading city superintendents, principals, and teachers, to discuss the real problems of the health and strength of\nthe average boy or girl, as well as the supervision of the athletic few, and the\nmatter of interest in physical education took care of itself, for the meetings\nof the physical education section were crowded. People can be interested in\na practical thing; a further means of increasing interest was thru lectures by\nthe physical director on the university extension plan.\nThe interest created was naturally met by the organization of a thoro\ncourse in physical education in the university. This course was taken in\nconjunction with undergraduate work leading up to the degree of B.S.\nThe electives allowed to undergraduates covered the two solid years allotted\nto this course. The same kind of course should be introduced into all our\nstate normal schools as well as universities.\nThree years of pressing home the ideals of physical education thru the\nforegoing agencies resulted in a general demand for thoro training in physical\neducation on the part of teachers turned out by the State University. At the\nend of the fourth year of such a. campaign, out of the 150 applications to the\ndepartment of education in the University of Nebraska for teachers, but six\napplications failed to lay especial emphasis upon the knowledge of physical\ntraining as a qualification of the teachers sought.\nThe foregoing items deemed essential can only be secured thru the development of a national system of physical education, working down from a\nnational university thru state universities, normal schools, high schools, and\npublic schools. This is the only answer to our needs. It succeeds in Sweden,\nGermany, and even the youngest sister among the nations — Japan — is fast\nperfecting a more thoro system than obtains in this country.\nSuch a movement must be developed from above downward, and from\nbelow upward: From above downward, by the establishment of a national\ninstitute of physical education as a part of our national university at Wash« Vide Hastings, Manual for Physical Measurements, igoa.\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTRAINING\n\n1005\n\nington, a place for research in the physiology, hygiene, and psychology of\nexercise, and where its adaptation as a preventive agency and as a curative\nfunction may be investigated by advanced students, a place for the final\npreparation of directors of physical education for state universities, state\nnormal schools, and for public-school supervision in large cities.\nIn each state normal school there must be provided a course of three or\nfour years of solid work for the training of physical directors of public and\nhigh schools, who shall serve as assistants under the general supervisors of\nphysical education in large cities. These normal schools must, in addition,\nrequire thoro training in physiology and hygiene of all teachers, and enough\npractical work to keep the prospective teacher in health, and enable her to\ngive all the practical work to be taught in grammar-school grades.\nFrom below upward, the fruit of this systematic training in public schools\nwill result in an increasing number of teachers with healthy, well-trained\nbodies, to whom the practical gymnastics is not wearisome labor, but enjoyable exercise. The prospective teacher must not be a member of the awkward squad made over for self-development or philosophical interest, but a\nhealthy, well-trained, well-poised, wholesome individual, having grown up in\nthis work.\nWith a thoro corps of teachers with solid training, theoretical and practical,\nfrom above and from below, and with effe(?tive organization and supervision\nthru a national bureau of control, national health is an assured fact.\nBut we have no national system of physical education; we have no national\ncorrelation of forces responsible for the organization of either the content of\nsuch a system or for the supervision and adjustment of the relative function\nof departments.\nThis movement does not demand so much expenditure of money as good\nexecutive handling and energy.\nThe chief essentials are a model gymnasium, a well-outlined course in\nphysical education, the employment of experts from all over the United States\nfor technical lecture courses, in addition to the work of the regular university\nfaculty in the national university at Washington, the employment of special\nlecturers for university extension work in various states, and above all an\nefficient director of physical education to plan and execute the whole.\nAn appropriation by Congress for this gymnasium and a few thousand\nper year judiciously spent would in ten years change our hit-and-miss methods\ninto the beginnings of a very respectable national system.\nTo summarize: In order to prepare teachers for the successful prosecution\nof this work, the following agencies are essential:\n1. Regular courses in physical education of from two to four years in the\ncurriculum of every state normal school and in leading private normal schools\nfor the training of public- and high-school physical directors and for the health\nand training of the average teacher.\n2. Similar courses in every state university and in leading private\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "loo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nuniversities for the training of college and preparatory-school physical\ndirectors.\n3. A National Institute of Physical Education connected with the National\nUniversity at Washington, for research in physiology, hygiene, and psychology\nof exercise, and in the adaptation of exercise as a preventive, curative, and\ndevelopmental agency, where directors of physical education for universities,\nnormal schools, and for the public schools of large cities may be trained.\n4. The development of a strong department of supervision and university\nextension under the Bureau of Education at Washington, with an energetic\ndepartmental head, who shall act also as head of the National Institute of\nPhysical Education, and plan and execute the whole movement.\nIn closing, allow me to move the appointment of a committee to memorialize the next United States Congress, presenting the urgent demand for governmental action in securing national health and vigor thru a national system\nof physical education.\nSHOULD THE TEACHER OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS HAVE THE TRAINING OF A PHYSICAL DIRECTOR AND INSTRUCTOR IN HYGIENE OR\nTHAT OF A PHYSICIAN?\nDUDLEY\n\nALLEN\n\nSARGENT,\nM.t)., DIRECTOR\nOF\nHEMENWAY\nHARVARD\nUNIVERSITY,\nCAMBRIDGE,\nMASS.\n\nGYMNASIUM\n\nNo one can fail to recognize today the tremendous changes that are taking\nplace in the popular mind as to the exact function of education and the province\nof the medical and clerical professions. In the recent meeting of the American\nMedical Association in Chicago the president in his address took the ground\nthat **a new duty of the medical profession was the education of the public\nin scientific medicine.\" At the same time a large assembly in Boston, mostly\nclergymen, the so-called Emanuel Church movement, were advocating the\nvalue of prayer and auto-suggestion as a means of alleviating the mental and\nphysical ills of mankind. Health in education, for education, and by education, has long furnished a series of diversified themes for educational conferences. Itwould be futile for me in the brief time allotted to this paper to\nattempt to trace the causes that have led to these great changes in the fundamental conceptions of health and disease. As long as sickness, suffering, and\ndeath were regarded as dispensations of Providence — which only the intervention ofthe priest or the medicine man could relieve — all efforts toward the\nprevention of disease were of little avail. The people of the past were overawed by fear, superstition, and ignorance — and in many cases the ministers\nand physicians knew that they were powerless to help them. With the knowledge that has come to us thru the advancement of science, more particularly through the discoveries of the microscope, all this has been changed.\nWe now know the cause of much of our ill-health and inefficiency and the\norigin of very many diseases. The responsibility can no longer be shifted on\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment!\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHER\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nloaj\n\nto Fate or Divine Providence. It rests largely upon the enlightened members\nof the community, and educators, ministers, physicians, and the professions\ngenerally are morally bound to take their share. The question for us to decide\ntoday is. How shall this responsibility of health in education be divided ? In\nother words, \"Should the teacher of physical education in public schools have\nthe training of a physical director and instructor in hygiene or that of a physician?\"\nAs an aid to the solution of this problem, let us turn again to the discoveries\nof science and the records of experience. From an educational point of view\nthe objects of employing either a physical director, instructor in hygiene, or a\nphysician in the public schools are presumably the maintenance of health, the\nelevation of the normal standard of living, and the prevention of disease and\npremature death. The causes that are most likely to interfere with health\nand invite disease and death may be divided into two great classes that occur\nwith about equal frequency. These are termed (i) intrinsic or constitutional,\nand (2) extrinsic or environmental. The intrinsic causes or the diseases that\narise from within may be due to the defective structure of one or more parts\nof the body inherited or acquired, or they may be due to the failure of one or\nmore organs properly to perform their functions. In either case we may have\nrheumatism, gout, scrofula, etc., occurring on account 'of defective structure,\nor we may have defective structure and consequent disease arising from feeble\ndigestion, poor circulation, disordered liver, or weak lungs. Where a feeble\nstructure or imperfect apparatus is inherited, this may lead to a constitutional\ndisability which is very difficult to overcome. It may take generations of\nright living to do away with a family taint or weakness.\nWhat our schoolboy athletes often do when left to themselves is to test or\ntry out those who are constitutionally strong, and separate them from those\nwho are constitutionally weak. Yet it is in the perfecting of structure, the\nimprovement of function, and the building up of constitutional vigor — as I\nshall hope to show — that the great opportunity for the physical director lies.\nThe extrinsic or environmental causes of diseases arise, as the name implies,\nfrom external conditions. These may be anything or everything that occasion\naccidents — as heat, cold, fire, water, wind, storms, blows, falls, and poisons.\nThe principal causes of the diseases of extrinsic origin are now known to be\ngerms that invade the system from without. Such is the origin of smallpox,\nscarlet fever, diphtheria, pneumonia, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis. Now\nit is the province of the hygienist to acquaint himself with all the agents of\nhealth, the nature and scources of food, water, and air, and inform us of the\nbest location for schools, habitations, the best methods of lighting, heating,\nventilating, plumbing, and what occupations are beneficial or injurious to\nhealth, while it is more particularly the province of the physician to inspect the\nschool children and look for the first signs of disease which his experienced eye\nmay detect. The examination of the skin, eyes, ears, teeth, and throat may\nnot only lead to the discovery of local and functional defects which are impair-\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOo8\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\n^\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\n^^^\n\ning a child's mental and physical efficiency, but it may lead to the discovery\nof a case of scarlet fever, or diphtheria which if not speedily removed\nmay be the beginning of an epidemic. The child so afflicted should not only\nbe removed from school, but the source of the disease, as far as possible, should\nbe traced to its fountain-head. When discovered, a further responsibility\nrests upon the physician and the board of health, to see that the disease does\nnot spread thruout the community. Here then would seem to be a natural\ndivision of labor in a very large subject — a subject that touches the lives of all\nthe people and the occupations of the farmer, the manufacturer, the tradesman, the architect, the builder, the transportation agents, and very many\nmore. Indeed the subject of hygiene in all of its ramifications is so vast that\nno one man can begin to master its details.\nWe have said that the causes which occasion disease and death may be\ndivided into two great groups — constitutional and environmental. But we\nknow that men of a vigorous constitution do not always succumb to conditions\nand diseases due to environment, while those who are weak or have a feeble\nconstitution are not only the first to contract the diseases that enter the system\nfrom without, but are also the first ones to succumb to diseases that arise from\nwithin. This complicates the problem. Inasmuch as the children of the\npublic schools represent- the weak as well as the strong, come from homes that\nmay be sanitary or unsanitary, and live in communities that may be\nactive or indifferent to the requirements of public health, the health\nspecialist, be he a physical director, hygienist, or physician, must broaden his\nfield of observation. In other words each of these specialists must knowsomething of structure, something of disease, and something of environment,\nin order to comprehend and meet intelligently the problems that arise in his\nown sphere of action.\nThe chief province of the physical director should be to make the weak\nstrong, the crooked straight, the timid courageous. He should strive by every\nmeans within his power to develop harmoniously all parts of the body. He\nshould improve as much as possible the functional capacity of the vital organs\nand internal mechanism — including heart, lungs, stomach, brain, and nervous\nsystem. He should increase the power of the neuro-muscular system for selfpreservation, skilled labor, and for educability in the arts and sciences. Finally\nhe should endeavor to increase the constitutional vigor of his pupils, and augment their power to withstand fatigue and resist disease. In order to accomplish these manifold results, some of them appearing to be almost antagonistic,\nthe physical director should have a broad and liberal education. He should\nbe well grounded in English and have a reading knowledge of French and\nGerman. He should be familiar with elementary physics, chemistry, zoology,\nand botany. For professional studies he should have taken courses in anatomy,\nphysiology, histology, personal and school hygiene, and the hygiene of occupation, anthropometry, physical diagnosis, applied anatomy, remedial and corrective gymnastics, and massage.\nHe should know how to meet emergencies\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHER\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1009\n\nand have had some practice in bandaging. He should know the theory and\npractice of physical education and the principles underiying the different\nsystems. He should also be familiar with the theory and practice of athletic\ntraining for different sports and events. He should be a student of psychology,\nknow the history of general education as well as physical education, and\nbe well acquainted with the principles and practice of teaching. He should\nhave made a study of children, know the nature and philosophy of play, and\nrecognize its importance as a great social and educational factor in our civilization. He should also be a student of environment, and be familiar with the\nsocial problems, and know the evils that beset the young in the country as\nwell as in the 3lupis of the great cities. In order to round out his theoretical\nknowledge he must also know something of the organization, construction,\nequipment, and practical management of gymnasiums, playgrounds, runningtracks, athletic fields, etc. Finally, all of this knowledge will be of little avail\nto the physical director unless it is grafted on to a previous training and practical experience in some of the many forms of calisthenics, light and heavy\ngymnastics, plays, games, and athletic sports. The want of this practical\nall-round training has brought many an educated physical director to grief,\nwhile the possession of this practical knowledge, supplemented by a little tact,\nand a pleasing personality, have often made the athletic trainer without much\ntheoretical knowledge a great success. The man who comes the nearest to\nthe boy in his physical life, aids him in his sports, and sympathizes with him\nin his ambition to excel in them has a greater power for good or evil over that\nboy than any other member of the school board or teaching staff. When we\nconsider that the natural desire of boys to run, jump, play, and compete with\none another in all sorts of active exercises is fundamental and to be encouraged\nif we wish to develop them into men — that it is only the abuses, excesses, and\ninjudicious practice of otherwise healthful exercises that bring about the evils\nso much deplored — it would seem that in the intelligent direction and supervision of these youthful activities there is a field for the establishment of a newprofession. Many physical directors have met the qualifications I have\nenumerated and have already entered upon the practice of this new profession\nin many of the schools and colleges of the country. Educators are already\nrecognizing the social, moral, and educational value of the services of welltrained physical directors, and the demand for such men at high salaries is\nmuch greater than the supply. In order to meet this practical difficulty in\nobtaining well-trained men, school authorities are forced to look to athletic\ntrainers, professional gymnasts, book hygienists, or young physicians, because\nthey are most available, as the men who are most likely to render the most\ndesirable service. Each of these specialists may be capable of doing good\nwork in his chosen field but none of them measure up to the qualifications of\nthe instructor of physical education for the public schools. - The athletic\ntrainer is expected to enable the school team to win prizes or victories. He\ncannot sustain his position unless he does — ^for the one thing impetuous youth\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "jOIO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ncan never realize is the possibility of the rival school having better men. The\ntrainer has learned this fact, and his chief function now is to discover and\nexploit the superior qualities of the few, rather than to improve the physical\ncondition of the many. The gymnast bases his reputation upon the ''stunts\"\nor ''feats\" which, on account of long years of practice and highly specialized\ndevelopment, he has been able to accomplish. He must therefore necessarily\nhave a small following. The tact and ability to make elementary work\nattractive, which is the only way to hold the masses, are arts which the profes ional or star gymnast never seems able to acquire. The book hygienist\nteaches his lessons — as some persons teach ethics and the Bible — by words\nrather than through deeds, conduct, and behavior. The teaching of hygiene\nwithout the practice of hygiene is worse than useless. If preceded by the\nstudy of anatomy and physiology, as it should be, it often leads to a morbid\ncuriosity and habit of introspection which in young people had better be\nallayed. The best way to teach hygiene is through the physical activities.\nPhysical training under proper instruction is appHed hygiene pure and simple\nin which the ambitious boy learns what to eat, drink, and wear, how to bathe,\nsleep, and exercise^n other words he learns the correct habits of living. Let\nit never be forgotten that the grandest people physically and intellectually\nthe world has ever known were nurtured and developed by the practical\nobservation of these simple hygienic measures. The weakness of most of the\nteachers in book hygiene is that they try to read into their lessons what\nthey have never known, lived, or experienced in their daily lives, and the pupils\nare bright enough to see the hollowness and insincerity of this method of\ninstruction.\nThe physical directors who are now holding the prominent positions in the\ncountry have for the most part been college-bred men, who have supplemented\ntheir college education and fine all-round gymnastic and athletic training\nwith a three- or four-years' course in medicine. The medical degree being the\nlast one usually obtained before accepting a prominent position, the impression\nhas gotten abroad that it is the medical education that has quaUfied the physical\ndirector for his job. I regret to state that in all of my experience in the physical\nwork, dating back over a period of thirty-five years and embracing a personal\nknowledge of several thousand students and teachers, I have not known of a\nsingle instance where a medical man or physician has made a success of teaching physical education, without a previous or subsequent technical training in\ngymnastics and athletics. Many have tried to acquire the technical training\nlate in life or when they were too old for it, and have given it up, and returned\nto the practice of medicine. Many physicians have assumed the position of\nmedical examiner or school physician, medical inspector, or medical visitor,\nand physician and surgeon for the sick and injured on the various athletic\nteams, and many have given courses of lectures in schools and colleges on\nphysiology and hygiene, first aid to the injured, and social purity. In all of\nthese positions physicians have rendered valuable service to the school, the\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHER\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nloil\n\nfamily, and the community. This is the kind of work which physicians as a\nclass from the very nature of their medical education are best prepared to\ndo. But where is the medical school that gives its students the technical and\nspecial training needed by the director of physical education ? The training\nin the fundamental studies — anatomy, physiology, and histology — is essentially\nthe same for both classes of students; so is the training in physical diagnosis\nand hygiene; but how different are the applications of the principles involved. The physician from necessity has been obliged to treat sickness\nand disease. He sees only the morbid and pathological side of human nature.\nPatients rarely consult a physician unless they are sick, or think they are. If\nhe is called to see the healthy and athletic, it is usually to set a fractured bone,\nbind up a wound, or to treat some other form of injury. In order to keep up\nto date and be able to help the sick and afflicted in time of need the physician\nmust spend his days and nights in the practice of his profession. This he is\noften obliged to do from economic reasons. The advice that he is able to\ngive in the way of prevention of disease is often worth more than the treatment— but the treatment is the only part of the consultation that the average\npatient is ready and wilhng to pay for. For the traditions of the people in\nregard to the treatment of disease, the medical profession of the past is largely\nresponsible. To the honor of many of the present-day medical practitioners\nbe it said that their chief efforts are in the direction of the health education\nof the people which often tends to render their medical services unnecessary\nIt is just here that the work of the physical director anticipates that of the physician. The vast majority of those whom the director sees are in good health, or\nin conditions varying slightly from the normal standard. His aim is not only\nto keep them well and prevent disease, but to lift them to a higher plane of\nliving, morally and intellectually, as well as physically. To do this he must\nuse all the agents of health available, and by improving the functional activities of the individual, build up, broaden out, and reconstruct him generally.\nThe teacher of physical education who would accomplish this work in the\npublic schools or colleges must have all the vigor, energy, and technical ability\nof the physical director, most of the book knowledge of the hygienist, some of\nthe scientific attainments of the physician, combined with a great deal of the\nmoral earnestness and devotion of the Christian minister. This is the kind\nof man the world of education is waiting for. This is the type of man needed\nin the new profession.\nDISCUSSION\nArnoldas H. McClure, superintendent of city schools, Yuma, Ariz. — In this\ncountry of freedom and patriotism, preachers, doctors, and lawyers are all important, but the\nteachers are the most vital forces in the development of this American civilization. The\nbest men of the country today are devoting their lives to educational jquestions, and in\nthe study of these questions the child is the center. If there is any way whereby we can\nget a little nearer the child we can then do more for the child. There is no part of our\ngreat educational system so thoroly enjoyed by the boys and girls of our public schools\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physia.1\n\nas the systematic physical training. School inspection is the part of the physician, while\nthe physical director should supervise the sports, games, and various physical exercises.\nIf our child becomes sick, we naturally want the physician to treat the disease; if we\nwant a piece of furniture made we will call upon the cabinet-maker, and not upon the\nblacksmith or oculist; if we want a suit of clothes made, we engage the tailor without\na moment's thought of assigning the task to the dentist or a veterinary surgeon; likewise\nif we have a case in court we consult and employ a lawyer in place of a preacher, tho I\nwill admit that at times the consultation of a preacher would be the wiser course for the\nclient. This is naturally a day and age of specialists. In our colleges, when a professor\nof Greek is employed he must be a Greek scholar, and he is employed because of this\nfact and not because he can read and speak French, Latin, or German. So if we want a\nphysical director, it is just as important, and in my estimation more so, to engage a man who\nhas the training of a physical director. I do not contend that he will be any less capable\nas a director of athletics, etc., should he have the title of M.D. A horse on the racetrack\nwith the greatest pedigree in the world cannot win the race unless he can trot. His pedigree\nof course will be no burden to him, if he can trot fast enough to win. The all-important\npoint is that the director of physical education in our public schools should have the training of a physical director and possess the knowledge of an instructor in hygiene. He\nshould be a man whose whole soul would be in the work. He should be one who lives on\n\"the sunny side of the street\" and can say, \"Come on.\" The generals who have won the\ngreatest battles have been men who led their armies to victory rather than the ones who\nfailed of courage and tried to drive their men into battle. A great leader is as inspiring\nto the ones being led as is soul-stirring music, and especially is this true in athletics and\nthe many forms of physical training. The part of the physical director is to do away\nwith the physician.\nWe may take the family of the doctor and almost invariably we find the children\nbelow normal in physical strength and health. On the other hand, look at the man of\nathletic disposition and we find a family of superior strength and active minds, defying\nphysicians. A physician may know how physical training should be carried on and\nto what extent, but all this is but a dead letter on the books if he cannot enter into the\nactivities himself. Children are great imitators and are ever ready to follow, but like\ngrown-up children they are fearfully stubborn if you undertake to drive them.\nI find that the most popular teachers in my city schools are those who have had a\ncourse in physical training or who participate in and promote the sports of the children.\nNot only are they the most popular teachers but they secure better results in the classroom.\nThese better results may be attributed to two facts: First, because the teacher herself\nhas taken into her life the proper physical activities so essential to an active mind; and\nsecond, because her pupils love her and are ever ready to comply with her directions.\nHer room is always the best-disciplined room in the building. The teacher never grows\nold, but every milestone passed counts her so many years young, I am sure that this is the\nreason all the ladies assembled here this morning look so young. It has become a habit\nof mine when away from home to tell how good we are out in Arizona, and realizin£» that\nthis great city of Cleveland is so far from that land of sunshine, and, may I add, happiness,\nif I tell you things that seem impossible I do not fear any contradiction from the fact that\nnone of you have been there to realize whether they are true or not. Therefore, I will say\nthat we have a school system second to no other school system in the country; we pay\nbetter wages to our teachers than any other state in the union; the percentage of professionally trained teachers in the schools of Arizona is more than double that of any other\nstate, east or west; there is more happiness and sunshine in the life of the x\\rizona school\nteacher than is enjoyed by any other teacher in the world. Our teachers come from the\ncream of the profession from every state and section of the country. In the contribution\nof this excellent system of education physical training has had no small part, for our\npeople early realized that in order to develop the strongest mental child it is necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN COLLEGES\n\nto develop a strong physical child, and physical training has been carefully looked\nafter.\nWe find that, in developing the physical child, life becomes more real to him and the\ntask of discipline has been solved in the most satisfactory way. I believe the time is coming,\nand that in the very near future, when all teachers will be required to possess a knowledge\nof systematic physical education and that this branch will be placed on an equal footing\nwith the most important branch in the curriculum. In the city of Yuma, physical training was introduced in a systematic way three years ago in our public schools and weak\nboys and girls have become strong, irregularity in attendance has been done away with,\nchildren who never attended school are now interested students, boys and girls who were\nleaving school before completing the eighth grade have re-entered and are enthusiastic\nhigh-school students, and our people are so alive to education that the surrounding districts\nin both Arizona and California have acquired this spirit, and students are entering our\nschools from these outlying districts in such numbers that our board is having trouble in\nerecting schbol buildings fast enough to accommodate this increase in attendance.\nSystematic physical training will accomplish as much for any other small city school\nif properly directed.\nMay the physical-training directors here unite in the dissemination of that physicaleducation spirit until before the assembling of our next annual meeting our good work\nwill have been implanted firmly in many new fields of this great American civilization.\n\nELEMENTS OF STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS IN PHYSICAL\nEDUCATION AS TAUGHT IN COLLEGES\nG.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nA certain boy I knew well, who had won a few petty trophies at the preparatory school, resolved, on entering college, to cut out athletics and go in for\nscholarship, which had suffered from his sports. He was eighteen, weighed\none hundred and two, and was a trifle over six feet tall, yet had won a polevaulting contest and so was beset to enter the intercoUegiates in this neglected\nexercise. He at first refused, but was told that the honor of the institution\nwas at stake and that it would be rank disloyalty to refuse. At the end of the\nfreshman year the result was two more trophies and two varicose legs, requiring two elastic stockings. The sophomore year he tried for the crew and also\nfor the eleven and the nine, and, fortunately, failed to make either. Overworking inthe gymnasium, and doing the giant's swing, one day he fell off the\nbar and double fractured his lower jaw, which was wired together and all the\nteeth saved. He was in the hospital four weeks, taking all his nourishment\nthru a straw. His mates consoled him by telling him that the form of his\njaw and chin was improved by the operation, but he could not set it firmly\nenough to resist the coaxing of his athletic friends. And so junior year he\nbecame a strong man and tied with another in the strength tests of the year\nin the New England colleges^ but strained his heart, thereby was home six\nweeks, and fell back a year in his classes. When he graduated, after five years,\nat the age of twenty-three, he had three so-called silver cups, five medals,\nseveral ribbons representing several first, second, and thirds in things, two\nenlarged calves, one improved jaw, and an irritable heart. He took up the\nstudy of medicine and when I asked him why, he said with a faint, sad smile,\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\n''Well, it may at least be handy to be able to practice on myself, or,\" he added,\nafter a pause, ''possibly my children, if I ever have any, will need my services.\"\nHis parents were powerless against the claims of duty to win glory for his\nAlma Mater, and I will not attempt to describe their feelings toward the\nsystem. This, I grant, is an extreme case, but I know many others, and you\ntrainers and heads of gymnasiums probably know many more where grave\ninjury has resulted from the very pressure put upon the one-tenth or less of\nimmature collegians who have to uphold the athletic prowess of their institutions. Many, like this husky chap, are too young to bear the excessive strain\nof the teams. The glory of possible victory and the stimulus of cheering\nthousands on the bleachers is too tonic a stimulus. You may talk all you will\nand keep ever so close tab upon heart, lungs, and guard against rupture,\nstrain, and cite ever so many cases of college champions who have escaped\nunscathed, but there is a darker side to the picture and this is the first element\nof weakness that I urge. Neither art, from the Laocoons down, nor the illustrated studies of the physiognomy of the emotions afford any such facial expressions of physical agony as photographs depict in the faces of athletes in the\nclimax of their efforts, and the nerves and muscles of collegians are not ripe for\nthe strain too often put upon them. The training of these men is physical cram\nand the reactions from the training-table and the severity of preparation are\ndangerous to the physique and to morals. Only those by nature beefy can\ncome out scathless, and even Schweinfurths are sometimes coarsened; while\nto become wonted to the intoxication of victory makes life seem for a season\nafterward dull and zestless by contrast, especially in the American air and\nwith the American nerves, both so unlike the English or German. Do these\nfew men get the most and best out of four academic years on the whole ? I do\nnot think so and I could take the rest of my time telling how heartily some\nof the parents of these lads agree with me. That there are great and offsetting advantages to some of these defects, we all know by heart. And it is\nthese which the public and such meetings as this always hear most of, but\nthere is an athletic madness, and it is for the silent over-specialized victims\nwho suffer from the system that I now speak.\nAthletics and physical training should be a school of honor, not of dishonor. Which is it today ? The latter seeks to vidn at any price; the former\nwas illustrated by the oft- quoted English tennis champion in an international\nrubber game, who, when his antagonist slipped and made a fluke which\nwould have lost him the victory, made one himself on purpose to offset it,\npreferring to lose honorably rather than to win on an accident. The history\nof physical culture, from the Greeks down, shows that in its best periods, it\nhas been animated by the ideal of making men gentlemen. The true sportsman would infinitely prefer to be beaten than to win unfairly or by any\ntrick or cheating. Codes of honor differ, but the spirit of all rules of all\ngames is so to play that the intrinsically best man or team shall win. Honor\nshould be the very religion of the gymnasium and the athletic field. The best\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n1015\n\ndefinition of it that I know is that it is an instinct for ideal conduct. It would\nfirst of all be magnanimous to a foe whether in victory or defeat. It is not to\nbe too shrill or strident about technicalities and never to claim or accept a victory upon these alone. To my mind faculty committees are as much justified\nin requiring a somewhat higher standard of conduct in the members of their\nteams than for others, as are trainers in requiring a better regimen and diet,\nand should disqualify for any sign of sneaking meanness. These men must\nbe true representatives of the spirit of the college, and it deserves to lose if any\nkind of favoritism of family or money put any but the best men forward, and\nthese men must not break moral training. For the president of a great university tohave insisted upon this the other day against the President of the\nNation was the most wholesome illustration of this principle we have had for\nyears, and its effects will be salutary and long. Perhaps there is no greater\nhero worship in the world today than that of the rank-and-file collegians for\ntheir successful champions, and therefore it is of vital consequence, ideal as\nthis may seem, that they should be so far as possible heroes of virtue and\ncharacter.\nIf they are dissolute, great is their influence for bad.\nDo you ask for the ultimate reason why the college athlete should be a\ngentleman or high priest of honor? I reply that, apart from the fact that his\nexample is so potent, so that if he can be bad and win, all the arguments of the\nclassroom for the healthfulness of virtue fail for his mates and admirers, the\nmuscles are the organs of the will and heart, which are the chief parts of the\nsoul. Their culture closes the gap between knowing and doing. To keep\nthem toned and tense means to make conduct follow more closely upon instinct\nand motive. Mien, pose, and gesture lay open the soul more and make\nacting a part harder. The inmost nature is better known and ready for life —\nis more demonstrative, and conduct is a larger part of expression than is quiet\nthought, example more than precept, and even the bad is less easily concealed\nor repressed, because the whole diathesis is more motor than noetic. Psychic\ntendencies are more revealed and in the open, and the motor type of man is\nmore likely to be what he seems and to seem to be what he really is. For this\nreason there is more necessity for the motor-minded to be decent in order to\nseem so, because with them evil, if it exists, tends more to come out. Like\nmuscular Christianity, muscular virtue is more overt and even aggressive.\nThat is why this type of man has always best exemplified honor and why,\nwhen muscles decay, vice is more liable because it becomes more hidden. It\nis this harmony of mind and body, extending to the minor morals and manners\nand deportment, to all good hygiene and body-keeping, that physical culture\nshould develop. The true sportsman would rather be a Lip ton, always beaten\nand always a gentleman, than to be always successful, with the traits of some;\nfor his conduct under every defeat has raised him a notch in the affections\nand esteem of two countries.\nPhysical education is for the sake of mental and moral culture and not an\nend in itself. It is to make the intellect, feelings, and will more vigorous,\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "I0i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nsane, supple, and resourceful. It should make for control and keep the body\nun^er and make it a servant and not a master. This it will never be until\ngymnastics is a department with its own courses, marks, and credits, the same\nas other departments. If a man is a bom athlete, why deny him the same\nbenefit of it as if he is a born mathematician, linguist, artist, or musician ? It\nis plain that the academic side here must be developed. The culture history\nof physical education is a splendid field that we should develop in the classroom; not merely the ordinary rudiments of anatomy and physiology, but the\ngreat movements of ascetic contempt and neglect of the body, along with the\nsplendid periods of its development in the palaestra and the Turnfest, the best\nage of which in both lands precedes by about a generation their golden age of\narms, letters, and science. Always to keep at the very top of one's condition\nrequires both science and art; history and biography are full of inspiring\nexamples and awful warnings. These must be collected and curricuHzed that\nthese professors in the future may have both brain and brawn, be virile and\nvirtuous in the grand old Latin sense of these terms. Practical ethics of body\nand soul is the core of all. The history and psycho-physiology of miUtary\ndrill, dancing, the great national sports and games and their effects, the\nmorals of measurements and tests, the psychology of periodic stripping\nand inspection, the relation of maximum effort to sex, drink, and in a\nclumsy three words — the psychologizing, ethicizing, and aestheticizing of\nathleticism is now its crying need. The ordinary medical side is not\nenough. Moral prophylaxis should be included. The love of plain\nliving, of nature afield, should be inculcated, and something should be\ntaught of the very interesting and suggestive topics of staleness, second\nbreath, rhythm, stages of development, nervousness of the strong, the philosophy oftraining and reactions, the need of symmetry, and the dangers of\nspeciahzation, the psychic characteristics developed by addiction to each\nof the chief forms of sport, that is, how the swimmer, boxer, runner, dancer,\nand the rest come to differ in character — these topics have now a meaty literture that should be brought together here. In this direction we are today like\nBunyan's man with a muck rake, all unaware of the golden crown just above\nhis head which he would wear upon it would he but straighten up. Now\nthis high story of culture in this field is, save for a few happy and scattered\nbeginnings, all undeveloped. When we have realized what is the matter here,\nwe shall look back with poignant self-pity upon the present stage of materialistic beginnings. The Y. M. C. A. teachers of athletics have shown us how\nheart, muscle, and moral culture can be combined to the great benefit of each;\nand how worse than useless is strength of brawn with weakness of character;\nbut the best is yet to come. Nothing could do so much to enlist the rank and file\nof students, the mere rooters, and also the grinds in body culture as such courses;\nfor who could take them, if they began to utihze the resources available, without being inspired to make his own body stronger and his health better, to\nmake the most and best of his physique as the best of methods of attaining any\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nIO17\n\nand every kind of excellence and power ? Our colleges and universities must\noffer courses in which they can give degrees, even the highest, with this as a\nmajor subject. Every really scientific study which any of you make, whether\nin the historical aspects and phases of the subject or of the results of training\non individuals or groups, the effects of age, temperament, diets, like the memorable New Haven studies, the just now so much needed studies of girls,\nmake contributions to such a course. Could a few of the most scholarly\nand scientific men in this field now organize and compile, from the many\nnow scattered sources, the material needed, and take the epoch-making step\nof organizing it into meaty, academic form, the problem would be solved.\nNo one has done this and, till it is done, your best efforts are scrappy and\nincoherent. Is it not, in fact, your fault that such chairs and degree-earning\ncourses are not sufficiently recognized by college dons and is it not up to you\nto remove the cause of your complaint in this direction, when, by combining\nyour efforts, you could create a group of courses every college would feel guilty\nand ashamed not to give ?\nThe athletic problem is becoming graver every year and only you can solve\nit. We heads of institutions cannot launch new courses on a mere librarian's\nbibliography of good but scattered references. So again, I say, get together\nand put together what is already accessible in a scholarly way and we shall all\nfall over each other to give it credits and academic standing. I wonder if there\nwas ever in the whole history of higher education such a wealth of material so\nwanted but so unorganized, or any field where some learned and vigorous\nthinker, by a year or two of hard work, could so change the aspect of things ?\nPhysical training should be the very cornerstone of every sound educational\nsystem. Our college presidents and faculties are now pathetically helpless\nbefore the athletic problem, distracted and utterly powerless to control or\nutilize the tremendous energy now set free. These convulsive convulsions of\nthe entire body academic are parturient struggles. A little skillful midwifery\nthat can bring all this blind aesthetic enthusiasm to the birth into the higher\ncultural field — this is the need of the hour. In it lies concealed immense\nwealth of motivation to study hard and long a range of topics the most vital\nfor personal and national health and well-being. Nor has there ever been so\nlarge an opportunity or so loud a call. Hippocrates said ''God-like is the\ndoctor who is also a philosopher.\" We might almost apply the same superlative epithet to a gymnasial expert who can also be a philosopher. Will this\nphysical Messiah appear or must the work be done by many laboring slowly\nfor half a generation ? Sometimes the call creates the man, but such a call is\nalways answered sooner or later; and with all the splendid fore-studies you\nhave already made, it cannot now be long delayed. And of all the great\ndepartments of this great association, yours seems to me the surest ere\nlong to see the great light or to have a great leader that- will inaugurate\nthis higher, more intellectual phase of physical education. What I have\nto say on the other half of my subject, elements of strength, is summed\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOi8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nup in a single sentence — that you have\nconsummation.\nCRITICISMS\nCHARLES\n\nOF THE\n\nF. THWING,\n\nTEACHING\n\n[Physical\n\nprepared the way for such a\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nPRESIDENT OF WESTERN\nCLEVELAND, OHIO\n\nRESERVE\n\nEDUCATION\nUNIVERSITY\n\n[Synopsis]\n\nAmong the items presented for criticism of the present method of physical\nexercises in school and college are noted:\nFirst, These exercises are not interesting. Most students find them stupid\nand stupefying. For the purpose of increasing their interest some of the\nelements of games should be introduced. Contests and rivalries should be\npromoted.\nSecond, The training should be made more individual. The physical\ndeformities and idiosyncrasies of students in school and college are marked.\nNine-tenths of students are more or less abnormal in body. Exercises, therefore, should be made more individual. They should be adjusted to the needs\nof each student.\nThird, So far as possible physical exercises should fall into the normal\nliving conditions of students. For many they now seem remote, out of\nplace. They consume the time and strength without adequate result. Walking, for instance, should be so taught that the pupils can get both strength and\nfun.\nFourth, The range of exercises, therefore, should be made larger, the\nnumber of games increased. Outdoor games especially for the winter should\nbe promoted.\nFifth, The interest of the members of the teaching stafif in both school and\ncollege in physical exercises should be increased. Teachers have not come\nto recognize the value of the happiness of these exercises. They have come\nto recognize the value of manual training; they have not come to recognize\nthe value of baseball, football, hockey, or any outdoor exercises.\nSixth, In this respect, too, both teachers and students do not appreciate\nthe fundamental value of the sound body as one of the most precious assets of\nlife and service. The worth of biography as inculcating this truth is great.\nSeventh, The educational authorities who form budgets should be willing\nto devote larger sums to physical exercise. Such appropriations would naturally follow upon obtaining a clear idea upon the value of physical training.\nEnthusiasm now abounds, intelligence should increase. Increase of intelligence would result in increase of appropriations.\nDISCUSSION\nW, P. BowEN, professor of physical education, Michigan State Normal College,\nYpsilanti, Mich. — Let me say at the outset, that I fully agree with the previous speakers\nas to the elements of weakness in our work, and I believe that most teachers of physical\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PREPARATORY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1019\n\ntraining will agree that the present condition of high-school and college athletics is as bad\nas Dr. Hall has painted it. I would like to point out, however, an important cause of\nthis condition that lies within the power of the college presidents, superintendents, and\ngoverning boards to correct, rather than we who are doing the teaching.\nWhen you come to inquire into the actual cause of the professionalism in high-school\nand college athletics, you find\", first of all, that it has arisen because the institutions have\nnot furnished funds to carry on the work. No one would like to see every boy take part\nin baseball and similar sports, more than the teachers of physical training would like to\nsee it; but when we try to carry out such a plan it is the rare case to find a college or\nhigh school that furnishes one baseball field, to say nothing about room for a hundred\nboys to play ball. In fact, it is almost the universal condition that the institution furnishes\nnothing, and leaves it to the coach and the team to finance their own sports. How can\nthey do this ? They have only one way, to go out in the commercial field and put up\na quality of athletics that the public will pay to see. They soon find that the public\ndemands one thing, and one thing only — that they put out a winning team; and so the\npresent craze to win at all costs arises primarily out of the necessity thrown upon coach\nand team to make the money for their own support.\nTo give a single illustration: I know of a large university where this spirit to win is\nrampant and vociferous, and where the governing board, under the advice of the president,\nhas never given one cent, either for buildings or grounds, to make educational physical\ntraining a possibility. The students have solicited money for a gymnasium and an athletic\nfield, and have made thousands of dollars to carry on the department by promoting athletics\nas a means of revenue. Now, the president of that university complains that the boys\ncarry athletics to excess. The fact is, the boys have been educated up to this very thing\nby the necessity of having to go out into the world of trade and put on the market the\nkind of athletics that will pay. Just as soon as superintendents, college presidents, and\nother leaders in education, who control the distribution of funds for various educational\npurposes, set apart enough money to support departments of physical training, as they\ndo now support other departments, just so soon it will be possible for those people to\ndictate the quality of athletics, and to command the coaches and other teachers of physical\ntraining to give every boy the athletic training he needs, and to cut off the excesses. Until\nwe can make these leaders see this point, and realize that it is within their power, and\ntheir power alone, to remedy the evil, we teachers of physical training will be obliged,\nas we have been in the past, to leave the great majority of students without the athletic\ntraining they need, while we help to exploit a few of the best, as a means of raising money.\nThis is a deplorable condition of things, but the remedy is not with us. Give us the money\nthat is absolutely necessary to provide for this work, and then compel us to do it as it ought\nto be done. Give every high school and college grounds where all students can have a\nchance, demand educational rather than commercial results from coaches and teams,\nand athletic reform will come.\n\nELEMENTS\nOF STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS IN PHYSICAL\nEDUCATION AS TAUGHT IN PREPARATORY SCHOOLS\nR. B. NASON,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nFRANCIS\nW.\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nPARKER\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nIt is my purpose to consider this subject from a general rather than a particular point of view. The fact that I am \"outside of the profession,\" as Dr.\nHastings expressed it in writing me, would make any attempt on my part to\nconsider the subject otherwise in a measure presumptuous. But were I inside\nof the profession, I think my point of view would remain much the same, at\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "I020\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nany rate as far as this particular topic is concerned. Physical education presents to me the same general problems as any other field of education. It is\nnot a thing by itself, outside of, apart from other phases of education. If I am\nable to contribute anything here, it must be in line with this proposition — that\nphysical education is but one phase — a very important phase to be sure — of the\nwhole educative process. I reahze that the term, educative process, is a\n\"ghttering generality.\" But I intend to define it and to use that definition\nas the basis of my treatment of this subject. By the educative process, I mean\nthat process by which a child, bom as he is with a capacity greater than that\nof any other organism to profit by past experiences, is made fit for high service\nto his fellows. It is the idea of fitness that I wish especially to emphasize —\nfitness in its large, evolutionary meaning: physically, intellectually, spiritually,\nfit. Whatever, then, helps to bring a child into more perfect adjustment to\nhis physical, intellectual, and spiritual environment is educative. I place\nphysical fitness first, not because physical education happens to be the question under discussion, but because I believe it belongs first. Whatever more\nwe may be, we are, first of all, of the class mammalia — just animals; and to\nbe a good, proper animal — to be physically fit— is the ** first duty of man;\"\nthe old catechism of our ancestors to the contrary notwithstanding.\nIf we consider education, then, as the adapting of an individual to his\nenvironment, and if we are willing to look upon physical education as only one\nparticular kind of education, whatever sound, general principles we are able\nto lay down to guide us toward the attainment of this ultimate end will serve\nus as a basis for judging the elements of strength and weakness in physical\neducation. Now, in general, I believe we may measure any man's fitness by\ndetermining the nature of his incentives and the degree of his power. These\nterms, incentives and power, need no definition. But they do need some further consideration, for in using the term, process, we are dealing not only with\naims but also with means. I have said that whatever helps to fit a child to\nhis environment is educative; whatever means, then, we may use to inculcate\nhigh and permanent incentives in a boy and to increase his power to act and\nto enjoy is a worthy means. And the value of any particular subject of education isin exact proportion to the possibility of its yielding incentives and\npower — physically, intellectually, and spiritually. No one subject, or group\nof subjects, is capable of yielding all these incentives in the same degree.\nGeometry, for instance, seems to me to be rich in purely intellectual incentives,\nto develop purely intellectual power, and to be especially barren in respect to\nits productiveness of anything either physical or spiritual. We can easily\nconceive of a boy's wits being sharpened by a thoro knowledge of geometric\nprinciples, but we cannot possibly expect him to apply those principles with\nany degree of success if he finds himself unable to run a hundred yards, or\nto take the adverse ruling of a baseball umpire with equanimity. But however rich or barren a subject is, it is thus by its fruit ye shall know it.\nLet us now turn from these general considerations to their application to\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PREPARATORY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n102 1\n\nphysical education. The immediate aim of this particular subject is usually\ntaken to be to guard and to promote normal physical development. But there\nis more to it than that; it is richer than that; it should make a boy more fit\nthan just physically fit. There is no doubt, of course, that this subject is particularly and primarily rich in physical incentives and power, but I believe it\nis also capable of yielding richly in both intellectual and spiritual incentives\nand power. Fundamentally, intellectual incentives are those that make one\ndesire to know, to understand, to interpret, to classify his experiences in an\norderly, causal manner. At no time in life is one so beset with such a marvellous, bewildering, fascinating, vital chaos of physical experiences as during\nthe so-called preparatory years — ^fourteen to eighteen. The consciousness of\nself, the mystery of being, the eternal forces of creation envelop him. He\nstruggles to know; he must know. The richness, the fulness of his life,\ndepend upon his knowing aright. He must know what he is physically;\nhe must understand his body, its structure, its functions, its laws. Only by\nsuch knowledge can he guard and promote his normal physical being — can he\nbe made and be kept physically fit. It is obvious that such understanding\nof the physical facts of life involves something more than purely intellectual\nreactions; something entirely distinct from those classifications and those\nadjustments made by the boy in his relation to such groups of facts as are\npresented to him, for instance, in his contact with mathematics or Greek\nsyntax. Spiritual is the word I have been using — spiritual incentives and\npower. I do not use the term in any mystical sense. I use it to include\nhonor, fair play, clean sport — all that a good sportsman is, that is all. And\nthe term is not too big, I think, or too fine, for such application.\nPhysical education in our preparatory schools should aim, then, to equip\nthe boys with good, sound, normally functioning bodies; it should aim to\ngive them a practical knowledge of the laws that govern the functioning of\ntheir bodies; and it should aim to make them good sportsmen. These things\nit must do; these incentives and powers it must and can yield.\nWhen I say it can yield these incentives and powers, I would seem to imply\nthat it does not yield them now. But before I directly affirm or deny this\nseeming implication, let us examine the prevailing tendencies in this field of\neducation, something of its history, for it is not fair, or educationally sound,\nto criticize any movement, any process, only as a fixed or completed thing;\nbut first of all in light of its genesis and its growth. Such an examination for\nour purposes here will not take us very far back in the history of education as\na whole, or at all into the rise and development of systems of physical education. A kind of physical education figured in educational schemes, I know,\nfrom early times: in the training of the Spartan youth; of the Roman soldier\nof the Republic; and the gladiator of the later Empire; the janizaries; and\nthe mediaeval knights; but so far as the physical education of- our own time\nis concerned, it is a new and distinct phase of education having its origin in\nour modem, competitive games\nCertain teams were found to be pretty reg\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "I022\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nularly superior — such teams as had, in one way or another, secured the services of a trainer, or coach. In order to compete successfully with those\nteams that had a coach, others got them, until that phase of physical training\nbecame the regular thing. In our preparatory schools the coach came to\nhave charge of all the teams; possibly, also, he taught a class or two in\nalgebra, or something of that sort. An increasing demand was made for this\nsort of man, more and more was required of him, and schools were founded\nand equipped to provide the necessary preliminary training. Other elements\nbeside the desire to turn out winning teams entered into this development,\nhelped it along, and modified its character: the demand for trained Y. M. C. Aand gymnasium directors; the gradual recognition of the value of some sort of\nphysical training for all, instead of the few who made the teams. The tendencies have been in this field of education, then, much the same as in others:\nto extend the scope of the work ; to increase the training of the teachers ; and\nto give to it a larger and larger place and importance in the activities of the\nschools.\nAltho the tendencies have been along good educational lines, the present\nstatus of physical education is, it seems to me, behind that in most other\nfields. This is what we might expect and what we should be satisfied with,\nif we considered time as the only necessary element in growth. The academic,\nor scholastic, activities in our preparatory schools have come to their present\nbeing thru centuries of toil and experiment. We have attacked them from\nthe side of scope, and added subject after subject to the program until there\nisn't much of anything left to add; we have attacked them from the side of\nmethod, and developed elaborate systems of procedure — turned out teachers\nwho could run a classroom exercise with the precision of an eight-day clock;\nwe have secured men with A.B.'s, A.M.'s, and Ph.D.'s to do the work, and\nwe have found that none of these things is sufficient, nor all of them put together. We are just beginning to find out that first of all we must determine\njust what we are trying to do — just what education means; then we must\nknow the nature of the material we are working with. And right here is where\nphysical education has not taken advantage of what has been gained in other\nfields and come up abreast. It has not yet ceased threshing old straw; it has\nnot yet got big enough.\nThe way in which a man goes at his work tells a whole lot about what- he\nthinks of it. Now, the way we go at physical education is a pretty good\nindication of what we think of that. We are interested in it, tremendously\ninterested, and that is good. Our physical directors take hold of their work\nwith a spirit that puts some of the rest of us to shame. I imagine that they\nare about as much alive as any of the members of our preparatory school\nfaculties, and often considerably more so. And they pretty generally know\nhow to do their work; whether they are trained under the German Turnverein, Swedish, Swedo- German, Jiu-jit-su, or any other system. They are\ngood fellows, and the boys and all the rest of us like them.\nAnd that is all\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PREPARATORY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIO23\n\nas it should be. But now let us see just what they seem most interested in.\nThey like to turn out a good gymnasium class that does its work in form to the\ntime of a piano; a good, snappy, football team; a basketball team that can\nthrow baskets; and a baseball team that can knock home runs; for this is\nwhere their work shows up. And this is not all that it should be. We no\nlonger believe that our history teacher, for instance, has done his whole duty\nwhen he gets the majority of his boys safely by their entrance examinations.\nWe demand a whole lot more than that. We demand that he shall have made\nthem live and feel with the great men of the past; that he shall have taught\nthem to value high and unselfish service; that he shall have given them power\nto understand the progress of our nation ; that he shall not only have fitted them\nfor college, but shall have fitted them for life — made them better men and\nbetter citizens. It is not the strong boy who can make the team that our\nphysical director must be most interested in, but the weak boy who cannot\neat his breakfast without a stomachache; not the team that can win the most\ngames, but the team that can play the hardest and the happiest and the\ncleanest. And not the team alone; but he must take his place with the rest of us,\nworking with all the boys, not for honor-men or team-men, but for able play\nand able work, for fair play and fair work, for strong bodies, clear minds,\nand high motives.\nAt present it seems to me that too much emphasis is laid upon this matter\nof turning out winning teams. A night or two before the interscholastic meet\nheld in Chicago on the 13th, I spent the evening with two physical directors.\nThey talked a long time about men of their acquaintance all over the country.\nIt was interesting to me to see that in every case they estimated the value of\nthose men upon the quahty of the teams they turned out. There is no question that a whole lot of good teams are developed. And that is a good thing\nas far as it goes. But the aim of physical education, as I have stated it, is\nbigger than that. All boys should be taught the structure, functions, and\nlaws of their bodies; all should be taught to live every day in obedience to\nthose laws; all should be given the training necessary to guard and to promote\ntheir normal physical development; all should live in the atmosphere of quick\nobedience, honest conduct, strenuous endeavor — vigorous work and vigorous\nplay. Now these are some of the things that we want besides good teams.\nSome of them we do get, and the rest will come when we demand it sufficiently\nlong and sufficiently hard. Results come where we place our emphasis, and\nour emphasis is now strongly toward making a few boys more fit to play games,\nnot toward making all boys more fit to live well, and hard, and fair. We\nneed such boys; we need them in our schools to counteract those softening\ninfluences that are creeping into contemporary educational thought and\npractice; we need them as men in our poKtics, our business, our schools, and\nour homes.\nLet me say again, however, that I do not wish to seem to value strong\nteams less, but strong boys more.\nThere is a lot of sound educational value.\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "I024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nI believe, that goes into the training of good teams. But the educational\ntrouble there is twofold: first, such training is too narrow; and, second, it is\npretty sure to create wrong standards of value; for what we are much interested in and work hard toward, we lead boys, at any rate, to think we value\nhighly. If we are most interested in turning out winning teams, and if our\nefforts go toward that end, then our boys are most likely to believe that we\nvalue winning more than anything else, and such a notion, however it may\nhold elsewhere, is in any educational scheme unwarrantably perverse.\nI have attempted to show that physical education is but one phase of\neducation as a whole — one part of the educative process, that altho this\npart of the process has already progressed in developing its possibihties, it has\nnot gone as far as it can; that, at present, its emphasis is not only too\nrestricted, but also placed at a point where it is likely to do harm; that the\nmen, on the whole, in this field, while they are interested, alive, and technically well trained, have too little general educational training, and consequently too narrow a conception of the educational place and value of their\nsubject. It may be that, in this presentation, I have given the impression that\nI see here more elements of weakness than of strength. I don't know, I\nhaven't attempted to strike a balance. But whatever the impression may be,\nI believe in the work; I see in it great things. To me it stands first in importance and possibilities. And because I see much in it, I ask much of it.\nELEMENTS OF STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS TN PHYSICAL\nEDUCATION AS TAUGHT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nGEORGE\n\nWITTICH,\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nTo determine what may be either strong or weak points in physical\ntraining, we must ascertain first the condition of the average schoolchild and\nthen the influences which this condition and the child's environment exercise\nupon its psychical and physical faculties. After that we can determine the\npostulates which they impose on education in general and on physical training\nin particular; lastly we shall see whether all that is presented as physical\ntraining meets these demands or does not.\nThe child. — During the five and a half hours which the child spends at\nschool on each of the two hundred days of the school-year it must remain in\nthe sitting posture more than three-fourths of the time. The results of this\nextended and regularly recurring physical inactivity during that period of life\nwhen the child needs motion to enhance growth and general vigor, more than\nin any other period of life, are retarded blood-circulation and insufficient\nrespiration. If this posture is continued for years, anaemia and a certain\ndegree of muscular degeneration are very often found developing and the inborn\ndesire for motion is being obtused.\nSince the so-called \"correct sitting postures for reading and writing\" will\nsoon become tiresome, the child will seek relief in every imaginable sitting\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nposture during the long school-hours. Experience and research have taught us\nthat long sitting, faulty sitting, and unhygienic seats and desks have largely\nproduced our present round-shouldered, gaunt-necked, flat-chested, and awkward schoolchild. The various positions of the feet which the child assumes\nin its endeavors to seek relief from tiresome sitting postures certainly do not\nimprove the walking step of the child.\nThe mind, too, suffers through this uninterrupted mental strain. The\nstudious child will, in the course of time, acquire a mood of earnestness and\nsedateness which is not at all in accordance with its age, while other children\nbecome indifferent and languid. Such children have been robbed of their\nyouthful elasticity and happiness; their education did not include the essential\nfeatures of a happy and auspicious childhood and adult life.\nLet us determine now the forms of physical exercises that will counteract\nthese evil factors and are practicable in classroom, corridor, assembly-hall,\nand yard.\nThe growing schoolchild first of all needs stimulation to growth and\nimprovement of the tonicity of the muscular tissue. This can best be achieved\nthrough exercises of quickness involving mainly the muscles of the thighs,\npelvis, and trunk. The continued and often faulty sitting necessitates repeated\ncorrective exercises; physical inactivity produces awkwardness, and therefore\ndancing-steps and marching, as well as other forms of leg-exercises, are valuable to improve the skill of the legs, as will club-swinging and certain other\nforms of arm exercises strengthen and improve the skill of the arms. Exercises at the desk in the classroom, running, jumping, vaulting, and combative\ngames in the hall or yard will improve the general skill, agility, and strength\nof the whole body. Combative and running games, and certain games with\nthe large ball tend to develop physical power and endurance together with\nthose psychical qualities that are of such great value in this present age: quickness of reaction, resoluteness, alertness, courage, and perseverance.\nWhat are now the elements of weakness in physical training? They are\neither unnecessary forms of exercises, or forms which are one-sided in their\neffects when used exclusively as physical training. Under the former class,\nfall: motion-songs and the dramatizations of activities of animals, persons,\netc. Under the second class, the one-sided forms come: first, formal exercises— tactics, folk-dances, Gilbert-dancing, Delsarte, calisthenics, dumbbell,\nbarbell, wand- and club-drills, club-swinging, and corrective exercises; second,\nless formal exercises — games (play), field- and track- work, and exercises on\nfixed play-apparatus.\nWhen the child has advanced from the kindergarten or from the unrestrained freedom of the home, into the first grade of school, it should have\ncarefully designed and arranged wholesome and vigorous exercises at regular\nintervals for the purpose of counteracting the detrimental influences of its new\nenvironment.\nThe exercises must bring into play the larger muscles and must be of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "I026\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Physical\n\nsimplest and most natural kind. The play-feature should be brought in\nwhenever feasible in order to make the transition from unrestrained freedom\nto formal school-life easier and more agreeable.\nMotion songs. — The mild forms of physical exercises usually applied in\nmotion-songs cannot be substitutes for physical training because they do not\nbring out that degree of vigorous, rhythmical, muscular contraction which is\nso very necessary to physical welfare. They are valuable features of the\nkindergarten curriculum, it is true, but they will not suffice in the grades above,\nsince the conditions are vastly different. The same can be said of the dramatizations ofthe activities of persons and animals, and in consequence these\nforms may be considered elements of weakness in physical training.\nForms one-sided in effect. — Forms of exercises that are more effective but\nwhose effects are more or less one-sided. •\nDrills. — The drill is a sequence of exercises which the pupils must memorize\nand mechanize. The act of mechanization, that is, the period in which the\npupils learn to execute and memorize a drill, is a mental effort. If this is performed between other lessons or immediately after them, the mind is being\nburdened instead of relieved. The more complicate and intricate the exercises and combinations are, the greater is the mental effort of the pupils during the mechanization of the same. After, however, the drill is once mechanized itis executed more or less automatically, i.e., without mental effort. The\ncontrolling work has then been transferred mainly to the spinal cord. In\norder to produce a reasonably exact and physiologically beneficial mechanical\nexecution of the drill on the part of the pupils, the exercises must be practiced\nwith utmost exactness in the beginning and as long as the mind is the controlling factor. For when once faulty movements have become mechanized\nit requires great will-power to correct them.\nThere is of course some physiological value in every well-balanced drill.\nThe well executed marching-drill or military tactics has a good influence on\nthe general posture of the pupils. The firm marching step imparts strength\nto the muscles of the legs. In addition to this, exercises of the individual, if\nproperly applied, will promote quickness of response — but that is about all.\nThe effect of marching-drills on the psychical faculties and respiration and\non circulation is small because the movements are simple and uninteresting\nand the muscular activity is half automatic.\nThe physiological value of all well-arranged calisthenics and dancingdrills is much greater, but since drills usually have an even rhythm thruout,\nand especially so dancing drills, the corrective influence is small. Great\ncorrective results are furthermore excluded in drills because that degree of\nmuscular traction, which is so often necessary to bring about corrective results,\nis not well obtainable in rhythmical work.\nPsychologically, calisthenic drills are worthless because they are a bore, and\nas such detested or executed in an indifferent manner by the pupils, whereas\nthe dancing-drills, especially the simple forms, exercise a somewhat better\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1027\n\ninfluence on the minds of the girls. The girls' desire for all forms of dancing\nis great, and they will take up these exercises more readily than the more strenuous forms. But I cannot conceive of a boy, a true boy, between twelve and fifteen years of age, taking any kind of dancing readily; this type of exercises is\nso very contrary to his character and his make-up, that it seems an injustice\nto this part of our school population to bring up boys in this effeminate manner.\nThe folk-dance is a transient fad and will disappear and make room for\nanother fad in the course of time, like many others gone before, such as the\nDelsarte system. It is absurd to present to the American boy and girl the\nclumsy dances of the awkward European farmer as physical training.\nSince there is nothing in the drill that will interest the child for any length\nof time, nothing for the child to strive for, no matter how often we may call\nits attention to the beneficial effects of this or that exercise, nothing that will\ncreate joy and happiness, it is decidedly an element of weakness in physical\ntraining.\nCalisthenics. — Cut-and-dried \"calisthenics\" in the classroom, especially\nwhen the commands are read off a card or out of a book by the class-teacher in\na monotonous tone of voice; when the exercises have the same time-measure\nthruout, and when the whole lesson is executed in the same place without any\ndiversion whatsoever, are not much better than the drill.\nCorrective exercises. — Corrective exercises are an absolute necessity to the\nschoolchild at the present time. The maximum contraction of the participating muscles exercises a slow and powerful traction on the skeleton. They\nare free exercises, pure and simple; the peculiar manner in which they are\nexecuted and the adaptation of them to the afflicted parts of the body has given\nthem this specific name. That is the extent of their usefulness; they are of\nno further value. Their influence on the circulation and respiration is of\nminor import, owing to the fact that they are not executed in a quick rhythm.\nSince they are effective only when the child's mind and attention are concentrated intensely on this work, they are followed by mental fatigue. There is\nneither joy nor pleasure associated with them, and hence they imply rather\nhard work for the pupils if called for regularly and exclusively as physical\ntraining. When so administered, corrective exercises necessarily become a\nweakness in physical training.\nAthletics and play. — Field- and track- work and games are the most natural\nforms of physical exercises. For this reason, as well as for their freedom from\nrestraint, in connection with the fact that each form offers the pupils, young\nand old, something to strive for, with ample allowance for individuality and\nability, they appeal to the pupil's mind. But even they cannot constitute a\ncomplete system of physical training (although some persons claim that much\nfor them) because they lack a sufficient degree of the very necessary limitations,\nand the self-adjusting and polishing influence of scientifically arranged formal\nphysical training.\nThe most rational forms of athletics were the forms used by primitive man\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "I028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nin gaining a subsistence. They assumed a more refined character in the\ntraining of the Greeks, but they are just as inadequate to replace the presentday system of physical training as would be the Greek of 2,500 years ago to our\npresent environment.\nThe advantages of play in general are many. The influence of all running\ngames on heart and lung action is excellent and the enjoyment and pleasure\nwhich they create are, in the true sense of the word, \"sunshine upon the child's\nmind; \" they lack, however, the real strength-giving features. Combative games\nemphasize this element much better, but they disregard rhythmical breathing,\nowing to the often fixed condition of the muscles of the thorax. They do,\nhowever, bring out the manly character as well as dexterity and are therefore\nmainly designed for the boys.\nThrowing and catching games, such as ball and bean-bag games are an\nexcellent means of promoting judgment in vision and accuracy of arm motion,\nand can be classified into two groups: (i) those combined with running,\nand (2) those without running. All games lack corrective features and the\nrefining influence of formal work.\nJumping and vaulting are splendidly adapted for promoting physical skill;\nweight-events develop strength but should be taken up carefully as they are\napt to lead to an abnormal development.\nAltho the character-forming, ethical, and social values of these exercises\nare great when properly conducted and progressively applied, yet they lack\nthat wholesome educational influence which can be brought out only by the\ntrue teacher during class -work.\nThe desire for beauty of form is also more readily satisfied during classwork in dancing-steps combined with graceful trunk- and arm exercises, in\nclub -swinging, free exercises executed in divided order, and apparatus -work\nexecuted in good form than through games and athletics. We have not yet\nreached that stage where aesthetical good form is considered an essential factor\nin athletics, that is to say, where athletics is only a means to an educational\nend and no longer an end in itself.\nSteadiness of hand, eye, and foot,and the utmost accuracy of motion in all\nconditions and positions of the body are quaUties of immense value and can\nbe acquired only thru a wholesome combination of play, athletics, and scientifically planned, methodically arranged, and accurately executed formal work.\nEthically, the influence of play and athletics, when carried on exclusively\nas physical training, may become really unwholesome. The spirit which is\nthereby fostered at times gives rise to offense and rudeness and often develops an abominable spirit of caste.\nAthletics and games possess few corrective qualities and since \"specialism \"is generally in vogue in America, much harm is often done thru athletics.\nFor these reasons games and athletics, if resorted to exclusively as physical\ntraining, are also elements of weakness.\nEvery one of the exercises enumerated under \"Exercises whose effects\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nare onesided,\" excepting drills, are valuable and absolutely necessary units\nof a correctly arranged day's order; they must, however, be applied at the\nproper time and with a view to a correct proportion of the allotted time to\ntheir effects. When applied in this manner, these same exercises become\n* * elements of strength. ' '\nFirst unit. — Since the child is held in a sitting posture a long time, stimulating the circulation and respiration thru half-automatic exercises of\nquickness, that will at the same time relieve the mind of the nervous strain of\nstudy, should be the first unit of the lesson. Where only ten to fifteen minutes\nare allowed daily for physical exercises, this can best be accomplished by the\nfollowing types, of one to two minutes duration:\n1. Rising and resuming sitting position in quick succession with or without\nfacing and arm-positions.\n2. Quick alternate raising of knees.\n3. Hopping on one or both feet with pendent leg in various positions.\n4. Running on or from place.\n5. Skipping or galloping forward or sideward in same manner as running\nfrom place.\nSince the classroom is the last place to be resorted to for such exercises,\nfor obvious reasons, exercises under 4 and 5 should be either continued into the\ncorridor and hall, or, better still, out of doors wherever this is practicable. In\nthe latter case leg-exercises should be progressively added to the running,\nhopping, and skipping. Only the rhythmical contractions of the larger muscles\naccompanied by the naturally resulting deeper respiration, and the moderate\nvibration of the whole body as brought by running and hopping, will result\nin a thoro oxygenation of the blood and a wholesome stimulation of the\nnervous system.\nSecond unit. — Tactics of one to three minutes' duration should follow for\nthe purpose of restoring normal circulation and respiration and to insure good\ncarriage of body and correct walking-step.\nThe simple forward, sideward, and backward step with or without facing,\nthe marching of the open class, will suffice for the classroom, but, together with\nthe wheeling of ranks, forming of members, and the evolutions of the open\ncolumn, may be reserved for the hall and yard.\nThird unit. — Corrective and other free exercises. Corrective, balance, and\narm-exercises, with or without leg- and trunk-exercises, with or without hand\napparatus in standing and walking, of four to eight minutes' duration should\nfollow for the purpose of correcting faulty postures, developing general control,\nskill, and strength. To the ordinary corrective exercises of the muscles of the\nback, shoulders, and neck, the backward bending over the back of the seat with\nor without arm-movements, in sitting, should be added as a valuable adjunct.\nI also wish to emphasize the importance of embodying into 'wand-exercises\nthat peculiar resistance manifested by the arms toward one another or by both\narms toward the trunk.\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "I030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physica\n\nClub-swinging is commendable in the higher grades on account of the\nstrengthening influence of the arm circles on the muscles of the shouldergirdle and on the other auxiliary respiratory muscles. The arm and hand\ncircles are also excellent for promoting the skill of the whole arm and of the\nfore-arm in particular.\nIntermediate exercises of a less formal nature should be interposed between\nthe exercises of this unit to break the monotony of the work and to animate the\npupils to better effort. In the classroom the various forms of stepping, and\nfacing, also reeling of arms with or without variations, now and then exercises\nin kneeling on the seat, and vaulting over the seat, with or without turns,\nwill serve.\nFourth unit. — Athletics and combative games. Nothing in the line of\nathletics can be done in the classroom: we must confine ourselves to exercises\nat the desks and to the most simple forms of combative exercises. Two or\nthree minutes of this kind of work will do. Lying supported, front or rearways,\nwith extended arms on desks, with or without exercises of the head, trunk, and\nlegs, and vaulting over the seat, will have to take the place of athletics in the\nclassroom. Of combative games, \"hand pulling and pushing with both\nhands,\" or with one, over the seat, can be used in all rooms, while \"Bull in\nthe Ring,\" \"Fox and the Chicks,\" \"Rooster Fight,\" and \"Poison Snake\"\ncan be made use of in those rooms which accommodate two to three divisions\nof four to six pupils in the front or rear of the room. In the hall all combative\ngames can be practiced, and in the yard they may be executed on alternate days\nin alternation with the simplest forms of athletics.\nFifth unit. — Games. When pupils are dismissed from physical training\nwith flushed cheeks and eyes beaming with joy, they have undoubtedly enjoyed\ntheir work. This is the condition for which we must strive. Just the contrary\nis the case after a lesson that proved to be a bore to them or which has taxed\ntheir mental capacity.\nSome of the suitable classroom games, besides the above-mentioned combative games, are:\n1. Rising and resuming seats with or without variations as a competitive\ngame.\n2. The various running, skipping,''and hopping, competitive games, up and\ndown the aisles, with or without carrying objects and writing numerals, letters\nor words on the front or rear blackboards.\n3. Transferring objects such as erasers, bean-bags, or rulers in sitting,\nstanding, and running.\nIf a hall or a yard is available and the allotted time be long enough, the\nmore valuable running, skipping, and hopping games with or without the use\nof dumbbells, clubs, and short jumping-ropes, in addition to the simpler games\nwith the small and large ball, particularly those that employ a whole class and\nare regulated by a few simple rules, should be used.\nI am opposed to all games in the curriculum of our grades that keep busy\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "103 1\nDepartment]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nbut few pupils, and also to those that are made intricate by an endless number of\npossible plays with a multiplicity of rules. Our children need running-games,\nwhich do not necessitate lengthy preparations of grounds, and do not offer\nopportunities for foul play.\nGames closely allied with modern athletics should not be tolerated in the\ngrade curriculum, because the impressionable, immature minds of the pupils\nof these classes are easily led into wrong channels.\nThis day's order has stood the test of time and has achieved all that is\nclaimed in its favor; namely, education and training of the physical and psychical faculties of the child in conformity with pedagogical laws and hygienic\nconditions with the best use made of the scanty allowance of time.\nEqually important as the above-enumerated points are the ability and\npreparatory training of the teaching-force, the allotted time and the location,\nequipment, and size of the places set aside for the physical exercises.\nAs long as the necessity of the training of the physical faculties of the young\nis not recognized by those authorities in whose hands education is placed, as\nlong as this branch of education is not considered of equal value with the training of the mental faculties of the young, the funds which are set aside for\nphysical training will naturally be in accordance with the place given this\ndepartment in the curriculum.\nThe scanty allowance of funds for the department of physical education in\nmany commonwealths will not suffice to engage the necessary number of\ntrained instructors and in consequence the actual teaching must be executed\nby the class teachers.\nI have found that the training of the students at many of our state normal\nschools in the branches of theory, methodology, and practice of physical training is not only wholly inadequate and insufficient for a healthy development\nof the department of physical education, but also wholly insufficient to enable\nthe students to present physical training in an intelligent manner. These are\ntwo of the weakest points in our present system of education and we should\nexercise all possible pressure to bring about a change for the bettter.\nThe question of the allotted time for physical exercises is also one of vital\nimportance. As long as the public-school curriculum is as extensive and as\ncrowded and as one-sided as it is in many cities this present day, our recommendations and our plea for more attention to and for more time for physical\nexercises will be useless or will, at least, meet with resistance.\nThe scanty allowance of time for physical training, the use of the classroom for the exercises and the lack of attention to physical training in the\nstate normal schools are also points of weakness in our school system.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Francis\n\nWaite\n\nLeiter, superintendent, Physical\n\nEducation\n\nDepartment,\n\nNational Woman's Christian Temperance Union. — In speaking upon this topic, two\nphases should be considered: (a) The success of physical training as a feature of\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "1032\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ndiscipline in the life of the child, to be determined by results in and to the child; (&) The\noutput of plans as a fundamental part of common-school education.\nUnder the first head is named the following:\nI, Relief which daily physical work brings from the strain of school confinement,\nas well as mental application.\n3. More healthful conditions through active circulation of (good) blood, and increased\nvitality.\n3. Power of attention, readiness to acquire knowledge, promptness in response, selfcontrol, and strengthened will-power which is the basis of forceful character.\nAs a benefit to the school, the acquired habit of ready obedience to commands has\nhelped settle a very grave question for the average teacher — school government. Under\nphysical education, government seems to take care of itself.\nWhere body-discipline successfully prevails, the question has been practically settled\nas to what is really the incubus threatening the safety and efficiency of the public-school\nsystem, as it exists today, of which we so frequently hear. It is not so much that pupils\nare heavily taxed, as that they do not know how to study — how to economize brain-power\nand time — how to concentrate the mind when at work, with ability to set mental tasks\nwholly aside when in recreation.\nOne of the greatest drawbacks to the progress of body-training in the \"peoples'\nschools\" is the fact that, out of the several systems, a system of physical training has\nnot yet been evolved which will be as distinctively applicable to America as German\nmethods are to Germany, and Swedish methods are to Sweden. If the advocates of the\ns several systems would somehow unite on common ground, practically utilizing all, sacrificing nothing essential in any, one marked hindrance would be out of the way. May\nthis speedily come for the highest welfare of the masses.\nA department so far from being fully established in the public schools as is this\ncannot fail to cope with some prevailing weaknesses and deficiencies. At the present\ntime, these more particularly concern the output of plans as a fundamental part of general\neducation.\nFirst and foremost, the incompetency of the average teacher in physical work, even\nunder competent supervision, cannot produce the best for the child. Such service should\nnot be required of the regular teacher, already burdened with multiplicity of demands.\nThe time is not very far distant when pupils will pass daily under the educated specialist,\nand in a properly equipped gymnasium, even in ward schools.\nThe time given to this training, in the curriculum, is far too limited. This will be\ncorrected when those bearing the responsibility of the schools more thoroly appreciate\nthe vital need of an educated body, and have the hearty influence of parents back of them.\nIt is true, parents are not usually consulted as to what is best for the child in education.\nPhysical training, however, is an innovation entirely outside of what is considered \"learning\" by the average patron, who thinks the child needs no more exercise than comes\nwith the usual round of the day. The indifference, and even freely expressed opposition\nof parents has, in many instances, hindered the freedom of boards of education to incur\nnecessary expense.\nAn \"Open Letter to Mothers,\" issued by the Department of the Woman's Christian\nTemperance Union, is the outcome of a purpose to influence the home to active support of a\nphase of education which is so vital to the success of the child, in every sense.\nIncreasing prevalence of athletics in high schools does not tend to strengthen appreciation of systematic body-training. Even grade boys are showing signs of the fever. The\nomission of regular physical discipline in the high school, substituting athletics instead, is\nsacrificing the good of the many to the calling of the few. So far as this results, competitive athletics, in any form, is a serious hindrance to the well-being of the entire school.\nWe are speaking of what the school-curriculum should make available to each and every\npupil, from the kindergarten through the last year of the course.\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nThe most serious weakness of physical education in schools for the masses is the\nfact that a very small portion of the pupils attending have yet received any benefit from\nthe excellent plans which this National Education Association department commands. The\nlatest statistics, furnished by the United States Bureau of Education, classify all centers of\npopulation of four thousand and more inhabitants as urban. These enroll in day-schools\n5,441,213 pupils. All outside of these named centers of population are classed rural, and\nenroll 1 1, 200,757 pupils. If physical education does prevail in urban schools, as is evidently\nclaimed at rather random estimate, then, about one in three is being fully educated.\nBut, the truth is, scarcely one-third of these five million and more urban pupils are\nreceiving what can be honestly classed as scientific body-discipline. This means that\nabout one in eight of the sixteen million children attending our public schools is receiving\nmore than a seriously one-sided education.\nTo reach the masses through the medium of the common schools, speedily, efficiently,\nand permanently, securing the best possible bodily conditions for each and every child\nunder tuition, but one course, at this late day, presents itself; viz., making this phase of\neducation compidsory, by state legislation, for all pupils in all schools under public control.\n\nTHE\n\nESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN THE TRAINING OF THE\nCOLLEGE PHYSICAL DIRECTOR AND THE PUBLICSCHOOL PHYSICAL DIRECTOR\n\nJAY W.\n\nSEAVER, A.M., M.D., PRESIDENT OF THE CHAUTAUQUA\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CHAUTAUQUA,\nN. Y.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIn the broad view of this subject the essential elements in the training of\nthe physical director for either college or public-school work must be the same\nas for the training of any teacher, plus a technical knowledge that needs to be\nsomewhat different for the two grades of work under discussion.\nI would say that as a prime essential we must have the fundamental qualities of character which are sought in those people who are selected to train\nthe young. Nothing less than the best product of home training ought to be\naccepted in this particular. The whole problem of education is a moral\none, and if the teacher be found lacking in those principles which have guided\nhumanity in its progress upward in civilization, then we may expect nothing\nsatisfactory in the product of our schools and we shall have a disastrous history as a people.\nThis moral training that starts in the home is carried to a more complete\ndevelopment in the contact of pupil with teacher and with other pupils, and in\nthe mutual interplay of influences that make up school-life, so that I believe\nwe may assume that a normal man of reliable character is the product of the\nhome schoolroom and playground taken together.\nWe need not discuss the influence of the home, because in a certain sense\nthe state has no control over the fireside; but when it comes to the activity\noutside of the home circle then the responsibility rests on the public.\nThat the teacher may exert a moral influence goes without question. The\nupholding of a standard by the teacher who comes into such close contact with\nthe pupil as does the physical director will be vastly greater in influence than\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthat of the teacher who sits at the desk, and by so much the more must the\nquality of character be demanded in such teachers.\nIt is conceivable that a good teacher of English or of mathematics might\nbe lacking in some high qualities of character and his influence not be seriously\ndamaging to the pupils, but this could not be possible in the case where the\nteacher is expected to advise the pupil on all topics pertaining to life and\nwelfare, not only of the body but of the mind as well.\nThen, too, the physical director must come in contact with pupils during\ntheir recreation, and this, we must believe, is the time of true character-formation in every child. The formality of the classroom leaves little to the initiative of the pupil, and, except in the way of example, little is accomplished save\nin those matters of mental training that are entirely removed from morals\nTo prepare a lesson, to reproduce it accurately, to be receptive to instruction,\nto be eager to know, are qualities that may depend upon good morals but they\nin themselves do not represent high character. You can imagine the burglar\nexhibiting all of these qualities in preparing for a descent upon some good\ncitizen's house, but when children meet on the playground and decide for themselves the rules of the games and the penalties for the infraction thereof, and\nwhen they enforce these rules under an appreciation of the disaster that will\nfollow a failure to play under law, we have that essential training in morality\nand citizenship which turns out the best product that modern civilization can\nboast.\nThe director can teach how to minimize the importance of these rules of\nthe game and how they can be avoided by tricks that will not be penalized,\nand thus debauch the morals, or he can see that the rules are executed in the\nspirit of fairness with which they were drawn up, and he can thereby instill\nrespect both for law and for the spirit of fairness that must underlie all sports\nthat are worthy of the name, for anything short of this means victory without\ndesert and consequently without honor.\nNext, as to the mental preparation of the directors of gymnasia: I\nbelieve it is desirable in all forms of teaching that the instructor should have\nsomething more than a mere technical knowledge of his art or science. Whatever he teaches must be taught with reference to the co-ordination of his\nsubject with others, and in order to do his work in a spirit of helpfulness, not\nonly to the pupil but to other teachers, he must appreciate something of the\nmaterial that they are representing.\nThis means, then, a broad mental training that, in the case of the college\ndirector, must have led up to and thru a college course. For the publicschool worker a college course is almost equally desirable, as it gives a broad\nconception of educational work and the broad sympathy not only for the pupil\nbut for the workers in other departments.\nIt is possible that a person may be educated out of sympathy with humanity\nand become an educated fossil, a curiosity in the paleontology of education\nthat might be used to point a moral and adorn a tale, but who is without\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nDIRECTOR\n\n1035\n\ninfluence on the growing boy or girl and who ought not to be tolerated in the\ndepartments under our consideration. But, fortunately for the child, such an\nindividual is not likely to seek work as a physical director. In fact, he would\nbe such a misfit that he could not tolerate the exuberance of youth, and youth\ncertainly would not endure such a director. He must be relegated to the field\nof the dead languages or the dead sciences, or some other moribund subject.\nThat a man might be educated out of all sympathy with humanity is not the\nfault of the man, but of the educational system.\nBut we are not here to criticize the pedagogical methods of the college or\nuniversity.\nThe college physical director must have had the experiences of college\nlife, and he must have had them in a healthy way or he will fail in his influence\nwith collegemen.\nIn addition to his college training he must have such knowledge\nof the human body as is imparted only in the best medical colleges of the\ncountry.\nI am aware that there are normal schools that give thoro courses in\nanatomy and physiology, but there must be an appreciation of the defective\nanimal as well as of the normal animal if a director is to be really competent\nto advise in matters of health, and I conceive that this must be the reason for\nthe establishment of physical training in a college. The men are mature\nenough to supervise their own games; they care little for the careful technical\ntraining in gymnastics, in fact, they are apt to rebel against any thoro\nwork in this line, but they do seek advice in all matters of hygiene. And\nhygiene is not a subject that can be treated like a cheese at the store from\nwhich slices are cut to suit the customer, but the subject must be handled with\ndue deference to the physical peculiarities of the individual, and not only of the\nhealthy individual but more often of the abnormal body.\nIn the public-school service the demand for medical knowledge is not so\ngreat as in dealing with the higher classes in educational institutions, but the\nemphasis is here laid on technical exercises, the assumption being that the\nchild is still in the family with the oversight of parents, and that any deviation\nfrom normal will be cared for by the family physician. The personal contact\nwith the child is less intimate than with the higher-grade pupil, and the control must be more mechanical and to that extent less satisfactory. The graduate of the normal school of physical training, as organized and existing\ntoday, will be satisfactory for the public-school director where he would not\nbe for college work.\nThe training in gymnastics and athletics must be of a thoroly practical\ntype so that the director may understand fully the strain that is put upon\nyoung men in both gymnastic and athletic exercises and may safeguard the\nlife of the young individuals. I recently witnessed a most sad iUustration of\ncarelessness in training that has ruined the career of one of the most promising\nphysicians of the country.\nHe was unaccustomed to vigorous physical exer-\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Physical\n\ncise, altho^of large \"size and naturally strong. He seemed a suitable candidate for the boat-crew and began training for it. He gave up in two weeks\nbecause of severe pain in the region of his heart and general indications of\nmuscular rheumatism. This happened seventeen years before he had any\nserious symptoms of overstrain, altho he knew all this time that he had a\nslightly defective heart. Suddenly a vegetation of the heart-valves became\nloosened and floated in the blood-current to a small artery in the brain, and he\nwas completely paralyzed in one side. Such a record from training that ought\nto make better men is a reproach to the institution where it happened, where\nthere is no special supervision of the athletic teams and no restriction placed\non the work that the trainer cares to impose. And the trainer is an illiterate\nindividual who probably does not own a single book, except his pocket-book,\nand he needs that for the high salary that he draws.\nJust a word as to a fad among some of the gymnasium directors of the day •\nunder the head of \"research work.\" The more I see of such work the more\nI regret that people unskilled in observation and ignorant of the mechanical\nprinciples involved are undertaking to issue information on matters of vital\nimportance. An illustration of this has recently been shown in a physical\ndirector who finds that the men of a class entering college who have used\ntobacco are taller, heavier, and with greater lung capacity than the men who\ndo not, and he is quoted without contradiction as stating that he does not\nbelieve tobacco injures growth, except in individual cases, which he concedes.\nThis remarkable output of \"research\" into the influence of tobacco on growth\nis characteristic of much material that is put out in these days of free publication, and there are yellow journals exploiting pseudo-science that are always\nready to give pubUcity to the work of these pseudo-scientists.\nIn the case mentioned it would seem that any fair mind that is in the habit\nof exercising itself would appreciate the fact that statistics gathered in this\nparticular way show absolutely nothing as to the influence of tobacco on\ngrowth, for boys of larger size would be permitted to smoke by parents and\nguardians while stunted and imperfect boys would not be allowed this same\nprivilege of bearing an unnecessary physiological strain. When the average\nof the group is determined, the smokers are larger, as might be anticipated by\nany individual who has any knowledge of collegemen.\nTo determine the probable effects of the use of tobacco the groups should\nbe studied for definite periods like one or two or four years while they are\nliving essentially under the same conditions. If then the group of tobaccousers could show that they had gained more in height, weight, etc., than nonusers it would seem fair to conclude that there was an advantage in its use,\nand we who are somewhat opposed to this particular habit on physiological\ngrounds would be obliged to change our attitude and recommend it as a\ndrug for daily consumption by everybody, women as well as men. The\nwhole process becomes a reductio ad absurdum.\nWhat physical training needs in both college and school life is a director\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nIO37\n\nwho is enthusiastic and able in helping the individual, and who is willing to\nlet trained scientists blaze the way for new discoveries.\nIn most school positions the time required for school duties is definite and\nthe period when the good teacher is in contact with the pupils is comparatively short. In the case of the physical director the hours of work will be\nlonger than those of the other teachers, and aside from class-exercises there\nmust be such time devoted to the individuals as will enable the director to win\ntheir confidence and so direct their activities as to give them the needed start\nin methods of correct living.\nThe mere question of exercises is perhaps the least important one that the\ndirector must determine. For the average student I fancy that it matters\nlittle what the fornl of exercise is so that it is done in a hearty way and corresponds insome degree with the ordinary activities of life or has a large element\nof recreative interest. But the question of how the student conducts his daily\nlife is of the very utmost importance. Many children do not know how to eat\nor even to sleep properly, while the care of the skin, of the teeth, of the eyes, etc.,\nis really an unknown art. The relation of poise to the circulation, to digestion, and to the psychology of success itself, is never appreciated, and is one of\nthe most difficult things to impress upon the minds of both young and old that\nthe physical director ever attempts.\nWhen we review the work of some of the former great teachers of gymnastics\nin the country (I have in mind now such eminent helpers of young men as\nR. J. Roberts of Boston) we will find that their conception of gymnastics may\nnot coincide with the most scientific arrangement of work, and yet they have\nenthused their pupils with the importance of the full chest, the erect spine,\nthe clear head, and the clean skin, and the result of their work has been a set\nof men who have compelled success and who challenge our admiration as\nliving types.\nI conceive that the purpose of the gymnasium and athletic field is to turn\nout healthier and more enduring people than could be produced without that;\nthat so far as possible the gymnasium and field take the place of the farm and\nthe out-door life that prevailed a hundred years ago. They produced a stalwart race that has developed a continent and compelled the admiration of the\nworld.\nThe crowding-together of people in our cities has deprived the young of\nsuitable means of physical exercise. The yards are small and absolutely\ninadequate for the purposes of play, and the streets are dangerous and filthy,\nand in no respect suitable places for rearing healthy children. Aside from\ntheir unsuitableness and danger, the law steps in and says the children shall\nnot play in the streets and the burly policeman interferes whenever the boys\nor girls attempt to pass ball or play any of the games that produce noises that\nannoy neurotic neighbors.\nThe physical director must appreciate this psychological need of the child\nand introduce games as a considerable element in the physical activity of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nchild. He must also be versed in the psychological growth and appreciate\nwhat needs to be done to relieve the overburdened minds of the schoolroom.\nHis department is the safety valve of the whole organization of university, as\nwell as public school.\nBut how shall a man be trained in enthusiasm ? For I fancy that nobody\ncan get others to work in a hearty, earnest way unless he is enthusiastic himself. At basis, enthusiasm would seem to be a profound impression as to the\nimportance of the work to be done and the absolute certainty of success\nattending earnest endeavor. It is absolutely impossible to awaken enthusiasm\nover an indifferent subject, and it is difficult to awaken enthusiasm if it is believed\nthat the effect will go unrewarded in the attempt to secure the desired results.\nIt would seem that any school ought to provide the sinews of enthusiasm,\nbut this is especially true of normal schools that are attempting to train teachers.\nIt must needs be that the instructors in these normal schools must possess\nenthusiasm, for it is an infectious quality and passes from mind to mind.\nIf the instructors appreciated the breadth of the field to be covered, the importance of the work as related to humanity at large, and especially to the specific\nindividual, and if these teachers believed thoroly in the potency of the work\nin producing results, then it would seem that we would have teachers well\nprepared for the directorships for which they may be appointed.\nIt would appear that a too strict attention to technical details often limits\nthe vision as to possibilities, and we expect absolute and accurate results where\nonly approximations should be anticipated. The body is truly a physical\nentity that has mathematical limits, but its mathematical combinations are\nso intricate and modified by so many forces that cannot be foreseen and whose\nvalue cannot be determined for any given case, that the solution of any problem of the living thing becomes a matter of the higher calculus, and the ordinary mind ought not to be detained in its solution.\nIt would be wiser for the teacher of physical training to stick closely to\nthose fundamental facts that have been determined by physiologists, and\nwork for an enthusiastic adherence to them with a belief that the output will\nbe satisfactory, rather than to endeavor to develop some new scheme of supporting life and enticing growth and development.\nIt is easy to invent a scheme of motion or to conceive of some intricate\nforce or some subtle element in earth or air or space that by some novel application will restore health and symmetry to an exhausted mind or a jaded body.\nBut such efforts do not lead to results that are permanently to the advantage\nof humanity.\nJust now a certain individual has discovered a human electricity that can\ncure spinal curvatures, flat foot, and addled brains, but his discovery will do\nthis only for a few years and then will be put up on the top shelf of the curiosity\nshop by the side of the natural systems of physical training, unsafe methods\nof breathing, curious freaks in diet, and the other curios that make humanity\nblush as they look over the museum of extravagant claims and deluded hopes.\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING\n\nDepartment)\n\nESSENTIAL\nMISS\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\nELEMENTS IN THE TRAINING\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\nMARION\n\nB.\n\nNEWTON,\nPHYSICAL\nDIRECTOR,\nROCHESTER,\nN. Y.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nTEACHERS\nSCHOOLS\n\nA school for the preparation of the teachers of gymnastics should, I believe,\nmake a wide study of the needs of the times and should endeavor in every way\nto meet these needs with the most progressive and efficient methods possible.\nSo far as I am familiar with facts at hand, the schools for training teachers\nof gymnastics have offered to their students general courses of instruction without regard to the kind of position the student was to fill. His or her ability or\naptness for the work when it appeared was largely determined by the natural\nendowments of the student in question together with the previous preparation\nwhich he chanced to have had.\nI believe we should all agree to the statement that first in the training of\nteachers of gymnastics there should be a general preparation. This may be\nmore or less elaborate, but in order that the exponents of our profession may\ntake their places among the deserving and respected educators of the day,\nthis general preparation must be basal, and must be cultural, and be second\nto none.\nA well-selected course of high-school subjects, after the work in the\nelementary grades had been completed, should be pursued, including, I believe,\nas much natural science as possible with plenty of laboratory experience ; for\ninstance: physics, chemistry, elementary biology, and botany; Latin and\nGerman for the purpose of giving a key to much scientific investigation which\nhas already taken place; then for the more cultural subjects, history and literature; and not omitting music, the manual arts, gymnastics and hygiene.\nThe State Department of Education in New York has recently become very\nexplicit in announcing what subjects and how much of them shall be required\nof a student who vdshes to enter a state normal or training school for grade\nteachers and kindergartners. They are ahve to the fact that certain subjects\nwill better fit a young person to become a teacher than others, and entrancerequirements have been arranged accordingly.\nI believe gymnastic training-schools could do much to improve the equipment of their students before entering by circulating literature intended to\nguide such students in the selection of high-school subjects with a view to the\npursuing of an advanced course in professional training when the high-school\nwork is completed.\nIf I may judge from literature which has come into my hands, the nearest\napproach to the training of teachers purely for ''gymnastics\" is to be found\nin England. Recently there has been organized in that country a sort of\nexamining board, largely composed of physicians and some already successful\ninstructors, in whose judgment candidates for positions in teaching gymnastics\nmust qualify. Even in this country we are not long past the stage which\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "jo^o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfPhysical\n\nallowed the supremacy of teachers whose sole qualification to the dignity of\nthe term was a certain dexterity in performing feats of strength or skill.\nWith your permission I shall elaborate upon what seems to me to be a sane\ncourse of study for a modern training-school for teachers of gymnastics.\nFirst, there is the gross anatomy, the study of which should acquaint the\nstudent with the material upon which and with which, later, he is to work.\nI believe this should be as thoro and as detailed as is the study of human anatomy required in a medical course.\nIs it necessary to have a knowledge of the construction of the human body\nsimply for the diagnosis and treatment of pathological conditions ? Physicaltraining instructors may well be included in the company of doctors of ''preventive medicine\" or, if you will, doctors of health, the word \"doctor\" meaning ''teacher,\" and in order best to fulfill their mission, they should know\nthoroly the physical nature of their subjects. A recent writer has raised\nthe question of the effectiveness of the study of anatomy which does not permit\nthe student to investigate for himself in the dissecting-room, but rather\ndemands that he shall learn a myriad of facts at the hands of a lecturer or\nglean them from the pages of a book. He further holds that charts and\nmanikins fall far short in the purpose they are supposed to fulfill; and that\nstudents' knowledge should be first hand.\nSecond, physiology and histology have their places next in the curriculum\nof the training-school, and, I believe, should go hand-in-hand with the work\nin anatomy. If it is true that \"function makes structure\" may we not be\nin the wrong in trying to place the former in a position unrelated to the latter ?\nWould not the study and observation of the function of an organ together\nwith its anatomical structure help to fix it all more securely in the mind of the\nstudent? Would not a young person be more likely to keep in mind the\nwonderful construction of a Hving mechanism if he could at the same time\nreceive impressions of the method and purpose of its functioning ? Nothing\ncan be more difficult of retention in the memory than the tracing of a nerve.\nHow much less difficult it would be could the student follow its course by his\nown investigation, and observe with his own eyes the effect upon it and the\ntissue it serves of an electric shock or other stimulus !\nMy plea is for more laboratory work, in other words, and methods in the\ntraining-schools themselves which will be more efficient in helping the student\nto retain the knowledge he is acquiring, and to put it into practice.\nThird, should be found a course in applied anatomy, together with the\nphysiology of exercise and experiments to show practical results. A person\nmust believe in his work absolutely in order to make it successful, and positive\nproof, or as nearly positive as possible, strengthens his faith and consequently\nhis worth.\nAs a concrete example of this principle, I offer an incident which occurred\noutside of a training-school of gymnastics in a ten-weeks' study in physiology\npursued by a class of nine- and ten-year-old children. The study of bone- and\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nOF\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\n1041\n\nmuscle-tissue was the particular section of physiology occupying the attention\nof the class, and the results obtained are not given because of their scientific\nvalue but because they stood for a real interest on the part of the children, and\nto them were most convincing.\nThe class was divided into six groups, and with each group a strength-test\nor measurement was taken at the beginning and at the end of the ten weeks.\nEach group was instructed in a special exercise known to have considerable\nlocal effect, and during the interval between the two examinations the children\npracticed these exercises more or less regularly. The results, which were\npresented as curves upon a chart, seemed plainly to show that muscle-tissue\nis developed by exercise, followed by rest. The children were deeply interested and manifested a stronger inclination toward their regular gymnastic\nwork.\nFourth, I should place a history of the development of life in the world,\nleading up to the race of man, then a brief study of the different ages thru\nwhich the human race has passed, the better to understand how the hfe of the\nchild recapitulates the life of the race.\nFifth, emergencies, and a few necessary instructions in the care of the sick.\nOftentimes the physical trainer is the nearest approach to a physician that can\nbe found. And an ability to see what is needed when an accident has taken\nplace and the skill to do the needful thing or see that it is done are essential\nrequisites in the training of a teacher of gymnastics.\nSixth, anthropometry and physical examination, the study of the growth\nand development of the human being, are to my mind most important factors.\nThe waves of increase or decrease in certain capacities, such as growth in\nheight or weight or a change in the power of resistance to disease; the natural\nphysical tendencies of certain periods of life, with their accompanying mental\nand moral considerations: all these the teacher of gymnastics should be\ntaught to appreciate if he is to be a wise leader in the pursuit of his calling.\nThen, too, the ability to listen to heart-sounds and wisely temper one's\nwork, or advise further in regard to the condition, is important. A gymnastic\nteacher should also be able to make at least superficial tests of eyes and ears,\nand be not afraid to attack the realm of the teeth.\nOne of the most difficult lessons, and often one of the most gaUing that a\nphysical trainer has to learn, is the realization of the fact that his classes, and\nespecially individuals in them, have their limitations, and have distinct individual needs which cannot be met by gymnastics, impressive in appearance,\nyet harmful oftentimes in their effects upon certain members of the class.\nAs a seventh subject which deserves a place in the training of teachers of\ngymnastics, I would mention this: a history and theory of education, including\na history of physical education as its facts arise in the concourse of events.\nPsychology, as the eighth, should be recognized as a most- necessary part\nof the equipment of every teacher. Intuitively he may be able to seize the\n\"psychological moment\" in strengthening his work, but a general should know\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "^042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIPhysical\n\nthe forces of his army in order to direct them intelligently. There is another\nside upon which psychology has a definite bearing. If we are to keep abreast\nof the times, we cannot fail to recognize the power of the mental in our work.\nPhysicians, scientists, religious and social workers are constantly employing\n\"suggestion\" in the carrying-out of their worthy purposes, and are emphasizing\nthe power of \"good thought\" in the world. For thought is a thing, and in-sofar as we can influence people for good by means of this vital thing, we should\nkeep it constantly before us.\nThe good results of gymnastic training are indeed affected by the attitude\nof the individual student or of the class. The happier they are in their work,\nthe better for them. Just here the personaHty of the teacher plays an important part, but I shall touch upon this point later.\nWith the course in psychology should be advanced one of child-study. I\nbelieve these two closely related phases of work are powerful factors in developing the individuality of students, helping them more clearly to know themselves,\ntheir possibiUties, and their deficiencies, and stimulating them to strengthen\nthe one and correct the other.\nNinth, instruction in personal hygiene and encouragement in the habits\nof right-living should be emphasized thruout the course. An instructor who\nis not a living example of the training for which he stands can never inspire the\nconfidence in his patrons nor in his pupils, which is one of the strongest factors\nin the measure of his success. He must, in a word, ' ' practice what he preaches \"\nand he should be sure that what he preaches is the best.\nA gymnastic instructor has wonderful opportunity to battle against the\nevil of high, or irrational living, and can work so effectively to acquaint people\nwith the forces and conditions that best sustain life !\nTenth, voice and breathing. The so-called respiratory exercises, familiar\nto most of us, are given a place in our lesson-plans chiefly for their general\neffect upon the body in the way of re-establishing normal breathing after\nexertion, and the tendency they have to enlarge the thoracic cavity. Have\nwe not been too indifferent in the matter of training and care of the human\nvoice ? Too often an instructor's voice is found to be harsh and displeasing,\nand with continued misuse and utter neglect of the delicate organ it bids fair\nto entirely give out or lose what qualities of purity and strength it once possessed.\nI believe this profession has much to learn from singers, and experts in breath control along just this line. When gymnastic classes are told to accompany\ncertain exercises with deep breathing how many of them receive any idea of the\nproper way in which to breathe, and in how many cases is voluntary control\nof the diaphragm— this muscle upon which the vocaHzing power so largely\ndepends — in how many cases, I say, is rational voluntary control of the\ndiaphragm acquired ? Most of us make vocafnoises because we can not\nhelp it. But how much better it would be if we knew how to produce the\ngreatest volume of sound or purest quality of tone and inflection with the\nleast expenditure of energy ! Not very long ago a teacher, of whom I knew,\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department}\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\n1043\n\ncapable in almost every particular was asked to seek another position because\nof her unpleasant voice.\nInstructors in gymnastics are forced to make great demands upon their\nvoices, and they should understand fully the care necessary to preserve them.\nBesides, might it not^ be possible for us to do our part in eliminating the muchabhorred \"American voice\" ?\nEleventh, in position, herein stated, but not in importance, I should mention corrective or remedial gymnastics and massage. The value of such work\nis too evident to require discussion.\nI may now add the practical side of the teacher's preparation. This should\nbe well determined, constant, and with a twofold purpose: first, the establishment and maintenance of the greatest degree of health in the individual\nstudent, and second, the development of his power as a teacher in the profession which he has elected.\nHe should be trained in the gymnasium by the most competent instructors,\nleaders conversant with the stable and worth-while systems of gymnastics. I\nbelieve no one will take issue with me when I say that the physiological sequence\nand definite, well-calculated progression of the Swedish idea can safely be used\nas a basis for the work. In addition to the practice of such gymnastics with\nand without apparatus, the student should become familiarized with the use\nof wands, dumb-bells, Indian clubs, and other hand-apparatus, as well as to\nhave practice in dancing, both social and aesthetic, games, and plays — the\nvalue and study of which might be emphasized in the psychology or childstudy courses — swimming, fencing, athletics, and in fact everything that\npossibly could add to the technical equipment, and skill of the instructor.\nIn other words he should be well grounded in the various means we have\nfor attaining our definite ends, and he must be physically, mentally, and morally\nfit to affect in any way the lives of young people. After all is said and done\nthe teacher is born and not made; his personality is the chief source of his\nsuccess, altho the training-school can do much to increase his special efficiency,\nand aid in the development of his powers of organization.\nIn conclusion, I would summarize briefly the points I have tried to make\nclear without reviewing the subjects of the curriculum.\nFirst, the desirability of selected high-school subjects in the preparation of a student,\nprevious to his entrance into the normal school.\nSecond, better methods in the normal schools themselves, and a closer relation between\ntheir work and the work of education in general.\nThird, the place of the \"mental\" in the physical-training profession.\nFourth, intelligent and practical training of the voice.\nFifth, the question of the advisability of greater specialization in the training of\nstudents, and\nSixth, the personality and character of the teacher.\n\nA thought which I should like to lea-e with you for your sometime consideration isjust this:\nAre the physical-training interests in this country features of our national\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "I044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nlife ? AxQ they regarded seriously, if at all, by the administrative powers of\nour land? And is it not important that the great body of peace-enjoying\ncitizens of the United States should receive as careful bodily training and consideration asthe comparatively few selected men who man our war-ships, and\nothers who are trained in the arts of military service on land ?\nIf there is any relation between the bodily condition and the mental and\nspiritual powers, it seems to me of national importance that the training of the\npeople be not left to chance.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn A. H. Keith, president of State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis. — I shall interpret\ngymnastics as meaning physical training and shall discuss the subject only as it applies\nto the teacher of physical training in the normal school; and, further, my discussion will\nrelate to the power of the teacher to do effective work in this capacity rather than to the\nspecial training she should receive in preparation for it.\nThe first requisite of a teacher of physical training in a normal school is that she be\nsane. The sanity I have in mind is the kind that can come only with maturity, and maturity\ncan come only with a wide acquaintance with life, reflection upon it, and a fine spirit toward\nit. These things in turn demand a longer and broader training than is usually ofi^ered\nand a broader general preparation preceding the beginning of specialization. I do not,\ntherefore, agree with the writer of the paper in her contention that specialization for such\nwork should begin by the selection of a special line of work in the high school. It is my\njudgment that a teacher of physical training in a normal school, dealing as she does with\nchildren and adults and student-teachers, has more opportunities to do foolish things than\nany other teacher in the faculty. These opportunities can be avoided only by that sanity\nand mature judgment to which I have already alluded.\nA second requisite is definite knowledge of the characteristic stages of physical and\nmental growth in children and of the impulsive tendencies which accompany these stages\nof growth. The reason for this is that plays and games constitute the best forms and the\nworst forms of physical training — and that the plays and games that children select for\nthemselves depend upon these successive waves of impulsive tendency It becomes very\nimportant, therefore, for the teacher of physical training to understand both these stages\nof growth and the plays and games, as well as the exercises, that fit into them in helpful\nways. I am not so anxious about whether the child recapitulates the life of the race as\nI am that his impulsive tendencies shall be trained into efficient forms — efficient not only\nin the physical sense but also in the sense that he shall build up sane and wholesome\nstandards of enjoyment. The requirement I am urging should be the possession of all\nteachers of physical training, and especially of the normal-school teacher whose influence\nis multiplied from one-hundred to five-hundred fold each year. It is my belief that the\nbest way to popularize physical training is by a wise use of plays and games.\nA third requisite is that the teacher be thoroly versed in corrective exercises.\nModern life, including schools, tends to malform the human body; but here, as elsewhere,\nan ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. The fact is that much of the physical\nrunning-down of children comes with rapid physical growth, and it is possible to anticipate,\nby formative exercises, what would otherwise become defect. This requirement involves\na number of the things mentioned in the paper. I wish to speak briefly of the group of\nstudies known as hygiene, physiology, and anatomy. Genetically considered, interest in\neffective living led men to study the functioning of organs, and anatomy, dealing with\nstructure, arose from an effort to explain functioning by structure. The logical relation\nof dependence lies in reverse order, however, and the present order of study — viz., anatomy,\nphysiology, hygiene — ^has come about thru the adoration of the logical. It is my\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\njudgment that large health topics studied in the genetic order will yield more permanent\nand usable knowledge than the present order of study. This arrangement would not,\nhowever, demand as many microscopes as are used at present.\nAnother point made in the paper deserves emphasis. The teacher of physical training\nshould possess enough of the physician's art to act as medical visitor for the normal-school\nstudents and to detect physical defects in both children and adults. And all this simply\nmeans a more adequate preparation for the teacher of physical training.\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATIOiN\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — William O. Thompson, president, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nVice-President — J. W. McClymonds, superintendent of schools, Oakland, Cal.\nSecretary — William George Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nMorning, July 2, 1908\n\nThe first meeting was called to order at 9:30 o'clock in Cathedral Hall by President\nW. O. Thompson.\nPresident Thompson delivered the president's address on \"A Review of Certain\nFeatures of the Year in School Administration.\"\nHe was followed by Edmund A. Jones, state school commissioner of Ohio, on the\n\"Centralization of Schools in Ohio,\"\nHon. August S. Lindemann, president of the school board at Milwaukee, Wis., then\nread a paper on \"The Administration of Industrial Education, State and Municipal.\"\nThe discussions which followed were in the main upon the last paper, and were by\nMrs. Pauline Steinem, member of the school board at Toledo, Ohio; David Snedden,\nDepartment Educational Administration, Columbia University, New York City; W. J.\nDeans, superintendent of schools, Elmira, N. Y.; J. C. Gibbons, Akron, Ohio.\nPresident Thompson then appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nHarlan P. French, Albany, N. Y.\nAugust S. Lindemann, Milwaukee, Wis.\nF. H. Haserot, Cleveland, Ohio.\nThe department then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nEvening, July 2\n\nThe second session was opened at 8 o'clock by President Thompson.\nWilliam B. Ittner, school architect of the school board of St. Louis, Mo., gave an\nillustrated address on \"Modern School Architecture,\" using stereopticon views of the later\nand best school buildings of St. Louis.\nWilbur T. Mills, school architect of Columbus, Ohio, then read a paper on \"Innovations inSchool Architecture.\"\nThe speakers were asked many questions by school-board members and superintendents present, indicating a keen interest in the subject.\nThe Committee on Nominations then reported the following list of officers for the\nensuing year:\nFor President^ Francis H. Haserot, president. Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio.\nFor First Vice-President, Otto C. Schneider, president, Board of Education,\nChicago, 111.\nFor Second Vice-President, Danforth E. Ainsworth, president, Board of Education, Albany, N. Y.\nFor Secretary, William George Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFor Chairman Executive Committee, 10W. O. Thompson, president, University of\n47\nOhio, Columbus, Ohio.\nThe report was signed by Harlan P. French and August S. Lindemann.\n\nThe third\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nmember, Mr. Haserot, dissented from that part of the report proposing his name for the\npresidency.\nThe report was unanimously adopted and the officers declared elected.\nAdjournment followed.\nWilliam George Bruce, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nA REVIEW\nWILLIAM\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nOF CERTAIN FEATURES OF THE\nADMIN ISTRA TION\nO. THOMPSON,\n\nPRESIDENT OF STATE\nCOLUMBUS,\nOHIO\n\nYEAR IN SCHOOL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF OHIO\n\nA review of the year's progress in school administration suggests several\nlines of study.\nFirst, The action of state legislatures in providing the legal basis for\neducation.\nSecond, The action of the boards of education in the use of their discretionary power for development not necessarily required by statute.\nThird, The action of universities, colleges, and normal schools in the\ndevelopment of their plans for the education of teachers.\nFourth, The decisions of courts defining the rights and duties of boards\nof education. ^\nFifth, Local movements made for the purpose of meeting local conditions.\nI shall make no attempt to bring before you a complete survey of what\nhas been attempted in these lines, but rather to call attention to a few of the\nmore important features that either mark present progress, or suggest possibilities for the future.\nLegislation. — The gratifying feature of legislation in general is that most\nstates are disposed more and more to listen to the advice and counsel of the\nteachers. In almost every state in the Union where teachers are practically\nagreed upon legislation it has been, or can be, secured. This attitude indicates\nthat there is a profound respect among the people for the judgment of intelligent teachers upon the subject-matter of education. It also reveals the fact\nthat the people are reaHzing that education is fundamentally related to their\ncommercial prosperity as well as to social and moral conditions, and that its\ngreater efficiency must be secured in order to meet the new problems of a\nrapidly developing population. The democratic character of the public\nschools has been greatly emphasized both by legislation and the legal decisions\nupon the questions of the high-school fraternities. During the year the legislature of Ohio passed a somewhat stringent statute upon this subject, having\nin mind the legislation of other states and the decision of the courts in certain\ncases. This action will probably be substantially the attitude in a greater\nportion of the country upon this new and somewhat vexatious development\nin our high schools. The statutes in the main, and the attitudes of boards of\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departnaent]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\neducation within these statutes, have been to discourage and, if possible, abolish\nall such organizations chiefly on the ground that they were unsocial and undemocratic, introducing classification among students that was altogether out of\nsympathy with the doctrine of the public school — namely, equality of right\nand privilege. The general agreement that such organizations have been\nhurtful to the interests of the high school constitutes a very strong plea against\ntheir development. Nor should the fact be overlooked that these organizations\nare one phase of a movement that would bring university and college methods\ninto the public schools. Already considerable complaint is manifest among\nthe people arising from the lack of supervision over study-periods by teachers\nand a manifest disposition for public-school teachers to assume the attitude\nof a university professor toward the student. It is doubtful whether that\nattitude can be justified by the university professor, and the people who maintain the public schools are beginning to assert their belief that a certain comradeship between teachers and pupils is necessary for the highest efficiency.\nIn some cases where no legislation on this subject has been enacted, school\nboards have shown a disposition to exercise their rights under the general\npowers conferred by statute and limit the privileges of the members of such\nfraternities. The Ohio statute referred to prohibits membership in such\norganizations. If this statute becomes effective it will establish an important\nprinciple concerning the right of the people to control the character of the\npublic schools. The Washington fraternity case determined the right of\nschool boards to deny all recognition to members of secret organizations.\nThe Minnesota and Chicago cases affirmed the same opinion. In this same\ngeneral field the state of Wisconsin has decided pretty definitely upon the\nauthority of the teacher over the pupil while outside of school. The important principle underlying these decisions seems to be that where the people\nsupport the schools and practically support minors, that their right is undisputed to determine the conduct and general attitude of such minors toward\nthe fundamental question of education. In many places the public has\nassumed the responsibility of providing textbooks and even of other necessary\nthings in order that the child may avail itself of the privileges of education.\nThis is a new and somewhat extended interpretation of the doctrine hitherto\nincluded in the phrase in loco parentis.\nAnother interesting phase of legislation is the disposition to provide for\nschool libraries and the extension of industrial education, especially with\nreference to manual training and domestic science. In some states the general\nauthority is given for boards of education to provide for these things and in\nsome instances a special tax levy is authorized for these purposes. The old\nconception of a library was that it was a collection of books. The new conception isthat it is a collection of tools. This view of the library has made it\na place where experienced and expert persons are able to supplement the teacher's work to the manifest advantage of the pupil. In the matter of industrial\neducation, the meeting at Chicago in which the trade school was discussed\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "I050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nwas perhaps the most characteristic feature of the year's discussions in the\nmatter of extending and widening the public-school facihties. This organization will be permanent and of necessity raise the general issue whether the\npubHc schools are to be developed into a great agency for preparing skilled\nworkmen for our industries. No discussion of that issue is here appropriate,\nbut the movement should enlist the interest and investigation of the friends\nof the public school, for the reason that it involves the large question of just\nwhat the public schools may rightfully be expected to do.\nThe year has also been characterized by an aroused public sentiment concerning school architecture. This program has provided for a discussion of\ncertain phases of this question, but attention is now called to the fact that the\nmovement for simpHcity in buildings is due to the fact that people believe that\nthe fundamental question in a schoolhouse is proper facilities for education.\nUnder this general term they include safety against fire, the proper sanitation\nof the buildings, better provision for heating, ventilation, and light. The\nphysical defects of many children are attributed to the improper lighting and\nheating of the buildings. Accordingly, increased attention has been directed\nto the character of the school building and a decided tendency to require\narchitects to make a special study of the school building with a view to increased\nefficiency and comfort. These problems have naturally suggested the question of medical inspection, and already steps are being taken in several states\nto secure mandatory legislation upon the subject of medical inspection. The\nlogic of this situation is simply that if the public provide the facilities for\neducation and enact compulsory education laws, they should go to the conclusion of the matter and see to it, not only that the physical conditions\nsurrounding the child are satisfactory, but that the physical condition of the\nchild itself is such as to enable it to profit by the facilities afforded. As already\nintimated, this is an extension of the fundamental doctrine of public education,\nand puts society itself in the attitude of caring for individual needs, in order to\nsecure greater social efficiency. The activities, however, are not confined\nto the pupils. The health, including the temperament of teachers, is being\nmade a test of efficiency, and school boards are disposed more than ever to\ninsist upon their right to know whether a teacher's health, temperament,\ndisposition, and habits are such as to warrant her employment.\nIn the matter of school organization attention may be directed to the fact\nthat there is a well-defined movement toward better organization and a\ntendency to be instructed by experience. The size of the school board itself\nhas been much discussed. Pittsburg with 258 members, namely 3 members from\n86 wards and a central committee of 43 members, is perhaps the extreme of\nlarge school boards. The larger cities have frequently had boards numbering\nfrom 20 to 30 or more. Cities like Cleveland operating under a smaller board\nhave demonstrated the claims for better administration by such boards. In\nmost places the board of education is a legislative body empowered to levy\nthe tax for school purposes and is directly responsible to the people. The\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMIN ISJ'RATION\n\nIO51\n\ndoctrine of ward representation has a tendency to identify the school organization with the political organization of the city and therefore bring it more\nor less under the influence, if not the domination, of political interests. The\nonly valid claim for ward representation is that of local interest. Education,\nhowever, is not a local question, and any man fit to serve on such a board would\nhave sympathies wide enough and keen enough to deal practically and helpfully with any portion of the city in which he resides, ^he elective character\nof such boards is important if they are to be legislative bodies having the right\nto levy taxes. In the very large cities, where small boards are desired and\nwhere there is a tendency to make them appointive rather than elective bodies,\nthe problem of school revenues will become somewhat serious. If a school\nboard is to be a petitioner at the doors of a city council for money, the probabihties are that political considerations will always have the ascendency over\neducation. In recent years the state of Ohio, having elective school boards,\nrepealed the statute which provided that city boards of review should finally\nfix the school levy. This marked great progress and gave the school boards\nthe liberty necessary for efficiency. It is doubtful, however, whether appointive boards may justly claim the right to fix levies. The same legislature that\nrepealed the statute referred to above provided that the terms of the members\nof boards of education should be four years. This is twice as long as the\nmembers of the city council and gave boards of education at once strength\nand dignity that enabled them to support the administration of superintendents that was a marked advance. The large cities have developed the necessity\nof something more than a superintendent of schools. The first movement\nwas to provide supervisors and thus to separate the functions of superintending\nand supervising. The one dealt largely with questions of administration\nwhile the other dealt largely with the internal questions pertaining to efficient\nteaching. The further development calls for experts in the line of business\nmanagement, including the questions of construction and care of buildings,\nthe purchase and distribution of school supplies, and, in general, carrying into\neffect the executive and administrative legislation of the board. This logically assumes that the superintendent of public instruction shall be an expert\neducator rather than a business man whose time and energy are consumed\nwith details that only indirectly have to do with the efficiency of the schools.\nThe preparation of the business manager, director, or whatever his title may\nbe will be one of the problems of the future. He ought to be a man with\nmature views upon public education, some technical training in engineering\nand architectural subjects, with some knowledge of the law of contracts,\nwhose tenure of office would warrant the devotion of his life to these interests.\nThe action of institutions in the preparation of teachers. — Recent years have\nbeen marked by the attitude of the universities in the Central West toward the\nquestion of preparation of teachers. Many of these have had departments of\neducation in which instruction was provided in the history of education, questions of school administration, and pedagogy.\nIn some of these instances the\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "1052\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\ndepartment has been developed into a school of education in which certain\ngroups of studies commonly known as professional were provided as an elective\nopportunity for students desiring to teach. Some of this work was well done\nindividually but it has lacked the organization necessary to produce efficient\nteachers. The university has proceeded chiefly upon the theory that scholarship was practically the only equipment needed. Attention has been called\npublicly and repeatedly to the fact that the universities have given but httle\nattention to the professional preparation for teachers for colleges and universities and still less to the preparation of teachers in the secondary schools.\nIt has been frequently asserted that the best and the poorest teaching could be\nfound in our universities. A large number of the young university men have\nmade no study of the general field of education so that the science and art of\nteaching are practically unknown subjects to them. Many of these men know\nlittle, if anything, about secondary education. The argument for collegetrained teachers in the secondary schools was supported by the theory that a\nteacher should have some knowledge of the world into which he proposed to\nsend his pupils. It was stoutly argued that a teacher who knew nothing of\nthe processes of college education was poorly prepared to fit a student to\nundertake a college education. After this argument had been generally\nadmitted as valid it soon became manifest that a college professor who proposed to prepare teachers for the secondary schools ought to have a sympathetic\nand intelligent knowledge of what was going on in the secondary schools. The\ndevelopment therefore of this phase of education in the universities called for\nsome organization of the university forces that should be both intelligent and\neffective. The school of education naturally developed the idea of a teachers*\ncollege. Some progress has been made in this direction but a large amount\nof education of the college professor is yet necessary before the teachers'\ncollege will rise to its opportunity and make the universities really effective\nin serving the public schools. The fact that many college-bred men have\nbecome efficient superintendents and teachers is not conclusive proof that the\ncolleges or universities have done their full duty but rather suggests that some\nmen have succeeded in spite of serious handicaps.\nThe most noteworthy feature to which I desire to call attention is the\nmovement among the normal schools of the country for strengthening courses\nand for granting appropriate degrees upon the completion of these courses.\nIn 1904 the state of Michigan authorized the degree of Bachelor of Arts in\neducation, and already five classes have graduated with that degree from the\nState Normal College at Ypsilanti.\nIn Colorado, the revision of courses as announced in the current catalogue\nprovides for the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy, for Master of Pedagogy, and\nfor Bachelor of Arts in Education. The courses leading to these three degrees\nare so related to each other that students may pass readily from one degree\nto another. Of the thirty courses required for graduatiou for the first degree,\neleven^are^requiredjand nineteen'elective.\n\nThe required subjects are to be\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nIO53\n\nregarded as professional in character, including the subjects of psychology,\neducation, teaching, and observation work. The further provision is made\nthat two-thirds of the course for advanced degrees shall consist of advanced\ncourses. The range of work offered covers the usual subjects in academic\ninstruction together with manual training, domestic science, art, music, and\nlibrary work.\nIn Wisconsin, the meeting of presidents of normal schools last April\ndecided on a forward movement looking to the addition of a year at present\nfor the purpose of a better training of high-school teachers. This movement\npassed in Wisconsin as elsewhere on the avowed theory that the normal schools\nat present with the usual two-years' course are not providing adequate preparation for the high-school teaclier, and upon further behef that the universities\ndo not give the sort of professional training that these people need. In\nview of these beliefs the movements in the normal schools are of special importance as related to secondary education. Examination has found that in\nWisconsin approximately one-fourth of the high-school teachers and nearly\none-half of the high-school principals are graduates of the normal schools\nonly. Among the resolutions adopted at the meeting referred to, one looked\ntoward the lengthening of the course to four years. No action seems to have\nbeen taken looking toward granting of a degree for the completion of this\nwork but for a suitable diploma.\nIn Illinois, the legislature has granted the normal school power to grant\ndegrees in education. The degree of Bachelor of Education will be granted\nto graduates of state normal schools who complete two years of graduate or\nsubsequent work, and also to graduates of standard colleges and universities\nwho complete one year of professional graduate work. It is further provided\nthat three-eighths of the required work may be done by normal-school graduates i/^ absentia, provided their studies are directed by the normal school and\nfinal examinations taken. One of the two years required for the graduates of\nthe normal school may be done at any standard college.\nIn Kansas, the State Normal School at Emporia has been reorganizing its\ncourse and developing a normal-collegiate course leading to the degree of\nBachelor of Arts in Education. This course is built upon a four-year highschool course. It includes the usual professional subjects in school administration, history of education, psychology, and observation and practice work.\nReports indicate that a considerable number of Kansas teachers will take\nadvantage of this provision and further equip themselves for professional\nteaching.\nIn Indiana, the State Normal School at Terre Haute has made similar\nannouncement, looking toward the granting of the degree of Bachelor of\nArts.\nReports from New Jersey show a movement to lengthen the course of the\nnormal school butjaction has not yet been taken looking toward conferring\na degree.\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "X054\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nThese statements are sufficient to demonstrate that, the country over, there\nis a growing disposition to enlarge the work of the normal school and to crown\nit with an academic degree. A little examination of the course offered will\nreveal the fact that these schools do not insist upon the amount of strictly\nacademic work usually required in an approved college. The elective principle has fewer restrictions in the normal school and accordingly the degree\nhas given a wider application than in the most liberal of American colleges\nand universities. There can be no doubt that educators will welcome the\nimprovement of the facihties at the normal schools. On the other hand, the\nuniversities and colleges must face the fact that the increased facilities at the\nnormal schools will have a decided tendency to withdraw prospective teachers\nfrom the colleges unless the colleges themselves shall make provision for the\neducation of teachers equally as good as those offered in the normal schools.\nThe apparent conflict of interest between the college of liberal arts and the\nteachers' college is a mere incident in the movement. There is no immediate\nprospect that the teachers' college can be made a distinctly graduate school\nfor the normal schools or for the graduates of colleges. It may be suggested\ntherefore that in view of the variety of conditions surrounding these different\ntypes of schools some action should be taken that will correlate more closely\nthe work of the normal school, the college of liberal arts, and the teachers'\ncollege. The movement at present is significant for the further reason that it\nis added to the existing confusion concerning the significance of college degrees.\nI dare say that no well-educated man in the country has any clear conception\nof what any modern college degree stands for except the mere matter of time\nresidence at an institution of learning. This condition indicates ,that the\nadministration of higher or professional education is not under any very\nsystematic supervision.\nTHE\n\nCENTRALIZATION\n\nE. A. JONES,\n\nSTATE\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF RURAL\nOF\n\nCOMMON\n\nSCHOOLS\nSCHOOLS,\n\nIN OHIO\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe origin of centralized schools in Ohio may be briefly stated. Tn the\nearly history of our state the population was mostly rural, and farming was the\nprincipal occupation. Gradually cities sprang up and as one form of machinery after another came into use, manufacturing plants were established.\nThere was a great demand for labor in this line, and many left the farm for the\nshop and the factory, and there has been a general movement of the population\nfrom the country to the city. Many farmers have moved to the city in order\nthat their children may enjoy better educational advantages. Many retired\nfarmers now live in villages and rent their farms. At least 28 per cent, of the\nfarms in Ohio are now in the hands of renters. This fact has an important\nbearing upon the school question.\nDr. Strong, in his late book, The Challenge of the City, states that at\nthe beginning of the nineteenth century the United States had only 6 cities\nof 8,000 inhabitants or more; in 1880, 286; in 1890, 443; in 1900, 545, among\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nCENTRALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1055\n\nwhich are some of the great cities of the world. In 1800 less than 4 per cent,\nof our population was urban; in 1900, 33 per cent. In fifteen states the majority of the population now live in cities and in eight states the urban population\nis more than two-thirds of the whole. The application of machinery to agriculture has driven many from the farm. A special agent of the government\nreports that four men with improved agricultural implements do the work\nformerly done by fourteen.\nDr. Strong makes this further statement : \" To produce our agricultural\nstaples in 1870, one man was employed to every seventeen acres cultivated;\nin 1890 there was only one to twenty-six acres. If the same methods had\nbeen employed in 1890 as in 1870 there would have been required 4,430,000\nmore farm laborers than actually found employment on the farm.\" Dr.\nStrong argues the continued disproportionate growth of the city by reason of\nthe fact that there is a natural limit to the world's capacity to consume food\nwhile there is no such limit to its capacity to use the products of the mechanical\narts.\nWhen the world has been adequately supplied with farm products there\ncan be no increase of food, or of those producing it, except as population\nincreases, which is slowly. On the other hand the products of manufactures\nand of fine arts increase as rapidly as the increase of population multiplied\nby the increase of wealth and of human wants, both of which are growing with\nastonishing rapidity. In Ohio the township was the civil unit. These townships varied in size — some were five miles square, some were six miles square\nand others were irregular in shape, eight or more miles long and of varying\nwidth. For school purposes these townships were divided into subdistricts\nwith a schoolhouse in each — as many in number as would provide for all the\nchildren of school age. The change in the rural population reduced the number of children of school age in many of these subdistricts to a very few. An\nexamination of the enumerations in fifteen of the best farm counties of the\nstate, made by Professor A. B. Graham of the Agricultural Department of\nthe Ohio State University, shows an average to the county of nearly nine\nsubdistricts each of whose enumeration is fifteen children or less. The\nattendance in such districts is rarely more than ten pupils; counting the same\naverage per county there are about eight hundred such subdistricts in the state,\nwhere the average daily attendance of pupils would vary from ten to five\npupils or less.\nIt occasionally happened that extensive repairs were needed on a schoolhouse, or it would be necessary to erect a new building. The question would\nthen come before the board of education as to whether it would be wise to\ninvest so much money for a very few pupils, or whether they could make provision for their education in some other way that would be more satisfactory\nand less expensive. This question came to the board of education in Kingsville, Ashtabula County, in 1892. As the schools in this township were very\nsmall and the per capita expense of conducting them in the old way was unduly\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "jor5\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nlarge, the board of education finally agreed to try the experiment of transporting the children of the township to the village school. In order to make\nthe centralization legal and to provide for the cost of transportation, a special\nbill was introduced into the general assembly and it became a law April 17,\n1894. The law was applicable only to the one township, and contained a\nprovision that the appropriation for any subdistrict should not exceed the\namount necessary in the judgment of the board for the maintenance of the\nteacher in such subdistrict for the same period of time.\nThe next general assembly extended the same privilege to boards of education inboth township and special districts, in Stark, Ashtabula, and Portage\ncounties. The results were so satisfactory that on April 5, 1898, a general\ncentralization law was passed requiring township boards of education to have\na map prepared designating the numbers and boundaries of the subdistricts\nand authorizing the board to increase or diminish the number of subdistricts,\nor change the boundaries thereof, or to suspend the school in any subdistrict and transport the pupils, when in the judgment of the board it may\nseem best. The present statute, as amended April 24, 190^, authorizes the\nboard of education in any township district to suspend the schools in any or\nall subdistricts in the township district, but upon such suspension the board\nmust provide for the conveyance of the pupils to a public school in said\ntownship district, or to a public school in another district, the cost of such conveyance tobe paid out of the funds of the township school district; or the\nboard may abolish all the subdistricts, provided conveyance is furnished to\none or more central schools, the expense of such conveyance to be paid out of\nthe funds of the district, but no subdistrict school where the average attendance\nis twelve or more shall be so suspended or abolished under the provisions of\nthis section, after a vote has been taken under the provisions of Section 3927, 2,\nof the Revised Statutes, when at said election a majority of the votes cast\nthereon were against the proposition of centralization, or where a petition has\nbeen filed thereunder and has not yet been voted upon at an election.\nNo township schools shall be centralized under this section by the board\nof education of the township until after sixty days' notice has been given by\nthe board, said notices to be posted in a conspicuous place in each subdistrict\nof the township.\nWhen transportation of pupils is provided for, the conveyance must pass\nwithin at least the distance of one-half of a mile from the respective residences\nof all pupils, except where such residences are more than one-half mile from\nthe public road; but transportation for pupils living less than one and one-half\nmiles, by the most direct public highway, from the schoolhouse, shall be optional\nwith the board of education.\nUnder another section, the township board of education may submit the\nquestion of centralization to the qualified electors of the district, and upon\nthe petition of one-fourth of the quahfied electors the question must be submitted toa vote. If the majority vote in favor, the board must proceed at once\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCENTRALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1057\n\nto centralize the schools, and they may purchase a site and erect suitable\nbuildings if necessary. If it fails to carry, the question cannot be submitted\nagain for two years. When the schools have been centralized, such centralization cannot be discontinued within three years and then only by petition and\nelection. If discontinued by vote, the old subdistrict lines are re-established.\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nCENTRALIZATION\n\nProgress in centralization in Ohio has been slow but steady and especially\nsatisfactory in the past two years. The general law in reference to centralization was passed in 1898, as has already been stated. In 1900, seventeen townhips were reported as centralized. The next year the number was increased\nto 46, and the following year to 70 townships in 29 counties. In 1905, eightytwo townships reported centraHzed schools. In 1906, one hundred and\ntwenty, and in 1907 there were 157 townships whose schools were wholly or\npartially centralized. When all the reports for the past year are in, I have\nreason to believe that this number will be still further increased.\nTYPES OF CENTRALIZED\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1. Schools are completely centralized by vote of the township, such as\nGustavus, Johnson, Kinsman, and a half-dozen others in Trumbull County;\nPierpont, Colebrook, Wayne, and Ashtabula Townships in Ashtabula County;\nMantua, Huron and Aurora Townships in Portage County; Auburn, Geauga\nCounty; Pike Township, Madison County; Wayne Township, Clinton\nCounty; Copley Township, Summit County, and a few others.\n2. Schools from haK to completely centralized by vote of the board of\neducation to suspend schools in subdistricts, such as Kingsville Township,\nAshtabula County; Streetsboro and Nelson Townships, Portage County;\nBainbridge, Troy, and Parkman Townships, Geauga County; Madison Township, Lake County; Mad River Township, Champaign County; Fulton Township, Fulton County, and some others.\n3. Special districts in which schools have been suspended and children\ntransported to a central school, such as Selma Special, Clark County; Hartgrove, Footville, and Windsor Specials, Ashtabula County.\n4. The fourth type may be more properly styled consolidated schools;\none or two schools transported to another sub-district or village school. Examples may be found in Ashtabula, Ashland, Champaign, Clinton, Frankhn,\nFayette, Fairfield, Mahoning, Medina, Lorain, Huron, Highland, Ross,\nLicking, and a few other counties.\nThe 157 schools now wholly or partially centralized may be classified as\nfollows: completely centralized, 38; about one-half of schools suspended,\n32; one or two schools transported to another district or to a nearby village\nschool, 97.\nTRANSPORTATION\n\nWhen centralization has been decided upon it becomes the duty of the\nboard of education to provide a suitable building.\nProvision is made in the\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "I0^8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administratioii\n\nStatute for the issuance of bonds. The amount needed will depend very much\nupon the number of rooms required and the number of pupils to be accommodated. The cost ranges from $4,000 or $5,000 to $1 7,500. The fine building,\ngrounds, and equipment at Lees Creek, Wayne Township, Clinton County,\ncost $17,500. The site includes three acres, and a fine row of sheds has been\nerected for the protection of the vans used in the transportation of the children.\nA long room in the basement is provided with tables for the convenience of\nthe large number of pupils who must necessarily bring their dinners. The\narrangement of routes is an important matter for the board of education to\ndetermine. A sufficient number of wagons or vans should be provided, so\nthat no child will be obliged to spend too long a time upon the road. Every\neffort is made to have the children at the farthest points reach the central\nschool in one hour or in one hour and a quarter when the roads are in fair\ncondition. Routes are let to the lowest responsible bidders. Great care is\nexercised in the selection of drivers to secure men of good habits and who are\nin every way trustworthy. A carefully worded contract is drawn up, which\nthe driver must sign. He must also give a good and sufficient bond for its\nfaithful execution. There is usually no difficulty in securing a sufficient\nnumber of responsible bidders, especially after the first year. The wagons\ncost from $80.00 to $175 .00. The cost of the wagons used in northeastern\nOhio seldom exceeds $100. The wagons used at Lees Creek and Selma cost\n$175.00. They are built expressly for this service. They are hung low, are\nopen in summer and closed in stormy and in cold weather. They are provided with comfortably cushioned seats along each side and are furnished with\na plentiful supply of warm robes in winter and heated in extremely cold\nweather. They are well ventilated and not easily overturned. In the northeastern part of the state where centralization first started, the wagons are\nusually owned by the drivers. In many of the completely centralized townships the wagons are the property of the board of education. Professor\nA. B. Graham, to whom reference has already been made, states as the result\nof his investigation that drivers are paid from seventy cents to $2 . 50 a day,\naccording to the number of miles, the number of children transported, the\ncondition of the roads, competition in bidding, etc. The distances vary from\ntwo and one-half to eight miles, and the number per conveyance from six to\ntwenty-seven. The average cost per day for conveyance is $1.50; average\ndistance four and one-half miles; average number per conveyance 20.\nOBJECTIONS\n\nFREQUENTLY\n\nRAISED\n\nThe following are some of the objections we are most frequently called\nupon to meet:\n] . The cost under centralization will be greater. On account of the greater\nefficiency of the system and the larger results secured, it is difficult to make a\njust comparison as to the matter of cost. While the absolute cost of a completely centralized system of schools may be somewhat greater, it must be\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCENTRALIZATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nremembered that it includes something of supervision and instruction in\nspecial branches not provided for in the subdistrict plan. Furthermore,\nexperience proves that many more pupils. are brought into the schools where\ntransportation is provided, and the average daily attendance is increased to\nsuch an extent that the cost per pupil based on the average attendance is\nreally not so great as it was before.\n2. The fear has often been expressed that where the different schools\nwere brought together and pupils from different homes were conveyed in the\nsame wagon there would be great danger of spreading contagious diseases\nthru the township and the health and morals of the children would be\nimperiled. This is a matter of great importance, and one concerning which\nschool authorities must exercise great care. I am sure I can truthfully say\nthat the experience of Ohio for the past twelve or fifteen years has shown that\nthere is no valid ground for this objection. The health and the morals of the\nchildren have been more safely guarded under the new plan than the old.\n3. The bad condition of the roads at certain seasons of the year is often\nurged as a strong argument against centraHzation and the transportation of\npupils. It is no doubt true that in some of our townships the direction of the\nroads and their condition at times are such as to render centralization practically impossible. I may say, however, that in the northeastern part of our\nstate, where this plan has proved very successful, the roads are as bad as\nroads can well be, and an additional team of horses is sometimes necessary\nto pull the wagons thru. I am hoping that, thru the rural dehvery,\nthe milk routes, the hauling of farm products to market, and the transportation of school children, together with the statute recently enacted in reference\nto highways, we shall soon see a marked improvement in this direction\nand that the time is not very far distant when we shall have good roads thruout the length and breadth of our state.\n4. It is sometimes urged that the present school buildings in a district are\ntoo good to be abandoned. There may be some force in this objection, and\nthere may be cases where for this reason the question of centralization may\nhave to wait for a few years. In some of our best townships, comparatively\ngood buildings have been abandoned and sold and the proceeds used to help\ndefray\nthe ofexpense\nof a and\nnew the\nmodern\nbuilding\nfor the\na centralized\nsc\"hcol,\nthe board\neducation\ncitizens\nfelt that\nmuch better\nresultsbecause\nto be\nobtained would more than justify any sacrifice that might thus be made.\n5. There is a sentiment on the part of some in reference to the httle red\nschoolhouse that stands by the cross roads, an objection to any innovation,\nhowever worthy it may be, and a feeling that what was good enough for the\nfathers is good enough for the children. With reference to this objection, I\nwill simply say in the words of Mr. Edson of Massachusetts: /'It has great\ninfluence only with those people who choose to live, move and die as did their\nancestors, on the theory that this is the last generation and that any special\nefforts at improvement are just so much more than is wise or necessary.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nADVANTAGES\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nCENTRALIZATION\n\nThe following are some of the advantages of centralization, briefly stated:\nIt brings into the school pupils who would not otherwise enjoy its advantages.\nIt insures a much better average daily attendance of pupils and greatly\nreduces the number of cases of tardiness and truancy.\nIt gives an opportunity for a better classification of the schools and proper\ngrading of pupils.\nIt encourages supervision and gives the superintendent a much more\nfavorable chance for thoro inspection of the work of the lower grades.\nIt limits the field of work for each teacher and gives an opportunity for a\nmore thoro preparation.\nIt gives fewer classes to each teacher and allows longer recitation periods.\nIt gives the boys and girls of the rural schools the benefit of such special\nbranches as music, drawing, and agriculture under a special teacher employed\nby the board of education.\nIt encourages the formation of good township high schools and gives to the\nboys and girls in the township districts equal advantages with the children in\nthe city districts.\nIt tends to prevent difficulties which often arise on the way to and from\nschool and to protect the health and morals of the children.\nSchool affairs can be administered more economically. Better equipment\nin the way of apparatus and library for the different grades can be provided\nfor less money.\nThe children have the benefit of better school buildings and of modern\nconveniences in the way of ventilation and sanitary arrangements.\nBetter janitor service can be secured.\nIt helps to solve a difficult problem for boards of education, where the\nenumeration in several subdistricts is exceedingly small and new buildings\nare needed.\nIt secures the employment, retention, and personal influence of better\nteachers.\nIt adds the stimulating influences of larger classes with resulting enthusiasm and generous rivalry.\nItaffords the broader companionship and culture that comes from association.\nAnd finally, it serves to bring the citizens of the township into closer\nrelationship and to awaken a deeper interest in the public schools.\n\nADMINISTRATION\nAUGUST\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION,\nAND MUNICIPAL\n\nS. LINDEMANN,\nPRESIDENT,\nMILWAUKEE\nBOARD\nDIRECTORS,\nMILWAUKEE,\nWIS.\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\nSCHOOL\n\nThe public-school system in the United States has now been in operation\nfor a sufficiently long period of time to have acquired definite form as to scope\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmeutJ\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1061\n\nand purpose. The curriculum has undergone changes by inclusion and\nexclusion of studies, has been modified by correlation of the several subjects\ntaught and developed by improvement of classroom methods. Special lines\nof study have come and gone and some that were once antagonized and decried\nas fads have been permanently adopted in the courses of study.\nThe accepted scope of the American school system has, however, in the\nmain, excluded all special preparation of its pupils for vocational careers.\nOccasionally high schools offer commercial courses to equip boys and girls\nfor certain classes of positions in commercial life, but usually this training is\ngiven in \"business colleges.\" Special training for pupils for industrial activities has been excluded from the classroom.\nTherefore the educational equipment of the American youth may be said\nto be general rather than specific, or in other words the school does not offer\nany special preparation in addition to the general educational training given.\nManual training may in part equip the boy with some experience for an industrial career but this, we understand, is not the real purpose of that study. It\nsimply aims to give elementary training of the hand and mind of the pupil as\na part of his common-school education. By the careful co-ordination of this\nwork with the formal studies we believe that the child receives a more efficient\neducation.\nThus educators and school boards do not give the boy any preparation for\na specific trade. The scope of the American school system has thus far gone\nlittle beyond the requirements of general elementary education and rudimentary\npreparation for the duties of citizenship.\nConditions in industrial life: — Evolution in our industrial life demands\nadjustment in the training of the youth. We have entered into an age of\ngreat industrial expansion but are unfortunately confronted with restricted\nfacilities for industrial training. Shall the responsibility for changing this\ncondition fall merely upon private institutions or be assumed by the publicschool system, or possibly by division be taken up by both agencies ? This\nproblem the educators and school boards of this country will sooner or later\nbe called upon to solve.\nLeading educators and progressive manufacturers have for years agitated\nfor industrial education. We are falling behind in the world's commerce in\nthe amount of exports of articles which are classed as competitive. Government reports show that our formerly great efficiency in the trades is diminishing.\nIndustrial education has thus far been fostered in special institutions\nconducted under private auspices. Where such education has been pursued\nin institutions of a public character it has concerned itself with the higher\nbranches in the mechanic arts and has supplied the industrial army with\nofficers rather than with men who serve in the ranks. The industrial field\nhas hitherto drawn its recruits thru the medium of the apprentice system,\nand its experts and leaders from the educational institutions.\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "jo62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nThis method of reinforcing the industries will doubtless continue, but\nthe experience of recent years has demonstrated that our economic conditions\nhave changed and that with it we must supplement and change some of our\nmethods of preparation. The old-time apprentice system which prevailed\nduring the period of the individual mechanic who produced the complete\narticle of manufacture has lost its efficacy. With the era of machines and\nsystematized methods of production the apprentice system of old has been\neliminated. The boy of today no longer has the same opportunity of learning\na trade that his father had.\nManufacturers lead. — This fact has been recognized by the manufacturer\nof the country as well as by the educator. The latter has discussed the value\nof industrial training and pointed out in general terms its. necessity, but it\nremained for the manufacturer to strive toward attaining concrete results.\nTrade schools have sprung up thruout the country in connection with\nmanufacturing plants rather than with the schools. In fact, trade schools\nas a part of the public-school system are still unknown. With one or two\nexceptions there are no common-school systems in the United States that have\nany trade schools connected with them.\nMuch appreciation is due to schools built by private foundation. They\nhave so far done the work of pioneers and will, no doubt, in the future, solve\nmany special problems of industrial education — problems which are outside\nthe sphere of schools under public auspices. Indeed, much of the enthusiasm\nin the movement is due to those industrial educators and technical teachers\nwho have blazed the way by showing the possibilities and advantages which\nsuch training offers to our people. That the various systems of public education will take up the work is now quite certain and the reasons for public\nadoption can, we believe, be strongly supported with fundamental arguments.\nThe careful student of this question would not limit such instruction to the\nindustries, but will include the broader entry into vocational preparation for\nthose pupils who are not privileged to go beyond the grammar school.\nThe pedagogical value of industrial and vocational study is too frequently\nmisunderstood and gravely underrated. Only a superficial inspection of some\nof the work already accomplished will prove this point. The vocational\nschool, co-ordinated with the common school, falls completely within Froebel's\ngreat educational idea, \"Education thru Self -activity.\"\nPublic interest has been aroused to the serious necessity for scientific\ntraining in the trades and can be depended upon to bring about widespread\nintroduction of industrial education. Planning for general inauguration of\ntrade schools and the supervision of the instruction are problems of farreaching importance. This paper relates more especially to such instruction\nunder the authority of the state. Therefore the question of administration\nby state or municipality is second only to the movement itself.\nThis brings up the main question. Are trade schools to come within the\nprovince of a system of popular education?\nIf the state can consistently,\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n.\n\nI063\n\nthru its colleges and universities, teach the higher branches of the mechanic\narts, then it naturally follows that it can consistently teach the lower branches\nin the public schools. If the state can teach the elements of agriculture in the\nrural schools, it can teach the mechanic trades in the city schools. Again,\nsince the state is intrusted with the mission to prepare the youth for useful\ncitizenship, it is only a question of expediency how far that preparation shall\ngo. If the high school prepares students to fill positions as bookkeepers and\nstenographers, the public trade school is equally warranted in preparing its\nboys for mechanics and artisans.\nThe widening of the scope of popular education will carry with it many\ndifficult adjustments of method and will require granting ample appropriations\nof funds and greater statutory powers to school officers and officials. Yet the\nproposition of adopting industrial training in the public-school system and\nthe adaptation to the needs of the community does not carry with it the experimental difficulties and uncertainties, because in many of its phases we may\nfollow well-estabUshed experiences. Training for the trades by the guilds\nduring the Middle Ages and in later times was indeed a very successful institution. In our day, with our greater modem facilities and scientific training\nwe can give better direction and bring greater power to bear, which cannot\nbut achieve more important practical and social results. In those olden\ndays apprenticeship and the learning of trades came strictly within the\nsphere of economic and social life. Thru the wonderful growth of\nschool influence in present-day civilization, the question of preparing for vocations, trades, and industrial pursuits is shifting in position and occupies a\nmiddle ground between the school and the social economic field. We are dealing\nhere with an economic necessity on the one hand and a functional school question on the other. If the industrial field is no longer able to do justice to the boy\nwho desires to enter its ranks, the commonwealth may, thru its educational\nsystem, assume part of that burden. It logically follows that the duty of\nturning the boy into a self-sustaining citizen, in the absence of other suitable\nmeans, falls upon the state. This conclusion has been reached by at least two\nstates in the Union; namely, Massachusetts and Wisconsin.\nLet us realize that over 90 per cent, of the youth of today are not educated\nfarther than the grammar school. Again, the Massachusetts Committee on\nIndustrial Education finds that some 25,000 children between the ages of\nfourteen and sixteen years have left school and are drifting from one trade to\nanother, vainly seeking to gain a foothold. Facts Hke these, and they are only\nsymptomatic of the real issue, point to the great need of the movement. What\nother influence, except that of the state thru its school system, can cope\nwith the situation? Industrial education, to reach the masses, must mean\ninstruction thru the aid and under control of the state. A branch of the\nstate department of public instruction, such as now exists in New York or\nWisconsin, should be the controUing and directive force to carry out a systematic plan and work in co-operation with local educational bodies. Miscel-\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "I064\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nlaneous, isolated beginnings lack uniformity and will fail in general\nresults. The haphazard experiments in the introduction of manual training\nmay be repeated, interest may lag, and the results from such introduction\nbring disappointment and tend to cripple the good cause. All these considerations are fundamental in framing suitable legislative enactments for any\ncomprehensive system of instruction.\nMassachusetts and Wisconsin. — Massachusetts has created a state commission, the purpose of which is to make propaganda for the cause of industrial\neducation, to advise with school boards wherever the estabUshment of trade\nschools is in contemplation, to supervise the equipment, buildings, the employment of teachers, and the adoption of courses of study. The law has been in\neffect for two years, but thus far no tangible results in the way of establishing\ntrade schools have been achieved. The New York state trade-school law\nprovides for the establishment of general industrial and trade schools. It\nfurther provides for state aid, supervision by the Commissioner of Education,\nand management by local school authorities working together with an Advisory\nCommittee consisting of men selected from the industries. It appears to be\na very excellent measure for the promotion of industrial education.\nThe Wisconsin law authorizes cities and school districts to establish trade\nschools and to levy taxes for their maintenance. Thus the city of Milwaukee,\nthe metropolis of the state, is empowered to raise the sum of about $100,000\nannually for its school of trades. Under this law the school board was enabled\nto take over a fully equipped institution, formerly conducted under private\nauspices, and make it a part of the public-school system.\nThe direct management of such schools is placed in the hands of an advisory\ncommittee of five citizens, outside of the school-board membership, and each\ncommitteeman must be famiHar with one or more of the trades which are\ntaught. This insures a competent directory consisting of industrial operators\nwho possess practical experience, and expert workmen actually at work in the\ntrades. The school board, acting as trustees of the school system, have the\nfinal decision in the determination of all questions. The superintendent of\nschools, as the highest educational expert, is given directive initiative in the\ntrade school. Here we have an ideal plan under which the responsibility\nfor the success of the trade school is shared alike by the industrial interests\nand workingmen in the trades on one hand and the educational experts and the\nschool board on the other.\nTrade schools in other countries. — The nations of western Europe thoroly\nappreciate the necessity for training in the trades and have built up more\nor less complete systems of industrial education. Great Britain, thru its\nvarious educational commissions, is seeking to amplify the scope and plan of\nsuch instruction. She recognizes that this will be the only and certain\nmeans of regaining some of her waning commercial prestige. In the various\nparts of the United Kingdom monthly welfare meetings are held by operators,\nto give life and force to the movement.\nThe commercial supremacy of Ger-\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeutl\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1065\n\nmany can be directly traced to its diversified system of trade and industrial\nschools and technical and commercial colleges. Altho a poor country in\nnatural resources she has, by thoroly educating her industrial army in\nmechanic arts and sciences, in a short period won a leading position in the\nworld's commerce.\nThe best preparation for the youth must strive to place him at the work\nfor which he is most apt and at which he is likely to do well. Imperial Germany and republican Switzerland have both, by virtue of their industrial\neducational system and thru their teachers, succeeded in sorting out boys\nand girls for the vocations to which they seem best fitted. Democracy, it is\nsaid, should offer every individual an opportunity to put forth his best efforts.\nThen indeed should the several states of our great republic inaugurate this\nmodem progressive educational and training movement.\nCan we, as school officials, do a greater service for the upbuilding of the\nmasses ? The answer is emphatically. No ! If we fail to assume some of the\nresponsibilities of this great educational necessity we will be simply shirking\nour duty.\nWill the state act ?— Commonwealths, thru the public-school system, will\nsooner or later, we believe, assume the task. Opposition may develop to such\na course, since prejudices always exist to what is called overburdening of the\nschools. Every successful executive officer knows that these objections will\nnot hold if proper care is taken in the development of the administrative features of such a plan. Additional functions and responsibilities, it is true, have\nat times been added to the common school, and oftentimes under impractical\nand improper conditions, bringing forth unsatisfactory results and giving rise\nto just criticism. No one conversant with our school life will maintain that\nwe are not able and competent to develop and amplify our school management\nand schoolwork as thoroly and efficiently as other progressive nations are doing.\nThe success of such a policy, broadly speaking, will depend on two vital\nissues:\nFirst, on wise and comprehensive legislation which must grant liberal funds\nand shall establish control and supervision both by the state thru its educational department, and by the local authorities thru its school boards and\nofficials.\nSecond, on the ability of the educators and technical teachers to adjust\nschools and shop methods for the development of practical plans for industrial\ntraining.\nSCHOOL\nWILLIAM\n\nB. ITTNER,\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS,\n\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nThere is nothing perhaps in the history of education which has brought\nproper school building more prominently before our people than the disaster\nwhich occurred near this city on March 4, when 173 school children and two\nteachers lost^their lives. Why is it that so many hard lessons must be learned\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nby bitter experience ? It required the Iroquois fire to reform theater construction and management, and a General Slocum disaster to call attention to the\nunsafe condition of our excursion steamers. Neither of these experiences\npointed directly to school buildings, and it remained for Cleveland to furnish\nthe lesson.\nIf the disaster at Collinwood shall result in better plan and safer construction in the future schools of our country, it will have indeed erected a fitting\nmemorial. While this undoubtedly will be the final result, it must also have\nalready resulted in much hurried, ill-advised, and useless expenditures of\nmoney in so-called measures of safety. ''In 1899\" (only eight years ago),\nsaid the late Edward Atkinson, \"485 college buildings and schoolhouses were\nburned, or 10.46 per week; and the rate of destruction is increasing. I have\nexamined several college buildings, memorial halls, and the like, and have\nnever found a class in which heavy damage or complete destruction had been\nmore adequately provided for by the masters of combustible architecture.\"\nA recent insurance report gives a record of fifty-eight fires in educational\ninstitutions for a period of three months from January i to March 30 of this\nyear.\nA number of our buildings, notably our mills and factories, are the safest\nclass of buildings in the country, not only for the property within, but for the\nmen and women employed. Can it be possible that we shall fail in the safeguarding ofthe children in our public schools ? In my own personal experience\nI have never seen more shoddy construction and slip-shod work than in some\nof the school buildings I have examined. It is my purpose, therefore, to lay\nbefore you, as briefly as may be, the essentials for sane and safe school-house\nconstruction.\nThe planning and construction of school buildings is so well understood that\nmistakes leading to serious loss are almost unpardonable. Many school\nauthorities deliberately calculate upon architectural effects, and make expenditures for applied ornament at the sacrifice of fire-resisting construction.\nOthers are ignorant or careless to a degree that invites destruction. Again,\ntoo much dependence is placed upon the isolation of the building without\nproper regard to the fire hazards contained within the walls.\nIn the erection of our buildings the best architectural experience available\nshould be employed. Careful consideration should begin with the selection\nof the site. It is needless to say that it should be in a well-drained, dry location\noff a main thorofare, unless it is of such generous proportions as will permit\nthe setting of the building well away from the noises of the street. It should\nalso be well removed from objectionable buildings, such as stables, factories,\nand the like. The area of the site should be generous. A minimum of unbuiltupon area of thirty square feet per pupil should be provided, if possible.\nThis will afford space for playgrounds, as well as a hmited area for planting.\nAll of these requirements are readily obtainable for suburban schools. Where\nthe site is to be located in the more densely populated portion of the city, some\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1067\n\nsacrifice must necessarily be made in the interest of economy. The site should,\nhowever, never be restricted to the extent of endangering the light, or the building by fire risk from adjoining structures. Regard for other conditions often\ninterferes with the orientation of a building. Some authorities prefer a\nnorthern exposure for the classrooms. Where the site permits, an easterly\nor southerly exposure is most desirable. This permits the penetration of sunlight to the maximum number of rooms during the morning hours.\nWhere possible, the building should not be more than two stories high\nabove the basement, which should be well out of the ground. In congested\ndistricts where it is necessary to increase the height, the building should be of\nfireproof construction thruout. A two-story building, aside from the comfort\nderived, gives a feeling of security which more than compensates for its\nadditional cost.\nEvery building should Tiave at least two exits directly from the first floor.\nThey should be located as remote from each other as possible, and should be\nreached directly from corridors and stairways. Additional exits should be\nprovided from the basement for each sex. A desirable feature is to provide\nplayrooms in the basement in which early arrivals may find shelter. These\nrooms should give access to the toilets, but should be cut off from the building\nproper with doorways.\nThe boiler and fuel room and the heating apparatus should be absolutely\ncut off, by masonry walls and fireproof ceihng, from the remainder of the\nbuilding; and should have an independent entrance leading directly to the\noutside of the building. It is best that doorways between the basement rooms\nbe entirely omitted. Should doorways become necessary they should be of the\nautomatic closing standard fire-door type. Some authorities recommend the\nplacing of the boiler and heating apparatus outside of the building in an independent structure. The expense of such construction is unnecessary if the\nrooms are isolated as above described.\nThe doors of all exits should swing out in the direct line of travel. The\ntemptation to bolt and lock exit doors during school hours, to prevent objectionable intrusion, is too great to run any risk by providing locks. A plan\nrecently devised ehminates all hardware except push plates on the inner face,\nand pulls on the outer face of the doors. To secure the building after school\nhours, the outer openings are provided with folding gates. These are swung\nback and locked in position during school hours, and the exits cannot be\nobstructed.\nThe stairways should never be less than two in number, and should the\nbuilding be a large one, one or more additional stairways should be provided.\nThey should be widely separated, never more than five feet wide, with easy rise\nand tread and wide landings. Circular stairways and winders should be\navoided, and there should never be more than fifteen risers between landings.\nStairways should always be of fireproof construction, masonry or metal\nthruout, and should have a strong balustrade of simple design. If of metal,\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "jq58\n\nnational\n\neducation\n\nassociation\n\n[Administration\n\nthe wearing surface of the treads should be recessed and covered with asphalt\nor other non-slipping covering. Strong hand rails should be provided on wall\nand balustrade in continuous ramp from bottom to top.\nIf the building is of non-fireproof construction, stairways should be inclosed\nin a fireproof inclosure. Corridors, if possible, should be given outside light.\nThey should be of ample dimensions and enable the massing of all the pupils\non each floor without overcrowding. Ten feet is the minimum width, fourteen\nand sixteen feet being preferable.\nNon-fireproof buildings are rendered practically safe if corridor floors\nand stairways are of fireproof construction. Classrooms should be about\nthirty-two feet in length, and the minimum width to accommodate the number\nof pupils required. If there are no beams projecting below it, twelve or twelve\nand one-half feet is quite high enough for the ceiling, and the window heads\nshould be brought directly thereto. All classrooms should be unilaterally\nlighted. The proper arrangement of the plan will render the blank wall\nspaces a decided help in the design.\nThe classroom should have but one door to the corridor, and this at the\nteacher's end of the room. This will enable complete control. In buildings\nof non-fireproof construction, the classrooms should be connected by single\ndoors.\nWardrobes should be entered from classrooms only, and the usual doorway\nto the corridor should be omitted. The practice of placing open wardrobes\nin the corridor should be condemned. Damp and dirty clothing is not only\nan excellent vehicle for carrying disease germs, but a school so constructed\nwill never be free from the schoolhouse odor.\nIn the construction of our building, all basement bearing walls should be\nof masonry. Non-bearing walls may be of studding, or, better, solid plaster\npartitions. If of studding, care should be taken that proper fire stops are\nprovided at each story level. The basement ceiling should have a heavy coat\nof plastering on metal lath, and it should be seen that there is no free passage\nfor fire or smoke around or thru the heat and vent ducts leading to the\nstories above. Such openings as are absolutely necessary should be rigidly\ncut off by fireproof inclosures. Wood furring, sheathed dadoes, and ceiling\nshould be entirely eliminated, and the interior wood finish should be reduced\nto the minimum.\nIf the foregoing conditions are fulfilled, our building may be considered\nsafe. It must be remembered, however, that good construction does not\nentirely remove the necessity for other safety measures. The building should\nreceive efficient care, and occasional inspection of every part -of it should be\nmade to. see that combustible rubbish is not allowed to collect, that inflammable\noils, waste, or other material is not stored in closets and hidden away to furnish\nthe cause for incipient fire and panic.\nMuch have we heard recently in the public prints of fire escapes. They\nshould be avoided if additional inside inclosed stairways can be erected.\nIf\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1069\n\nplaced upon a school building, they should be in the form of inclosed outside\nstairways which may be used daily for dismissal; otherwise they will prove\nineffective when the trial comes, and an added danger rather than a safeguard.\nAs embodying the principles herein enumerated, I wish -to present views\nof a number of the more recent school buildings of St. Louis.\nAs a rule the buildings will accommodate about 1,200 pupils in all the\ngrades, and contain twenty classrooms, a kindergarten, a room for domestic\nscience, a manual-training room, a principal's office, two gymnasiums and\nplayrooms, toilets for pupils and teachers, storerooms, and the necessary\nspace for the heating and ventilating apparatus, fuel, etc.\nIn plan the buildings show a number of radical departures from the conventional type of school-building, wherein the central corridor, lined with\nrooms on either side, is necessarily dark. The effort has been to introduce\noutside light into the main corridor thruout the greater part of its length, to\ngroup the classrooms around stairways and exits, and to arrange the wardrobes for outside light. It will also be noted that wardrobes are entered\nfrom classrooms only. This arrangement, tho unusual, is found to give\nthe teacher absolute control, adding to the decorum of the school, as well as\nenabhng their perfect ventilation; the air current entering the room at the\ninner wall, making the circuit of the room, passing thru the opening to and\nalong the wardrobe to the vent.\nThe general plan developed by these requirements is necessarily more or\nless similar in all of the schools, approximating in form the letter E. In all\ncases the sites have been wisely selected to permit ample space surrounding\nthe building, affording generous playgrounds, as well as good light and air.\nThe classrooms are 24 feet wide, 32 feet 6 inches long, with a clear storyheight of 12 feet 6 inches; and are arranged for left-hand hghting. The classrooms, equipped with single desks, accommodate 54 pupils in the lower and\nintermediate grades, and 48 in the higher grades. Natural slate blackboards\nare placed on the three inner sides of the rooms, are 3 feet 6 inches in height,\nand range from 2 feet in the lower grades to 2 feet 5 inches in the upper grades\nfrom floor to the chalk rail.\nThe wardrobes are 5 feet 3 inches wide, 16 feet long, and are provided with\nshelves and hooks on the side walls; a portable umbrella rack is also provided\nfor each wardrobe. A bookcase containing 65 running feet of shelving, a\nbracketed shelf over the blackboard at the front of the room, and a picturemolding complete the equipment of the classroom.\nThe corridors are never less than 14 feet wide, have ample outside light,\nand give direct access to all classrooms, stairways, and exits. Several lines of\nflush metal picture molding are provided for the hanging of casts and pictures.\nThe stairways are placed at the ends of the main corridor, and central to\nthe group of rooms on either side of the central axis of the building.\nThey are always 5 feet wide, with ample landings, and are built of concrete\nwith solid wall-like balustrades; the risers and skirtings are of marble, while\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "I070\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nthe treads are finished in asphalt. Treads of this character are not only nonslipping and practically noiseless, but are easily replaced when worn out.\nThe purchase of ample sites has made it possible to limit the height of the\nbuildings to two stories. The basements are 15 feet in height, and are placed\nwell out of ground. Where possible, a level entrance from playground to\nbasement floor is provided, while the principal entrance leads directly to the\nfirst floor.\nThe first and second stories are 1 2 feet 6 inches in height, the ceilings unobstructed bybeams, and with window heads brought directly thereto.\nAll buildings are of fireproof construction except the pitched roofs, in which\ncases, for economical reasons, the roofs are of mill construction covered with\nheavy matched sheathing and tile. All outer and interior bearing walls are\nof hard brick laid in Portland cement mortar. Interior non-bearing partition\nwalls are of hollow tile, and the buildings are plastered with cement plaster.\nThe floors are constructed of reinforced concrete and finished with narrow\nmaple flooring, smoothed and oiled. Basement floors are of granitoid or\ncement.\nThe plumbing is of the most approved sanitary type. Individual seataction closets are provided in the general toilets in the basement, and the\nemergency toilets on each floor for the pupils. The urinals are of glass,\nare automatically flushed, and are of the ventilated type. Special provision\nhas been made for the ventilation of the toilet rooms. Drinking fountains are\ninstalled in the corridors, in the basement, and playgrounds.\nEach room is provided with a self-winding electric clock, regulated from\na master clock with program ringing device located in the principal's office.\n• The entire building is wired for electric lighting, the fixtures used being of\nthe short-stem cluster type, equipped with holoplane shades.\nAside from their desirability on the score of light and air, the large school\nsites have not only provided ample playgrounds, but have given opportunity\nin a modest way for object-lessons in the art of landscape gardening; and each\nschool ground has been made to present some instructive feature, awakening\nan interest in the knowledge of decorative plants and their use in the embellishment of the home.\nAll buildings are designed for a low-pressure steam plenum system of heating and ventilating, this work being carried on simultaneously with the plans\nof the building.\nA fresh-air supply of 30 cubic feet per minute is allowed for each pupil.\nThis necessitates about eight complete changes of air per hour in every classroom. Since the corridors and basement are occupied intermittently, four\nchanges per hour are planned for these localities. All plants are designed to\nsecure these results, with a safe margin of reserve in case it should be required\nfor any reason.\nThe fresh-air supply to all buildings, and particularly those in the densely\npopulated districts, is carried thru an air-washing device which practically\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "1071\nDepartment]\n\nINNOVATIONS\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nremoves all foreign matter before it is admitted to the classrooms. The\ntemperature is controlled by thermostats placed in each room, the tempered\nair being delivered at 70°.\nNumerous smoke tests have been made to determine accurately the distribution ofair in classrooms of various schools. These tests indicate quite\nclearly the air movement. The fresh air entering is evenly distributed over\nthe rear two-thirds of the room, is gradually driven downward by the continued\nentrance of fresh air from above, and from the breathing line working both\ndownward and forward to the wardrobe opening, passes out and into the vent.\nIt may be interesting to note the cost of heating and ventilating some of\nthe schools. One matter drawing special attention is the fact that a new\nschool requires above 10 per cent, more fuel to operate the first year than is\nrequired for succeeding seasons. A cause for this might be found in the fact\nthat the walls are not thoroly dried at out the start, and act as a better conductor for the heat.\nThe figures for nine schools, extending over a period of four heating seasons,\nwith coal at $1 . 905 per ton, make the fuel cost per season for heat and ventilation amount to about 12 J cents per seat. Even if this entire amount were\nchargeable to ventilation alone (the item of heating being neglected), the\nfallacy of arguing against ventilation on account of extra fuel required is\nimmediately shown, when an adequate supply of fresh, wholesome air can be\nprovided for each child at so insignificant a sum as 12 J cents for an entire\nheating season.\n\nINNOVATIONS\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nWILBUR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nT. MILLS,\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nARCHITECT,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO\n\nIn common with all other arts of man, the development of architecture has\nbeen a process of evolution. What is true of the art in general is also true of its\nvarious branches in particular. In no department of the builder's art is this\nmore true than in the designing of school buildings. In this country the log\nschoolhouse was the prototype from which has been gradually developed the\nmore or less handsome, complex, and well-equipped school building of the\npresent day, and between the log cabin and its present wonderful development\nhave been many stages scarcely distinguishable, as they were reached and\npassed, but wonderfully interesting when viewed in retrospective. In the\nprocess of evolution it is ever the innovation of today which becomes the\nrequirement of tomorrow — that which today we receive with scant courtesy,\ntomorrow we demand as an essential, and urgently necessary.\nFurther, in the designing and construction of school buildings there is one\nrule governing in greater or less degree all the affairs of life, which is particularly worthy of careful attention. It is the rule that every action, whether great\nor small, is important. In reading and in actual life one is almost constantly\nreceiving fresh evidence of the truthfulness of this statement. Often we stand\naghast at the terrible results produced by an act regarded by the performer as\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "jO«2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\ninsignificant, and again one is filled with satisfaction and joy from learning\nof the happy effect produced by a passing word of cheer and hope. So in\nbuildings it is frequently the improperly hinged door which produces the panic,\nor a very slight disregard of well-known hygienic principles which is responsible\nfor the spread of great epidemics. Stress is laid upon this thought because the\nlimitations of the subject of this paper require us to consider things which in\nthemselves seem small and of minor importance, but after all it has ever been a\npeculiar phase of the process of evolution that the small, obvious, and seemingly\nunimportant things are often the last to be thought of because of the tendency of\nhuman nature to grasp first those things which are vast and comprehensive.\nProbably the most remarkable innovation in school architecture is the\ntendency to incorporate into new school buildings many principles of hospital\ndesign, which reduce to a minimum all conditions inimical to perfect physical\nhealth. This is in confirmation of the splendid theory that, in order to produce the best educational results, pupils must be and remain in perfect physical\ncondition. The details involved under this head would require much time for\ndescription, but, in ^)rief, attention may be called to the most important\nfeatures.\nYears ago it was possible to get lumber fairly well seasoned by natural\nprocesses, but that time has long since passed away. The best flooring and\ntrim now possible to obtain have been kiln-dried by a process which appears\nto take the life out of the timber at the same time as it removes the moisture.\nAs a result, baseboards, window and door trim, and particularly flooring,\nshrink until unsightly cracks and openings are found everywhere, even in the\nbest buildings. To meet this defect many firms are now supplying metallic\ntrim to take the place of wood, and artificial plastic floors are obtained, put\ndown with a trowel, the baseboards being made continuous with the floor,\nwith a neat cove or quarter-round molding where the base meets the flooring,\nthus obviating the necessity of any cracks either in floor or finish. The wood\nwork of windows, which in former years was heavy, elaborate, and often orna\nmented with coarse carving or other ornaments, is made of the plainest pos\nsible patterns or altogether eliminated, the finish at windows being made out\nof rounded plaster jambs. Blackboards are provided with troughs so constructed as to catch and retain chalkdust, and in the best buildings provision\nis made for carrying all such dust out of the room into exhaust ventilating\nducts. Walls are no longer made as rough as the plasterer can possibly make\nthem, but smooth and so decorated that they may be frequently cleaned without\ndamage to the wall or decoration.\nTen years ago, plumbing fixtures of the most unsanitary patterns were\nfrequently installed in- school buildings, often encased in woodwork and frequently located in dark unventilated basement rooms. There are undoubtedly\nhundreds of such in daily use at the present time. But no buildings now being\nundertaken are considered even to approach correct practice unless all of the\nplumbing fixtures are located in well-lighted, well-ventilated rooms and\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNOVATIONS\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nequipped with every device which will promote correct hygienic conditions.\nFurther, the plumbing fixtures themselves must be of the most sanitary pattern,\nso designed that every part of the fixtures may be gotten at with ease, and\npossessing mechanism of the simplest detail. In addition, the best buildings\nare no longer swept with brooms, but are cleaned by the vacuum-air-cleaning\nsystem, which raises no dust and thus reduces the risk of unhealthy conditions.\nThe old style of water-cooler, drinking-fountain, and drinking cups is a thing\nof the past, and pupils today use a drinking fountain in which the lips are\nnever in contact with any vessel to be used by other pupils.\nIn addition to all these refinements, there has probably never been a period\nin the world's history when so much attention was paid to correct lighting,\nheating, and ventilation as we are now bestowing upon buildings even of\nmoderate cost. There are undoubtedly many people whose eyesight was\nimpaired by the improper lighting of the schoolrooms of one or two generations\nago, but the importance of proper fighting is now everywhere recognized, if\nnot actually practiced, and undoubtedly the day is at hand when all of our\nstates will require some standard of this matter. Great study is also being\ngiven the question of proper colors which walls may be tinted without injuring\nor wearying the eyes. The modem schoolroom is being heated by various\nprocesses, designed for the most part by competent heating engineers, and\naccompanied by complete ventilating plants which not only guarantee a positive\nchange of air every few moments, but also deHver air of the proper purity,\nhumidity, and temperature.\nBut in addition, the better class of buildings now contain many features\nfor the convenience, safety, and health of the pupils, such as rest-rooms, or\nhospital rooms, to which pupils who become suddenly ill may be taken for\nfirst-aid treatment, pending the arrival of the physician; sufficiently equipped\nlunch-rooms where hot coffee, tea, cocoa, and other edibles may be obtained;\nplayrooms equipped with more or less gymnasium apparatus, and in the larger\nbuildings fully equipped gymnasiums, roof gardens, etc. All of the foregoing\ninnovations are aimed at the conservation of the health of those who must use\nthe buildings, the elimination of all features which tend to produce disease,\nspread epidemics, or influence physical defects of any sort, and to bring about\nthe production of conditions which will encourage the most perfect physical\ndevelopment of all school children and workers.\nHowever, there are at least one or two very marked tendencies at the present\ntime toward new methods of school design and construction. One of these\noriginated with Dr. R. W. Corwin of Pueblo, Colo., who recently published a\npamphlet entitled \"The Modem Model School House.\" The idea championed byDr. Corwin is that it is a mistake to build elementary schools in the\nshape of large or many-storied stmctures, but that wherever it is at all possible\nelementary schools should be constructed of one-story buil^ngs, the schoolroom units being separated from each other, or at most not connected by anything more than such hallways as may be unavoidable.\nWhether the ideas\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "JQ-.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nof Dr. Corwin will prove to be feasible in very many of our cities is a matter\nwhich only the future can tell, but that buildings of this type may be used\nadvantageously in a large number of towns and villages is a statement which\ncan hardly be questioned.\nMany advantages are claimed for this arrangement, some of which are:\n(i) The number of schoolrooms may be made always to meet the demand,\nwhich is certainly not the case with a building of many rooms. (2) When\nseveral districts are crying for more room, and the treasury is low, the board\ncan accommodate each district at less cost. (3) It is probably cheaper than\nany other plan because there is less waste room, no halls, corridors, or stairways to upper floors. (4) The risk from fire or panic is practically negligible.\n(5) Light may be obtained from any direction desired, and ventilation may\nbe arranged on any of the well-known plans. (6) Pupils in adjacent rooms\ncannot annoy each other by marching, singing, or otherwise. (7) It is claimed\nthat a homelike atmosphere pervades a one-room building which is impossible\nto obtain in a larger structure.\nAnother marked tendency toward change in school architecture has become\nmost noticeable since the Collinwood catastrophe. How much the building\nlaws of other states have been affected we are unable to state, but in Ohio this\ncatastrophe resulted in a great deal of what may be called \" stampede legislation.\" As in all such cases, much of this legislation is ill considered and will\neither need modification or the people of the state will be called upon to undergo\nconsiderable hardship, and to spend much more for school buildings of a given\ntype in the future than has ever been spent before. The general effect of the\nlaws enacted in this state last winter has been to give the state inspector of\nworkshops and factories plenary powers and unlimited discretion in ,the\nmaking of requirements to govern the designing and construction of school\nbuildings. We understand that this department is preparing a printed statement to be sent to architects and schoolmen, covering the subject fully, but\nfrom advance information we are advised that some radical requirements are\nmade which will have a tendency completely to revolutionize school architecture inOhio. A few of the new rulings are the following: (i) Every room\nin a building must be provided with two fireproof exits to the ground, neither\nof which can have any communication with the entrance to the basement.\nThat is, the stairways in the main corridors, even tho there be several of\nthese, will be considered collectively as one exit, and each schoolroom must\nhave an additional exit not connected in any way with the corridors. Thus\nan eight-room building must be provided with four fireproof stairways in\naddition to those provided in main corridors. This will increase the size and\ncost of an eight-room building probably 15 or 20 per cent. The ruhng with\nreference to separate basement entrances will make it necessary in all buildings\nof ordinary size for the pupils to pass out doors and thence to the basement by\nan outside stairway. The effect of this arrangement will be to force the placing\nof toilet rooms on each floor, thus further increasing the size and hence the\ncost of the building.\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNOVATIONS\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1075\n\nAnother requirement of the department is that if the basement story\nextends more than five feet above ground it will be counted as the first story,\nand no auditoriums or study-rooms seating more than one-hundred pupils will\nbe permitted in the second story of buildings which are not fireproof. This\nrequirement will affect practically all of the secondary buildings in the state\nand will render it impossible hereafter to provide large study-rooms or auditoriums in the second story of high-school buildings unless the same are of\nfireproof construction. Obviously, the construction of the auditorium in a\nwing on the first floor greatly increases the size and cost of the building without\nany proportionate increase in the capacity of same.\nIn the foregoing portion of this paper reference has been made in all cases\nto innovations which have already received recognition and in some cases may\nbe deferred to as characteristic of all of the best schoolwork of the present day.\nIn conclusion we request the privilege of suggesting two or three innovations\nwhich we believe will work for the immediate and permanent advancement of\nschool architecture, and are therefore worthy of the attention of all educators\nand school-board members. We venture to suggest the advisability of some\nprovision whereby all teachers shall be required to attain more or less proficiency inthe subject of school architecture. Probably no one will deny the\nstatement that the majority of school teachers, professors, and even superintendents know almost nothing about the correct principles of school architecture.\nMost of our citizens, and indeed most of our educators, appear to think that\nif the public can only be induced to favor a big bond issue once in so many\nyears, architects and inspiration can be called up to meet every occasion, and\nthe interest of the citizen and educator is not needed. It would be hard to\nimagine a more fallacious idea, for, as Ruskin says, \"It is only by active and\nsympathetic attention to the domestic and everyday work which is done for\neach of you that you can educate either yourselves to the feeling or your builders to the doing of what is truly great.\" If this is a fatal condition when characterizing the public, how much less excusable is it when those most interested\nare affected thereby!\nThe primary rules of architecture are as simple as the primary rules of any\nother art or science, and no other is of such general interest because no other\nconcerns so many people. These statements are equally true applied to the\nparticular branch known as \"school architecture.\" Yet we study in school\nbuildings whose architecture we take for granted, and we submit to taxation\nfor buildings whose merit or lack of it we do not appreciate — all because we\ndon't know any better. Quoting Ruskin again, we would undoubtedly all\n\"like best things best if we only saw them.\" However, the adage, \"If\nignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise,\" cannot excuse our lack of knowledge\nabout these things, for the lives and health of our children and our neighbor's\nchildren are at stake and it is our duty to know.\nThe second innovation would be (i) the encouragement of education\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "loy6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\namong school-board members themselves, similar to that which has been\nsuggested for teachers and superintendents, and (2) persistent agitation in\nfavor of the employment of professional advisers by all boards of education\nwhen architects or plans are selected for new schoolwork. In this country\nthe average school board is composed of four to seven men selected from all\nthe walks of life, without much' reference to their qualifications for the work.\nIt is no unusual condition to find a board comprising a minister, doctor, lawyer, blacksmith, farmer, and politician — or in the minister's place may be a\nsaloonist. If you were asked whether you would choose such a board to\ndesign and construct an equally complicated $50,000 building for yourself,\nwould not the proposition seem preposterous? You would ask immediately:\nWhat do men of their training know about buildings? There is only one\nanswer possible — they know practically nothing. Some boards count themselves fortunate in having members with some experience in building, but this\nis the exception rather than the rule, and the judgment of even such ''practical\"\nmen is rarely of any value except in constructions. It is often a positive\ndetriment. While there are exceptional cases, of course, generally speaking\nit is absurd to suppose that boards thus constituted are able adequately or\nsatisfactorily to pass judgment upon architectural schemes for school buildings, and the marvel is not that many of our buildings are bad, but that they\nare not much worse.\nOn the other hand it is certain that the school buildings in this country\ngenerally recognized as the best, and which indeed are the standards by\nwhich all others are measured, are those structures into which the properly\nskilled architect was allowed most freely to infuse his architectural wisdom,\nand in which the dictation of the board employing him was kept at the\nminimum. Therefore, assuming that our boards are honestly desirous of\nsecuring best results for both public and school children, we recommend that\nevery board employ a professional adviser to direct them in selecting architects and architectural schemes, being assured that this plan would result in\nimmediate and remarkable improvement in the school architecture of this\ncountry.\nThe third innovation we would recommend is the encouragement of sentiment everywhere for fireproof and panic-proof school buildings. The cost\nof fireproof construction has been brought to such a figure that there is no\nlonger excuse for buildings not fireproof. It is certain that in Ohio, at least,\nit will henceforth be possible to build fireproof buildings for less money than\nto construct combustible ones which will pass the inspection of the workshop\nand factory man, and as his requirements seriously mar the architectural\neffect of the buildings designed iii accordance therewith, fireproof construction will be required to produce structures architecturally beautiful and\nalso acceptable to the state departments.\nIn view of the fact that eighteen million human beings, or more than onefifth of the entire population, are constantly using our school buildings, and\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNOVATIONS\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nthat the lives and health of these individuals are of more importance than any\neducational phase of the subject, have we not a right to insist that the school\nbuildings of the future shall be absolutely safe, and absolutely healthful, as\nwell as equipped with those conveniences which facilitate the acquirement\nof complete educational equipment ?\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — John R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\nVice-President — Mary Eileen Ahern, editor, Public Libraries, Chicago, 111.\nSecretary — Ida J. Dacus, librarian, Winthrop Normal College, Rock Hill, S. C.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July i, 1908\nThe Department met in the auditorium of the Woodland Branch of the Cleveland\nPublic Library. The meeting was called to order by the president, John R. Kirk. In\nthe absence of the secretary Miss Caroline Burnite, director of children's work, Cleveland\nPublic Library, was chosen acting secretary.\nWilliam H. Brett, librarian of the Cleveland Public Library, led a Round-Table\ndiscussion which he introduced by some remarks upon the library of today as compared\nwith the library of twenty or thirty years ago. Among those who took part in the discussion were: George F. Bowerman, librarian of the Public Library, Washington, D. C;\nHerbert Baillie, librarian of the Public Library, Wellington, New Zealand; Caroline M.\nHewins, librarian of the Public Library, Hartford Conn.; Linda A. Eastman, vice-librarian\nof the Cleveland Public Library; Grace Oviatt, supervisor of school libraries, Cleveland;\nCordelia L. O'Neil, principal of children's work, Cleveland Public Library; Mary E.\nAhern, editor of Public Libraries, Chicago, 111.; Rhoda Shepard, supervisor of readingclubs, Cleveland Library.\nThe Round Table was followed by a paper by President Felmley of the Illinois Normal\nUniversity, subject, \"How Far Should the Course of Normal Schools and Teachers*\nColleges Seek to Acquaint Our Teachers with the Way to Organize and Use School\nLibraries ?\"\nA general discussion followed led by Milton Frye, instructor in English, McKinley\nHigh School, St. Louis, Mo., followed by Maud A. Goodfellow, librarian State Normal\nSchool, Fitchburg, Mass.\nThe president appointed the following persons as a Committee on Nominations:\nJames H. Canfield, librarian, Columbia University, New York City;\nMiss Effie L. Power of the Normal School, Cleveland, Ohio;\nI. C. McNeill, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tenn.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nMorning, July 2\n\nThe Department met at 9:30 o'clock and was called to order by the president.\nDr. James H. Canfield, librarian, Columbia University, New York City, led a\nRound-Table discussion on the general subject of \"Methods of Administering Public\nLibraries for the Benefit of the Public Schools.\"\nHis prefatory address was followed by\nremarks from Edward W. Gaillard, supervisor of schoolwork in the New York Public\nLibrary; H. N. Parsons, head of school department of the Buffalo Public Library, and\nMiss Esther Straus, head of children's department, Cincinnati Public Library.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported:\n\nColo.\n\nFor President, Miss Mary Eileen Ahern, editor. Public Libraries, Chicago, III.\nFor Vice-President, David Felmley, president\n1079 of Illinois Normal University, Normal, 111.\nFor Secretary, Joseph F. Daniels, librarian. State Agricultural College, Fort Collins,\nThe report was unanimously accepted,\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8o\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSESSION. — Thursday\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nAfternoon, July 2\n\nThe Department met at 2:30 o'clock, and was presided over by the vice-president,\nMiss Ahern.\nThe two papers of the afternoon were on the topic, \"How to Make the Library More\nProfitable to the Students of School Age.\" The paper from the \"Superintendent's Viewpoint\" was presented by L. E. Wolfe, superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Texas,\nand from the \"Library Worker's View-point\" by EfBe L. Power, instructor in Hbrary\nuse at the Normal School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nThe discussion was led by Homer H. Seerley, president. State Normal School, Cedar\nFalls, Iowa, and was followed by I. C. McNeill, superintendent of schools, Memphis,\nTenn., and by Wm. M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr.\nA motion was made that a vote of thanks be extended to Mr. Brett, librarian of the\nCleveland Public Library, for his courtesy and hospitality in entertaining the section and\nvisiting librarians and teachers.\nAn interesting feature of the meetings was the exhibition of methods of work with\nschools, made by the libraries of Buffalo, Pittsburg, Cleveland, Dayton, and the Ohio\nand Oregon state commissions. The exhibition included photographs, publications, collections of books for school use, bulletins made by the students of the Western Reserve\nLibrary School, and mounted pictures for circulation.\nThe presence of many visiting librarians, as well as representative members of the\nNational Education Association, led to many comments upon the increasing interest\nmanifested in the Library Section and its broadening opportunities for service.\nCaroline Burnite, Acting Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND\nROUND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nTABLE\n\nTOPIC— THE LIBRARY OF TODAY AS COMPARED\nTHE LIBRARY OF THIRTY YEARS AGO\nWILLIAM\n\nH.\n\nBRETT,\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nWITH\nOHIO\n\nThe meetings of the Library Section of the National Education Association\nhave been growing in importance and value from year to year since its beginning. Its published proceedings contain papers which are valuable as drawn\nfrom actual experience in the schoolroom and the library. We come together\ntoday to consider how best we can work together. As librarians we recognize\nthe fact that it is the free public school which makes the free public librar}^\npossible. It is well that as teachers and Ubrarians we should take counsel\ntogether as to how the library can best serve the school, and what the schools\ncan do to make the hbrary more valuable in the community. The pubhc\nschools have been estabUshed for three generations or more in this country.\nThe pubHc library is less than half as old, and its greatest growth has been\nwithin the last third of a century, indeed within the last twenty-five years the\ngreater hbrary buildings have been built, and thruout the country, town\nand village libraries have been built by the thousands, many of them by the\nmunificence of the man to whom we in Cleveland owe this building in which\nwe are meeting.\nCovering the same period the number of volumes in our\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nOF TODAY\n\nI081\n\nlibraries has been increased fivefold until there are now approximately sixty\nmillions of books available for use. Library work has been systematized,\nbetter methods have been introduced, and library service greatly improved ;\na higher standard of preparation is required, and schools have been established\nfor the training of library workers.\nThe old library was a place for the storage and care of books — too often\nsomber and unattractive, and planned rather for their safe-guarding than\nfor their convenient use; the modern library has life, light, and beauty — not\nonly offering every facility for the studious use of books but recognizing reading as a delight. In nothing does the modern library differ more strikingly\nfrom the old one than in its recognition of the child. The old library was for\nthe adult; the modern public library provides as fully for the needs of the\nchild. It has a room for children equal in convenience and beauty to those\nfor adult readers, and in connection with this, story hour and clubrooms, the\nwhole in furnishing, in adornment, and comfort giving to many of our less\nfortunate little ones their best idea of a comfortable home.\nThe public school, training a nation of readers, makes the public library not\nonly possible but necessary. The school is doing much to make the library\nmore efficient by the use of library books in all the grades, by systematic training in high schools in the use of reference books, catalogues, bibliographies and\nthe various helps to book use; they will send out from the schools young men\nand women prepared to make the best use of the library resources available\nto their own profit and enjoyment thru life. From the normal school\ngiving a definite course of training in library use as is done so effectively in the\nCleveland Normal School, teachers will go out to the schools with a knowledge\nof the resources of the library, able to use them in their own work and to instruct\ntheir pupils in turn how to make the library most useful.\nThe library, by placing collections of books, carefully selected, *in schools\nof all grades, in charge of competent librarians; by taking charge of school\ncollections and increasing them ; by studying the heeds and supplying as fully\nas possible the professional literature needed by the teachers in their work, and\nthe collateral reading for the pupils — the whole under the charge of supervisors\nworking in cordial and intelligent sympathy with the schools — is doing something well worth while now, and may do much more.\nThe program of these sessions has been arranged to discuss the questions\n' I have thus merely suggested, and for this session we are fortunate in having\npresent several upon whom I shall call who are engaged in this work. I shall\nfirst ask Miss Caroline Bumite, the director of children's work in the Cleveland Public Library, to tell us something of her work.\nDISCUSSION\nCaroline Burnite, director of children's work, Cleveland Public Library. — The\npoint of contact of the librarian and the children differs so greatly from that of the teacher\nand the children, one might easily conclude that the work of the librarian and her influence\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "io82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nare diffuse and consequently lacking in real force. Between the hours of three-thirty in\nthe afternoon and eight in the evening, during the winter, several hundred children visit\none of our children's rooms for the purpose of selecting books for home reading or for use\nin the room. Each of these children comes in contact with but one of the two children's\nlibrarians who are in attendance. Compared with the contact of the schoolroom, the\namount of personal attention a child receives is momentary and accidental.\nIn order to make this work effectual there must be in this momentary and accidental\ncontact the most definite effort. The children's librarian must have judgment and insight,\nwhich is acquired in a degree by careful study and by experience, to be able to present\nin the possible half minute she has with a child a book which is adapted to his years and\ntaste and give him what would be his own interpretation of it, not her own, or to speak\no: the theme or the incident which has the keenest interest for him. In this way it is\npossible to open a book to a child which he would otherwise not read, and thereby arouse\nan interest in an unknown subject.\nIn comparing the scope of the work of the library with that of the schoolroom the\nvery foundations of library work are touched. The field of the teacher is the instructional;\nthe field of the children's librarian is the recreational. She has the greater task of developing interests which are spontaneous or latent. It is her opportunity to build upon these\nspontaneous interests the habit of systematic, recreative reading. Should* she force\nchildren into a conscious efifort of thought she would be infringing upon the province of\nthe school, which is study. This does not mean that she cannot arouse a boy's interest\nin electricity or a girl's in biography, but it means that she must ever follow a child's\nnatural interests, not crowd in upon him things he ought to know.\nThe library has two organized means of stimulating a child's interest — the story\nhour and the club. Here again these means have little value unless they are most carefully directed. But, if stories which have vitality are told or read to the children in the\nstory hour or the club, it creates an interest in a wider range of literature than they\nhave already.\nAlso, the chief point to consider in library work for children is the selection of the books.\nIn books for children there are two great elements. The first is the human element, the\nportrayal of life, which is the basis of books of fiction, biography, history, folklore and\nmythology. The other is the scientific element, and this is the basis of books of nature,\narts and crafts, science, etc. Books for children with the scientific element must be\njudged by the same standards as adult books of similar nature, that is, by accuracy of\nstatement. Books with the human element must be judged often by different standards\nfrom adult books. They must contain the nobler elemental human motives regardless\nof whether the actor ever lived — for with children the line between fiction and fact is a\nfalse one. The main requisition is that truth and honor should be governed by primal\nlaws, which for instance never permit a boy under any circumstances to break his word\nor tell a lie, often not a practical standard of honor in adult fiction.\nGrace Oviatt, supervisor of school libraries, Cleveland\nPublic Library.— We\nhave divided our work in the schools into three sections: (i) the high-school libraries, ■\n(2) the school libraries, and (3) classroom libraries — these are being put into both the\ngrammar schools and the primary schools.\nThe high-school work is chiefly reference work. In every high school there is a\ncollection of books which is the property of the school itself. The public library supplements this collection and furnishes the library assistant to take charge of the work. The\nlibrarians of a number of the high schools give a course in the use of reference books.\nTwo of the high schools are at some distance from the nearest branch, and they\nare extending their work to the neighborhood. They are also in cooperation with the\nteachers of the grade schools near at hand.\nThere are also the school libraries.\nThese are quite distinct from any library that\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nOF TODAY\n\n1083\n\nthe principals may have in the schools (for here most of the schools own a collection for\nthe use of the teachers and the children in the seventh and eighth grades). School libraries\nconsist of books from the main library, and the collection varies in size according to the\nwants of the teachers and of others with whom the librarian comes in contact. And for\nthis work we send out our librarians who work also with any neighboring schools which\nmay be near (often with the parochial or Lutheran schools), and among the adults in\ncommunities that might not be able to get their books from a branch. Of course there\nis a constant circulation in the district, and books are constantly being sent out by the\nmain library to supply the demands upon the school library.\nIn addition the librarian does story-telling wherever it is demanded in the rooms of\nthe building, and does reference work for the teachers, taking their demands down to the\nmain library and hunting up just such books for them as may be necessary for their work,\n— as the high-school librarian does for the high-school pupil.\nThe third division is the classroom library, and this is quite a personal work with the\nteachers, anywhere in the city. An applicant anywhere may receive a set of books, and\nshe becomes a librarian upon a small scale, and issues those books to the children of her\nroom, just as the ordinary library issues books to those who are its patrons. The work of\nthe teacher is purely voluntary. We introduce the books in the outlying schools or wherever\nwe feel that there may be a demand for them, but it is not compulsory, it is not urged.\nThe principal simply lays the plan before the teachers, for we desire a voluntary feeling\nupon the part of the teachers, since we feel that in that way we secure the best results;\nthe teacher then sends in an application blank, and on it she states what she wishes — '\neither the titles of fifty books that she would like, or the subjects that she would like particularly tohave. This we encourage even in cases where the books named are not just the\nbooks best suited to the grade, because where a teacher shows enthusiasm we feel that\nshe can be directed. The books are sent out and with them general instructions, but we\nallow the teachers to use their own judgment about methods of use. All we demand of\nthem is good care, good use and an account of the circulation. Then the teacher is at\nliberty to use the books in any manner that she thinks best — of course somewhere within\nlimitations.\nEach month the teacher is visited — ostensibly to have the circulation taken — but\nthere are many other things that enter into the personal work. The teacher asks questions\nabout the books, or she may wish to exchange some books which she has for others. There\nare many topics which come up which may be talked about at that time. We haye felt\nthat with these monthly, or bimonthly, visits a great deal can be done, because it keeps\nthe worker in touch with, the main work that is going on.\nTeachers not only make application for books, but they come to the library to make\nselection and we have then the opportunity of talking over with them what is required in\ntheir grade. If there has been a change of grade, and they are not acquainted with the\nrequirement of the grade to which they have been assigned, they are open to suggestion.\nOr, if they have changed their district, and where they have been hitherto working with\nGerman children are now working with Polish children, there is a chance for suggestion\nthat way.\nWe feel that the personal side is what counts — the chance to get the teacher to the\nlibrary and to get the library to the teacher, and then to come in contact with her as much\nas possible, to catch her spirit, to get acquainted with the schoolwork and to get the\nschool point of view. It has been our aim to have the school point of view and to have\nthe school appreciate our point of view, and we feel that the personal contact has been\nthe thing that has brought that about the most of all.\nCordelia L. O'Neill, principal of Marion School, Cleveland, Ohio. — The Marion\nSchool is largely foreign.\nWe have about 80 per cent, of children who come from Austro-\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "^o84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nHungary, Germany, Roumania, Russia, and various parts of Europe. My experience,\naltho it will be peculiar to some extent, is sufficiently typical to illustrate the work that\nis being done for the public schools by the public library.\nOur problem of taking the foreign child and converting him into an American is difficult. The first point that we make is to familiarize the child with the language; the second\nis to arouse in him patriotism for and love of America.\nWe accomplish the first in this way: The children come to us at all ages, and know\nnot one word of English. They are put into an unclassified, ungraded school and first\ntrained in the rudiments of the English language. According as they are able to proceed\nthey are sent into the other grades. Sometimes it happens that in one year the older children will pass through four grades; the younger children, of course, going very much\nslower. We do not use the school library in this class, but in the second grade and\nfrom that on up we have the classroom library. The books are numerous. They are\nsimple and are used for the purpose of familiarizing the children with the English language. We find that that is successful.\nWe gain one point.\nWe have the clubwork in the Wade Day Nursery. We do not have it in the school\nowing to lack of room. We select a certain number of children from the sixth, seventh,\nand eighth grades who on a certain day in the week go to the nursery and there we have\na story hour — boys and girls separately. Stories of biography and English literature are\nalternated with history stories. We have proven the immense advantages to be derived\nfrom this story hour. Our children cannot all attend the story hour, and at a recent\nexamination in one of the upper grades the children were asked to tell a story as a part of\ntheir examination. It was most encouraging to note the difference in the stories. Those\nwritten by the children who had time for the story hour were superior in language as well\nas in portrayal of thought. I think that, more than anything else, brought to our notice\nthe benefit that was being done by our story hour.\nMr. Brett has remarked that many college graduates are coming into our library\nservice. This is much appreciated in the work of the children who come in to the story\nhour club. So vast is the influence of the librarian who is versatile in her work, so much\nvaster than the one who is limited in her resources, that we are more than anxious to urge\nand to suggest that the women who are sent out into contact with the schools may be women\nwho are broad in education. One word, one half-hour may change the course of a child's\nentire life, if the right suggestion is given to him at the right moment.\nCaroline M. Hewins, librarian of the Public Library, Hartford, Conn.— I am\ncome from a comparatively small city, of only about 100,000 inhabitants, where we have\na circulation in our boys' and girls' room of not more than 40,000 volumes, with perhaps\n14,000 in the school branches.\nOur children, about 75 per cent, of them, are what we call \"East Side children,\" of\nforeign parentage — Jews, Italians, ahd some few Lithuanians; and we have of course\nto assist the schools in teaching them to read English readily. Sometimes the teachers\nin the evening schools bring to us grown-up boys for suitable English books.\nWe send out at the beginning of the year graded libraries to the schools that are not\nvery near the center of the city. The books stay there from the time they go out in the\nfall until the close of the school year. Then they are called in and examined for neededrepairs.\nWe are trying to send the schools, among other things, books that tell how to make\nand how to do things; and I was very much pleased one day on visiting a school when\nthe principal showed me a miniature Wild West show on the table, explaining to me that\nthis had been made by a little girl of ten years of age, and that she had gotten the idea\nout of Lena Beard's work. Things Worth Doing. We have put it in our children's room\nand mounted it, and keep it there for exhibition purposes.\nI wish I had brought with me, and I should have if I had known 1 was to speak hertr.\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depaitmeni]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nOF\n\nTODAY\n\n1085\n\nsomething which we use in the way of a picture bulletin, some very interesting costume\npictures that one of our little girls has made. She is thirteen years of age, is in the ninth\ngrade, and her father, who is a physician — a specialist in nervous diseases — is very careful\nof her and lets her go to school only one half-day, so she has half-days to amuse herself,\nand she spends these afternoons in copying figures of historical costuming. We let her\nhave anything she likes, and I have eighteen plates that she has copied in free-hand and\ncolored, from books on historical costuming — from William the Conqueror down to the\nRevolution. We have them put up as a picture bulletin in the children's room, and\nsome of the children in the other schools have wished to see what they can do too. They\ncannot do much, compared with her work, because she has a special talent for it, but a\nwhole roomful of them have been drawing Dutch pictures.\nThen we help the children in a great many other ways; and while Miss O'Neill was\nspeaking of the worker's resourcefulness and of the lack of resourcefulness in story-telling,\nI thought of something that happened to me several years ago. I have a nephew, who\nwhen he was about nine years old was very much interested in a witch story (which I\nthought was a very stupid story) and I told him another one which he liked very much.\nI was soon afterward asked to speak before a kindergarten club. As the kindergartners\nalways want something new, I went thru a great many volumes of kindergarten magazines and found the stories, many of them, unsatisfactory. So I related to them the story\nI have just alluded to, and when I came to a certain point I said \"Which of you can\nfinish this story for me ?\" There was a silence. Not a person in the room could finish\nthat story. I was asked to go to a city and speak on another occasion, I told the same\nstory, and on reaching the same point in it, I said \"Who of you can go on with this story\nfrom that point ?\" Nobody. One had a glimmering of the author. I said \"Who knows\nthe name of the story I have been telling you ?\" Not one. There was a dead silence.\nI said \"I have been telling you Sir Walter Scott's 'Lay of the Last Minstrel,' and it\nmight be well for some of you to go back to a book that was written before the last year.\"\nI have tried the story many times, I tried it before a combined meeting of teachers and\nlibrarians in the eastern part of the United States, and one librarian knew it.\nHerbert Baillie, librarian of the Library of Wellington, New Zealand. — Mr. Chairman: Although I have traveled a long ways east, I have not acquired the quick-wittedness\nthat seems to be a very desirable characteristic of the librarian; in fact all of your librarians\nseem to have it, as well as the gift of speech. Perhaps if I explain how and why I am\nhere you will let me off.\nThe fact is, that a report of your American library system has reached that far-off\ncolony of New Zealand and that report reached my committee which has the library\nspirit, and it kindly sent me to the United States to study your methods. In fact I knew\nnothing of the American library system when I took up the library work in Wellington,\nNew Zealand.\nA number of points that I have wished information on have been handled by some of\nthe speakers, but I should like if some of the other speakers would give me in a kind of\ntabulated form the reason why librarians are taking up this work, if the schools are also\ndoing it. It is a question that is being asked of me.\nRhoda Shepard, supervisor of reading-clubs, Cleveland Library. — The clubwork\narose in response to a demand on the part of the children themselves. There are in every\nneighborhood gangs of athletic boys, and groups of little girls ,who play together. These\nwere the children who, represented by their leaders, applied for the use of the clubrooms\nfor their meetings. Most of the clubs were organized according to parliamentary practice\nand the objects stated in their constitutions implied reading, debating, literary work and\nfellowship. The children themselves, and most of the constitutions, expressly stated\npleasure as the first object.\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nIn the endeavor to fulfill this first requirement, an effort was made to follow spontaneously the interests of the children. In some instances these interests lay along the line\nof their schoolwork. Subjects for debate were frequently the outgrowth of their history\nand civics lessons. One club did quite a little general reading along the line of English\nhistory, including history, biography and related fiction. Their interest in this case was\ndiscovered by their accidental finding of Tappan's In the Days of Queen Elizabeth on the\ntable when they came for their first meeting.\nCurrent events formed a ten-minute part of the program in several clubs; heroic\nverse and the stirring patriotic orations of the early Americans were delivered by the\nmembers of one club of boys. This led to the reading of some biography also. A traveltalk illustrated with stereopticon views was given in the auditorium, as the result of some\nreading in travel. One club of little girls gave their dramatized version of Stockton's\nOld Pipes and the Dryad before an audience of parents and young friends. The play was\ngiven without the aid of costume or scenery. The children simply played it thru, and\nit was very much enjoyed by both players and spectators.\nAs to the effect on the children's general reading, by the enthusiasm of one or two\nleaders among the children themselves, a whole club might be led to the general reading\nof a particular book, and in some cases to the general reading of a particular author.\nAnd altogether the objects of pleasure and literary work in combination seem to have been\nfairly possible of achievement. The only means by which the children could be held\nwere their own interests and interest — and they seemed to find these, for there were always\nmore groups waiting to be organized than could be cared for at one time.\nGeorge F. Bowerman, librarian. Public Library, Washington, D. C. — I have\nworked in two different cities. In the first of these the teachers felt that the superintendent was prodding them on the one hand to higher educational standards, to a deeper\nstudy into pedagogy, to make them more and more efficient; and the librarians on the\nother hand were thrusting things upon them, trying to make them take upon themselves\nthe work of the librarian. But when they once came to realize that the work of the library\nwas helpful to them, that the circulation of the books in the schools was inspiring interest,\nthen, gradually, they came to respond to the librarian's desire to co-operate.\nIn the city from which I came the response is almost unanimous. I am speaking\nnow from under the eaves of the Capitol where money flows out by the millions every session of Congress — but the library gets very little of it. The House of Representatives\nresolves itself every spring into a City Council for the District of Columbia — and most\nof the members go fishing on those days. But some of them who are willing to stay are\ngetting a little bit more interested each year, so that they are beginning to respond a little\nbetter. The teachers are responding because they realize that we desire to help them\nand also because they realize that they are not simply engaged in schoolwork, but in educational work, inseparable from the work of the public ibrary. They are not satisfied\nsimply to let their work rest with the public schools but they wish to aid in educating\nand molding the character of the whole community thruout life; and they have come\nto realize that to do this the library and the school must be integrated, because the library\nhas the children from twelve or fourteen years of age, on up to seventy, whereas the school,\nin most cases, stops in its work at from twelve to fourteen, so that the library has the\nbiggest chance.\nIf I had known you were going to have an exhibition of material here, I would\nhave contributed' toward i't an exhibition file of an Educational Bulletin, which we have\nprinted by the multigraph process for our local teachers. In this bulletin we list the\nforemost educational articles, and all the new educational books added to the library.\nLinda A. Eastman, vice-librarian, Cleveland Public Library. — Of course as educators, both as teachers and librarians, everyone present here is perfectly familiar with the\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCHOOL\n\nDepartment!\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nstatistics that are so startling when one first hears them; of the low age at which so many\nof our children leave school. In almost every town of size is the added problem of the\nforeign population, which is another startling proposition.\nNow the question comes, What can we do with these children in those few years ?\nThe teachers feel how short their time is. We are certain from the day that they enter\nthe school the point of contact between the school and the library should be made very\nstrong, and when the children leave the school they should be turned over to the librarian\nfor further attention; and we are trying to establish that point of contact. Every publicschool teacher and every principal thruout the city should make an opportunity when\nthe child leaves the school to impress upon that child's mind that there is still an avenue\nfor education before him in the contents of the public library.\nThe graded schools are now making this subject a feature of the graduating exercises\nand there are one or two principals who make it a point in their own addresses at that\ntime to say that the public library is a place where they will always find friends, and if not\npersonal, living, human friends, just as real friends, in the pages of the books before them;\nand if they go to any strange town in this country, they can go to the public library and\nfind friends. This year most of our branch librarians were present at the graduating\nexercises and they invited the children to get further instruction from the public library.\nAt one of our branch libraries the graduating exercises for the nearest school were held,\nand at another one, by invitation of the branch-librarian, all of the scholars were invited\nfor a special evening.\nIt is a point upon which I think both institutions can cooperate with much profit to\neach.\n\nHOW\n\nFAR\n\nSHOULD\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTEACHERS' COLLEGES SEEK TO ACQUAINT\nERS WITH THE WAYS OF ORGANIZING\nSCHOOL LIBRARIES?\nDAVID\n\nFELMLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF THE ILLINOIS\nNORMAL,\nILL.\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nALL TEACHAND USING\n\nNORMAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe purpose of the school library is to supplement, strengthen, and broaden\nthe instruction in every subject, so far as this may be done thru the aid of\nbooks.\nTo accomplish this end —\n1. The library must enable the student to use books as tools. He must\nunderstand card catalogs and indices, and be able speedily to find topics in\nbooks of reference.\n2. The library must help him to know good books, to love them, and to\nacquire the habit of reading them.\nThe recent growth of libraries has profoundly modified the modes of instruction in vogue a generation ago. At that date the textbook method\nprevailed in the elementary and secondary schools. The pupil was assigned\na set portion of the text to be mastered. In some schools the practice of rotelearning existed, and the pupil was expected to reproduce the exact words of\nthe text with the same fidelity as if he were reciting a chapter of the Bible. The\nteacher was little more than a drill master. In better schools the instructor\nwould question as to the meaning of the paragraphs studied to relate them to\nthe child's previous knowledge and would frequently supplement the next\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "logg\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nwith pertinent illustrations or additional facts drawn from his own store of\nknowledge. In the colleges the instruction was chiefly by lectures, a method\nthat originated before the art of printing, and was indeed a proper and necessary method when books were scarce and the teacher encompassed within\nhimself all the learning of the world relating to his subject. With industrious\nand faithful professors the lectures were supplemented by oral quizzes and\nexplanations, and an occasional formal written examination.\nThe textbook method still prevails in the elementary school, but the library\nhas come to supplement and enlarge. With older pupils in the high school\nand college the lecture or textbook now serves chiefly to open up the subject, to\nshow its organization, to disclose its vistas. Library readings more and more\nare expected to furnish the bulk of the detail that gives significance, reach, and\napplication to the facts or principles of the textbook or introductory lecture.\nA teacher today cannot properly organize his courses of instruction unless\nhe knows the resources of the library and the mode of using these as an auxihary in his work. Hence the study of method for which the normal school\nis supposed pecuHarly to stand must include the use of the Hbrary as an educational instrument. No teacher is qualified for the modern school unless he\nknows where to look, for what to look, and how to look, in getting information.\nThe normal student, Hke every other student, to use the reference library\nefficiently, must know it not as a mere collection of books, but as an organization. He should be given access to the shelves, he needs to know the system\nof cataloging, and the location of the various classes of books, periodicals,\nmaps, pictures, and other Hbrary material.\nHe needs acquaintance with the standard reference books — encyclopedias,\ndictionaries, gazetteers, atlases, almanacs, guidebooks, etc. The student\nshould be familiar with the special merits of each, the various appendices and\nsupplements; he should know that it is sometimes better to consult an old\nedition of a book of reference. He needs also acquaintance with the special\nhandbooks hke Harper's Book of Facts and Brewer's Reader's Handbook.\nHe needs knowledge of the various indices of periodical hterature and of\ngovernment pubhcations.\nHe needs to know the general make-up of a book, and how to use preface,\ntables of contents, and running headhnes to locate his special topics.\nHe needs to know how to study the references when found, how to take\nnotes intelligently.\nThis body of knowledge cannot be acquired and retained by the pUpil\nfrom listening to formal lectures of the librarian. It must come thru the daily\nuse of the reference library.\nIt can be acquired only thru the co-operation of teachers and Ubrarian.\nMany of the students come to the institution wholly unfamiliar with libraries.\nSome know little of books beyond their textbooks. They have never heard\nof classification numbers. How can they understand them, or recognize bound\nmagazines when their widest experience with periodicals includes only the\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nIQ89\n\nunbound copies of Wallace's American Farmer and the Ladies^ Home Journal ?\nA welcome from the librarian, and a personally conducted trip thru the library\nas she explains the larger features of the organization and arrangement, will\nbanish the sense of strangeness. But not all this needed information can be\nacquired thru trips and talks. It must come thru the daily use of the reference\nlibrary. Unless the instructors in the normal school are familiar with the\nlibrary, its contents and organization, unless they have learned to use the\nlibrary, and provide for its systematic use by their pupils, the normal-school\nstudent is not likely to become skilled in the use of the library. Normal\nteachers are supposed to be among the best of the profession; yet I suspect\nevery librarian can make a long list of the sins of such teachers — sins both of\nomission and commission. It is not uncommon for teachers to send students\nto the library with a topic stated in such vague and uncertain terms that neither\nstudents nor librarian can guess just what is wanted; to send a class of forty\nto consult a book of which the library contains but a single copy, and that\npossibly drawn out by the teacher himself; to refer a class to a single monograph, when there are possibly half-a-dozen other good ones on the same topic\n— that the teacher will himself refer to later.\nA teacher experienced in the use of the library will rarely send a whole class\nof beginners to the library to investigate a topic without himself furnishing a\nreference sheet for their use, or giving the librarian ample notice.\nTeachers may feel that they are losing valuable time when they stop to\ngive formal instruction in the use of the library in their subject. Yet we may\ndoubt whether any time is better employed. If a student makes out a bibliography bybook, chapter, and page, of the library resources touching a particular topic, or if a class prepares for its successors a card catalog of all\narticles and chapters that they have found especially helpful, along with the\nordinary information gained has come the appreciation of a new method of\nstudy.\nNearly all young students waste time in the library thru not knowing how\nto study the reference material when found. It is not proposed to set up the\nclaim that there is only one right method of studying. We are told that there\nare several excellent methods of making good coffee, and we wonder how it\nhappens that our country hotels find so many other ways of making execrably\npoor coffee. So there are many good ways of studying; the personal element\nenters in. Yet it is a fact that our students have found other and very poor\nways — it makes no difference from what state, section, or school they happen\nto come.\nThe book is scarcely open before they begin to write. Copying before\nthey have read the article thru, they write down a great many unnecessary\nwords, if indeed there is any necessity for writing down anything at all. What\nthey are really doing is taking all this time to copy the inform'ation, and then\nstudying it afterward from a somewhat illegible manuscript, instead of studying from the printed page and be done with it.\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "logo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nA way of using still more time is to take this penciled copy home and write\nit with ink in a permanent notebook. I found a girl following this method,\nher reference-book to begin with being little more extensive than her textbook.\nShe said she had wondered why it took her so long to get that lesson.\nWe find many students taking notes in this fashion in the preparation of a\nclass paper. They copy whole paragraphs intending, they say, \"to boil them\ndown\" in the soHtude of their own rooms. We have tasted the decoction.\nInstead of mastering the article and noting down the bare points, later to be\namplified and discussed in the student's own language, we find this other\nlaborious procedure in which the pupil rarely escapes from the phraseology\nof the book. The idea of studying seems to be thru the slow medium of pencil\nand paper instead of the more rapid but more intense way of thinking and\ncomprehending.\nI do not deny the value of the motor activity involved in the use of the\nnotebook — the importance of writing unfamiliar names and indicating their\npronunciation and occasionally copying sentences or whole passages of such\nbeauty, strength, or significance that they are worth committing to memory.\nA well-written notebook from a library study is second only to the notebook\nof a laboratory course, or of a series of excursions.\nI think you will agree with me that to enable students properly to know and\nuse the Hbrary merely as a library of reference needs the joint effort of librarian\nand teacher. The librarians in our normal schools, I suspect, are doing their\npart better than the teachers. Too many of us date from a period when\nlibraries were few, scant, unorganized, and little used. The trained librarian\nhad not appeared. Library science was unheard of. Furthermore the education we received was largely formal. Our language teachers cared more\nfor our knowledge of inflections and syntax than for our appreciation of Greek\nor Roman literature and life. To a student of mathematics in those days the\nlibrary could contribute little. Hence the methods by which we were taught\nand our own early practice did not reckon with the library as a large factor in\ninstruction. The growth of the library has been parallel to a change in the aim\nand method of our schools. The emphasis has gradually shifted from form\nto content. The change of emphasis required a change in the mode of instruction, a change that we, from the mere inertia of habit, are slow to make even\nwhen we recognize the inadequacy of our old ideals. The day has come when\nin selecting a teacher for a normal-school faculty we must ask these questions:\nIs the candidate a library student ? Has he received his own training under\nteachers who had made the systematic use of the library a feature of their\ninstruction ? We must ask this question because we know that the example\nand practice of our teachers is a larger factor in developing the library habit\nthan the most learned, skillful, and patient of librarians.\nThis daily recognition of the function of the library by the normal teachers\nwill possibly be the chief agency in developing right practice in normal students\nwhen they begin to teach; for the fact remains that in our early teaching we\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nIO9I\n\nproceed by imitation rather than by precept or reason. We depend far more\nfor guidance upon the example of our own teachers, than upon the educational\ndoctrine that they have inculcated.\nThe other important agency is the practice-teaching of the training-school.\nIn a good normal-school library every term's work in the practice school is\norganized around the available material in the library. The student-teacher is\nassigned to his class early enough to gain some preliminary acquaintance with\nthis material. He thus inherits a part of the experience gained by his predecessors. Thru his own independent reading he may be able to make worthy\nadditions to the reference sheets or card catalog, dealing with his term's work.\nAt all events no student-teacher should be passed unless he shows as fair a\ndegree of skill in the use of the library as he shows in his questioning, his\nlesson-planning, his assignments, his use of apparatus, or other details of\ninstruction.\nBesides this knowledge of how to use a library and the habit of using it\nboth as a student and a teacher, the normal student needs a knowledge of\ntitles, of the names of the leading poets, novelists, essayists, orators, historians,\nand scientific writers of the world; he needs to know something of their spirit,\ntheir style, their purpose, their contribution to civilization, and the titles of\ntheir leading works. A generation ago we studied Shaw's History of English\nLiterature; we learned the names of hundreds of books that we never saw.\nIt was a good deal like studying a book catalog, or undertaking to satisfy one's\nhunger by perusing the menu card. The schools have rebelled against this\nempty study. We are now studying literature itself instead of books about\nliterature. Yet there is a place for that older knowledge. We learn names of\ncountries and cities, their location, industries, products, institutions, objects\nof interest, and other characteristics, even if we do not expect to visit these\ncountries and cities. Similarly I may know of the Origin of Species that it\nwas written by Charles Darwin and pubHshed in 1859; that it was probably\nthe most influential book of the nineteenth century because it led to the general\nacceptance of the doctrine of descent and organic evolution which has so profoundly modified our thinking in every field of knowledge; that it deals especially with natural selection as the chief factor of organic evolution, that its\nleading chapters deal with the ''Variation of Plants\" and \"Animals under\nDomestication,\" with \"Variation under Nature,\" with the \"Struggle for\nExistence Due to Overproduction,\" with the \"Survival of the Fittest,\" with the\n\"Laws of Variation,\" with \"Geological and Geographical Distribution,\" and\nwith the \"Difficulties of the Theory.\" This sort of knowledge of the book is\npossessed by hundreds who have never read the book thru. It may be called\nthe librarian's knowledge of the book, for some people say that a librarian never\nreads a book — barring novels. But it is a form of knowledge of high value\nto one who may need some day to turn to this information of direct others to\nit. It is a sort of literary map that we all need acquaintance with if we are to\nfind our way in the world of thought.\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOg2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nA special field for the teacher is the knowledge of juvenile books. Some\nhe may know and love at first hand. If he is to read to his class the chapter\nthat will make the children hungry for it all — and read it in right fashion — he\nmust himself have assimilated the book. But aside from the few that the\nnormal student can thus study is a much larger list of trustworthy books that\nhe can recommend to parents or himself select for his pupils. In my own\npersonal experience as a bookbuyer, I have found some difficulty in getting\nreliable lists. I have bought books for the school library that the children\nwould not read. Since, in my older days, I have seen the methods used by\nauthors and publishers to get their books upon reading-circle lists, I do not\nwonder that some chafif gets into the cleanest measure of wheat. The market\nabounds in picturebooks poor in line and color, in fairy stories without the\ngood old flavor, in books of fiction that teach children to despise their elders,\nin collections of verse that are merely cheap sentiment in rhyme, in nature\nbooks weakened by personification until they are neither good, true, nor beautiful. The normal schools should co-operate in a patient and thoro experimental investigation of children's books to be conducted without fear or\nfavor.\nIn addition to these lines of knowledge relating to the use and choice of\nbooks, every normal student should go forth equipped with some of the special\nknowledge of the librarian. As a teacher he will find himself in one of the\nthree types of schools: either with a public library to be worked with, or with a\nschool library to be organized and used, or yet with no library in existence —\none to be bought.\nIn any case he needs more or less knowledge of books from the librarian's\npoint of view: how to select, order, accession, classify, catalog, label; and\nrepair them; a knowledge of paper, type, and bindings; of pictures, and\nperiodicals; of charging systems, and library laws.\nIf the teacher is to work with a public library, he needs to select books to\nbe taken to his school, if this practice be permitted; he should be able to find\nhis way thru the public library, to use its catalog, to read its labels, to understand and explain its laws and charging system. If a school library is to be\norganized and managed, the knowledge needed will justify a formal course in\nthe normal school. Besides the points previously mentioned which will require\nmore than a dozen lessons are many others of high value in developing a school\nlibrary: government and state publications and other inexpensive sources of\nlibrary material; the mounting, labeling, and filing of pictures, the care of\npamphlets and newspaper clippings, and many minor points of library economy\nfamiliar to all librarians. Without this knowledge appUed to its management,\nthe school library remains a mere collection of books, falling far short of its\nhighest usefulness.\nIf the considerations set forth in this paper be true, it must follow that all\nteachers be thoroly instructed in the use of the school library, and that all\nexcept those destined to work in our larger cities in co-operation with public\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nIO93\n\nlibraries under trained librarians need a knowledge of library organization and\nadministration.\nProbably the class excepted would use the library more frequently and\nmore intelligently because of this course in library economy.\nDISCUSSION\nMilton Frye, instructor in English, McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo. — I\nmust express my hearty approval of what President Felmley has said concerning the\nability of the normal student, or prospective teacher, to dispose of the mechanical details\nconnected with the modern school library. The well-equipped teacher must be able to get\nthe \"right book to the right pupil at the right time.\"\nHowever, I wish to emphasize especially one point that was referred to at least twice\nin the paper. The normal student must, in addition to developing executive expertness,\nreceive a positive inspiration. It has been urged that education is not so much the\nacquisition of knowledge nor the acquisition of power as it is the cultivation of an attitude.\nIf this is true anywhere under the sun, it is true in the preparation of the prospective\nteacher.\nMost of us earnestly hope that the perfunctory teacher may soon become prehistoric.\nHowever distant the realization of that hope may be, one thing, at least, is certain. The\nreal teacher, today, is very slow about confessing, even to himself, that he uses a library\nmerely because he is unfortunate enough to possess one and, therefore, must meet the\nsituation by using it. Nor does he constantly exclaim at the addition of burdens to the already over-worked teacher. On the contrary, he welcomes the library as an opportunity. It\nmeans that his attempts at the guidance of young lives may be made tenfold more effective.\nTo prepare normal students best to receive this positive inspiration it is absolutely\nnecessary to remove some of the prejudices that have become the bugbear of honest and\nprogressive educators. Let me mention a few of the misconceptions dangerous to the\nprospective teacher. First of all is the notion of the all-sufficiency of the teacher in the\nschoolroom. The teacher who insists that all the ideas acquired by his pupils bear the\nstamp of his own personality needs new light upon his own limitations and the possibilities\nof young minds. But at this point some modest self-effacing brother mildly protests that\nhe is not guilty of the sin of slavery to his own all-sufficiency. He works along the lines\nlaid down by the best authorities. He is constantly on the lookout for the up-to-date\nin textbooks. And all the time his servitude may be none the less serious, for it is merely\nuncalculating slavery to the text.\nThen, too, the prospective teacher deserves relief from the fetishism which seems to\nsurround the study of grammar in the grades. A startling amount of the time spent upon\nthe study of analytical grammar is wasted. Pupils come into the high school and are\nable to read with appreciation, not because they have studied grammar. They are able\nto speak and write good English, not because of their experience in \"parsing\" and \"analyzing,\" but in spite of it. The difficulty with the study of grammar in the grades is that\nthe excessive abstract analysis required is beyond the interest and the comprehension of\nthe ordinary pupil.\nWe are guilty of this fondness for analysis in the high school as well. A play from\nShakespeare is studied. Eighteen weeks are spent upon it. Every error in English,\nevery anachronism is noted. Every allusion classical, mythological, historical, or literary\nis worn threadbare. And when the process is completed we tell the pupils that is Shakespeare, whereupon a perfectly normal boy somewhere in the rear of the room ventures to\nremark: \"Well, Diamond Dick fer me.\"\nThe interest of the normal student, then, demands that these misconceptions be\nlemoved or at least modified.\nNow let us try to be specific as to what this positive inspira-\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "I094\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ntion includes. Nothing more nor less than a great desire to teach by understanding and\nsympathizing with each pupil. The prospective teacher will expect to know each pupil\nso well that he will understand just what that pupil needs. The relation between the\npupils and the teacher will be so cordial that the teacher will always respect the likes and\ndislikes of each pupil. In turn the pupils will respond most heartily to the suggestions\nof the teacher. As the pupil prepares his lesson the teacher will guide him to just the\nmaterial he needs. In all his reading the pupil will have the careful supervision of the\nteacher, but the teacher will never do the pupil's work for him. In the end the pupil\nwill acquire a love of books that will remain with him to the last of his days. His attitude\nwill be established. All this is merely a part of the vision of the teacher with the positive\ninspiration.\nAnother of the functions frequently set for education is the preparation of the pupil,\nor student, to interpret the phenomena around him — phenomena of whatever character:\nscientific, historical, literary, or social. Too often we are satisfied merely to tell a pupil\nhow to interpret and fail utterly to show him how to interpret. Just here we might very\nprofitably receive a suggestion from our co-workers, the librarians. Some one has gone\nso far as to assert that, in organizing children's classes and arranging the story hour, librarians have been usurping the function of the public-school teachers. Whose fault is it ?\nWhile we have been thrusting upon unwilling pupils the husks of knowledge ad nauseam\nour infinitely wiser friends have been supplying the substance that vitalizes and energizes.\nToo often we have forced children to neglect and despise books while our library workers\nhave been teaching the boys and girls to love them. The secret of their success lies in the\nart of adaptation.\nMaud A. Goodfellow, librarian and instructor in library economy, State Normal\nSchool, Fitchburg, Mass. — It seems to me that the object of library instruction in the\nnormal school is twofold, and that what we give to the normal students in library instruction should be in reference to these two objective points: (i) The value of such work to\nthe normal-school student as an individual and more particularly as a teacher; (2) The\nvalue of such work to the children she is to teach. I emphasize the indirect value of such\nwork to the children for this is an age when the needs of children are receiving conscientious\nattention.\nWe began our work in library instruction with the normal-school students at Fitchburg, Mass., two years ago. In the first few lessons the students are made acquainted\nwith the resources of the normal-school library by being given a list of books, then a list\nof book numbers — they to find the books, writing out a short description of each —\nthe description being such as to identify the book in its most important uses. The numbers\ngiven are those of books which it is desirable that the student should know and which\nthey will find helpful in their work as teachers.\nA few lessons are spent on classification and cataloging — how to make out a card\ncatalog, etc. When we consider that almost all libraries use the Dewey system of\nclassifying and numbering books — and that nearly all libraries have card catalogs —\nit is certainly time well spent to give our future teachers an idea of classification and\ncataloging — to say nothing of the knowledge of books (and especially of how to get at the\nscope and content of a book) that such work in classifying and cataloging will give them.\nTwo lessons are given on trade bibliography, the purchasing of books.\nSeveral lessons are given on the use of reference books, such as the dictionaries,\nencyclopedias, periodical indices, biographical reference books, Statesman's Year Book,\nLippincott's Geographical Gazetteer, Libtary of the World's Best Literature, and other books.\nSometimes in this work questions are given, involving the use of a certain book in the\nlibrary — the students to find (without consultation with one another) the book in which the\nanswers may be found — and the book is then discussed in class. Sometimes the practice\nwork follows the talk about the book.\nTwo lessons are given on the care of books, the mending of books, and book-binding —\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nIO95\n\neach student having practice-work in mending books, as well as taking care of the books\nin the normal-school library.\nThe course in library instruction at the Fitchburg Normal School also includes\nlessons on each of the following: the make-up of a book, the purpose of its various parts;\nmaking of a bibliography; history of books and of libraries; library-extension work,\nespecially work done with children. Considerable time is spent in discussing the work\ndone with children in the schools in different places in the line of library instruction, and\nhow different librarians cooperate with the teachers in interesting children in the library\nand in books. The students in our normal school come from many different cities and\ntowns and we are thus able to get accounts of the work done by a number of different\nlibraries.\nThe course also includes a lesson on the collecting, mounting, and classifying of\npictures and clippings. The students bring such material as they may have and are\nshown how the material may be best filed away so as to be easily accessible at any moment\nwhen desired for use.\nIn closing I will say that I believe library instruction should be given to the children\nin our elementary schools and to the students in our normal schools because of its practical\napplication. Children, who know how much information a plain unabridged dictionary\noffers and how to get this information in the easiest way, will consult the dictionary more\nfrequently, after leaving school, than they otherwise would. Children, who know how\nto use a book and the purpose of its various parts, who have had instruction in the method\nof getting facts from books, who have had practice in finding out about things in more\nthan one book, will naturally use books as tools in after life, when they wish to find out\nabout anything. Children, who have formed the library habit and who take out books\nand magazines to read while in school, will have formed a habit that will relieve the monotony of their daily work, and this habit will also tend to their educational and cultural growth.\nEdward Everett Hale says \"The difference between an educated person and one\nnot educated is that the first knows how to find what he wants and the other does not.\"\nI believe that the objects of a course in library instruction in a normal school should\nbe to learn which book to use, and how and when to use it; to discover the main trails\nand guide posts in learning to use books and libraries; to discover how to teach children\nto care for books, to use books as tools, and to form the habit of reading books; and always\nto correlate this library work with the course of study.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nTOPIC: THE METHODS OF ADMINISTERING PUBLIC LIBRARIES FOR THE BENEFIT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nJAMES\n\nH.\n\nCANFIELD,\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\n[Stenographic Report]\n\nThe United States stands today as the foremost exponent of western civilization— whether that be considered from the standpoint of civic life or social\nlife: better, perhaps, recognizing civic life as simply the administrative side\nof social life. This western civilization we believe to be a true and lasting\ncivilization because its fundamental characteristic seems scientific, philosophic,\nsane, and enduring. That is, that the truest and most lasting civilization is the\nstate or condition of living together in mutual helpfulness.\nAs a people we have always recognized this fundamental principle of cooperation and participation in all civic and social ajffairs. With us, this state-\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntLibrarj\n\nment is no empty sound. More or less consciously, more or less completely\nfrom the signing of the contract in the little cabin of the ''Mayflower\" down\nto the last presidential convention, theoretically always and practically nearly\nalways, we have believed that our strength lies in the intelligent and active\ncooperation and participation of each individual citizen in all public affairs\nand in the development of each individual citizen to the utmost possible, in\norder that this participation and cooperation may be more efl&cient.\nHardly knowing just what the future of the movement was to be, our\nfore-fathers established the public school. Yet it was as late as 1835\nbefore the true and modem form of this institution began to appear.\nFrom that day on, however, it has secured an increasing hold upon the interest,\nthe confidence, and the support of the entire American people — not always a\nlike devotion in all parts of the country, but a very general recognition of the\nneed of education of the entire public if American democracy was to abide.\nLargely because of an early acceptance of the fundamental principles just\nreferred to, and because of the development of the public school and its extraordinary efficiency in the uplift of the individual, we have come into a century\nwhich has power as its distinctive hall-mark. Just as we speak of the Golden\nAge, the Bronze Age, the Age of Steam, and thus variously describe different\nperiods in the history of mankind — in this twentieth century, and in this country, we have an Age of Power. It is power that is large, strenuous, optimistic,\nand free: power manifesting itself as never before manifested, in organization: and organization developed as never before, because of the extraordinary development of the individual and of all individuals.\nBut we have learned that power is only safe, in the individual citizen, in\nindustrial organization, or in civic life, when the individual or the community\nexercising power has itself under constant and intelligent self-control. Otherwise, power is simply a menace — dangerous to the individual exercising it,\ndangerous to the community in which it is exercised, dangerous to the community upon which it is exercised.\nSide by side with this development of the individual, this marvelous increase\nof power, has come a very general but not yet sufficient recognition of mutual\ninterdependence — of the need of mutual helpfulness. Send a half dozen\nbright college boys to the largest blackboard with instructions to note in the\nbriefest possible way, each by a single word perhaps, the callings or industries or\ntrades upon which even a single morning meal depends — and you will have the\nboard crowded full long before the next meal is ready. Undertake when you are\non a railway journey to recall all those upon whom the safety and convenience\nof that journey depend, directly and indirectly — not forgetting to include the\nore in the mines, the work of grading and track-laying, etc. — and you will find\nyourself at your jpurney's end before the Hst is complete, and you will have had\na busy day at that. Thoughtfully and intelligently expand this little bit\nof research until it covers the life of a day. of the waking hours of a day, and\nif you are not humble and possessed by a sense of dependence on both God and\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nIO97\n\nman long before you have reached the end of your investigation, then you need\nan old-time camp-meeting conversion. It is absolutely impossible for the\nstrongest and most powerful to escape from this dependence, even tho he\nescape from a sense of it— for a time. Leaders may only hope for true and\nlasting success when they have intelligent — and because intelligent — ^faithful,\nfollowers. Only intelligent followers can really be efficient followers. Both\nleaders and followers need to keep this constantly in mind.\nThis interdependence, resting back as it must upon a reasonably complete\nappreciation of the work of each by each, of the necessity of each to each,\ncreates a constant demand for intelligence, and for very large intelligence.\nIt is particularly necessary that men should be thus intelligent, in order that\nthey may satisfy their desires — and by giving to normal desire normal and\nlegitimate satisfaction, increase desire and advance and refine it, thus stimulating the individual to still greater and more efficient effort. Men need this\nintelligence in order to appreciate the value or lack of value of the tasks and\nundertakings of others. Each day of the three hundred and sixty-five of each\nyear simply places upon each and every unit in American society a constantly\nincreasing demand for constantly increasing knowledge. More than ever\nbefore in the history of this country do we need to be canny — in the original\nsense of that word. In a very true sense, tho not perhaps in the old campmeeting sense, we all need to get the power.\nThe common schools of the country, as we all know, have already accomplished much along the lines of individual development indicated. But at\nbest, the common schools hold the American boy or the American girl only\na trifle more than five school years. This is far too narrow a portal through\nwhich to enter upon successful citizenship.\nJust as we discover this, and wonder how the work of the school may be\nenlarged and supplemented, we find the American public library right at our\nhand, ready for the task. Its constant mission, its highest privilege, is to\ncomplete what the school has begun: to furnish education, information,\ninspiration, and recreation to the entire community thru all the years of\nadult life. Neither to teachers on the one hand, nor to librarians on the other,\ndoes this statement need enlargement. These two classes of citizens, at\nleast, have come to understand that we must accept the public library as an\nintegral part of the great scheme of public and free education.\nWe are here this morning, both as teachers and librarians, to discuss quite\ninformally the possibilities of the ministration of the public library to the public\nschool — in order that when the child leaves the public school he may already\nknow the value of the public library, and may feel assured of its friendly\nservice through all his later life.\nDISCUSSION\nEdwin White Gaillard, Circulation Department, New York Public Library. —\nIf librarians hope ever to have real cooperation with schools they first must be able to\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOqS\n\nnational\n\neducation\n\nASSOCIATIOJSf\n\n[Library\n\nmeet reasonable demands from schools. They must have suitable books for both teachers\nand children, and the rules of the library must not only enable but encourage the use of\nthese books. The library must see that every teacher and pupil in the schools, public,\nprivate, corporate, parochial, trade, art, and so on, understands the attitude of the library\nin the matter.\nThe New York Public Library is attempting to meet these requirements by letting\nteachers have as many books as they need \"without limit as to number,\" as say the rules,\nthe books to be retained for six months, if desired; by very liberal purchases of books for\nteachers when the supply of the library is not equal to the demand; by the purchase of\nbooks to the extent of $10,000 for teachers' and pupils' use since January, 1908; by having\nan assistant from each branch library make frequent visits to the schools near each branch;\nby maintaining in every public school and in many other schools, colleges, and universities\nregular bulletin boards for the posting of notices from the library, of interest to teachers\nand pupils; by an attempt to meet the reference demand from the pupils of elementary\nschools by installing as rapidly as possible such reference collections as will enable a boy\nor girl always to find in the library, never \"out,\" just the book needed to help in the work\nof the schools. This reference collection is designed also to be a reference library for\nchildren, even apart from their school needs, containing books not only on the usual\nschool subjects, but also on all manner of interests of boys and girls. The collection numbers about a thousand volumes and has this year been placed, in part, in nine of the branch\nlibraries. In order that all pupils may know of this work, a large placard has been printed\nand posted in every classroom of the five upper grades in the elementary schools. The\ncollection also includes a number of books for high-school students. When this collection\nis complete in all branches, when the library is able to respond to the real demands of\npupils and teachers, and not to a carefully specified demand — specified by the library, that\nis to say — then we may hope to have real use by the schools.\nH. N. Parsons, head of the School Department, Buffalo Public Library. — The chief\nwork to be emphasized in the cooperative work between the Buffalo Public Library and\nthe Buffalo public schools is that it clearly is cooperative: the schools undertaking the\ndistribution of library books in order to broaden and strengthen the formal course of\nstudy; the library carrying the whole administrative expenses of selection, purchase,\narrangement, and distribution for the sake of the undoubted economic saving in serving\nso large a body of citizens in so compact a manner, but still further for the sake of awakening in all children love for good books and, especially, to awake it in those who must, from\nforce of circumstances, be denied a long period of formal education in youth, and to teach\nthem that by the use of the resources of the public library they may continue that education during their whole lives.\nOn account of insufficient funds the library is unable to undertake the administration\nof school libraries thruout the city. Thirty-nine out of the sixty-two schools are\nprovided for by the library and the pro rata amount of money for these schools raised by\ncity and state for miscellaneous books in the schools is turned over to the library. This\nfund, however, scarcely suffices to buy the necessary reference books for the use of teachers,\nand the public library fund must be used to purchase, keep intact, and increase the 35,000\nvolumes used in classroom libraries.\nThe selection and purchase of books is made by the library, and all the skill and\nexperience of the specialists on its staff are drawn upon for this purpose, but suggestions\nand information from the school authorities, whether superintendents or teachers, are\nsought and welcomed. All discoverable first-rate books which broaden the formal work\nof the school are used, but a large proportion of the best children's books in general literature isadded.\nThe 35,000 volumes are divided into 732 small libraries and these are sent to the\ngrade rooms in the schools at the beginning of the year. They are changed once during\nthe school year, in February.\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] HOW\n\nTO MAKE\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nSERVICEABLE\n\n1099\n\nThe schools served by the library are chosen by the superintendent, and are in general\nthe schools in outlying districts and those having the largest numbers of children of foreign\nparentage.\nThe teachers make the very simple records of the books as they go into the children's\nhands, but the library's school department makes the count and compilation of all statistics.\nEsther Straus, head of the Children's Department, Cincinnati Public Library. —\nThe Public Library of Cincinnati cooperates with the schools in the following ways:\nClassroom libraries are distributed, thru which it is aimed to supply the child with\nsupplementary \"culture reading\" and not supplementary textbooks. No more than\nthree copies of one book are included in a class-room library. Teachers are granted\nspecial cards upon which they may draw six books other than fiction for their personal\nuse. Colored photographs, mounted prints, stereoscope and stereopticon pictures are\nalso loaned. For the teachers following the courses of the Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle,\nsets containing six copies of a book are loaned, these sets circulating among the different\nlocal reading-circles.\nThe principals' association and many teachers' clubs hold their meetings in our\nclubrooms and several of the extension courses of the University of Cincinnati are given\nin our auditoriums.\nSome of the public schools have bulletin boards on which the library posts the weekly\nbroadsides and other library news and our auditoriums are frequently used by teachers\nfor illustrated geography, nature and history lessons.\nWe visit the schools for registration and give talks on the library and its use to the upper\ngrades.\nMost of the bulletins used in our children's rooms are made by the art department of\none of the high schools, the head of the art department of this school having organized a\nclass in original designing which is based upon the making of bulletins for the library.\n\nHOW\n\nTO MAKE\nTHE\nLIBRARY\nSTUDENTS\nOF SCHOOL\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nMORE\nSERVICEABLE\nAGE\nFROM\nTHE\nVIEW-POINT\n\nLLOYD\n\nE.\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWOLFE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSAN\n\nANTONIO,\n\nTO\n\nTEXAS\n\nNot many decades ago the opinion prevailed almost universally that it was\nthe function of the school to teach pupils how to read, while it was the function\nof a second institution, the library, working independently of the school, to\nafford these pupils, especially after the completion of their school course, an\nopportunity to read books dealing in detail with all phases of race-achievement.\nDuring the last few decades, we have been rapidly breaking away from this\nidea, both in theory and practice, thru the use of supplementary books,\nschool libraries, public-library lists put into the hands of the pupils, branch\nlibraries, and books especially suited to pupils sent out from the library to all\nthe schools.\nThis last — the sending out of suitable books to all the schools — marks the\nclimax of school serviceability on the part of the Hbrary. These books can be\nmade much more serviceable by indicating by pages their relation to the\nvarious schoolroom topics, and to pupils of different types or 'temperaments.\nAs far as I have been able to learn, comparatively little has been done to this\nlast end. Joint local committees from the libraries and schools could do\nconsiderable in this field; a joint committee of the National Library Asso-\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nciation and the National Education Association, mucli more. While great\ngood would result from the joint work of a committee from these two great\nassociations or from a persistent and well-organized effort on the part of either\nassociation, the work would be handicapped: (i) because it is impossible to\nfind stimulating, scholarly, pedagogic books bearing upon all the principal\nschoolroom topics and suited to the grades; (2) because teachers as a class are\nnot well read in the best of such books now on the market; (3) because more\nor less difficulty would be experienced in agreeing upon the vital schoolroom\ntopics.\nTo the above handicap I wish now to address myself. By general consent,\nthe end of education is social efficiency. If the pupil is to be prepared for a\nmaximum of social efficiency, he must, in addition to observation, experiment,\ndoing, and the various kinds of expression, be brought into vital and stimulating contact, thru books and pictures, with the fundamental lines of\nrace-achievement from primitive beginnings. I say from primitive beginnings,\nbecause only in this way can the learner catch the spirit of race-achievement\nand acquire power for individual achievement. At each step of its progress,\nthe race, under the inspiration of a master, has pictured some form of wellbeing, and has set about devising means for its realization. The pupil having,\nthru books and pictures, been brought into vital contact with a multitude of\nconcrete cases of race-achievement — past and present — is likely to possess the\nmotive and power to utilize fully the civilization which he has inherited, and\npossibly to add to it.\nThen the problem would be to prepare inspiring books, suited to the\ngrades, on all great lines of race-achievement, for food, clothing, shelter, fuel,\ntransportation, means for the transmission of intelligence, and last, the subduing of the baser appetites and passions, and the cultivation of loftier desires\nand aspirations in their stead.\nThe above scheme would call for books on race-achievement in textiles,\ndyes, leather, felts, furs, meats, breads, vegetables, fruits, nuts, beverages,\ncondiments, oils, woods, metals, stone, brick, terra cotta, cements, porcelain,\nfuels, heating and ventilation, lighting, and vessels, land vehicles, mails, telegraphs, telephones, phonographs, sewer systems, water systems, fire departments, police departments, sanitation and hygiene in home and municipality,\nuse of water for navigation power and irrigation, use of steam and electricity\nfor power, bridging of streams, domestication of plants and animals, progress\nof the race in the protection of person and property and in civic cooperation\ngenerally, the use of quantity for business, commercial, industrial, and scientific\npurposes, etc.\nUnless the above-proposed books have spirit, secured thru keeping wellbeing as a motive in the forefront, and thru the marshaling of facts historically and dramatically, they will not give their readers the increased social\nefficiency desired; they might result rather in overburdening the memory\nof the pupil, as well as the course of study.\nWhile probably more books have\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nHOW\n\nTO MAKE\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nSERVICEABLE\n\niioi\n\nbeen written upon the above topics during the last two decades than in the\ndozen decades preceding — some of them excellent, many of them good — still\nvery many of them lack spirit, scholarship, unity, or proportion. Many of\nthem bear unmistakable evidence of hasty preparation and copious clipping\nfrom cyclopedias, and from books of travel, biography, history, civil government, and science too difficult for pupils of the grades. The great fault with\nmany of these books is that no one mind has given unity, proportion, and\nspirit to them. Only organized subject-matter can have spirit. In addition\nto the above faults in the books, all the fundamental lines of race-achievement\nare not covered by books suited to the grades.\nPermit me to illustrate the spirit that comes from the historical treatment.\nThe race, in search of clothing, makes threads and interlaces them — spins and\nweaves — with the unaided fingers, later with wheels spinning one thread at a\ntime, and hand looms, and still later — after the middle of the eighteenth\ncentury — with complicated machinery, whose blessings the world owes to\nHargreaves, Arkwright, Cartwright, Crompton, and Watt. These inventions\nincrease efficiency in this department of industry more than a hundred-fold,\nso that those employed in this industry in civilized countries turn out a greater\nproduct than could be turned out without these inventions, if the entire population devoted itself to this industry. A similar increase of social efficiency\nobtains in hundreds of other fields of human endeavor. Is it not an inspiration\nfor a pupil vividly to realize that he has multiplied his social efficiency one\nhundred times by being the heir of all the ages ?\nSupplementary to tracing the history of an industrial process and of raw\nmaterial to a finished product, typical examples of local concrete conquest\nof an environment to well-being should be worked out with sufficient fulness\nto give motive to the learner to conquer his own environment. Good examples\nof such local conquest are: New York City's getting the surplus population\nfrom Manhattan Island to its suburbs by means of rapid transit; the city\n(girt with salt water) getting fresh water for its millions of inhabitants; and\nSalt Lake Valley and Southern California successfully subduing the aridity\nof those regions.\nBut all industrial treatment, whether tracing an industrial process historical y or raw material to a finished product, goes back to natural resources —\nheat, water, soil, ore, wind, forest, waterfall. These natural resources lend\nthemselves readily to a vital treatment. Back of the soil are the disintegrating\nagencies that are making it. Back of the moisture are the clouds that have\ndrunk their fill from distant bodies of water and have been borne inland by\nwinds.\nAs to the elementary natural science — nature-studies — the foregoing list\nof topics covers most that is fundamental in man's conquest of the kingdoms\nof nature to his well-being. And the beauty of this conquest is that it is neverending. We have been accustomed to point to the domestication of animals\nand plants as finished conquests; but the creations of Luther Burbank, the\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "J102\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ndiscovery of the part the mosquito plays as a disease-carrier, and the rapidly\ngrowing knowledge of germs, indicate that the race has only fairly begun its\nconquest of the plant and animal kingdoms. Primitive and savage man batded\nwith the large animals. Civilized man batdes with animals that are infinitely\nsmall. We are learning that, while a multitude of lions turned loose might\ndestroy their thousands, the countless army of infinitely small animals destroy\ntheir hundreds of thousands.\nI have named one great fact in the field of nature — man's conquest of\nnature to his well being. The other great fact in this field is the animal's and\nthe plant's conquest of their environment, to secure nutrition and the propagation of species. There is a world of interesting and educative reading-material\n— ^for the grades — in the inter-relations of animals and their conquest of, and\nresponses to, their environment; the preying of one animal upon another, and\ntherefore, the use of ' ne animal, as the bird, to exterminate others, as injurious\ninsects; the preparation of an'mals for winter and for spring; the ingenious\ndevices employed to get foods or to escape from an enemy; the use of organs —\nfin, horn, trunk, gill, wing, web-foot, integument, song — to serve the animal's\nwell-being. The plant world furnishes a like wealth of material in its interrelations and respo ses to environment.\nHistory and civil government lend themselves admirably for readingmaterial in the grades. Stimulating books on the pioneer life of this country\nand of primitive peoples will be read with interest in the fourth and fifth grades.\nFrom six to ten books should be devoted to the history of this country in order\nto give that detail necessary to inspire and move the pupil. If the pupil's\nsocial efficiency is to be greatl/ increased thru the study of physiology he\nshould read at least a half-dozen books dealing vitally with the bodily functions, hygiene, sanitation, care of the sick, and physical culture in its relation\nto physiology.\nThere should be at least a half-dozen books covering the business transactions out of which the arithmetic problems arise. This would not only\ngi^e motive for the solution of the problems, but would acquaint the pupil\nwith the problems as they will arise in life, together with a knowledge of their\nlife-setting. In literature there is no dearth of classics suited to the pupils\nof the grades, but not enough of them are read to form a taste for such reading.\nI anticipate the criticism that the foregoing historical treatment is too\ndifficult for pupils of the grades; that it will not interest them. The answer\nto this is that it does interest them where given a fair trial, and that a priori\nsuch dynamic treatment is much more closely related to the pupil's life interests than is the statics of the ordinary course of study. Besides, such books\nshould not only be copiously illustrated, but resort should be had to story, and\nto dialogue in which characters represent historical periods, countries, or occupations. There are those who favor ample treatment of present industrial\nactivities, but who oppose the treatment of the industrial past. While I would\nmake ample use of the commercial and industrial life of contemporary peoples\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nHOW\n\nTO\n\nMAKE\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nSERVICEABLE\n\n1103\n\nlow in the scale of civilization and high in that scale, I do not think this can in\nany way take the place of a knowledge of the triumphal march of the race from\nignorance, isolation, poverty, and weakness, to intelligence, cooperation,\nwealth, and power.\nBesides, the pupil is surfeited with the historical in military achievement.\nIs achievement in the arts of peace of less moment? To a civilized people\nshould there be more inspiration in military heroes than in Elias Howe, Fulton,\nor Goodyear?\nI anticipate the further criticism that the common-school course of study\nis already overloaded. The answer to this is that while the above scheme\nwould greatly increase the number of pages to be mastered, it would also\ngreatly increase the pupil's motive and interest, so that a half-dozen pages of\nconcrete, well-organized detail would be as easily mastered as one page of\ncondensed textbook matter.\nIt goes without saying that the preparation and use of the above books will\nencounter obstacles and difficulties ; but over against these must be set a condition of affairs not creditable to a century that is the heir of all the past;\nnamely, expenditure for libraries and public schools unprecedented in any\nformer age, both the library and the school professedly instituted for the purpose of increasing social efficiency; a general recognition that a liberal use of\nthe printed page — not in homeopathic doses — a page or two at a lesson — is one\nof the chief means by which the adult is expected to increase his social efficiency; and yet reading, in school, dry condensed matter that tends strongly\nto create a distaste for the printed page; and frequently reading, out of school,\neither very little or much that inspires hopes, aspirations, and sensations that\neither cannot, or should not, be realized. Comparatively few who have completed ahigh-school course, during after-life, take pleasure in reading books of\ntravel, history, biography, natural science, industrial achievement, or English\nclassics.\nOn account of our failure to give the pupil a natural course of reading\nduring his school life, he fails to get an idea of the true function of reading.\nHe comes to look upon even the hasty, careless reading of a book as an end\nwithin itself, instead of a means to bring him into vital contact with the fundamental lines of race-achievement, and this latter as a means to the supreme\nend of social efficiency. To this lack of a systematic course in reading during\nschool life is due, in a large measure, the reading dissipation of those who are\nin constant quest of the latest book, and who fly to each new book as tho\nit contained a mine of precious ore never before brought to light. A good\ncourse in reading ought to teach the pupil that the fundamental and essential\nfacts in the various fields of human achievement and thought are limited in\nnumber. Even in literature, writers have shown how the same situations have\nbeen worked over and over again from Aeschylus to Shakespeare. Those who\ndissipate in reading, who read for a new and intoxicating sensation, should be\nbrought to realize that only such sensations and sentiments as inspire one\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n^jQ^\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nto greater social efficiency are really worthy of a refined and cultured\nperson.\nThen, under the above scheme, the pupils would read intelligently from\nforty to fifty pages a day, say an average of twenty books of four hundred\npages each a year, in Grades IV to VIII inclusive — one hundred books during\nthe five years; also, a large number of primary books in Grades I to III —\nbooks full of illustrations relating the child to race-conquest.\nOne or two hundred such books as this paper contemplates, supplied either\nby the library or by the school, or by both, supplementary to the present schoolbook course would result in incalculable good. But in the evolution of human\nprogress the time ought to come when these books would supersede the present\ntextbook course.\nThe above discussion has been confined to the eight grades below the high\nschool. With certain modifications I believe the discussion is applicable\nto the high school. I believe the high-school graduate, and especially the\npupil who drops out before graduation, would possess much greater power\nif the course in literature, history, civics, geography, and mathematics consisted ofseveral times as much reading-matter as at present, and in the natural\nsciences, bookkeeping, domestic science, domestic art, and manual training\nfor boys consisted of, not only a much larger body of reading, but of much\nmore abundant concrete practice.\nHOW\n\nTO MAKE\nTHE\nLIBRARY\nMORE\nSERVICEABLE\nSTUDENTS OF SCHOOL AGE— FROM THE LIBRARY\nWORKERS VIEW-POINT\nEFFIE\n\nL.\n\nTO\n\nPOWER,\nINSTRUCTOR\nIN LIBRARY\nUSE AND CHILDREN'S\nLITERATURE,\nCLEVELAND\nNORMAL\nSCHOOL\n\nHabits of speech indicate habits of thought. Since we speak of the teacher's\nview-point and the librarian's view-point we must be conscious of a difference\nin perspective. This does not mean a deviation in ideals or a misconception\nof each other's work. The ultimate aim of school and library is the same:\nthe full, rounded development of individual character. Toward this end a\nbody of scientific method has been evolved for each body. The library is no\nlonger considered as a mere adjunct of the school, altho it supplements and*\ncomplements the school at every turn, but as operating in its own educational\nfield. School and library hold one educational ideal but we have the teacher's\nviewpoint and the librarian's viewpoint since we can catch and fix the everchanging rays of color, coming from the light of individual experience in each\nfield. The stained-glass window appears in its true form to those without\nbut with what difference in radiancy of detail to the one within. With this\nthought in mind, I will discuss the means of cooperation which seem to me to\nbe most helpful to children in the elementary schools and students in normal\nschools who are preparing to teach in the grades.\nWhat I shall say is from\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nHOW\n\nTO\n\nMAKE\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nSERVICEABLE\n\n1105\n\nmy particular observation and experience and is of value to the extent that it\nis impersonal.\nLet us first sum up briefly the lines of work already in operation. All libraries have made some provision for student reference work within the library;\na table, a corner, or a room where he may have access to books of information\nwhich supplement classwork in school. The earliest cooperation took this\nform and all other has been developed from it. Now most libraries have a\nseparate room for the children and a clubroom where teachers and pupils\nmay meet together. These rooms are supplied with well-chosen collections\nof reference books and books of literature, arranged and cataloged with a\nview to school needs. Thus provision is made for class reference work, individual reference work, and also for quiet reflective reading, personal talks\nabout books and writers, readings and story-telling. Small collections called\n^'classroom libraries\" are sent into the schoolrooms to be administered by\nthe teachers. General school libraries in charge of a library worker are put\ninto school buildings. Lists, bulletins, and pictures are prepared for teachers\nand students. Some instruction in school methods is given in the library\ntraining-schools. Instruction in the use of a library and the use of reference\nbooks is given in colleges, normal, secondary and elementary schools. This\nis supplemented in a few normal schools by instruction in children's literature\nand in the elementary grades by story-telling. In a few states librarians are\ngiving instruction at teachers' institutes. All this work is planned and carried\non according to local needs by teachers and librarians, but the library has\ntaken the initiative in most cases.\n»\nStudying these lines of operation we see that they extend in three directions:\ntoward class use of books of information, toward individual use of books of\nliterature, toward self-help in all library use.\nCLASS\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nBOOKS\n\nOF INFORMATION\n\nMethods of reference use have been fairly well developed and we are\ngenerally agreed in regard to selection of material, but we are not of one mind\nin regard to the relation of such use to library use in general. The children's\nroom should not be planned for student use only, since it should meet the needs\nof the child as a child, as well as of the child as a student. Here the children\nshould be taught to use a few standard reference books selected with a view\nto giving them a basis for a comparative study of the larger collection in the\nmain reference room. The children's room must take the place of the private\nhome library to many, and therefore should give ample opportunity to seek\nand find the literature of the emotions. Reference books may be prescribed;\nliterature is for individual selection and, because of this, the child may be\nadvanced to student work in the main reference room before he is ready to be\nturned loose in the adult circulating department. We choose books of\ninformation very much as we choose the cabbage — for soundness, weight, and\nform. We choose fiction and books of pure literature as we choose the strawberry— for flavor. How can we detect this flavor if we may not taste, or choose,\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": "jjo5\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nif we may not compare ? This freedom must be granted the children if they\nare to develop any real feeling and critical taste for literature, and there is no\nattending danger if the collection of books is well balanced, the librarian a\nwise, gentle guide, and the atmosphere of the room such as to promote individual expression.\nThe clubrooms within the library provide a place for formal instruction\nand practically put the whole resources of the library at the service of the\nteachers in the nearby schools. Rare and beautifully illustrated books, pictures, and museum specimens may here be used to extend regular classwork,\nand the use of these rooms by teachers and pupils should not only be allowed\nbut encouraged by superintendents.\nLibrary lists for teachers' use with children should include a good many\ntitles closely classified as to subject but not closely graded. The notes should\nbe first descriptive and then critical, clear, definite, and simple rather than\nliterary. Book specialists are apt to make notes which presuppose a knowledge of the book and the class to which it belongs. Most of our large libraries\nreceive all publications for children on approval and the books which are put\ninto the Hbrary collections are a very small per cent, of the books actually read\nby the director of the children's work and her helpers. This wide reading and\nconstant discrimination gives them an outlook which is not possible to busy\nteachers who are specializing along many Hues. It seems to me that the librarians who have this opportunity for comparative study of books should make\nthe complete, annotated list, and that the teacher who comes into close contact\nwith the children aud has full knowledge of their immediate needs should make\nthe selected list. Lists to be put into the children's hands should be short, of\nthe best, and annotated from the child's point of view. Complete finding-lists\nare for mothers, teachers, and librarians and, since they necessarily include\nmany books, for use under supervision.\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nBOOKS\n\nOF\n\nLITERATURE\n\nThe clubwork, reading circles, and story hours, carried on by librarians, is\nthe highest development of work with students within the library and cannot\nfail to make itself felt in the schools to the extent to which it develops feeling,\njudgment, independent thinking, and freedom of expression. The object\nof the Cleveland library clubs is to stimulate thoughtful reading among children\nwho are not directed by other means. Since the membership is entirely\nvoluntary, the reading is recreative and follows the interests of the children.\nThe director of children's work says: ''They are not study-clubs in the sense\nof requiring concentrated effort for any length of time. Such clubs would be\nan infringement upon schoolwork.\" This work is not new and is being carried\non in many libraries but some recent Cleveland experiences will serve to\nshow the club's opportunity with children and its relation to schoolwork. A\nlibrary worker had met a group of girls from the sixth and seventh grades.\nThey were considering what they should first read together when one of the\ngirls seized upon Eva March Tappan's In the Days of Queen Elizabeth, saying,\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO\n\nMAKE\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nSERVICEABLE\n\n1107\n\n'' Oh ! may we read this ? We are studying English history in school.\" This\nbook, read together, became the center of a many-sided interest, and during\nthe winter these girls, known among clubs as the Elizabethans, read: Kenilivorth, Prince and Pauper, Men of Iron, Master Skylark, and Marshall's\nIsland Story. Another club prepared a travel-talk on Japan which they gave\nwith stereopticon pictures before two audiences of children, and one club\ndelivered orations by Webster, Clay, Lincoln, Henry, and Sumner.\nThoughtful story-telling within the library has proved a most practical\nmeans of directing children's reading along definite lines. Experience in the\nchildren's room also reveals the fact that when left to his own vohtion the little\nchild first reads the stories which have been told and read to him by mother\nand teacher. It is also true that the child whose ear is not trained to the\nrhythmic movement of Mother Goose, stories in verse, and other simple,\ndramatic poetry, never chooses to read poetry for his own pleasure.\nStories may occasionally be told in the classroom by the children's librarian.\nShe knows books and thru special training and experience comes to know\nchildren. She represents a source of good books to the children and any.\nstory she may tell may form a connecting link to a chain of good books. In\nselecting suitable material the teacher should not always require the historical,\nscientific and plainly ethical tale which is a unit of immediate value, and depreciate the imaginative story which leads to the reading of the world's great\nliterature.\nTo direct the children's home reading and form their literary taste is a part\nof the teacher's duty; therefore the librarian must never be asked to tell all\nthe stories. As soon as the pupils have the power to read for themselves with\nany pleasure, it becomes the business of the school to use this power for their\nricher nurture. The little child enters school with mind alert and sympathies\nkeen. Tho immature he is already an individual who must be helped to\nintelligent self-direction in the larger life of the outside world. He cannot\nbe molded into manhood; he must grow into such fulness of life as his own\nnature makes possible. This growth depends upon the ever-changing capacity\nof his heart and mind and the ever-varying conditions of his environment.\nIt is the chief business of the teacher to supply in attractive form the elements\nnecessary for growth and actual living, and life in literature best meets this\nneed. The child must have vital contact with the actual world, but his actual\nexperiences do not come fast enough to fit him for all emergencies. He needs\nthe experience of others and out of the pnmitive life of the race have come tales\nthat delight all children, satisfy their present wants, enlarge their vision and\nstimulate to noble action. The hero is brave and courageous, with forethought ;\nhe is loyal to his friends and kind to every living creature; he acts with' vigor\nand decision, outwits his enemies and triumphs over every difficulty because\nhis cause is righteous. All the nobility of purpose of many heroes in real life\nis concentrated in the soul of this ideal hero and thru him the children\nget association with a noble company.\nIn this, pure literature equals if not\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "jo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nsurpasses history. The writer of history is limited in his choice of subject\nand freedom of action; the creator of pure literature has the whole range of\nlife itself.\nThe teacher needs to use literature in creating environment because it\nembodies a wide range of experience and because it presents the ordinary\nevents in Hfe in artistic guise. It is the ideal self which feels and acts in the\npoet's creation and the growing boy or girl who shrinks from revealing his\ndeepest feelings may enter into this life without any embarrassment, because\nhe is lifted above self-consciousness. He is removed for the time from the\nrange of his immediate experience, but he comes back to it with new sympathy\nand freedom. Literature is indeed Hfe, Hfe in solution ! ShaU we consider it\nmerely as a recreation, a diversion, a peg upon which to hang morals ?\nFollowing the early conception of the relation of the library to students,\nthe first classroom Hbraries were sent into the higher grades of the elementary\nschools. The gradual acceptance of these Hbraries as a formative influence\nhas changed the point of contact to the lower grades and the point of contact\nnecessarily affects the selection. In these early grades, books are largely\nused as a means for stimulating language expression and the selection is\nnaturally determined by the children's interests. We find the inexperienced\nteacher, who has developed very Httle theory in regard to children's reading but\nwho understands children, intuitively selecting simple poetry, fairy tales, and\nstories which are the best possible literature for Httle children because such\nHterature presents subjects the children Hke to talk about. Beginning with\nthe fourth grade there is a more conscious purpose on the teacher's part of\ncreating new interests which lead to a demand for books of information along\nmany Hnes. The smaU coHection no longer answers the whole need of the\nclass. There is an immediate need for technical books which must be met and\nthe larger need of books to feed the life-giving spirit tends to become secondary.\nThis condition may be met by pl.acing a general Hbrary in or near the school\nbuilding. Let this collection contain technical books, books in sets, standard\nHterature, and many books for the occasional child. The question now arises\nas to whether this general library shall be supplemented by classroom Hbraries\nin every grade. First of all I would ask the Hbrary to provide, and Hberally,\nfor the lower grades. As to later book needs, if the teachers have ample\nopportunity for oral work in literature in the lower grades, and the Hbrarian\nin charge of the general library has time for personal work in her relation to\nall the children, there is no great need for classroom libraries beyond the\nfourth grade.\nThese school and classroom Hbraries should be under the supervision of a\nHbrarian with teaching experience who is able and ready to assist at teachers'\nconferences, institutes, mothers' meetings, and wherever children's reading is\nin question. She can best win recognition of her cause thru the practical\npresentation of the literature she stands for. When she is invited to come\nbefore any company, let her drop her theory in part, select a few points, iUus-\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO MAKE\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nSERVICEABLE\n\niiog\n\ntrate fully from available sources and she will be accepted. Her assistants\nshould be as carefully chosen as any workers within the library and this is\npossible since the school Hbraries need not be open more than two afternoons a\nweek.\nSELF-HELP\n\nThe work of teaching the children to use the library should be shared\nbetween the librarian and the teacher. In giving this instruction both should\nremember that there must be a real feeHng for books before any interest in the\nlibrary as a source of books or the catalog as a means to books can be\naroused. That such teaching is desirable is wholly accepted in theory but\nmethods are still in the experimental stage. We began with courses in bibliography inthe college and have gone on to the source of student Hfe; to the\nchild, and the teacher behind the child. We have come trailing some glory\nand some dust of preconceived notions. We ask the child to look up unfamihar words in a dictionary and unknown subjects in an encyclopedia and\nexpect him to show all the keen delight of a bibliophile. If the point of contact be the use of reference books, let a famiUar subject be assigned and let\nthe book tell some things already known.\nSome definite instruction in the use of a few standard reference books\nshould be given to children, beginning with the fourth grade. In order that\nit may begin at a point of interest, it should be given to individuals or classes\nrather than groups and may well be related to schoolwork. The person\ngiving this instruction should follow it with the children until they see some\nfinished product, whether it be to the recitation room to hear \"more than the\nhistory book tells about the battle of Bull Run\" or to the back yard to see a\npigeon house. One visit will fairly overwhelm her with confidences as to the\nresult of other researches. \"I found out one thing that wasn't in the poem at\nall. I found what they did with Paul Revere's horse,\" said a boy with shining\neyes. Such is the spirit of live questioning. Books are dead things to the\nchild who is laboriously copying paragraphs on the early life of Henry W.\nLongfellow, the middle life of Henry W. Longfellow, and the later life of\nHenry W. Longfellow.\nThe course in the Cleveland Normal School is planned to help the students\nto help themselves and, to be consistent, we have no librarian. The students\ncharge and discharge their own books and put them on the shelves. They do\nthe mechanical preparation of new books, write book cards and shelf-list cards,\nand take an inventory once a year. The cards are not always in best form,\nbut they are clear and the record is accurate. The instruction in hbrary use\nis given as early as possible and except for a httle help now and then each\nstudent is her own reference librarian. We do not have all the problems that\nface the state normal school, as our student body numbers about two hundred\nand is regular in attendance, but I beheve the working principle can be the\nsame under all conditions. Instruction lessens the need of immediate service\non the part of the librarian and leads to more independent research on the\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": "mo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\npart of the student. The routine does not run so smoothly when your inspiration is weeks back and rooms away, but in time there comes a consciousness\nof strength into the student's manner among the books which is worth more\nthan exact detail. I bring this into this discussion to persuade the school\nlibrarians to allow the students to do some part of the work even tho. it seems\nat first to be a sacrifice.\nDISCUSSION\nTHE\nHOMER\n\nLIBRARY\nH.\n\nAND\n\nSEERLEY,\n\nTHE\n\nCEDAR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFALLS,\n\nIOWA\n\nThe problem staled. — Public education is best administered when the public library\nand the public school are a unit in advancing the common interests of the pupils that are\nbeing trained for citizenship and serviceableness. Education is not a panacea for all the\nills of humanity. Literature, science and mathematics cannot substitute for moral training\nor for spiritual attitude in a life. Education can be a preparation for larger usefulness, it\nought to be a development of ways and means to definite ends, it should be a saving of\ntime in promotion in place and power. It should increase opportunity, develop possibility,\nenlarge capability and add adjustability to character. The library and the school are edu\ncational instrumentalities but they are both means to ends and should never be regarded\nas ends in themselves. They are not organized, equipped and maintained as exhibits\nof civilization because they are actual factors in creating and improving civilization and\nthey are promising elements in organized society for the granting of opportunity and of\nprivileges to the ambitious, the energetic and the self-sacrificing.\nThe need of unity . — There is more or less a lack of cooperation in these great educational forces that is very apparent in large numbers of communities. There is a lack\nof a thoro appreciation of the standpoint that the school must have on the part of the\nlibrary and there is an equivalent lack on the part of the school for the undertakings of\nthe library. Both are handicapped by the limitations placed upon them by law, by\nfinancial support, by service thus able to be given, and by the low standards of their patrons.\nBoth are doing all they can in their way to solve the same problems and each regards the\nother as lacking in cooperation and sympathy. Both have placed upon them more work\nthan they can do, both are given more opportunities than they can fully accept, and both\nare unsatisfactory to promoters because of their not reaching the exalted expectation of\nthe public. There is marked need, therefore, for a better understanding in every community where they both exist because their mission is in reality the same and their object\nis similar if not identical. Harmony, cooperation, a genuine getting-together, conferring\nfrequently regarding the problems to be jointly solved are absolute essentials if the results\nso urgently necessary are to be secured.\nThe largeness of the work. — The requirements proposed always exceed the possibilities ofaccomplishment. The library has its natural limitations that are produced by\nthe largeness of the population, by the fewness of the volumes possessed by it to meet\nthe needs of this population, by the petty new supply of books that is possible from\nyear 16 year as compared to the actual need that exists, and by the lack of acquaintance of\nthe librarians with the personal educational needs of the patrons who come for help and\nopportunity. The school has its limitations in the barrenness of the exactions of the\ncourse of study and in the lack of time to get even all this accomplished in the days assigned,\nin the frequent ignorance of the teachers as regards suitable and desirable children's literature, and the actual impossibility for them to get such knowledge, because of the restrictions that a public-school salary places upon the opportunities and possibilities of these\nteachers.\nThe course of study at the best does not consist of more than the mere rudi-\n\n"}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO MAKE\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nSERVICEABLE\n\niiii\n\nmerits of an elementary education; of more than the opening of the way for the aftergaining of a knowledge of literature, science, and art; of more than the opening of the\neyes of the mind so that pupils can see, of the ears so that they can hear, in order that thereby\na life of study, investigation, and thoughtfulness may become a possibility. The teacher\nand the librarian, their spirit as personalities, their warnings as persons of experience, their\nsuggestions as persons of culture and of larger opportunities, their helpfulness as men\nand women of power, and their sympathy as humane and as encouraging social factors,\nare of more importance than either buildings or books. Their living, breathing, thinking, acting service can be and should be an inspiration that persists when the environment\nis broken and when the life they have touched represents this influence in society.\nThe method of operation. — There is certainly no one method that deserves endorsement as the best method of accomplishing this unity. The pupils of every school need\nto have access to the library under a sympathetic, benevolent supervision, and this should\nbe friendly and personal rather than authoritative and official. The books the pupils\nread should have been factors in the experience and acquaintance of both librarian and\nteacher, and the information, style, and teaching there obtainable should be in such\ncomplete possession of these instructors that a conference relative to the thoughts and\nnotions there learned should be a highly esteemed privilege. The discussion of the subjectmatter of these books is an important matter and the benefits that will come from such\nreviews and reconsiderations are far beyond any education that can be obtained from\nrandom and unrelated reading. The library should then have a department in every schoo'\nand the teacher and the librarian should be cooperating instructors in bringing pupils\nand books together as a part of a planned educational effort. The union of this work\nunder the library management and supervision is a very important arrangement, and the\nlibrarian should give the teachers instruction, help, and encouragement continually and\nsystematically. The main question is not one of numbers of books so much as quality of\nbooks; the work is not so much voluminous reading as it is thoughtful, painstaking reading; the object is not so much information as judgment and taste; the result to be sought\nis not so much a finished product and completed scholarship as it is hunger for more\nreading and more study and an interest in the problems and lessons of civilization that\nwill persist during life. There is really too much so-called reading that is a result of a\ndesire to produce emotional effect and too little real reading that is truly identified with\nremembering what is read and with appreciation for the knowledge thus obtained. There is\ntoo much actual eagerness for the story with its various plots and complications and excitements, and too little eagerness for the development of taste, the perfection of style, and the\nadoption of the nobleness of the conceptions of life there portrayed and developed. It\nseems that the same book read and digested by a whole school at the same time could\nbe more valuable as an educational agent than forty different books read by forty different\npupils without this opportunity to discuss and compare opinions and impressions. This\nreading and digesting should be managed with common-sense and discrimination, the\nanalytic method of explaining everything should be repudiated and the using of the knowledge, the literature, and the sentiments expressed for the growth of discrimination and the\ndevelopment of character and of ideals should be accomplished. Reading should not\ndegenerate into study, as it has a place, and a good place at that, in the life of a child that\nstudy cannot fill. It should be free and spontaneous and enjoyable as an exercise and\nyet it should have a residue that is of value in schoolwork and personal development.\nTalking about the reading cultivates discrimination, corrects errors of impressions and\ncompels further investigation of the facts and standards presented, since there will always\nbe results in the comparison which will show that different interpretations were obtained\nfrom the same source and that there is a probability that neither rnay be exactly correct.\nThe expansion of the service. — The most important fact in this connection is the\nabsolute need for the expansion of the service of both the library and the school. Neither\nis able to reach the standard of value that its possibilities offer. Neither is permitted to fill\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "1112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[.Library\n\ncompletely its mission to society because its privileges as now conferred are for the few\nand for the prepared. Equality of opportunity is not a fact when the multitude of the people\nor pupils are considered. There is no such a thing as equality of opportunity when\nhuman privileges are considered. What is opportunity to the scholar is not opportunity\nto the ignorant man. What is opportunity to the student is not opportunity to the indifferent person. What is help to the intelligent and the inquiring is not help to the foolish\nor the careless. But while this is to be acknowledged yet it is a fact that civilization's\ninstrumentalities as represented by the school and the library are conducted on the theory\nof minima rather than a theory of maxima, on M^hat is the least thing we can do to inherit\neternal life rather than what great things we can do to make eternal life full and complete\nin all respects, not only hereafter but here. Talk is cheap, doing is expensive. Theory\nis simple, practice is complicated. Promise is easy, performance is hard. These very\nconditions are necessary realizations, because without that state of the public mind, progress, improvement, and development are incapable of being accomplished.\n\n"}
{"page": 1125, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — E. R. Johnstone, superintendent, State School for Feeble-Minded, Vineland, N. J.\nVice-PresidetU — Olin H. Burritt, superintendent, State Institute for Blind, Overbrook, Pa.\nSecretary — Jennie C. Smith, principal, Oral Day School for Deaf, Eau Claire, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July i, 1908\nThe meeting of the Department of Special Education was called to order at 9:30\nA. M., in the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church.\nThe subject under consideration was \"The Special Child.\" The president, E. R.\nJohnstone, superintendent of the School for the Feeble-Minded, Vineland, N. J., made\nthe opening address.\nEarl Barnes, lecturer for the American Society for Extension of University Teaching,\nPhiladelphia, Pa., then addressed the Department upon the subject, \"The Public School\nand the Special Child.\"\nJane Addams of Hull House, Chicago, 111., spoke on the subject, \"The Home and\nthe Special Child.\"\nThe topics were discussed by Alexander Johnson, secretary of the National Conference\nof Charities and Corrections, Indianapolis, Ind.; Mary T. McCowen, Deaf-Oral Department, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.; H. H, Goddard, Vineland, N. J., and\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N. J.\nThe chairman then announced the following committees:\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nAlice F, Morrison, Vineland, N. J., Chairman\nF. L. Morse, Chicago, 111.\nGertrude Van Adestine, Detroit, Mich.\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nMary R. Campbell, Chicago, 111., Chairman.\nMary T. McCowen, Chicago, 111.\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N. J.\nAn adjournment was then taken until 9:30 Thursday morning.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Morning, July 2\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 A. m.\nThe subject for discussion was \"The Problems of the Special Classes.\"\nElizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of Ungraded Classes, Public Schools, New York\nCity, led the discussion.\nAlmeda Adams, Cleveland, Ohio, spoke on \"The Education of the Blind Child with\nthe Seeing Child in the Public Schools.\"\nIsabelle Thompson Smart, medical examiner, Department of Mentally Defective\nChildren, New York City, then continued the discussion opened by Miss Farrell.\nThis discussion was continued further by Gertrude Van Adestine, principal of the\nSchool for the Deaf, Detroit, Mich., Walter S. Cornell, medical inspector. Department of\nHealth, Philadelphia, Pa.; H. H. Goddard, Vineland, N. J., Adelaid Rudolph, librarian for\nthe Department of the Blind, Cleveland, Ohio, and Marian Campbell, agent for the Society\nfor Promoting the Interests of the Blind in Cleveland, Cleveland, O.hio.\nMiss Mary R. Campbell then offered a statement regarding the committee appointed\nat the Asbury Park meeting in 1895 of which1113\nshe was chairman. This statement explained\nthe work of the committee and the reason why the proposed commission had not been\n\n"}
{"page": 1126, "printed_page": null, "text": "JIJ4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niSpecial\n\nappointed, and contained a recommendation that the committee be discharged from\nfurther work in view of the fact that the committee appointed by the National Council,\non \"Investigation of Provisions for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools,\" had\nalready covered much of the same ground.\nOn motion the recommendation of Miss Campbell was approved and the committtee\ndischarged.\nMaximillian P. E. Groszmann of the Groszmann School, Plainfield, N. J., and chairman of the committee appointed by the Department at the Los Angeles meeting on \"The\nProblem of the Exceptional Child\" made a statement explaining why it had been impracticable for the committee to meet or to accomplish valuable results because of lack\nof funds for the committee's expenses and because of uncertainty as to the relations\nwhich the committee bore to the committee of the National Council. He recommended that the committee be discharged and a new committee appointed to continue\nthe work, provided an appropriation for expenses can be secured from the Board of\nDirectors of the Association, i\nOn motion the committee appointed at Los Angeles was discharged and the president\nof the Department was authorized to appoint a new committee to continue investigations\non the \"Problem of the Exceptional Child.\"\nThe president appointed the following committee:\nMaximillian P. E, Groszmann, of the Groszmann School, Plainfield, N. J.\nOlin H. Burritt, superintendent State Institution for the Blind, Overbrook, Pa.\nMary T. McCowen, head of Deaf Oral Department, Chicago Normal School,\nChicago, 111.\nElizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes, Public Schools, New York City.\nLightner Witmer, professor of psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.\nPa.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported several resolutions thanking the local authorities who had aided in making the meetings of the Department a success, and also the\nvarious speakers on the program. A resolution was also reported asking that the Department be granted representation in the membership of the National Council.\nOn motion the resolutions were adopted by unaminous vote.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nWis.\n\nFor President, Jennie C. Smith, principal of Oral Public School for Deaf, Eau Claire,\n\nFor Vice-President, Cornelia E. Bingham, assistant Deaf-Oral Department, Chicago\nNormal School, Chicago, 111,\nFor Secretary, Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes, Public Schools,\nNew York City.\nThe report was accepted and the secretary instructed to cast the ballot of election.\nUpon motion, the session adjourned.\nJennie C. Smith, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nE. R. JOHNSTONE,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nOF THE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF SCHOOL\nVINELAND,\nN. J.\n\nCLASS\n\nFOR FEEBLE-MINDED\n\nApparently the most important duty of the special class is to give training\nand education to those children who rightfully belong to it. But it seems to\n» These statements, which were quite lengthy, are given in abstract, since they were of temporary interest\nonly. — [Editor of the Volume.]\n\n"}
{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\n1115\n\nme there are more important things to be considered. Just as in the great\nmanufacturing industries, those things which were once thrown away as waste\nhave become the most valuable output as by-products, so the incidental things\nin connection with the training of special children will, I believe, be the most\nimportant.\nWe must use every endeavor in our special-class work to remove from the\ngrades all children whose physical or mental infirmities unfit them for normal\nlife and progress with normal children. We must remember that it is the normal child who suffers most from contact with the special child who is unable\nto follow the work of the class. The special child takes more than his share\nof the attention of the teacher, and, as a matter of fact, the special child does\nnot benefit sufficiently to entide him to this extra attention. It is true that for\nmany years there will be in the regular schools many children who should\nhave special attention, and until the great body of citizens and educators learn\nto recognize the damage these children do and the loss of time they entail,\nthere is but little likelihood of their being properly sequestered.\nThe special class must become a clearing-house. To it will not only be\nsent the slightly blind and partially deaf, but also the incorrigibles, the mental\ndeficients, and cripples. In the beginning it must be expected that more than\none of these types will be found in the same classroom, and indeed all of them\nmay drift in. The teacher must not become discouraged. As a better understanding comes there will be closer differentiation and separation will be more\ncomplete. In the case of the mental deficients, many children of comparatively\nlow grade will drift into the classes. Indeed there are now in special classes\nthruout the country many who are actually feeble-minded and imbecile.\nIt is all very well to say that the state should take care of such in its institutions. The fact remains that it does not, and for many years will not.\nThe burden even now is too heavy. Most states are using from one-quarter\nto one-third of their revenues to support the penal and charitable institutions\nof the commonwealth. This is due to the fact that the problem was not\nrealized many years ago, and so for a long period we have been attempting\nto cure and care for, when in reality we should have taken steps to prevent.\nNow that we are awakening to the necessity of this work, we dare not stop\nuntil it is properly done.\nPublic-school men may say, \"This is not our problem.\" To say this\nmeans nothing. The children are here; they are present in the public school\nin large numbers. They cannot be turned out. What are they going to do\nabout it ? The only thing to do is to give them the best care and training\npossible. Keep them in the special classes until they become too old for\nfurther care in the school, and then they must be sent to the institutions for\nsafety, or they must be transferred to their homes, if they are such as can be\ntrusted there. As I said, the special classes must be the clearing-houses.\nThe teacher of the special class, and indeed all who have to do with it,\nmust make it a business to give information to the public as to the magnitude\n\n"}
{"page": 1128, "printed_page": null, "text": "j^^5\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nof the problem, and as to just what it means to have these children with the\nnormals. It is at this point that medical inspection in the public schools will\nbe helpful. It is too bad that medical inspection as usually carried on has\nbeen very inefficient in so far as being beneficial to the subnormal or slightly\nblind or deaf child. The inspectors have not recognized sense defects, adenoids, etc., nor even the commonest forms of mental defect. I realize that\nthere are but few physicians and many children to be examined and that good\nwork has been done in the prevention of contagious diseases, and in the\nimprovement of environment tending to make things more hygienic. The\ngreat trouble is that the medical colleges have not realized their duty, and so\ntheir students have no instruction in the diagnosis and prognosis of mental\ndeficiency.\nNext in importance, or indeed perhaps more important at this time, is\nthe training of the teacher along this line. Nearly every teacher spends some\ntime in the primary grades, and I may say, without fear of contradiction, that no\nprimary teacher thruout all the country but has had at least one mentally\ndeficient child in her class. She has not been equipped to recognize him and\nso she has suffered much wear and tear on her nerve force and many an unfortunate child has been misused (I use the word kindly) because it was not understood. Our state normal schools will be gi*eatly at fault if they do not at once\nmake it their business to teach their students to know something of mental\ndeficiency, the possibilities with the children and the dangers to society by\nthose who are near the border line.\nIn this whole problem, perhaps more important than physician and even\nof more importance than the teacher is a good psychologist. He is in a position to advise in both directions and really represents the point at which the\ntwo lines, teacher and physician, should meet.\nThe special class must be what the up-to-date institution of today endeavors\nto be; viz., the laboratory for the public-school classes. Already it is interesting to note how the teachers in the primary grades go to the special class\nteacher to learn how she accomplishes, with subnormal children, results which\nthey find difficult to obtain with their normal children. It is interesting to note\nhow easily the truant is kept in school as soon as he gets to the special class.\nHere his interests are made paramount and the routine of the school is secondary. Working with special children makes us realize and see in a new light\nthe statement of the Master, '* A little child shall lead them.\" I firmly believe\nthat our most advanced ideas on educational procedure will come from the\nstudy of \"special\" children and their mental processes.\nWe stand on the curb and see an automobile whiz by at twenty miles an\nhour. We get but a very general idea of its structure and mechanism. Another passes at four miles an hour. We see much more. We can recognize\nthe occupants and see its number and understand much about it. Still another\ncomes; this one stops. We may study it at our leisure, know all about it,\neven perhaps get in and learn to drive it. The normal child observed by its\n\n"}
{"page": 1129, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmeurJ\n\nl^HE\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\n1117\n\nteacher is seen as is the automobile going at twenty miles an hour. His mental\nprocesses are so rapid that she can learn but little of them. It is a fleeting\nglance and he is gone. Our children are slowed down and some go at four\nmiles an hour, some at two, and some are standing still. We study them as\nwe please. We may get to understand many of their mental processes. But\ntheir mental processes are the same as those of the normals. The difference\nis one of degree, not of kind. That is why we teachers of feeble-minded people\nare bold enough to come to you and say, ''It should be done this way.\" We\nhave been in the automobile. We have driven it. Because we dare not undertake\nto teach a child something which in our case takes two or three years, but with\nthe normal child would take only two or three months, and fail, we must constantly ask ourselves of what use will this be to the child. It s^eems to me that\nthis is a question that might well be asked of many things in the curriculum\nfor the normal child. We are not quite ready to prove, altho nearly so, that\nyour courses of study for primary and intermediate children must be radically\nchanged. There is so much stuff in the course which will never be used\nexcepting to pass an examination for a teacher's license in order that the teacher\nmay impose it upon her pupils so that they may pass a teachers' examination,\nand teach other pupils, etc. We are sure that your arithmetic with first- and\nsecond-year pupils is wrong, and as the Scotch woman said, \"we hae our\ndoots\" of your reading and geography, etc.\nThe special class is showing the great value of industrial training and\ndemonstrates at every turn that normal children must get more away from\nbook-learning and do things. We do not claim great knowledge because we\nasked for this many years ago. It was simply forced upon us because of the\nclass of children with whom we work. Is it not fair to say that no matter\nwhen a child leaves school, he should know those things which will best equip\nhim for the life he will probably lead, and is it not part of the work of the educator to find out what kind of a life most of his children will lead, if they leave\nschool before the college period ?\nPerhaps the greatest lesson the special class has for the regular class\nteacher is the need of making the children happy in their work. If the children\ndo not want to go to school, surely there is something wrong with the school.\nThe teacher's indigestion, or her weariness from having been up too late last\nnight, or her annoyance at something that occurred out of school, is so easily\nreflected by the children that even she, herself, conscientiously blames the\npupils for the disorder caused thereby.\nIn our institution for defectives we say, \"Happiness first and all else will\nfollow.\" It is literally true to say that the happiest children in the world\nare those found in the schools for defectives. Here the whole atmosphere is\none of encouragement and praise. It is positive, not negative. It is the things\nthat the child does correctly that are made much of. The incorrect things\nand mistakes are ignored and forgotten as far as the child may see. The\nchild must never fail, no matter what he does. His endeavor must be recog-\n\n"}
{"page": 1130, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj8\n\nnational\n\neducation\n\nassociation\n\n[Special\n\nnized. He must be put in a position of wanting to do things, and the most\nsuccessful teacher is the one who can create a desire in her pupils. A number\nof our tests show conclusively that praise increases power and blame stops\neffort. Again because his mind works slowly and because everything must be\nreduced to its simplest form, our special-class work gives us the habit of speaking accurately, of saying just what we mean in the fewest and simplest words,\nof making sure at every turn that our children thoroly understand. Cannot\nthe regular teacher benefit from this ?\nIn closing let me go back a moment and remind you that the greatest lesson\nthe special child has, the greatest function of the special class, is to teach those\nof us who have to do with normal children that we must make them happy.\nSurely sadness and sorrow come soon enough into our lives. We, who stand\nbefore the face of trusting childhood, must give it happiness and joy in its\nplay, which is its work.\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEARL\n\nBARNES,\n\nSCHOOL\nLECTURER\n\nAND\nON\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD\n\nPHILADELPHL^,\n\nPA.\n\nThis paper was prepared before the Preliminary Report of the Committee\nof Investigation on Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools\nwas made public. The agreement which will be found between its proposals\nand those made by the able committee which has issued the report simply\nshows the uniformity with which public opinion advances in a modern democracy.\nSince 1890 we have been slowly establishing in all parts of Europe and\nAmerica special schools for peculiar children in connection with the public\nschools of the municipalities or states. At present, organized public opinion\nis giving these schools general support. In a year or two, the usual reaction\nis sure to come and the people responsible for these schools will be declared\nfaddists, and accused of wanting to put all the children into their pet schools.\nFor this reason, it is well to realize that this movement is the natural result of\ndeveloping intelligence in the community, and by no means an accidentally\ndiscovered field for new experiments.\nThere are three reasons why the public consciousness has been awakened\nto 'this need at this time. In the first place, modern democracies are growing\nmore and more intelligent and they have reached this point of self-consciousness. Consciousness of any new fact or social need comes to the masses of the\npeople at first as a sweeping generalization. \"All men are born free and\nequal,\" \"No taxation without representation,\" \"Equal rights for the sexes\"\nare samples of such developments. One sees these new beliefs emerging\ninto popular consciousness on the banners of all processions of protest. At\nfirst, the statement must be sweeping and without exception. Any exception\nis looked upon as an evasion or a denial. Only when the general statement\nhas been fully accepted can the legitimate exceptions be safely recognized.\nOne of the cries of all modern democracies has been, \"Universal, compulsory,\n\n"}
{"page": 1131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD\n\n1119\n\nfree education.\" Everyone has now come to accept this general demand as\njustifiable and inevitable if democracy is to continue, and so we are now ready\nto recognize exceptions.\nA second factor that has been influential in calling public attention to\nspecial children has been the steady crowding of our people into urban communities. Massing of children into large groups has led to closer and closer\nclassification. Attempts at uniformity have led us to recognize existing\nvarieties. The crowded population has also made it possible to differentiate\nschools and to provide for peculiar cases as we could not possibly have done\nwhen the people were scattered over the land.\nA third and very important factor in developing special schools has been\nthe growth of interest in the scientific study of children. It was inevitable that\nin the development of science it should first attack the field of inorganic matter,\nand then the general forms of organic Hfe, and that the phenomena of thinking\nand feeling should wait until the last. Now that we have begun to apply\nscientific methods to the study of the subjective life at different periods of\ngrowth, we find that there is great variety even in children of the same age, and\nthat this variety is sometimes in the direction of defect.\nProbably we should also recognize the work of the special schools for the\ndeaf, the bhnd, for incorrigibles and for feeble-minded children outside the\npublic schools as influential in directing attention to the needs of children inside\nthe regular schools. These institutions have, however, been generally content\nto work apart, and it is doubtful if they have been so influential as the other\nfactors we have named. Of course, it is true that individuals connected with\nthese residential schools have done and are now doing splendid service in this\ndirection. An institution like the New Jersey Training School for FeebleMinded Girls and Boys, where a psychological laboratory is being maintained\nunder the direction of Dr. H. H. Goddard, does much to cultivate pubHc\nopinion. The influence of this school in training teachers for special classes\nin the public school must also be very great. From such institutions, we naturally get great help in moulding public opinion.\nThe extent to which the need for special schools exists in America is at\npresent a matter of mere conjecture. The future work of the committee now\ncarrying on investigations under the National Council will, it is hoped, throw\nlight on this matter. We gready need a careful census of defectives in representative communities. In England, a royal commission has been working\non this same subject for three years and its report it now due; it will throw\ngreat light on this and other large aspects of the problem.\nThe extent to which schools have been established to meet this need is\nequally hard to determine. As early as 1863, a school was started in Saxony;\nby 1880, such schools existed in nearly every part of the German Empire.\nAt present there are about 14,000 children in special schools in something\nover 200 German cities. France, with all her interest in the pathology of\nmind, has done less than most other continental lands to establish such\n\n"}
{"page": 1132, "printed_page": null, "text": "II20\n\nNATION AL'EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nschools. Sweden and Belgium are working out very interesting experiments.\nIn England, the first special class was opened by the Leicester School\nBoard, in April, 1892, tho the London School Board had formally approved\nthe system a year earlier. Such schools now exist in most English cities and\nLondon maintains about eighty of them. London also has several schools for\ncripples; 8 day schools for the blind, i residential; 8 day schools for the deaf,\nand 2 residential, under the direction of the school authorities.\nIn America, nearly all our large cities have such special schools. New\nYork has 60; Philadelphia, 11; Baltimore, 22. These schools are not yet\nwell classified, and the supply of specially trained teachers is very inadequate.\nStill in all parts of America there is a very widespread interest in these special\nclasses and the immediate future will see many important experiments undertaken.\nGranted that these children exist in every community, the problem of\nseparating those who need special treatment from their fellows is most\ndifficult. It is almost impossible to draw a line of definition between the\nnormal and the special child. Chronic disease, blindness, deafness, feeblemindedness, and incorrigibility exist in every degree of development, so that it\nwould probably be possible to arrange all the children of the state in a series,\nfrom the most perfectly endowed to the congenitally blind or deaf and to idiots,\nwith nowhere a break in the sequence. Where, then, shall we draw the line\nof separation ? It will never be possible to answer the question with finality;\nbut in general we can say: All children should be put in special schools who\ncannot do the work of the common school with advantage to themselves and\nto their fellows.\nThe parent cannot be trusted to make this selection. Nature has so\nendowed parenthood with loving solicitude that no normal man or woman\ncan have a fair and unbiased judgment of his own child. A trained physician\nwould not treat his own child if he were very ill, because he could not trust his\nlove-clouded judgments. Still less can the ordinary parent judge of chronic\npeculiarities, when they touch the marginal line of normality. The teacher\nhas not the special knowledge for diagnosis in such cases, and so the judgment\nof trained medical men becomes imperatively necessary. From time to time\nall the children of the state should pass thru the hands of trained experts\nwho, after advising with teachers and parents, should be empowered to separate children who need special care from the general group.\nIt is wonderful what skill medical men acquire in this direction. I once\nsaw Dr. Francis Warner take a hundred children in the Home and Colonial\nTraining College in London and examine them before a committee for the\nBritish Child-Study Association. Each child was numbered and the teachers\nhad prepared annotated lists giving their estimate of each child. Dr.\nWarner went thru the hundred children and dictated statements concerning about twenty that he selected as requiring special attention.\nHe found\n\n"}
{"page": 1133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD\n\nii2l\n\nevery child that the teachers had considered in any way peculiar, and his\nanalysis of each case was strikingly convincing. The whole work was completed in an hour.\nMany people would still maintain that the children thiis selected, those\nwho are near the margin of normality, should be kept in the regular classes\nthat they may have the encouragement of their abler fellows. Temporary\ncases of failure, due to acute diseases, absence from school, or the like, may\nbe won back to their regular level thru feeling the pressure of competition\nwith their fellows. Chronic cases, however, inevitably fall behind and become\ndemoralized and discouraged. I have watched the steady deterioration of\nchildren under such circumstances until it seems to me criminal to continue\nthe process.\nChildren who can do their work well are seldom bad, and it is commonly\nremarked that so-called incorrigibles are often defective. It would be truer\nto say that defective children are often made bad by their inability to play their\npart in the regular classes of our schools. The positive side of the matter is,\nhowever, even more convincing than the negative. These children need\nspecially trained teachers, a special plant, and a special course of study to do\ntheir best work. These conditions cannot be provided in an ordinary school\nand so these children should be put by themselves.\nDefective children are of so many classes and need such widely different\ntreatment that they should not be grouped together. Some are exceptionally\nbright and some are exceptionally good; these should not be classed with the\ndullest and worst children in the city. Let us discuss, then, the different\ngroups who will need to be provided for in a highly developed system of\nschools. Acute diseases will be increasingly detected thru medical inspection of schools. Epidemics of children's diseases are decreasingly common\nwhere such inspection prevails. Adenoid growths and acute diseases of the\neyes and ears will be cared for in hospitals, if parents cannot be made to\nrespond to warnings. In similar cases of parental neglect district nurses\nwill treat bad heads and skin diseases.\nCrippled children, including cases of rickets, tubercular joints, paralysis,\nhip swellings, weak hearts, and general anaemia, should have the best attention\nthat can be given them. Such children are often bright; they can generally\nbe made self-supporting, whereas if uneducated they would often become a\nstate charge; education would bring them a great access of happiness; and\ntheir troubles are seldom inheritable. In the city of London, in 1900, Dr.\nBerry found 606 physically defective children not attending any schools.\nMrs. Humphrey Ward and others started day schools for these children, which\nhave now been taken over by the city. The special conditions considered\nnecessary for such children are a collecting ambulance, a trained nurse in\nattendance, sunny rooms on the ground floor with a yard, -and a perfectly\nflexible curriculum.\nBlind children, or those nearly blind, can also be best educated in day\n\n"}
{"page": 1134, "printed_page": null, "text": "JJ22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nschools, where there is a large population. If kept in connection with their\nhomes and with natural neighborhood ties they will be provided with employment as they grow up and will find a natural adjustment in the social Hfe\naround them. If segregated in residential homes they lose these social connections and there is always a tendency to form a bHnd habit which unfits them\nfor a later return to organized society. Of course, a school may become as\nmuch an institution as a residential home, but the point is that the children\nshould be kept in living relations with their famihes and with neighborhood\nassociates. In the institution there is also increased danger of intermarriage\namong the congenitally blind, and while the question of inheritance here is\nfar from being setded, there is certainly danger of blind offspring. In the case\nof these blind children provision must sometimes be made for bringing them to\nschool and they should be placed in charge of teachers who have made a\nspecial study of their peculiar limitations. Children who are only partially\nblind can generally be provided for in the ordinary class rooms if the teachers\nhave the cases clearly in mind.\nDeaf children present a greater difficulty than either of the last-named\nclasses. It is generally conceded today that they should be taught to read\nthe lips and to articulate. This work requires very special knowledge on the\npart of instructors and long-continued drill. If the children return daily to\ntheir homes, there is great danger that in the less intelligent famihes the work\nof the school will be largely undone overnight. At the same time, these\nchildren are much more capable of being taken into the social group when\ngrown up than are either of the other classes. There is no reason why residential schools could not be provided in city systems, as they are in England,\nwhere the children could have all the advantages of constant residence in an\nasylum and where they could also be kept in contact with their relatives and\nneighbors.\nWith the feeble-minded children, new factors are introduced which make\nthe treatment given these earlier classes impossible. There are no reliable\nstatistics available, but it is probable that from i to 2 per cent, of the children\nin the common schools fall within this group. The census of 1900 returned\n100,000 imbeciles and idiots in the United States. This is probably about\ntwo-thirds of the right number. Not more than one-tenth of these were in\ninstitutions or schools. We have today very great need of a commission in\nidiocy, with powers comparable to the commission in lunacy. The difference\nbetween a feeble-minded child and a normal child seems to be one of degree\nonly. This would seem to give us great cause for hope in the treatment of such\nchildren; but the difference quickly becomes so great that a life- time is not\nlong enough to bring these children up to the normal level. This fact taken\nwith the universally recognized fact that this class is fecund and its defects\ninheritable makes it impossible for us to look upon organized effort to restore\nthem to the general group with satisfaction. A community must not turn its\nsewerage back into its water supply.\n\n"}
{"page": 1135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmcntl\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD\n\n1123\n\nIn Germany, such children have been educated in special classes, since\n1863 in Saxony, and. since 1880 in the greater part of the German Empire.\nThere are now special schools for them in 203 cities in Germany and the\nnumber of children in attendance is over 13,000. Dr. H. H. Goddard tells\nme that great emphasis in these schools is directed to finding marked cases and\nto removing them permanently from contact with the social group. In\nLondon there are about 7,000 children in such schools under the school department and there special emphasis is laid on bringing them up to a point where\nthey can be restored to their place in society. The same attitude of mind\nprevails in America but it is to be deprecated.\nSince the investigations of Seguin, begun in 1837, there has been almost\nuniversal agreement in adopting his ideas for the training of feeble-minded\nchildren. Exercises are devised to produce co-ordinated muscular action and\nthese are repeated to build up the nervous system. Every effort is made to\nkeep the child in an atmosphere of kindly interest and loving feeling. Whatever can be done to build up a normal nervous system must be done along the\nlines of this physiological education. The processes are slow but ordinary\nmental exercises are generally impossible and useless with these children.\nSince there is no absolute dividing line, however, between these children and\nthe normal group, we must take those who are too backward to work with\nadvantage in the ordinary grades and put therri in special schools. Some will\nimprove in early childhood or during the period of puberty to such an extent\nthat we must allow them to go back to the general group. The marked cases\nof mental defect should be removed to permanent colonies, like that of Vineland, N. J., where they must spend their lives. They should be cared for and\nprotected by the state and their lives will be made happy thru varied\nemployment and thru the self-sacrifice of devoted men and women such as\nalways gather about misfortune.\nOf course, such special schools as are here described can exist only in city\nor large village communities. In country districts we must still get along as\nbest we can, by removing the more difficult children to residential homes. In\nall this we have said nothing of criminal children. Doubtless we must have\ntruant schools connected with the public school but they are a make-shift\ndevice to meet conditions that ought to be prevented. Society grows daily\nmore intelligent and self-conscious and with the coming of a larger sense of\nour individual responsibility for each member of the group we shall provide\nso well for our defectives that we may hope in time to destroy the supply.\nDISCUSSION\nAlexander Johnson, secretary of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, ofIndianapolis, Ind. — I have long regarded Professor Earl Barnes as a leader of\nthe new education. I have known of him for many years. But only this morning I have\nfound out how to improve him, and I want your sympathy in telling you just how he should\nbe improved. If I had him in charge and he had to do what I told him, I would send\nhim to a school for the feeble-minded to be its principal for one or two years.\nT ])eljeve\n\n"}
{"page": 1136, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nif Mr. Barnes could add that one little bit of experience to what he has now, he would\nbe one of our greatest prophets of the new education. He does not know the feebleminded child; he does not love the feeble-minded child — as those who teach and care\nfor the feeble-minded child come to love him — and so he cannot see that it is worth\nwhile to give almost infinite patience to raise that child a little way toward the stature of\na man.\nIs it worth while to make this great effort when the result is so slight ? Yes, because\nthe feeble-minded child still is a child and therefore entitled to his ^hare as a human\nbeing in the best we have. If you do not believe that the child is not a mere thing of\ntoday, to be classed along with an animal and treated like an animal, or to be operated\nupon like an animal because he has some function which he ought not to exercise, if this\nis your idea, leave him alone, please, and let somebody have him who thinks he is a child\nof God, a weaker little brother, and worth a very great deal. He must not go out into\nthe world, never! He must not become a father, never! He must not be exposed to\nhardship and abuse and ill treatment and temptation. Why cannot the feeble-minded\nchild who has been trained in a school go out and earn his living ? Because people will not\nbe fair to him; because his father and mother are not fair to him; because his sisters and\nbrothers are not fair to him; because his employer, if he have an employer, is not fair\nto him, but expects from him, tho he pays him a child's wages, the work of a man.\nHe seems to have the physical capacity for a man's work, but he has not and cannot\nhave a man's judgment. That is the chief reason why the feeble-minded child must be\nsegregated and separated. The chief purpose of the special school, as far as the feebleminded child is concerned, is to differentiate, to make quite sure that every one of the\nreally feeble-minded children shall be placed in the state's care for life.\nDr. Barnes' theory of the child requiring the special class going home when school\nis over is splendid. It is in line with all our theory about institution work. The less\ninstitutionizing the better, thru all grades and classes of school life. The less you\ninstitutionize your pupil the better teacher you are all the way thru. Institutionizing\ndoes not require necessarily a brick house with a plastered wall and slate roof. Matrimony\nis an institution, the Christian church is an institution, the school itself is an institution.\nThe real antithesis is not between placing a child in an institution and leaving him at\nhome; it is between the institution method and the case method. What is the case method ?\nIt is this: you have the child before you, for instance an incorrigible boy; you have a\ngreat variety of institutions, schools, classes of all sorts and conditions. Your business\nis to forget everything but that boy, all your mechanism, every one of your preconceived\nschemes and plans, just as tho you were alone in creation with that individual boy;\nyou must study the boy and ask yourself what ought to be done with this one boy; what\nis the best possible thing to be done with and for and to and by him When you have\nmade up your mind on that question, you are ready to start doing something. It may\nbe that you have a school exactly arranged to fit this boy's case; it may be that there\nisn't anything in the universe that fits his case; you may have to create a new scheme\nfor this particular boy; that is the \" case method.\" The opposite is the institution method.\nYou have a curriculum and you take the boy and jam him into that curriculum and push\nhim in and make him fit, and in the old days when he didn't \"larn\" you \"licked\" him.\nYou don't \"lick\" as much as you used to. Every time you have to use \"physical treatment\" (as Brockway calls it), you feel ashamed of it. That is the institution method;\nit does not matter if it is within the four walls of a building or out on the prairie.\nIf the feeble-minded child is to have the advantage of comradeship and all those\nthings that make boys into men (because what they get outside of the school room does\nmore for them in making them men than any teacher can do , he must be among his own\nkind and hence in a well-classified institution. It will be in the large institutions that\nwe can classify. I am talking about the feeble-minded of all grades now, from the lowest\nto the highest. There must be a thousand children, with fifty kinds, to make twenty\n\n"}
{"page": 1137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD\n\n1125\n\nof a kind, and if the classification is close there will be five hundred and fifty kinds of\nchildren in a thousand.\nWe must take advantage of every natural and useful instinct of the child and develop\nthese tendencies by means of education and employment. The maternal instinct may be\nutilized and satisfied by allowing them to take care of the more helpless of their own\nkind; profitable and suitable work may be found for each and every feeble-minded child\nof the higher grades. Work for the feeble-minded must consist in segregation from the\nbody politic for life and protection by the state first, and then happy surroundings and\npleasant occupation with as much mental education as they are capable of receiving.\nMary McCowen, teacher in charge of the Deaf-Oral Department, Chicago Normal\nSchool. — I am strongly reminded this morning of the fact that only a few years ago manual\ntraining and the kindergarten were both struggling for tardy recognition on the program\nof the National Education Association; and more recently, when friends of the deaf\nwere asking for the establishment of a department in the interest of their special work,\nthe request was finally granted only on condition that the teachers of the blind and feebleminded should also be included with the deaf, and there was great discussion and hesitation lest adequate support for such a department would be lacking. But the\ncharacter of this large audience justifies beyond question the establishment of that department and proves a continued and enthusiastic interest in its problems which have come\nto be recognized as the problems underlying all education.\nFrom statistics as to the number of the so-called defective classes it appears that\nin the population of our country one in fifteen hundred is deaf, a smaller proportion\nblind, and one in about five hundred is said to be feeble-minded. If each of these classes\nrepresented distinct educational problems it would naturally follow that the numerical\npreponderance of interest in this department would be in the section for the feeble-minded,\nbut as long as there are deaf children who are also blind, both deaf children and blind\nchildren who exhibit all degrees of intellectual acuity from the very bright down to the\nimbecile and even among normal children many who have some peculiar abnormal habit\nor condition or some slight defect of hearing or sight, no problem can possibly arise with\nany one of these classes, the deaf, the blind, or the feeble-minded, that it does not at\nonce become of deep importance to all who are interested in education, whether it be of socalled normal children or of any special group of the so-called defective classes.\nIn continuing this discussion, therefore, while not following directly the line of thought\nalready presented, I shall count upon your interest in a brief statement of certain conditions among the deaf that are too often misunderstood, I refer to the children gradually\nbecoming deaf who are to be found scattered all thru the grades in our public schools.\nMany of these children have perfect speech and for a time may not seem to lose much\nof what is going on about them, but the deterioration described so clearly by Mr. Earl\nBarnes in the case of the feeble-minded child, who is kept in an environment which does\nnot meet its needs, is just as inevitable in the child gradually growing deaf. From week to\nweek such a child loses more and more of the language used in his presence and gets more\nand more out of touch with the hearing worW until finally he becomes utterly discouraged\nand unhappy and leaves school altogether or perhaps finds his way into the deaf department when too late for us to render our most valuable service to him.\nIf partially deaf children, instead of remaining in classes with hearing children until\nthey reach the hopeless stage, were placed with a teacher of the deaf as soon as even a slight\ndegree of deafness developed, they could be given speech-reading, the power to understand spoken language by observing the face of the speaker, which is the only thing that\ncan keep them in touch with a hearing environment. True, it takes time to become an\nexpert speech-reader but as the child gradually grows more and more deaf he will also\nbecome gradually more and more proficient in reading speech from the face and will thus\nescape altogether the awful isolation that is inevitable to one who becomes deaf without\n\n"}
{"page": 1138, "printed_page": null, "text": "JJ26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nknowing anything of speech-reading. Time was when the advantages of speech-reading\nmight be looked upon with incredulity but when the congenitally deaf child who knows\nnot a word can be given his mother tongue and an education thru observing the face,\nas is being done in many different schools today, no one can question the possibility of\ngiving the same power to understand speech from the face to the partially deaf child\nwho already has language and more or less education and who can in many cases after\nacquiring speech-reading return to the classes with hearing children.\nNow a word about the congenitally deaf and the reason why they are often confused\nwith the feeble-minded. Both classes of children are equally unresponsive at first, but\nfor very different reasons. The deaf child may be of keen intellect with infinite possibilities\nbut nature has closed one avenue of approach, that thru which speech and language\ncomes most easily and naturally to the human family, and he fails to respond when spoken\nto because he does not even know that there is such a thing as words. Our problem is\nto recognize his possibilities and to lift him out of that darkness which without education\nis as hopeless as the condition of the feeble-minded. It is a problem of peculiar pleasure\nbecause we are not lifting back into society that does not want it a child who can only be\na burden, but a human being with beautiful possibilities who but for our help would be\ndefrauded of his heritage and left in the lowest grade of mental development.\nFor deaf children with the additional handicap of feeble-mindedness let us have\nthe protected seclusion of the institution or residential home as advocated for other feebleminded children, where they may be surrounded by kindly care and given the opportunity\nto pass their lives in happy usefulness, becoming largely self-supporting and the state meanwhile fully protected.\nBut for the normal deaf child let us provide ample opportunity for development\nand educational training under the most favorable conditions possible, and then maintain\na high standard of required excellence.\nH. H. GODDARD, Training School for Feeble-Minded, Vineland, N. J.— There is\na seeming disagreement between Professor Barnes and Mr. Alexander Johnson, but\nbetween the two sides presented there, we shall find one of the most important truths in\nconnection with this whole matter. We, in institutions, and the people in the public schools\nin this country, and in Europe, are wasting an immense amount of time and energy on\nfeeble-minded children trying to teach them to do that for which they have no organs, no\ncapacity; namely, to master elaborate abstraction, the abstractions of reading and writing and number work. As I understand it, it was that kind of wasting of energy that\nEarl Barnes had in mind, and that he agrees with Alexander Johnson as to the value of\nmanual work for lifting up these children to help them as far as possible.\nIf a child is a pretty bright imbecile, he can learn to do a good many things with his\nhands. If he is a pretty dull one, it may take him the whole fifteen years to learn to do\none thing. When he is past the trainable age, twenty or twenty-five, perhaps, give him\none of those things for which he has shown the greatest adaptibility, as his life work, as\nhis trade, and let him be happy and useful in doing that.\nI want to remind you teachers that just^as we have within the past years discovered\nthat the most dangerous cases in our schools are not the blind children or the deaf children,\nbut the children that are slightly defective in sight or slightly defective in hearing, and\nconsequently were not discovered, we waste our energies by not getting at these defectives. In the same way we must recognize that the most dangerous child in a community\nis the moderately mental defective child because the population cannot understand him,\ndoes not recognize that he must not be allowed to mingle in the community, to marry\nand to beget his kind. The schools abroad are training these children until they are fourteen\nyears of age and then turning them loose on an unsuspecting public. We, in this country,\nare in a condition to recognize and to act much more wisely on this subject, if we will\ngive it attention and study the problem.\n\n"}
{"page": 1139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD\n\nI127\n\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N. J.— What Mr. Barnes said in regard to warning against institutionalism may perhaps need a little modification. I wish at least to go\non record as stating that there is a class, not absolutely imbecile, that also needs institutional\nlife in preference to bad school and bad home influences. I refer to that class which Dr.\nCioddard has also mentioned, but which has not been mentioned at all before, the moderately defective, as he puts it. The home environment of such a child may present defects\nwhich impress themselves upon the child. Some children have parents who create a\nhome environment and a home atmosphere which is overcharged with nervous tension,\nand there exists, even among mothers who attend child-study lectures and mothers' clubs,\na great deal of ignorance in addition to many inconsiderate notions in regard to the education of children.\nI would like to emphasize the fact which has become very clear in my mind ever since\nyesterday when we had the first meeting of the child-study section, and today, when we\nhad the first meeting of the special department, that those two departments have struck\nthe key note of educational progress for the entire National Education Association. You\nwill remember that even the National Council appointed a Committee of Investigation of\nthe Problem of the Exceptional Child. And this is a very significant fact: In the\nstudy of the exceptional and defective child, we learn to understand the normal child.\nThe way in which children are handled in classes for defectives is a model, it seems to me,\nfor the teacher of ordinary classes. In this city of Cleveland, I was told yesterday, there\nis a teacher who undertook the work of teaching a defective class, so-called, but that class\nwas the only class in the city of Cleveland where it was a punishment for the children\nnot to be allowed to come back the next morning. If a teacher for the defective children\ncan accomplish such a result, it seems to me that she is a model for other teachers.\n\nTHE\nJANE\n\nHOME\nADDAMS,\n\nAND\nHULL\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nHOUSE,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nCHILD\nILL.\n\nIn discussing the problem of the special child it is, of course, necessary\nto consider it from the point of view of the child who is somewhat mentallydeficient, and of the child who is what we now call incorrigible or delinquent.\nMr. Barnes is doubtless right when he says that it is, difficult for a parent\nto make a clear judgment in regard to his own child, especially in respect\nto the child's mental or moral capacities. But, if parental affection clouds\nthe power of diagnosis, at the same time, after the diagnosis has been made\nby the trained mind, parental afiection enormously increases the power of\ndevotion which is necessary to carry out the regimen which the trained mind\nhas laid down. To convince the parent that by following a certain line of\naction his child will be enormously benefited is simply to turn affection into\na scientifically prepared channel.\nWhen deficient children are discovered in their* homes, are taken care of\nby trained teachers, after they have been diagnosed by child-study departments, and when all the apparatus of pubhc education is turned on, the\nparent is convinced that his child is not an exception. When the parent is\nbesought to aid in this process of special education, then he first loses his\npeculiar sensitiveness in regard to his child. The reaction of this change\nof attitude upon the entire family is something astounding. I think it was\nFather Huntington who once said that the essence of immorahty is to make\nan exception of one's self, and certainly the essence of self-pity is the con-\n\n"}
{"page": 1140, "printed_page": null, "text": "J28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nviction that one is so isolated. Comradeship dispels self-pity as the sun dries\nup dampness. You think you have a child unlike other children; you are\nanxious that you neighbor shall not find it out; it makes you secretive; it\nmakes you singularly sensitive; it places you and the normal children in the\nfamily in a curious relation to the rest of the community; but if you find\nout that there are many other such children in your city and in other cities\nthruout the United States, and that a whole concourse of people are studying\nto help these children, considering them not at all queer and outrageous, but\nsimply a type of child which occurs from time to time and which can be\nenormously helped, you come out of that peculiarly sensitive attitude and\nthe whole family is lifted with you into a surprising degree of hopefulness\nand normality. I could illustrate this with many tales. I remember one\ncase where a family consisted of a widow, two self-supporting children, and\nthree younger children, the eldest of whom was feeble-minded. The entire\nfamily had lived a perfectly abnormal life. In the first place, they always\nrented a rear tenement, because it was thus made easier to conceal the boy from\npublic view. The four other children were never permitted, under any\ncircumstances, to bring companions to the house. The boy was treated with\ntenderness and care, but with the utmost secrecy. The mother's attitude\nwas gradually changed after days of patient talk and many visits on the part,\nfirst, of a trained nurse, and later of a person who was especially interested\nin the care of backward children. The day finally came when the boy was\nput in the omnibus for crippled children — ^for it was one of those cases where\nmental abnormality is combined with deformity — and taken to the public school\nopenly and boldly, with the omnibus standing in the street, and the child\ncarried out in the arms of a policeman. From that day there was a worldwide difference in the status of the family to the entire neighborhood. Of\ncourse such a change could not be brought about until the mother was freed\nfrom her sense of isolation, until she discovered that there were many other\npeople who had children of that sort who were not thereby disgraced, that\nthe community recognized such children and provided for them, demanding\nher cooperation.\nThat, it may be, is the most valuable result which the recognition of the\nduty of the state to these children is bringing about. But not even second to\nthis is the opportunity of unlocking their affection, this peculiar care and\nsolicitude which parents have for the abnormal child, whether he is abnormal\nthru his deficiencies or thru his moral development; thus pouring into public\neducation almost a new force. Froebel used to believe that if he could unlock\nthe love for little children which is manifested by their mothers, if he could\npour into the educational system the gaiety of the mother, her delight in her\nchild, her spontaneous desire to play with it, it would bring into education\na new and transforming element. At the same time, of course, his kindergarten systematized its manifestations, as the educator of the deficient child\nwould have to train and use scientifically this mysterious tender affection.\n\n"}
{"page": 1141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCHILD\n\n1129\n\nThere is just one thing more which I would like to emphasize which is\nbeing worked out in Chicago. We have a child-study department where\nany child whom a teacher is confused about and worried about and considers backward may be sent and examined — perhaps to be excluded from\nthe system, but more likely to be put into a special room. We have a school for\ncrippled children — very much such an one as Mr. Barnes has described, and\nsome of us believe that from these points of special education Chicago may\nsecure the best suggestions for educational advance. To illustrate from\nanother great educator — Pestalozzi. He made his discoveries because he\nhad a little handful of orphan children whom he was obliged to care for in\na primitive way — to wash and dress and feed. He was obliged to appeal\nto the children for help ; to follow their lead. Of course he was put into the very\nbest possible attitude for making educational discoveries. Perhaps in time\neducators who are assisted by the devoted parents may come to recognize\nthese children as possible contributors toward the solution of the publicschool problems. Educators may face them simply and fairly in a change of\nattitude to which the parents have brought them.\nThis reaction of the schools for special children upon the home may\nbring back into the school some of that early devotion to them which we are\nin danger of losing. I might illustrate from a family whom I knew very well^\nwho had a mentally deficient child. The family became quite prosperous\nand moved away from our neighborhood into a suburb, which was a step up for\nthem both in the economic and social scale. They stayed in their suburb only\ntwo months however, because the little girl was too far away from a school\ncontaining a room for special children. They moved back again so that\nshe might be within the old district, and when the teacher of this special room\nwas put into another district, they moved again into another crowded neighborhood, renting their little house in the suburbs, sacrificing their only pleasure\nand the advancement of the normal children because they cared so much that\nthe one ** special child\" should be in contact with the particular person who\nwould teach the mother how to treat her day after day. The mother felt the\nneed of the cooperation, of the renewal of her courage. She wanted the\nsense of companionship which her connection with this particular teacher\ngave her, and which no one in the suburb with its tidy streets and its \"swell\npeople,\" as she called them, was able to afford to her. In this combination of\npedagogical training and parental devotion, it would of course be necessary\nto keep a standard of achievement; because the child has gone beyond that\nwhich you thought he might reasonably attain, it is not going to help him\nwhen he is thrown out into the world where he will be subject to the normal\nstandard, if you have assumed that everything is lovely, when it is indeed only\npartially lovely. Not to distinguish between optimism and confusion of\nstandard often leads to disaster, . and never more surely so ' than when we\nover-estimate the capacity of these special children. It is much better to\nteach such a child to do one thing well and then to place him hors de combat\nas to the rest of life.\n\n"}
{"page": 1142, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj^o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nI have seen an Italian family change their entire attitude toward a crippled\nchild who was taught to carve wood with his one hand so well that he earned\na very fair wage in a furniture factory; but they did not ask him to wash\nwindows altho that was the occupation of the father. And altho it may take\nhalf of the seventy years of which Mr. Barnes spoke to recognize the capacity\nof the defective child, that recognition must, in the end, react upon the home\nmost marvelously. To bring the home and the school into closer connection\nthru these special children affords a glorious educational opportunity, and the\nresults may react upon the schools in a way we can, as yet, scarcely estimate.\nI could illustrate the same psychological process — the reaction on the home\nby the delinquent boy — in other ways. Take the boy who is arrested and\nbrought into the Juvenile Court in Chicago. Such a child is examined very\ncarefully by a physician — all of the things which Dr. Barnes has been advocating for the ordinary school children are being showered upon incorrigible\nchildren while they are waiting for trial. During the period of detention every\nchild is subject to the medical treatment which he specially needs; he is put\ninto a school and given a chance to do all of this advance handwork which has\nbeen so much emphasized in this meeting. The results are simply amazing.\nSometimes one actually fails to recognize a boy after he has been in this\nschool a short time, such is the result of good food, of baths and all the rest\nof the things which Mr. Brockway years ago proved efficacious. After he\nhad been subjected to this treatment for a month or six weeks his own parents\nsubtly change in their attitude to him. The mother recognizes that which she\nalways knew was there, altho she had no power to bring it out; and the father,\nwho was said not to be fond of him, suddenly swells with a new sense of pride.\nThe onlooker wonders why this hasn't been done before the child was arrested,\nbefore he had to be brought to this preliminary disgrace. Here again I think\nit is the open acknowledgment which frees the situation, the moral ejffect\nwhen the community is not hostile, nor suspicious, nor watching to see how\nbad your boy is and to whisper that opinion to the next door neighbor. The\ncooperating community versus the hostile community enables the parents to\nlift up their heads and march along once more. I could easily illustrate this,\nbut I am sure illustrations occur to many of you and I am not going to take\nyour time for them, but with your permission I will very hastily resume the\nthree points which I tried to make: First, the changed attitude of the family\nwhen the mother understands that her child is one of many similar children,\nthat she is not having a burden unlike any one else which she has been specially\nselected by an unfair Providence to bear, but that a large group of people are\nconsidering the best methods of dealing with children such as hers, and that\nshe may be of great help to them as well as to her child. Second, the advance\nthat may be made in education when we are forced to the special education,\nand the many suggestions that will result. Third, the care which may be\ngiven to them, at the same time keeping parallel the old tenderness and old\nstandard of educational achievement and educational advancement.\nThese,\n\n"}
{"page": 1143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\n1131\n\nI should say, were three things which we might well bear in mind in relation\nto the training of the special child and the home.\nTHE\nELIZABETH\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nE. FARRELL,\nOF\n\nOF THE\n\nINSPECTOR\nEDUCATION,\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\nOF UNGRADED\nCLASSES,\nNEW YORK CITY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nThe problems of the special class group themselves around two centers:\nthose which arise when we consider the relation of the special class to the social\nbody as a whole and those which arise when we consider the individual to be\ntaught. The social problems of the special class include the questions of immigration, ofthe after care of the special-class children, the question of the prevention and cure of nervous and mental diseases; while the individual\nproblems are concerned with the selection of children for special classes, the\nspecial classroom and its equipment, the teacher, the subject-matter of\ninstruction, and the methods and devices of instruction. The emphasis in\nthis paper will be put upon the individual problems. Of these individual\nproblems one of the most important is the selection of special-class children.\nProblems of the selection oj children. — Children for ungraded classes should\nbe chosen with the greatest possible care. The initial move in the selection\nshould be made by the school principal. In the course of the day's work he\ncomes to know the naughty child, the child who is not promoted with his\nclass, and the truant child. Upon the discovery of children like those named,\nthe principal should require a thoro physical examination to be made by\nthe physician of the board of health with a view to determining whether the\nbackwardness or the delinquency arises from visual or aural defects, obstructions in the respiratory system, malnutrition, or any other cause which can be\nremedied by surgery or medicine or by proper diet. If such conditions are\nfound to exist the parent must be obliged to take measures to correct them.\nWhile this is under way the class teacher should make very definite records\nconcerning the home and the economic condition of the child's family; his\nschool history, i. e., regularity of attendance; terms spent in each grade; his\nschool attainment; his habits, special tastes, behavior, peculiarities, together\nwith any other information which might throw hght on the question of his\nability. It will be found that many of the records submitted to the school\nprincipal do not seem, in the light of his broader experience, to warrant the\ntransfer of the child to an ungraded class. In this case another teacher in the\nsame grade should be required to take charge of the child and to make records\nalong Hues similar to those noted. If, however, the school principal is satisfied,\nupon examining the record, that the child is probably a subject for an ungraded\nclass, he should apply to the proper authorities for the examination of the\nchild. The special examination should be made by persons .in the service of\nthe public schools. The examination should be physical and psychical. The\nphysical examination should reveal any conditions of disease or defect, if such\nexist. It should take note of the so-called stigmata of degeneration, not as\n\n"}
{"page": 1144, "printed_page": null, "text": "^j,2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nunquestioned evidence of defect, but as confirming or denying other conditions; itshould seek information concerning the child's inheritance and life\nhistory that will explain his mental retardation. The psychical examination\nshould determine the level of the child's mental life; the character and the\nquality of his power of attention, of memory, of volition. This examination\nshould reveal also the degree of balance and of proportion characteristic of the\nindividual mind.\nChildren examined with the precautions indicated will be found to fall\ninto three groups: those who are mentally defective and therefore subjects for\nungraded classes; those who are to be continued in the regular grades with\nmore attention paid to the correction of physical defects and to securing wholesome diet; those who are so defective as to be properly subjects for institutional care.\nThe problem oj class management. — I invite your attention now to the\nteacher and to the principles underlying her procedure in a class for mentally\ndefective children. As is indicated above, the teacher should know, so far as\nan examination can determine, the point of development already reached by\nthe child when she receives him. She should know from the record sent\nwhether the child is deaf or bUnd, whether his co-ordination centers are developed and to what profitable point, whether his training is to begin with sense\nperception or on a higher level. As soon as practicable the teacher should\nseek the cooperation of the home. The parent should be acquainted with\nthe actual condition of the child with regard to defect and disease. He is\nadvised to seek his own family physician, or the dispensary doctor. The\nneed for special care, for nourishing food, for abundant rest and sleep, should\nbe made plain. This should be done not only once but as many times as may\nbe necessary, and all the pressure of church associations, of friendly visitors,\nof every good force in the neighborhood should be brought to bear in order to\nsecure the decent physical health and well-being of the child in order that the\nschool may do its work.\nThe general principle upon which all education of mentally defective\nchildren is based is: \"Begin where the defect or disease impeded the normal\ndevelopment.\" This point may be determined in either of two ways: the\nteacher may begin with those exercises which naturally a boy of given years\nshould be able to do, and from that work backward to the point where the\nchild can accomplish a given exercise. This may be called the negative\nprocedure. The opposite process is that which begins with the most elementary workings of the child's neuro-muscular system, and climbs upward\nby means of very short, definite, more complex workings until the arrest in\ndevelopment has been reached. This process of localization is a positive\nprocedure. I need not state to this audience which is the more valuable to the\nchild. A process which leaves any child, or adult for that matter, flushed with\nhis own success, his own great achievement, is the process which makes for\nfuture advance by giving the individual faith in his own power to do. With\n\n"}
{"page": 1145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\n1133\n\nthe mentally defective child, conscious often of his own shortcomings, realizing\nfrequently that he is different from his fellows, the negative procedure is positive cruelty and when practiced in the school defeats, or at least delays, the\nachievement of the very purpose for which the school exists.\nAn application of this principle may be found in the case of a child whose\nmost noticeable characteristic is found in his neuro-muscular system — the\npower of motion and of locomotion. For example he is heavy, overgrown,\nsluggish, has a shuffling walk, in fact, has little control. The teacher may\nbegin by having the child sew or weave or use pegs and peg board. She is\nasking in this and similar exercises that the child use the very small muscles of\nthe fingers which we know to be late in developing and which the evolutipnist\ntells us are complex in their workings. The smaller the organ the more complex the function — must be the guiding rule of our teaching, and working on this\nprinciple the intelligent teacher will begin her work with positive success assured.\nShe will attack those large fundamental muscle groups whose functions are\nrelatively simple, and over which some control is exercised by the child. Instead of sewing, pricking, weaving, and the like, the child will use the ladder,\nvertical as well as horizontal, the basket-ball, foot-ball, the saw, the plane, and\nsimilar exercises which follow the natural order of muscular development.\nFrom the fundamental muscles the teacher proceeds to the next smaller\ngroup, involving perhaps the muscles of the forearm, the lower leg, and finally\nshe comes to the little muscles of the wrist, hand, and fingers, and she may\nfind that what was before impossible the child can now do readily. Our\nhelp must be given along the lines of natural development. Dr. Seguin says:\n*'We must promote the natural development of force in the child in order that\neventually he may possess the instruments of knowledge.\"\nThere is another sequence to be observed in the training of mentally\ndefective children, and this is the sequence based on the natural order of\nmenial development. Professor Preyer has made us realize the importance\nof certain acts of adjustment in the child's infancy. He has called attention\nto the place of imitation in the development of the child and of the race. He\nsays: \"Imitation gives rise to language.\" It is for the successful teacher of\ndefective children to apply what he sets forth in this regard. **We are likely\nto put little faith in imitative work. To characterize work as parrotlike is to\nexpress our supreme contempt. And yet we know that imitation is the first\nstep in mental development; we know that imitation is a phase of self-activity ;\nwe know that only souls can imitate.\" Imitation is the highest expression of\nmuscular effort. The teacher of mentally defective children must realize that\nmuch, if not all, of her first work with a child must be based on this principle\nof imitation. The teacher of mentally defective children must realize that\noften she must show the child the movement he is to make. She must put his\nbody into the position she wants him to assume until he feels that position, and\nso be able to imitate the seen movement reinforced by the \"felt movement\"\nof his own body.\nThe teacher in the first work, which of necessity is physical,\n\n"}
{"page": 1146, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj-^\n\nNAl^IONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIAl^ION\n\n[Special\n\nmust believe, uith Dr. Stanley Hall, that ''will is muscle habit.\" Habit\ntakes its rise in imitation.\nThe particular weakness or inabihty of the child, whether it is concerned\nwith deficiencies or anomalies of motion or locomotion, or whether it is concerned with the deficiencies of the organs of special sense, is taken separately\nfor the purpose of stimulating the organ to perfect functioning, at the same\ntime the functioning promotes the growth and development of the organ.\nThe training of the muscular system by means of games, gymnastics, and\nmanual training, given perhaps for the specific purpose of developing force, at\nthe same time accelerates brain action, first by sending to the brain an increased\nsupply of blood, second by stimulating the organs of digestion, assimilation and\nelimination, and third, by securing such coordination of eye, muscle, and\nsense of touch, as we know to promote the complexity of the brain tissue,\nparticularly in the centers controlling the parts named, and has to offer a class\nof exercise whose specific aim is to develop the power of imitation. The child\nmust be attentive; he must inhibit certain ideas and hold to the one; he must\nwatch the leader in order to know what to do ; the exercise attracts his sight,\nimpresses his brain, contracts the muscles first with difficulty, perhaps, but\nafterwards with increasing ease. The development of imitation will promote\nquickness and precision of movement. The actual changes in the brain tissues\ndue to this exercise are easily appreciated, and of course this means greater\nmental power in the child. We have Dr. Harris as authority for the statement\nthat imitation develops into habits, customs, morals, that is, the will side of\nthe human mind, and on the other it develops into perception, memory, ideas\nand insights, which is the intellectual side of the human mind.\nBut every exercise must be physical and psychical. Every exercise must\nstimulate the organ to perfect, all-round functioning. Pestalozzi says: \"Whatever the child does gladly, whatever awakens his powers and enables him\nto say / can, all this he wills. But this will is not aroused by words, it is aroused\nonly by a complete culture which gives feelings and powers.\"\nThe teacher must know the actual physical condition of the child each day.\nShe must be able to interpret the white, drawn look around the mouth of the\nfatigued child. She must know what to do to relieve the tension indicated by\nthe overworked frontal muscles. The child who seems tired out when it first\nappears in the morning must be made the subject of her careful consideration.\nThe irritable child, ready to strike and fight, must be explained either from\nhis home or his physical condition. Was he whipped for his awkwardness,\nstubbornness, or so-called carelessness ? Was he working later than usual ?\nWas he subject to unusual experiences ?\nIt has been said that the treatment of mentally defective children in the\npublic schools and the treatment of the average normal boy or girl differ in\nno essential particular. It is a difference of degree, not of kind. We do not\nhave any new methods for teaching reading: we use a combination of all\ngood methods, sentence, word and phonic ; we have no new device for develop-\n\n"}
{"page": 1147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\n1135\n\ning the sense of quantity or of quality : we weigh measure, compare, reckon ;\nwe have only such means as are open to all for the training of childhood.\nLike the teacher of the normal child we go back to Locke for his philosophy.\n''Nothing can enter the mind except thru the senses; to Comenius we go\nfor a sequence in training — senses, memory, intellect; to Rousseau we go to\nrealize again and again the supreme importance of knowing the child, and his\ndevelopment which is to come, if at all, thru his experience with things,\nthings, things ; to Pestalozzi we go to learn that our aim is not that the child\nshould know what he does not know but that he should behave as he does not\nbehave, and the road to right action is right feeling.\" And again he says:\n\"I have proved that it is not regular work that stops the development of so\nmany poor children but the turmoil and irregularity of their lives, the privations they endure, the excesses they indulge in when opportunity offers; the\nwild rebellious passions so seldom restrained; and the hopelessness to which\nthey are so often the prey.\" To Froebel we go for his philosophy of the unity\nof all life, even encumbered as it often is by disease, defect, ignorance and\ncrime. From these, the master teachers, we learn to look from the defective\nmind to the cause of it— the defective eye, the defective ears, the poor control,\nwill explain much and indicate more; instead of nagging and scolding the\nchild for seemingly careless work we seek causes for it in the badly nourished\nanaemic body, the victim perhaps of our modern slavery — child labor — and\nlikely as not the inheritor of such nervous instability as comes from the parent,\nwho may be the slave of some intoxicant, or the victim of that sad and\nmiserable poverty which undermines the power and usefulness of men.\nIn general it is true that mental hfe of greatest reach and possibility is\ndirectly dependent on physical efficiency; so our treatment of the mentally\ndefective child must begin in a complete diagnosis of his case. It must proceed along those lines which nature unimpeded takes with the average human\ninfant. We have to do with the ''misfit\" in the schools, the child out of tune,\nthe child isolated by his inabilities and often by his teacher. It is ours to\nfit the school to him ; to restore the harmony ; to socialize him and make him\nfeel with his more fortunate brothers the unity of all life.\nThe problem 0} after-care and preventive measures. — One of the most serious\nsocial problems we have to face is the problem of the after-care of the special\nclass children. We should take into these classes those children only who are\neducable to a degree that promises ability for self-support when it becomes\nnecessary for the child to earn his own living. The experience of those engaged\nin work with the defective classes is that even the most promising of these\nchildren have social and ethical defects in addition to the mental defect from\nwhich they suffer. They are likely to be coarse and rough or all too gentle.\nThey violate all rules of morality. They are irritable, perhaps cruel and\ndestructive. We know how hard it is for these children to stick to one thing.\nWe know how much encouragement and boosting they need. Yet with these\nfacts at hand we are today turning children out of our special classes who must\n\n"}
{"page": 1148, "printed_page": null, "text": "1136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nenter the fierce competition of our industrial life. Have you ever stopped to\nconsider what becomes of them ? Is it not safe to say that most of the giris\nbecome women of the street and a large majority of the boys get into reform\nschools and state prisons ? If you will consult the reports of the State Custodial\nHouse for Feeble-Minded Women in Newark, N. Y., you will find statistics\nwhich are startling of the burden that these women have put upon the social\nbodv. While the investigation into the mental ability of the boys in the\nElmira Reformatory showed that many of them were mentally defective, so\nfar as I know nothing is being done in this country toward the supervision\nof these children after their school life is finished. These are some of the\nquestions we must face. Does our duty to this child and to society end when\nwe give him his discharge from school ? Have we any right to turn into the\nindustrial world a worker who cannot succeed ?\nShall we stand back and see a boy sent to a reform school when we know\nthat which has never been formed cannot be reformed ?\nDo we need legislation which will secure to these children a life free from\nthe stress and stain and final misery to which we now condemn them ?\nAs well as working to secure to these children of today their right to education and a life of happy useful industry, we must also look ahead to the\ngenerations to come and do what can be done to insure for them a strong\nhealthy organism ready and fit to do the world's work. This can be insured\nby making more general the knowledge we now have of nervous diseases and\ndisorder. By means of popular lectures given by recognized authorities the\ngeneral public can be informed on such subjects as the preventable causes of\nmental deficiency. By the organization of free clinics for nervous disorders,\nsimilar to the one maintained by the Cornell Medical College in New York\nCity, and the one made possible in Baltimore by the Phipps Foundation, we\ncan prevent somewhat the number of morbidly nervous persons and in this\nway insure a stronger and saner race to carry on the work of this nation.\nThese two sets of problems must be met wherever the ungraded-class idea\nis to take root. Our work is ''double-headed.\" We look to the enriching\nof the individual life. We develop to its greatest efficiency the soul of the\nchild, whose mental ability is blurred yet who must meet the world. But we\nstop short of the greatest privilege unless we advocate and actively support\nwhatever makes for the integrity of the race stock.\n\n"}
{"page": 1149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nCHILD\n\nIN THE\n\nFUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nEDUCATION OF THE BLIND CHILD WITH\nSEEING CHILD IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nMISS\n\nALMEDA\n\nC. ADAMS, CLEVELAND,\n[Stenographic Report]\n\n1137\n\nTHE\n\nOHIO*\n\nI am deeply sensible of the honor conferred upon me in being invited to\naddress this representative body of teachers. I come to you in behalf of the\ndwellers in the shadow, and I hope that what I say shall not have been spoken\nin vain.\nIt seems to me that the education of the special child, as you have taken it\nup, presents this great difficulty: that the problems of the physically defective\nand those of the mentally and morally defective are not, and never can be,\nthe same. Neither does the fact that a child is a victim of a physical defect\ninvolve any abnormal condition of the mind or morals. This problem is\nradically unlike the problems of the feeble-minded and incorrigible child.\nIt were indeed presumptuous for me to dare to add one to the many definitions ofeducation which have been given, but I venture to say for my purpose that education in its broadest sense is the highest development, along\nnatural lines, of all the God-given powers — physical, mental, and spiritual.\nBy natural lines, we mean those lines determined by the native endowment of\nthe individual.\nThe problem of the education of the blind child is, therefore, exactly like\nthat of all other children — of his seeing comrade, save that the peculiar thing\nto be taken into consideration in his case is the loss of vision. The fact that\nthis problem has been so slow of solution is largely due to your own overestimate ofthis limitation, an estimate which arises from the fact that you are\napt to give too great a prominence to the place that sight holds in the senses.\nVision is not, as our seeing friends sometimes seem to think, the only sense.\nThe child goes away for a day's outing, and when he comes back he is\nasked to describe minutely what he saw, but nothing is asked of him as to what\nhe touched. Would it not be well for us to ask ourselves to what degree of refinement of perception the child would attain if we were to devote the same effort to\nthe cultivation of the senses of hearing and touch as we do to the sight ?\nThe problem, then, of the blind child is peculiar simply in the fact that the\nchild is blind. Suppose he doesn't see? Suppose you subtract one sense\nfrom five, even though that sense be the greatest, the result is not zero. This\ntakes no account of intuition, the sixth sense, which must ever remain our\n* Miss Almeda C. Adams, who made the following eloquent address in response to an impromptu call, has\nbeen blind since infancy. She was educated in the public schools, and later in a state institution. After graduation she won a scholarship in the New England Conservatory of Music for securing 1,000 subscribers for\nThe Ladies' Home Journal.\nHer admission to the Conservatory was questioned because of her lack of sight. She accepted admission conditionally, agreeing to leave at the end of six months if not successful in her work. She graduated\nwith a standing in all subjects above the majority of her class. Later she studied under private instructors in\nNew York City.\nMiss Adams has taught vocal music in a state school for the blind, also in a normal school for seeing\npupils, and is now conducting a studio for seeing students of vocal music. She is also the teacher of a large\nchorus class of seeing girls. — Editor.\n\n"}
{"page": 1150, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDU CATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nhighest source of knowledge, because thru that sense alone we may behold the\ninvisible, and stand face to face with God.\nThe blind child, then, can do everything that the seeing child can do. I\nwould not for one moment have you imagine that I undervalue or minimize\nin any measure the great gift of sight. But I do not think that the eye is the\nonly organ by which light may reach the soul.\nNow, as you know, in the education of sightless children, the great institutions have done a noble work, and I will not minimize it; but that they work\nunder many and great disadvantages it is impossible to deny. By this system\nthe child is for years kept from that natural home and community life which\nis the natural need of every child. This is during that entire formative period\nbetween the years of seven and twenty-one years of age when the parents should\ncare for the child. Under those conditions a daughter grows to be a stranger\nto her own mother. At the time when the perplexities of life come upon her?\nshe has no one to carry them to. But most of all the children segregated in\nthese schools are a distinct and peculiar class entirely separate from the seeing\nworld in which they must spend the rest of their lives. As Professor Earl\nBarnes said yesterday, they get the blind habit, and when that blind habit is\nonce fastened upon them, it is almost impossible to break it. And I wish to\nsay right here that I have never heard anyone discuss the problems of\nthe blind with such clear comprehension as that shown by Professor Barnes\nin his address of yesterday.\nWe have to admit certain tricks of manner and thought which seem to\nbe the natural result of blindness. Why ? Let the psychologist answer. In\na special school, it is very difficult to lead a child to realize the gravity of these\nmannerisms, or put forth the proper effort to overcome them, whereas, in a\nseeing school, they all disappear.\nVery much has been said here about the danger and mistake of institutionalizing education, by which I judge they meant the individualizing of it. I\nheard a woman not long ago say that, in her judgment, children were so much\nbetter cared for by the state than in homes, they ought to be cared for\nby the state. I think she is greatly mistaken. In a state school, it is absolutely impossible for the teachers to study the children. There are never\nenough teachers to man the state schools and so long as our state institutions\nare in the grasp of political machines, they may not always be manned by the\nbest and wisest.\nTo the city of Chicago belongs the honor of the initiative in the admission\nof sightlesss children to the public schools. In 1900, thirty-seven Chicago\nschools were opened to blind children. The supervisor of this work is Mr.\nJohn B. Curtiss, himself without sight. I have not the honor of his acquaintance, but he seems to be a man of large common-sense. Every school has a\nspecial teacher whose business it is to teach the point reading apd writing, by\nthe use of maps and other special apparatus, and also to study the peculiarities\nof the children, and to help them by every means in their power.\nAt first they\n\n"}
{"page": 1151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dupartment]\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nCHILD\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1139\n\nare almost entirely dependent upon her to establish the right relationship\nbetween themselves and other students. When, however, the child has\nthoroly mastered the point reading and writing and becomes accustomed to\nthe apparatus, he or she enters the school-room with the other children and\nrecites with them in everything and does exactly the same work that they do.\nIn grammar and history they have been known to excel. Their problems are\ndone on the Braille slate, and they have the use of maps; a printer is employed\nwhose business it is to reproduce the books used by the seeing children in the\nBraille or point system. As it is absolutely essential that the blind child\nshould be taught the correct use of its hands, some sort of construction work\ns taught the younger children, such as making paper boxes and bead work.\nPersonally I believe that the value of bead work to the bHnd has been vastly\nexaggerated. As has been said, construction work is designed to teach the\nuse of the hands and should involve movements over large surfaces. Bead\nwork, on the contrary, is crampy ; the beads are small, the patterns are small,\nand the artistic results are smaller still.\nOne of the arguments that has always been used against this method of\neducation is the cost. Statistics obtained several years ago show that in some\nthirty blind schools, with 3,300 students, the average cost per capita was\n$270 a year. In Chicago the last year the cost per capita was exactly\n$173.08. It may be true of course that the expense of providing special\nteachers and supplies is greater in the public schools than it would be in proportion in the special schools, but this is more than compensated for by the\nfact that the cost of the child's board no longer devolves upon the public, but\nupon the parents, where it should rest. The fact that the cost is not greater\nvidll, I think, be more and more largely demonstrated as the work advances\nand it is found that the children can do more and more work vidth the normal\napparatus. But, you say, this is all very well for a large city like Chicago,\nwhere there is plenty of money to hire special teachers and to provide apparatus; but in a smaller city it is impossible. My dear teacher, whether or not\nit be possible rests altogether with you.\nAt the age of seven I entered the primary grade of the public school of\nUrbana, Ohio. I remained in this primary grade for one year, passing the\nexamination successfully, and learning meanwhile to read raised print.\nI learned yesterday that there is a lad in Shelby, Ohio, who has been in the\npublic schools there for seven years. He entered when he was six years of\nage. He has taken every grade without failure and has passed a high grade\nof examination. He lost his sight when a child thru an accident and the\nmother went to the primary teacher, a Miss Randall, and asked her to take\nher boy and she said she would do so. After the mother was gone, the superintendent said to her, ''I don't think you realize what you are undertaking; this\nboy will be a very great charge.\" Miss Randall said, ''I 'don't see how I\ncould refuse to take that boy, and compel his mother to send him away from\nhome.\"\n\nHe said, \"Yes, you could refuse to do it; you are under no obliga-\n\n"}
{"page": 1152, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj^Q\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ntions whatever to do it.\" Miss Randall said, \"Unless you forbid my doing\nit I will take the boy.\" Three months later the superintendent came in to\nintroduce the fire drill, and he said, **You had better ask Wade to sit still.\"\nShe said, \"No, sir. Wade doesn't sit still for anything.\" She told him to put\nhis hand on the boy in front of him, and after a few times he could do it. He\nrides a bicycle, rides a pony, and uses roller skates. He is head and front of\nall the boys of Shelby.\nSuppose such a case as this: Suppose that Mary's mother comes to your\nsuperintendent, because that is what she would probably do, and says to him,\n\"I can't bear to send my little daughter from home — won't you take her into\nyour schools and do the best you can for her ? \" Now, the superintendent\nlays the matter before you as the teacher. Almost the only extra work it\nwould be for you is the teaching of the point system, and anybody with a\ngrain of sense can learn that. How do I know ? Well, once when I was a\ngirl, I knew a young man who learned the point system in two hours, all for\nthe sake of writing letters to a girl who couldn't see; and my mother said\nthat if that boy could learn the point system in so short a time for such foolishness as that, any goose could learn it, and I have always taken her word for it.\nThe point system of reading and writing is a sort of tangible shorthand.\nIt consists of dots very much hke the pin holes you used to prick in paper when\nyou were children, and the number and arrangement of the dots make the\nletters. The slates designed for the purpose can be obtained from any special\nschool for the moderate sum of $i . 25.\nUnfortunately, there are two systems of point in vogue in the United States,\nthe New York point, and the Braille. The Braille is the European system,\nwhich was invented first in France, and with some modifications is still used.\nThe New York point is a modification of the system invented by Mr. Waite\nof New York City.\nI believe that the relative merits of the two are in the prpportion of six to\nhalf a dozen, and over the two there has been endless jangle, which I firmly\nbelieve has immeasurably retarded the education of the blind. It is earnestly\nto be hoped that there will soon be a uniform type. In the meantime, use\nthe one in vogue in the city where your school is located, and I herewith pledge\nmyself to write a long letter of instruction to any teacher who vdshes to learn\nthe point system for the sake of being able to help blind children.\nOne of the most important features of the education of a blind child must\nbe its physical training. All the conditions of its life are absolutely opposed to\nthe development of normal, physical vigor. We take to a rocking-chair as\nnaturally as a duck does to water, and our seeing friends are always ready to\nwait on the blind. But the bhnd child should be urged to join in all the sports\nof his seeing comrades. When I was going to school as a child, I jealously\nclaimed my place in blind man's buff. Did I ever get hurt ? Ask my nose.\nThese things are true, and therefore, when Mary's mother comes to you,\nI must ask you not to refuse her request.\nPerhaps you may be able to find\n\n"}
{"page": 1153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nCHILD\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1141\n\nsome young woman of leisure in the neighborhood who will be willing to help\nyou ; but if not, if this burden and task must fall upon those already heavily\nburdened, still, dear teacher, must / cry to you to accept it, for you know as\nwell as I do that it is only those who are already laden to the water line who\ncan take on additional cargo. My plea is for a normal life for these little\nsightless children: not segregated; not classed together; not made peculiar;\nbut simply allowed to live out the laws of their being; for, as one of the best\nwomen that I have the privilege of knowing said, ''We are all just folks,\" and\nthese blind children are just exactly like other children, with the same dreams,\nthe same hopes, and the same ambitions. To be sure, there may be thirtynine other children in school; but suppose that each of those thirty-nine\nchildren is asked to sacrifice one-twentieth of the time that would be devoted\nto it— and this would be ample time to give to the sightless child. But\nyou say the school is conducted for the benefit of the normal child. We used\nto say that society was conducted for the benefit of the strong. Are we going\nback to the philosophy of John Smith, the philosophy that puts a premium\non selfishness; which says that if a man will only serve himself well enough,\nhe will be serving others ? What has been the result of that service, let the\nhistory of the corporations answer. Will not that sacrifice of that twentieth\npart of the time be a better sacrifice and a better education for him ? Suppose,\nfor instance, that on the playground he is asked to take some precaution and\nbe careful of the sightless child, wouldn't this tend to his highest development ?\nWe have a little girl in Cleveland, four years old, who has been in the\nPilgrim Congregational Church kindergarten for some three months, and the\nteacher says it is impossible for her to discover whether the kindergarten has\ndone the most for this little girl, or whether she has done most for the kindergarten. One day one of the oldest children came to the principal and said,\n\"Do you suppose Edna's papa and mamma would sell her for one hundred\ndollars?\" and he said, \"No, dear, I don't suppose they would.\" She said,\n*'My papa says if they will sell her for one hundred dollars, I can buy her,\nand I want little Edna for my own.\" They reach their little hands to you,\nthese children of the dark, and ask not your pity. Pity is the guerdon of the\nweak — not your mere idle passing wonder over their little achievements.\nThey ask for light, the radiant light of knowledge that shines from within\noutward and glorifies all life, and when you have granted this boon, what then ?\nThey do ask your help, for you are stronger than they. They ask your help\nin securing positions. They ask your help in making the world believe that\nthey can do the things that they can do.\nWill you pardon a personal illustration ? I go to a choir director and ask\nfor a position. He says, \"Oh, that would be absolutely impossible, Miss\nAdams; we must have a soprano who reads at sight.\" And then they get a\nyoung lady who hasn't had as many advantages as I have had in some other\nways; but she reads at sight, perhaps, but it isn't first sight, or second sight, or\neven third sight, and so they drill her over and over again, and they imagine\n\n"}
{"page": 1154, "printed_page": null, "text": "JJ42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[SpeclaJ\n\nthat they have a sight reader, and that I a blind soprano would be a hopeless obstacle.\nNow, you can correct some of these things, for we long to stand beside you;\nwe seek a soldier's share in the struggle that we may win a soldier's crown.\nFor in the batde of life, dear friends, the laurels are not alone for him who\nsucceeds as the world measures success: they are for the one who fights his\nfight bravely and patiently unto the end, with his face ever toward his foe,\nwith the eyes of his spirit ever open toward the eternal vision. For who hath\nmade the dumb or the deaf or the seeing or the blind ? Hath not God, the\nLord ? And in his name we pledge you to universal brotherhood, until we all\ncome home at last — both we who stand in the shadow, and you who stand in\nthe sunlight — into that fair city where they need no more sun by day nor moon\nor stars by night, for the Lord God giveth them light.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Mary McCowen, of Chicago. — ^We have had a beautiful illustration this\nmorning in Miss Adams, herself blind, standing before us and speaking so eloquently in\nbehalf of the blind child,\nI am glad to indorse Miss Adams' statement about the work in Chicago. It is being\ndone very much as she has stated; the blind children enter the classes with the seeing\nchildren; they continue their work with the regular classes of seeing children, and graduate\nwith honors, their special work being in charge of a blind man who is, as Miss Adams\nstated, a man of rare qualifications.\nMiss Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes, Public Schools, New\nYork City. — Special classes, or ungraded classes should be made as nearly unobjection\nable to parents as possible. We heard yesterday a very strong appeal or statement in\nregard to the effect of parental love. I want to say to those who have anything to do with\nthe formation of special classes the special class must be made different from the normal\nclass; it must be made more useful and more practical, and when this is done, there will\nbe no stigma upon the special class. But as long as the special class is made very much\n■'like the regular class just so long you will surely get that class called, in a very few weeks\nor days, the ''fool class,\" or some such name. But if we make the class special in a real\nsense, and do for those children what has never been done for them, the appreciation of\nthat fact by the family will insure the success of that class in any city and any country.\nThe special class must have a special teacher. Those of you who are teaching or\nwho contemplate teaching a special class are contemplating a work of which you may be\njustly proud, for in the near future the special class teacher and special education are to\nlead the educational thought in the United States. Much has been done already along\nsome lines, and the teachers of normal children will come to you to learn how to do it;\nto learn rational methods.\nMiss Adams, when she said \"We long to stand beside you,\" made a touching appeal.\nIf we keep that thought in mind, we shall come more nearly to treating these people\nwisely and helpfully than in any other way.\n\n"}
{"page": 1155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1143\n\nSOME\nURGENT\nNEEDS\nFOR\nADVANCEMENT\nIN THE\nEDUCATION OF MENTALLY DEFECTIVE CHILDREN\nISABELLE\n\nI\n\nTHOMPSON\nCLASSES,\n\nSMART, M.D., MEDICAL EXAMINER\nBOARD\nOF EDUCATION,\nNEW\nYORK\n\nFOR UNGRADED\nCITY\n\nThere is not, at the present time, among the teachers, principals, and\nschool authorities in general, sufficient inteUigence as to what a mentally\ndeficient child really is and what a mentally deficient child really needs.\nThese conditions are beginning to show signs of improvement, tho even\nyet it is no unusual occurrence to have a principal send a child to be examined\nas eligible for the ungraded class, who has reached the sixth or even the eighth\ngrade in the elementary school. Only a few weeks ago two fine strong lads\nwere sent to me for such an examination. Both had attained to the eighth\ngrade and told me they were doing cube root in their arithmetic; they were\nreally disciplinary cases and their principal, who by the way is a man arid\nphysically a giant, submitted them for this examination as an easy means\nof ridding himself and his helpers of two nuisances. Our honored city\nsuperintendent, William H. Maxwell, in one of his recent circular letters\nto the principals of New York City, meets this contingency by suggesting\nthat, as a rule, \"children who are twelve years old or over, and who have\nattained to the grammar grades (4A-8B) are not to be considered for an\nungraded class.\" Many times it is the \"bad\" boy or girl who is elected for an\nexamination by the teacher or principal, to the exclusion of the real defective\nwho is in need of the attention of such a special class.\nI would suggest that, in every city contemplating or maintaining classes for\nthe defectives in its pubHc-school system, a course of lectures with supplementary\nreading be given by competent people, attendance upon which should be made\ncompulsory for principals and heads of departments. Also that a comprehensive course of instruction in this subject be given in all normal and training\nschools for teachers, in which course the medical expert as well as the psychologist shall give some of the necessary enlightenment. The physiology,\nhygiene, and pathology of such conditions as are found among the mentally\ndefective can be adequately taught only by the man or woman scientifically\ntrained in medicine, and these are exceedingly important branches of the subject to enable the teacher to recognize certain signs and stigmata, know something of their significance, appreciate some of their causes and possible effects,\nand see that they are speedily and properly treated. A special course, therefore, in the teaching and management of the mentally defective children should\nbe arranged for in all the representative training colleges and normal schools,\nwhere those who feel a special inclination toward this department of education\nmay receive the proper equipment.\nIn our own city of New York, for two years the School of Pedagogy, New\nYork University, has attempted such courses, which are still in the constructive stage and only partially doing their work.\nDuring the past winter, for\n\n"}
{"page": 1156, "printed_page": null, "text": "^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\none semester, Teachers' . College, Columbia University, organized a psycholo<nc course, which must expand and take on a greater breadth of view if it\nis to be considered worthy. And an excellent series of lectures on the psychophysiologic side of the problems was given by Doctor Mary Sutton Macy,\nthru the medium of the courses conducted by the New York City Teachers'\nAssociation. These are all steps in the right direction and as such are a\ndecided gain, but we need these and more. It is a burning question how our\nwork is to progress without properly equipped teachers, and how teachers are\nto be adequately trained without access to special schools or classes for this\nparticular purpose. There are so very few practical teaching courses offered\nand some of the best of these are only held for a few weeks in the summer!\nIt is a most lamentable fact, that thirty or forty individuals may enter an\nexamination for license to teach these children and perhaps as many as ten\npass the preliminary theoretic, written test and out of this small percentage\nndt more than three or four be able to stand the practical, oral test.\nTeachers are sorely needed — teachers whose lives are in a great measure\nconsecrated to their pupils; who are willing after a day of fatigue and trial,\nnecessitating the expenditure of a vast amount of patience, to visit the homes\nof the unfortunate litde ones to obtain, many times to plead for, the consent\nof the parents or guardians to permit some treatment or operation, necessary\nto insure the child a reasonable amount of health, sight, or hearing. We,\nin New York, are very fortunate in having a faithful few who are thus consecrated and doing all the good possible in as many ways as they can for their\npupils. We have one teacher who during the last year has personally interviewed the parents and physicians and in the greater number of cases gone\nwith the children while tonsils or adenoids were removed, and has met with\nsuch success that only one case in her charge remains untreated at present,\nand that of a little one whose heart at the last report was not yet able to stand\nthe anaesthetic. This teacher has now begun her same systematic work to\nhave the defective teeth treated, while many have been her visits to physicians\nfor medicines and tonics for the general upbuilding of her little pupils. To\nsay that she is an inspiration and source of encouragement to all who come\nin contact with her in the work is but a mild way of expressing our feelings.\nSeveral others of our staff of teachers are following closely in her tracks and a\nfew of them are laboring under great difficulties among our large foreign\npopulation, difficulties which are hard to surmount, but we need more teachers\nof the same kind.\nThere should always be a very close co-operation between the physician\nand the teacher of the mentally defective, and the children themselves must\nbe under a more or less constant medical supervision, if their successful mental\nand physical training is to be maintained, for their mental progress depends\nin a singularly marked degree upon their physical health. That a medical\nexamination is an essential to the proper classification, as well as treatment,\nof these children should be a self-evident fact; and that the examination\n\n"}
{"page": 1157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1145\n\nshould be made by a physician, a specialist in mental and nervous disorders,\nwho has made a considerable study of the pedagogical problem involved in the\neducation of these children, seems an urgent need. There are those who\nclaim that the psychologist is all that is necessary, but surely that is a very\nnarrow stand to take! The psychologist is needed, unquestionably, but\nordinarily what does he know of the physical life and physical needs of the\nchild, or — for that matter — of the mental life either, where pathologic conditions exist and need to be eliminated ? The physician who makes a specialty\nof the diagnosis and treatment of mental and nervous diseases never does so\nuntil he or she has been trained in psychology, and has thus added to the\nordinary medical armamentarium and practical training in histology, hygiene,\nphysiology, and pathology of brain and nerve tissues the theoretic training\nof facts and deductions in the science of psychology. Also the physician,\nbecause of scientific knowledge of embryology and growth, both physiologic\nand pathologic, is better fitted to appreciate the value of the external stigmata\nas evidence of the stage at which brain development was checked or arrested,\nand to estimate the chances of improvement and indicate its lines.\nIf the psychologist, as such, were really all that were necessary to the proper\nexamination and diagnosis of these cases of mental defect — as some people\nof intelligence would have us believe — why do we not find more of them as\nsuperintendents in our resident schools for feeble-minded, in our sanitaria for\nmental cases, or in our asylums for the idiotic and insane ? The physician\nappears still to be a necessity to treat these cases and no reputable physician\nwill treat a case which has not come up for personal examination and diagnosis;\ntherefore it saves time to have the competent physician make the diagnosis\nin the first place. It may also be noted that, as a rule, the \"say so\" of the\nphysician has more weight with the parents and more influence on the lay\nmind in general, than the word of anyone else; there are a few cases — exceptions to the general rule — in which the supporting advice of the teacher or\nprincipal, who is known to the family, adds valuable weight to the word of the\nstrange doctor, but ordinarily it is the word of the physician that really means\nthe most to the parents, and among our foreign population, it is the dictum\nof \"der Herr Professor\" or of \"die Frau Doktor\" that is listened to, and\nheeded! Another point to be considered is the debt we all alike owe to the\ninvaluable literature published in many lands and tongues on the subject of\nthe feeble minded, the mentally deficient children, les enjants retardaires,\ndie geistigzuruckgehliehenen Kinder. The greatest bulk of this literature\ncomes from the pens of scientifically trained physicians, Bachelors or Doctors\nof Medicine all of them, some of them possibly also Doctors of Philosophy,\nbut little of the writing is attributable to tho^e who are simply psychologists!\nAt the Second International Congress on School Hygiene held in London\nlast August (1907), and of which I was privileged to be a jnember, a section\nwas devoted to the consideration of the problems in the education of the\nfeeble minded and the two gentlemen who were most active and prominent in\n\n"}
{"page": 1158, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj^5\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nihe meetings, which were held morning and afternoon daily thruout the\nweek, were two physicians. Doctors G. E. Shuttleworth and R. Langdon\nDown. The cry of the Congress was that of progressive science everywhere\ntoday, \"Prevention!\" Many suggestions were made, in the section I spoke\nof, and many plans discussed, which might lead to the prevention of an increase\nin the number of mental defectives, the prevention of the reproduction of\nsuch children and' the prevention of those already alive from living in freedom\non the street. Prophylaxis, preventive treatment! These are our needs in\nthis country as well, and preventive treatment must be understood to imply\npreventive legislation 1\nWhat becomes of the boys and the girls of this class when they leave our\nschools? Boys and girls mentally, morally, in every way, unfit to become\nfree agents! The answer inevitably is: ''They go on the street!\" Many\nof the girls are seduced by vile men and abandoned to a life of misery and\nshame, to the reproduction of their kind, and ultimately to fill our workhouses\nand penitentiaries. The major part, if not all the young criminals, who fill\nour parental homes and throng our children's courts are either mentally or\nphysically defective or both. How much less expense to the state — and it\nseems a shame to an intelligent. God-fearing people, that the element of\nmoney plays so large a part in such humanitarian propositions as this — how\nmuch less expensive would be the securing of a suflScient number of proper\nsites and buildings, where these unfit might, in colonies under moderate\nsupervisory control, earn their living honestly from the start, and by the sale\nof their own produce realize for themselves and their colony a neat yearly\nincome. In a comparatively short time these colonies should become selfsupporting and the state would be burdened with fewer criminals, society\nshamed by fewer mentally defective mothers and fewer feeble-minded children\nwithout a known father. Miss Dendy of Sandlebridge, Manchester, England,\nmade an earnest plea at the London Congress for the mental defectives of\nprocreative age and remarked that the inmates of the boys' home and school\nwho were eighteen or nineteen years of age \"would all have been fathers by\nthis time, if they had been living out in the world.\"\nWe need legislation which will give us authority to act in securing the\nafter-care of each child who is a true defective. We need legislation which\nwill secure us authority to act when a child is in urgent need of medical or\nsurgical treatment. We need legislation which will give us power to protect\nthe defective child from ignorant, superstitious, or indifferent parents and\nfriends. We need legislation which will protect the state from the illegal\nclaims and expenses for aliens, children or adults who are defective.\nWhen a foreigner comes to our shores he should be given to understand\nthat he must submit to having his children cared for physically; that is, if the\nlittie ones need tonsils or adenoids removed it must be done; if glasses are\nrequired they must be found, or the children cannot remain in the countr>'.\nThe alien comes to America for the avowed purpose of bettering his condition\n\n"}
{"page": 1159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1147\n\nsocially and financially; he expects to have his children educated to become\nAmerican citizens and to be protected as such in the future; therefore the\ngovernment that is to foot these bills should reserve to itself the privilege of\ninsisting upon the insurance of good health and physical well-being to its\nfuture citizens and thereby secure to itself the reasonable expectation of units\nwhose physical stamina shall be such as to warrant a reasonable degree of\nsocial efficiency; this, within limits, the government has a right to demand,\nto expect, and to obtain.\nIt is a flagrant disgrace to our laws and authorities that any child should,\nfour weeks after its arrival in this country, be brought before an examining\nphysician for mental defectives for examination as to its eligibility for special\neducation. When such children are found to be in need of relief for enlarged\ntonsils and adenoids, the parents are summoned and told that the children\nneed treatment to improve their health and their efficiency, but we are often\nmet by their flat refusal to grant their consent and we can do nothing. The\nmunicipal authorities, sooner or later, have many of these cases to deal with,\nbecause, as is well known, these children become incorrigibles. Arrested\nfirst for some trivial offense, too often for steaHng a loaf of bread to stay\nstarvation, the city has to meet the expense of maintaining courts and institutions fitted to handle such cases. A few thousand dollars judiciously spent in\nmaking new laws to meet these conditions, or in enforcing old laws to meet\nthe needs of the country in handling the hordes of immigrants, would be the\ncause of our feeling, within a few years, that a new era had dawned on these\nUnited States.\nWe need more rigid inspection at our ports of entry, and a force of medical\ninspectors and examiners sufficiently large and adequate to warrant a rapid\nfollowing up of all cases to insure the carrying out of all remedial measures\nneeded. No mentally defective child or adult of alien birth should be permitted\nto land in the country, or, if landed by accident or fraud, allowed to remain\nhere to become a burden to the state. I have in mind one particular case\nwhich came to my attention very recently. A boy, whose father had come to\nNew York many years ago and whose mother had been here for five years, had\nremained with relatives on the other side, and had several times been refused\nby our agents there. Eventually friends of the family came over and in some\nway managed to bring this boy along, his parents swore falsely and the boy\npassed through Ellis Island and came into New York. I met him within a\nvery short time of his arrival in a lower East Side school, where he came to\nme, with others as candidates, for admission to the ungraded class. The\nhistory of his case since entering the school was that of an idiot; he groveled\nabout the floor making noises like an animal, his habits were bestial, and in\nevery way he showed himself to. be mentally irresponsible. He would not be\nreceived into any free state institution because he had not been in the country\nfor six months, and efforts were made to have him deported; when last I\nheard of the rase, he was still in New York, and \"an investigation was being\n\n"}
{"page": 1160, "printed_page": null, "text": "1148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nmade of the case by the authorities at Ellis Island!\" All this trouble, inefficient help, and unnecessary expense, because a fraud had been perpetrated\nand we had apparently no law to meet such a case, or the laws enacted were\nnot enforced.\nWe need an after-care committee which shall be made up of those who\nknow the work being done and its needs, and who will do all in their power to\nplace the arm of state protection around the life of every defective boy or girl,\nman or woman, within the danger limit, or likely to reproduce mental defectives. Much money has, at many times, been spent and interest manifested\nin the search for new planets or archaeological relics, and we spend public\nmoney freely to found art galleries and build museums. All these things are\nvaluable but not immediately of practical use in bettering the race; but when\nwe propose to study children in order to gain an insight into their natures and\nsearch out the causes of defects to make possible more effective protection and\nassistance in helping them to be good citizens, men who would spend money\nfreely to gaze at sun-spots or collect fossils raise the utilitarian cry.\nWe need more intelligence upon the subject of mental defectives, first\namong educators, and then on the part of the public. Such improvements in\nmeans and methods of handling these problems as seem desirable are only to\nbe obtained by widespread and intelligent public sentiment acting upon the\nlegislative bodies ; in all cases the public which provides the money makes the\nlaws, and progressive laws can only be obtained by a progressively educated\nand enlightened public mind regulating the disbursement of public moneys\nand interests.\nWe need a greater number of specially trained teachers and more medical\nexaminers who have given special attention to the pedagogical as well as the\nmedical side of the problem, for it was heartily agreed at the London Congress\nthat the ordinary physician was no more competent to handle the special\nmedical conditions than was the ordinary teacher to cope with the' special\nproblems of instructing these children.\nWe sadly need enthusiasm, possibly not so much in our immediate ranks\nas we need to arouse it in those who are hovering around our work, only halfhearted concerning results, and in those who are at present ignorant of our\nwork and purpose; and we must keep constantly before us the motto: ** Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm !\"\nDISCUSSION\nOertrude Van Adestine, principal of School for the Deaf, Detroit, Mich. — One\nof the things which every normal boy and girl in our commonwealth may demand is the\nprivilege of an education, not as a charity — but as a birthright. We, as American citizens,\nare proud to grant this privilege. If the results of our efforts fall short of our expectations,\nit is because, in our anxiety to provide for the needs of pupils of the larger number, we\nhave overlooked the needs of the individual pupil. If the opportunity to obtain an\neducation is due the normal child who has all the avenues of his mind open thru perfect senses, how much greater should be the demand of the individual who is handicapped\n\n"}
{"page": 1161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 149\n\nby some physical or mental defect. I have in mind especially those who are ordinarily\ntermed deaf.\nThis classification may include all pupils who, because of their lack of hearing,\ncan not profitably do the work of the grades in classes with children who hear. The\ndegree of deafness may vary from a slight defect to total absence of all sound perception. The results of such conditions vary from imperfect speech to unintelligible\narticulate sounds.\nDeaf children are dumb, not from lack of hearing, but from lack of instruction.\nWith perfect vocal organs they are dumb from ignorance of what to do — and teachers in\nthe regular classes can not teach them to speak, for the same reason. The pupils must\ntherefore be placed under the instruction of special teachers that they may be taught\nspeech reading and articulation — the dumb, that they may learn to speak, and those\nwho speak imperfectly, that they may regain and retain their speech.\nSince 1867 speech-reading and articulation have been successfully taught to the deaf\nand the results of today testify to the value and permanency of this method.\nTo Wisconsin belongs the well-merited honor of establishing deaf schools with public\nstate aid, as a part of the public school system.\nThis is known as the day school system and has since been adopted in Illinois, Ohio,\nMichigan, and California. These oral day schools at once sprang into favor and it will\nbe readily seen why, when we consider their advantages.\nFirst, they are speech schools. The pupil is made to feel that speech is an instrument of thought. He is trained to think and speak in practically the same way as his\nhearing friends, which at once places him on their plane in regard to vernacular and\nliterature.\nThis makes the school at once popular with the parents and public generally.\nSecond, they are part of the public-school system, which fact emphasizes their work\nand separates them in the public mind from all special or charitable institutions.\nThird, they are day schools. The children attending them go back and forth to the\ndaily sessions with their hearing brothers and sisters.\nThe parents naturally prefer to keep their children at home, especially when they are\nyoung, and particularly so, since they have the opportunity for speech at home and school.\nThe state — willing tho she may be to assume the responsibility of a mother to these\nchildren under her care — can never take the place of the home. The influence of the\nhome in the training of children is very powerful and cannot be overestimated.\nEvery means that will bring the deaf child into closer association with hearing children\nof his own age will promote happiness and success in adult life. Association in the plays\nand games of hearing children is an important element in bringing this about. Constant\nassociation with normal children will accustom the deaf child to the society in which he\nis to live in the future.\nJust to the extent that the education of the deaf is perfected and they are enabled to\nmingle in the world with. hearing people, just to that extent will the deaf approach the\nnormal.\nFourth, this system of day school carries the school to the children, and not the\nchildren to the school. The classes are small and the pupils receive more individual\nattention than in the larger classes of the institutions.\nStatistics go to prove that in states which have oral day schools the attendance is\ngreater proportionally than in states where the system is not yet adopted.\nThe pupils in these schools have the same advantages as the hearing students. They\npursue the same course of study and have the same industrial work. They have the\nsams examinations for promotion from the eighth grade, enter the high schools with the\nhsirin^ boys and girls, and complete the course with honor to themselves and credit to\ntheir teachers.\nIf we can give the pupils the ability to earn and enjoy a dignified livelihood, we\n\n"}
{"page": 1162, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj-Q\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Sj^cial\n\nhave done much that is worthy of merit. It can not be done quickly but requires patient,\npersistent, and well directed effort.\nThe teachers of the deaf pupils and those of normal pupils could well profit by interchange of ideas. Had the grade teacher the knowledge of the mechanism of speech\nand phonics the special teacher must possess, the imperfect speech of our foreign pupils\nwould be improved.\nIt is but little more than twenty years since the first oral day school in the United\nStates was organized, and the success of these years is cause for congratulation. What\nthe next twenty years may bring forth is beyond our ken; but if future success may be\nmeasured by past achievement the deaf boy of every state will share and share alike\nwith his hearing companion in all that the word opportunity signifies.\nWalter S. Cornell, medical inspector, Department of Health, Philadelphia, Pa. —\nThere are two or three things in connection with the talks that have been given that I\nthink might be emphasized. The first is, I presume, that most of us are really teachers\nof grades and not specialists and that we have come here to learn that the grade teacher\ncan do a great deal by cultivating the exercising of ordinary powers of observation, and\nalso by developing the spirit of criticism, so that she does not need to accept, without\nquestioning, someone's diagnosis of a child's condition possibly made offhand, and\nvery possibly erroneous. We only have to go back to the study of Darwin's life to realize\nhow a little observation makes a great difference in looking at the things around us.\nThese children who are first physically defective and secondly mentally defective,\nare, many of them, improvable to a great degree. I made a study about a year ago simply\non the side of the physical defect in relation to the child's eyes and learned in a series of\nexaminations of .about two hundred and fifty children that the child with poor eyesight\nmade six points less average in classes than the child with good eyesight. Those children\nwith fair eyesight showed that their scholarship came intermediate between those two\nclasses. This, of course, is primarily on the side of the physical defect. So you can\nsee that when you begin with physical defect pure and simple you are really coming to\nthe edge of the mental defect. The scholarship of children is largely dependent upon\ntheir physical condition. While children who are dull have remedial defects and many\ncan be brought back to normality, still there is a difference between the dull child and the\nbackward child who has physical defects. The child who has physical defects will suffer\na lack of brain development from disuse, from lack of function, which puts that child ultimately in the backward class. In the case of a person who is blind, we find that certain\nphysical centers never develop for the simple reason that the associated tracts between the\neye and the physical vision, those centers, are not used. With those children who are\ncrogs-eyed, the turning of an eye means that the eye has not accurate vision. Of course,\nthat eye may be straightened years afterward but the vision is likely to remain as obtuse\nas it ever was. The child who goes thru school for five or six years with snuflfling\ncatarrh and adenoids is missing a great deal that is going on in life. These children cannot\nbe brought up afterward simply by a surgical operation; that is expecting too much.\nSo I say, don't think that neglect in early life may be remedied by someone subsequently.\nNeglect of remedy at the right time may be the cause of a child remaining subnormal all\nits life. As to the administration of these classes, I think that the primary thought is\nhow shall these children be arranged and grouped systematically to the greatest advantage\nof these children. Are these children so peculiar that association with normal children\ndoes them no good ? Are they so slightly peculiar that the main trouble is they are a drag\nto the other children and on the teacher's energies ? Now, the child who is simply dull,\nwho is just defective enough to ruin the teacher's good nature and spoil her work and\ndrag her work with the other children, should not be taken off to some institution nor\nto some special school where it is mingled with incorrigible children with bad habits,\nmany of them secreted from the teacher.\nThis child should be in an ungraded school\n\n"}
{"page": 1163, "printed_page": null, "text": "I151\nDepartment]\n\nMENTALLY\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCHILDREN\n\nwhere, for the purpose of instruction, it is placed with its own kind, where it does not\nlose hope, and where the child is not stigmatized. The door should be kept open to the\nregular grade, so that when that child does improve, it may be put back and you may\nhave a normal child again.\nMiss Adelaide Rudolph, librarian for the Department of the Blind, Cleveland,\nOhio. — The work for the blind began in the Public Library, by having a small collection of\nbooks, and by the appointment of an assistant to take charge of those books in the afternoon\nand devote a good deal of her time in the mornings to visiting the blind of the city, and\nasking them to come to the library. A series of Wednesday afternoon meetings for the\nblind was instituted in the library. The librarian, or some volunteer, would read to the\nblind who came. Also a series of Friday evening entertainments for the blind was held at\nthe Goodrich House.\nIt has always been the policy of the library only to initiate those forms of\nwork which are not peculiar to the library, and as soon as others can take up\nthat work, to give it into their hands. Since this Society for Promoting the Interests\nof the Blind has been organized we have given much into its hands and now are devoting\nourselves to the legitimate work of the library, making the book as easily and quickly\naccessible as possible, and enlarging the circle of readers.\nWe have a collection of about three hundred volumes. Unfortunately, these are\nin many different types. We have in this collection line letter, English Braille, American\nBraille, and New York point. As most of the readers of this city are acquainted with\nthe New York point, our largest collection \"is in that; but we are hoping that others may\nlearn and take advantage of the gifts that we have had lately of American Braille from\nPhiladelphia, and English Braille from a kind lady in Chicago.\nMiss Marian Campbell, agent for promoting the interests of the blind. — The work\nwhich we are doing for the blind is much more interesting^ to see than to hear about and\nwe shall be very glad to have you see it at the Goodrich House. Our workshop is open\nevery day, and the blind men and women are there at work, with a seeing supervisor.\nThis work began in the library, but we found it was quite as necessary to help the people to\nindustrial work as to intellectual enjoyment.\nOne of the largest benefits that can be derived from allowing special children to work\nwith the normal children in the public schools is the benefit that comes to us, members\nof the normal community. That is a very selfish thing to say, but further than that\nit reacts very unselfishly. It reacts directly upon the special child later on, when he\ncomes to mingle as an applicant for an industrial opportunity in the same community;\nthen he meets the people who were brought up with him in school, and who know not\nhis limitations, but who know his opportunities and his advantages, and the efficieney of\nhis work. It seems to me that we cannot overemphasize the effect that must come to the\ncommunity from the education of these children in the public schools with normal children,\nso that, by and by, in this community, in which the blind or the deaf child has to stand\ncompetition with the normal child, the normal child shall have the right attitude toward\nhim.\n\n"}
{"page": 1164, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1165, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOE INDIAN EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — L. H. Compton, superintendent of Indian School, Tomah, Wis.\nVice-President — Harwood Hall, superintendent of Indian School, Riverside, Cal.\nSecretary — Estelle Reel, superintendent of Indian Schools, Washington, D. C'.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Monday Morning, June 29, 1908\nThe Department of Indian Education met in the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church, at\n6:30 A. M., with President L. M. Compton, in the chair.\nThe following program was presented:\nMusic:\n\nOrgan solo, William E. Roberts.\nVocal solo, Walter Kilrain,\nPrayer: Rev. A. C. Ludlow, pastor, Miles Park Presbyterian Church.\nGreetings: W. H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nHon. Edmund A. Jones, state commissioner of common schools, Columbus, Ohio.\nRev. R. H. Westwood, assistant pastor, Euclid Avenue Baptist Church.\nResponses:\nPresident L. M. Compton, superintendent, Indian School, Tomah, Wis.\nEstelle Reel, superintendent of Indian schools, Washington, D. C.\nSchool Commencements:\nPractical demonstrations 'by students from Carlisle Indian\nIndustrial School, Carlisle, Pa.\nRug-weaving and designing — Angel DeCora Dietz, instructor.\nOration: Indians\n\"My People\"\n— Elizabeth Penny, illustrated with six full-blood Nez Perce\nin costume.\nSECOND SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, June 30, 1908\nOrgan solo, Geo. C. Emerson,\nSong, \"America,\" by the audience.\n,\nContralto solo, Minevieve O'Connor.\nIndian songs, by class of Indian pupils.\nSong: \"Two Little Sugar Beets,\" by Bertha and Angelina, pupils Mt. Pleasant\nIndian School, Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nIndian\nMich. Solo, \"Zuni Lover,\" Lucille Chippewa, pupil, Mt. Pleasant Indian School,\nAddresses:\nMusic:\n\n\"Utilization of Experience in Home Environment,\" Ella Flagg Young, principal,\nChicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.\n\"Progress the Indian Is Making Toward Citizenship and Self-Support,\" John H.\nSeger, Seger Indian School, Colony, Okla.\n\"How Far Are the Principles of Education Along Indigenous Lines Applicable\nto American Indians?\"\nDr. G. Stanley Hall, president, Clark University,\nWorcester, Mass.\n\"Horticulture and Landscape Gardening,\" R. H. Hoffman, florist, Carlisle Indian\nSchool, Pa.\nDemonstration\nlessons, with classes of Indian pupils; Sugar Beets; Cooking; and\nHousehold\nCleanliness;\nby Alice M.\nKingcade,\nprincipal-teacher,\nMt.\nPleasant Indian School, Mich.\nStore Methods, by Thomas J. Jackson, superintendent, Nett Lake Indian School, Tower, Minn.\nOration: \"My People,\" by Elizabeth Penny, illustrated with six full-blood Nez Perce\nIndians in costume.\n(Repeated by special request.)\nMedley:\nScranton String Orchestra, J. Oertli, leader.\nInformal reception, at Euclid Avenue Baptist 11Church,\nto Mrs. Garfield, wife of Honorable\n53\nJames Rudolph Garfield, Secretary of the Interior.\nComplimentary luncheon to the delegates of the Department of Indian Education, in the\nbanquet hall of the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church.\n\n"}
{"page": 1166, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj-^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nThe following resolutions were adopted:\nResolved, That we are heartily in sympathy with the practical reforms and improvements that have been inaugurated in the Service under the administration of the present\nSecretary of the Interior, Honorable James Rudolph Garfield.\nResolved further, That we indorse the stand taken by the Commissioner of Indian\nAffairs, Honorable Francis E, Leupp, in extending the day-school system, that young\nIndian children may not be separated from their parents; that we will endeavor to encour\nage the preservation of the native arts, crafts, legends, folklore, and songs of the Indian;\nand that we will strive faithfully to carry out the policies he has outlined.\nThat we commend the unceasing efforts of the Superintendent of Indian Schools,\nEstelle Reel, to give the Indian child an education that will be of practical value when\nhe takes up the responsibilities of citizenship.\nResolutions of thanks were then adopted and the Department adjourned.\nEstelle Reel, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND\nADDRESSES\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nOF WELCOME\n\nWilliam H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio, welcomed the\ndepartment on behalf of the school authorities of Cleveland.\nHe was followed by\nEdmund A. Jones, state commissioner of common schools, Columbus, Ohio, who\nwelcomed the department on behalf of the state educational authorities. Commissioner\nJones also said:\nOne hundred years ago a company of New England men and women crossed the\nAlleghany Mountains, floated down the Ohio River to the mouth of the Muskingum, and\nfounded the settlement known as Marietta. Others soon followed and settlements were\nestablished westward. These early settlers soon found that the people of another race\nwere occupying this territory and were ready to dispute its possession with them.\nMany conflicts ensued, daring adventures were experienced, and many lives were\nlost on both sides before the Indians were finally driven beyond the Mississippi River.\nNo remnants of these tribes are now to be found within our borders and we have no Indian\nreservation in Ohio. But they have left behind them a perpetual memorial: their names\nare upon nearly all of our rivers and many of our counties and villages. So long as the\nMaumee and the Cuyahoga flow into Lake Erie, the Walhonding and Tuscarawas unite\nto form the Muskingum, the Scioto and the Miami pursue their winding way southward\nand discharge their waters into the Ohio: so long shall we be reminded of the fact that\nthese Indian tribes once roamed over our fields, hunted thru our forests, and paddled\ntheir canoes up and down our streams.\nHowever we may differ in our opinions in reference to the treatment of the Indians\nby the whites during the period of our colonial history, we are agreed, I am sure, that\nin these later days the remnants of the tribes are rightfully the \"wards of the nation,\" and\nour government is under moral obligation to provide for their welfare and progress.\nThe most promising field of effort is certainly with the Indian youth. To give them\nsuch advantages and such training as will enable them to become useful members of\nsociety; to give them a thoro knowledge of the English language and of the fundamentals ofa common-school education, and especially such knowledge of farming, cooking, and general housework, and such other industrial training as will make the Indians\nself-supporting and good law-abiding citizens, is a great and important work.\nI have been interested in the reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs and the\nSuperintendent of Indian Schools. From these reports I find that 30,500 Indian youth\nare enrolled in the various kinds of schools now under the direction of the Department,\nwith an aggregate daily attendance of 25,800.\nI have been pleased to note the progress that has been made in Indian education along\n\n"}
{"page": 1167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\nII55\n\nright lines, as it seems to me, in the last few years — the emphasis placed upon the home;\nthe prominence given to industrial training and to such features of this training as will\nbest prepare the Indian youth for his particular work in life; the encouragement given\nto day schools, on account of the good influence exerted by such schools over the adult\npopulation. Commissioner Leupp in his report for 1907 says that it seems to him an\ninfinitely wiser plan to carry civilization to the Indian rather than to take the Indian to\ncivilization.\nThere seems also, in the recommendations made and the plans proposed for the\nfuture, to be a looking-forward to a time when the greater number of schools now in charge\nof the Department may become a part of our public-school system.\nRev. R. H. Westwood, assistant pastor, Euclid Avenue Baptist Church, Cleveland,\nOhio, followed Commissioner Jones with words of welcome, and was followed by\nL. M. CoMPTON, president of the Department and superintendent of Tomah Indian\nSchool, Tomah Wis., who returned the thanks of the Department for the welcome extended.\nHe also said:\nAmong the members present I recognize faces who have long been in the Indian\nservice. To them especially, and to all, I wish to say that in the past few years much\nhas been accomplished in this service. The Secretary of the Interior, Hon. James Rudolph\nGarfield, who is from this state, among the many stupendous tasks that have come to his\ndepartment, has not forgotten the Indian, for which we are truly thankful. The present\nadministration of Indian affairs is strictly a business administration. Our most able\ncommissioner, is a man who not only believes in doing things himself, but he firmly believes\nthat the time is fast approaching, and in fact has come to some of our Indians, when they\nmust stand for themselves.\nWe will admit that in some cases in the early history of the country the Indians had\nharsh treatment, but we must also admit that for many years past the government has\nbeen spending millions of dollars upon them, and in most cases the debt, if there was one,\nhas long since been wiped out.\nThe Indian must learn that he cannot expect to be supported and propped up, and\nit is our duty as teachers to make our pupils understand that they must rise thru their\nown individual efforts, and they must be brought to a full appreciation of the fact that\nwhere there is lack of such effort they will most certainlyfail. This, taken together with\nan earnest effort on our part to impress upon pupils' minds the very great importance of\nmeeting obligations, the value of honesty and sobriety, in other words the teaching of true,\nhonorable manhood and womanhood, is the most important work we can do among\nthem.\nIt is far more important that our pupils become good, honest, law-abiding citizens,\nhave sufficient knowledge to manage their homes, which must necessarily be simple at\nfirst, learn to till their land, and care for their stock, than it is to give them a very faint\nidea of higher education and the frills of civilization and thereby lay a foundation for that\ndiscontent and unsteady purpose which we know exists among many.\nLet us not train them in a direction that will lead them away from the environment\nfor which nature and long years of association have eminently fitted them, but rather\nteach them to improve their condition at home and show them that to do the work\nwhich lies at their hands in an honest, manly way is the most certain road to success and\nhappiness.\nEsTELLE Reel, general superintendent of Indian Schools, Washington, D.C., joined\nin responding to the addresses of welcome and said:\nThe Secretary of the Interior, Hon. James Rudolph Garfield, of your state, under\nwhose authority this meeting is held, regretted that he could not be with 'you; he is deeply\ninterested in the education of the Indian, and the results achieved are due to his willingness\nto assist the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Hon. Francis E. Leupp, who has direct\n\n"}
{"page": 1168, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nJ J -5\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nsupervision of all Indians, and who outlines the policies. He has made a close study\nfor twenty years of their needs.\nWe want to remember that useful work is the keystone of success, and that while\nwe must give the Indian a practical education let us not attempt to transform him into\nsomething else, but model our instruction to meet his immediate necessities, in order\nthat he may become self-supporting in the shortest possible time. To do this, we must\nstudy the home-life of these children, and closely connect our literary and industrial work.\nAt tomorrow's session demonstration lessons will be presented, showing how these branches\nmay be correlated.\nIt is gratifying to see so many Indian workers present. Many of you have had long\njourneys by stage across the deserts, and we want to assure you that your attendance is\nappreciated by the office. We hope that you will attend as many as possible of the genera 1\nsessions of the National Education Association, and of the various departments, and get\nin touch with the outside world.\n\nUTILIZATION\nELLA\n\nOF EXPERIENCE\n\nFLAGG\n\nYOUNG,\n\nIN HOME\n\nPRINCIPAL,\nCHICAGO\nCHICAGO,\nILLINOIS\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe Indian race with its tribes and the Caucasian race with its nationahties\nexhibit many differences in physical characteristics, modes of Hfe, customs,\nand beliefs. These differences, however, are due to fixed, unvarying conditions in the environment. We are all sufficiently acquainted with the work of\nthe ethnologist to have a clear idea of the influence upon a race of its own\nresponses to the environment in which it lives from generation to generation.\nDifference in response to the unchangeable conditions in different environments is that which distinguishes races, and also the details of your problem\nin teaching from mine.\nOn the other hand, we are familiar with the conclusion deduced from\nstudies in anthropology and related subjects, that the nature of the soul of\nmankind is as unvarying as is the nature of the geographical environment.\nThe Indian and the white man are both moved by emotions of pleasure and\npain, of gratitude and revenge: are swayed by the stormy passions of love and\nhate. Each builds up out of his experiences and ideas a complex being which\nhe calls \"me,\" ''I,\" \"myself.\" All thru life here this will is manifesting\nthis \"I,\" \"myself,\" to friend and to foe by its deeds. If asked to define\n\"myself,\" the Indian and the white man answer: \"I am myself.\"\nLong before the student of anthropology began his studies, the great heart\nof humanity had been opened to the truth that the nature of the soul of humanity isfundamentally the same in all races. Without some conception of this\ntruth civilized natipns could never have developed their great schemes of\nforeign missions, the United States government would not today be conducting\nits Indian schools, and you would not be devoted teachers in those schools,\nsome of you because of the impelling power of the humanitarian spirit, and\nsome because of fidelity to the good of your own people. All that I shall offer\nhere today is centered around the idea of universality of the nature of the\nmind of man.\n\n"}
{"page": 1169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\nIN\n\nHOME\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n1157\n\nIn turning to our common ground in education — the identity of the nature\nof the soul of all races — the first problem that confronts us is one that is set\nfor every man and woman who would be a teacher. It is the question of the\nmeans by which a soul is best nurtured. This problem of the nurture and\ndevelopment of a soul to. its fullest possibilities divides educational theory\nand practice into the old and the new education.\nThe old education assumes that the teacher knows first what the learner\nneeds to know and that the soul of the learner is nourished and developed by\nthe acquisition of that knowledge. The new education acts on the assumption\nthat a teacher makes such an environment in school that the mind of the learner\nis stimulated to use its own experience to acquire and capitalize knowledge,\nand that the soul is nurtured thru that activity and by its fruits. All over\nthis country, wherever a thousand, a hundred, or only ten teachers are\ngrouped into a system of schools or a single school, you will find the same\nconditions as exist in the Indian schools : some of the teachers preach and\npractice the old education; some preach the new and practice the old; and\nsome preach and practice the new.\nFrom one point of view the goal of your labor is before you in extreme\nsimplicity. It is to fit the children for citizenship in a different social organization from that in which their ancestors have lived. This means, certainly,\nthat they shall acquire such habits, customs, and ideals as are foundational in\npresent-day American life. We will accept the theory that the current social\nideals of a people are the customs of the life of that people under conditions\nwhich have been influenced by them and by nature. Immediately, in the\nminds of some, the question arises: How can you inculcate the customs and\nideals of a people of one civilization in a people of a different civilization except\nby knowing what should be taught it ? and further: Can one have the Indian\nchildren experience all that out of which were developed the social ideals of the\nAmerican people ?\nThese questions force themselves upon many of the teachers of the children\nof the foreign-born poor who are coming in large numbers to this country.\nThe second question, in slightly modified form, is before the teacher of the\nAmerican-born children. They are not hard for the new education to answer.\nChildren come to school with the experience of the home and the neighborhood, and the teacher creates an environment that shall integrate the better\npart of the home environment with that of the school. The natural, simple,\nhealthful means of growth are in this way supplied by the school. They are\nthe conditions under which a people has lived from generation to generation.\nAnd yet, because of a failure to take advantage of those conditions within the\nwhole that make for progress, that people has commenced to retrograde.\nTherefore, for the school to take environing conditions and make the valuable\nones, the suggestive ones, the means that will open up better ways of doing,\nliving, and thinking, is to educate thru experience But to bring into the\nschool extraneous conditions, whose relation to environing conditions is vague,\n\n"}
{"page": 1170, "printed_page": null, "text": "II58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nis to impose the experience of one people upon another. The vagueness is\nthere because the conditions brought in have not developed out of, or been\nidealized from, the familiar. But, worse than the vagueness is the contempt\nfor one's family and race which is generated by an education that disregards\nthe best elements in them. This blunder is committed very generally in\nschools to which children of foreign-born parentage are sent in this country.\nWhat is the result of this blunder ? Instead of knowing two languages and\nso, even if one language is a dialect only, possessing more fluent speech, the\nchildren are ashamed to speak the foreign tongue; instead of idealizing the\ncustoms brought from foreign shores and weaving them into the customs\nacquired in this new country, the children are ashamed to have their school\nfriends meet the parents with their foreign ways, and so lose the pleasure of\nbuilding up a happy social life at home and often form acquaintances and\nassociations less good than those of the home circle.\nI ask you if it is true that the life of the Indian child is diverted from direct\nrelation to the home environment and is affected thereby as are the life and\ncharacter of the child of the poor, foreign-born parentage ?\nWhat is it to idealize the environment ? Is it to paint a false picture of the\nhome or the village, so that indolence and poverty shall be glorified? No.\nIt is to search for a hopeful, if possible, a good thing in the environment, and\nto give it a suggestive setting by making it a part of a better picture, object,\nstory, or condition, which will arouse the mind to an idea of making the good\nbetter. The successful teacher of cooking does not begin by introducing a\nmenu consisting of strange dishes. She takes the familiar dish and makes it\nmore palatable, and thus gradually leads the young people to trying variations\nof the customary diet. The successful teacher of manual training finds out\nwhat the children or young people would like to make for their own use, and\nlater awakens the taste to an appreciation of better skill and better art in the\nmaking of things. To set before the learner that which has perfection in construction and form, and ask to have the exactness, the art duplicated, is to begin\nat the wrong end. For the teacher of Indian, American, or southern European\nchildren to ignore everything that has nurtured them up to the day of their\nentrance into school is to set at naught that which should be the beginnings\nof present-day forces in civilization. These forces are the ideahzation of a\nprimitive experience.\nThis view of the building-up of the powers of the children in the school\nfrom the experience gained originally in the home makes necessary a study\nof that which has stimulated the children to activity and would develop the\npower and the ideals of modern times out of that capital. It would put the\ncapital out at interest. It would help the young to glimpse a better view of\nlife out of the experience in the home with father and mother, brothers and\nsisters: with the food, the clothing, the shelter, and the customs of its own\nrace.\n\n"}
{"page": 1171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\nJOHN\n\nPROGRESS\n\nTHE\nH.\n\nMADE\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nINDIAN\n\nINDIAN IS MAKING TOWARD\nAND SELF-SUPPORT\n\nSEGER,\n\nSEGER\n\nINDIAN\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOLONY,\n\nI159\n\nCITIZENSHIP\nOKLAHOMA\n\nMy work began among the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians of Oklahoma,\nin 1872. They were then classed as wild, blanket Indians; they lived by hunting the buffalo, and regarded white people as their enemies. Altho the government had established a beef and ration-issue station, they preferred to hunt the\nbuffalo for a livelihood. Since my advent among them I have helped to bury\nsix white persons whom they have killed, and at least one Indian gives me\ncredit for saving his life, while I thank two Indians for performing the same\noffice for me.\nFor five years I lived with my family fifty miles from white neighbors, and\nthe same distance from a postoffice. The Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians\nhad no desire to be civilized when I first made their acquaintance. They\nclaimed that the Great Spirit had created them Indians and had given them\nthe buffalo for food and clothing. It is a hard matter to civilize a people\nwhen they do not wish to be civilized, or to teach a people when they do\nnot wish to be taught. White hunters encroached upon their hunting-grounds\nand in a few years practically exterminated the buffalo. This was the\ncause of the Cheyenne war of 1874, lasting nine months and reducing the\nIndians to a pitiable condition of poverty before they surrendered and came\ninto the agency. Subsistence was now a serious problem for these Indians,\nand they became more willing to receive instruction in farming and other work.\nThe Cheyennes for the first time put some of their children in school anp\nseemed fully convinced that their livelihood depended upon cultivating the\nland as did the white man. They considered this fate a punishment visited\nupon them for their unfaithfulness in keeping up their religious ceremonies.\nThey very reluctantly gave up their old customs and habits, and their progress\nin civilization was very slow. Not until their children had attended school\nfor some time did they make much progress. The reservation boarding-school,\nwhich took children from their camp associations and placed them in a house\ninstead of a tepee, the training-school, which took them as far east as Carlisle,\nPa., where for several years they had no contact with camp associations,\nwere influences for good, and their civilization become more rapid. The\nschools not only influenced those who were in school, but it exerted a strong\ninfluence over the parents and other camp Indians. I will illustrate this by\nshowing that placing his boy in school had a greater influence over Little\nMedicine, a Cheyenne chief, than all other means we could use. Little Medicine was a non-progressive Indian, who claimed that the Great Spirit had\nmade him an Indian and he did not wish to be anything different than the\nGreat Spirit intended him to be. I had moved about five hundred nonprogressive Indians fifty miles from the agency, where I was trying to induce\nthem to build houses and to engage in farming.\nLittle Medicine would do\n\n"}
{"page": 1172, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj5o\n\nnational\n\neducation\n\nassociation\n\n[Indian\n\nnothing toward building a house. He would only raise a little corn and some\nwater-melons, saying that he did not do a thing because it was the white man's\nway but that he might provide food for his family. When we finally succeeded\nin getting a boarding-school estabHshed, Little Medicine brought his boy to\nschool on the day set for receiving children. He asked to be permitted to\nkeep his boy one day longer in camp, that he might retain his long hair and\nremain an Indian one day longer. After the boy had been in school for\nseveral months Little Medicine came to me and said: \"You know^ that I had\nalways refused to build a house or do anything like civilized people did. Now\nI come to you asking you to tell me what to do to become like a white man, and\nto live like they do. Now, I will tell you what has caused this change in me.\nWhen I put my son in school, I thought that while he might wear short hair,\nand clothes like white people he would yet be an Indian at heart. I find that\nthis is not so. When he comes home he talks of what white people do, and I\ncan see that he prefers white people's ways to the Indian ways. I can see\nthat he has taken a road different from the one I am traveling, and if I do not\ngo with him I shall lose him. Now as I love my boy better than anything\nelse in this world I will travel the road that he is going, that I may be in\nsympathy with him.\" Many other Indians have, like Little Medicine, given\nup their Indian customs to be in sympathy with their children who have been\ntrained in school. Surely, \"a little child shall lead them.\"\nAt present there are many adult Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians who\nhave been educated and now have children of their own. These Indians,\nknowing the value of an education, are more desirous that their children shall\nbe educated than were their own parents that they should be educated.\nThose who have attended a boarding-school have iSeen taught to work — the\nboys to farm, and the girls to do housework. Quite a number of them are\nliving in well-furnished homes, as comfortable and as well kept as those of their\nwhite neighbors, while many others live in square tents instead of the oldtime Indian tepee, and have introduced into these canvas homes many articles\nof household furniture, such as stoves, bedsteads, and chairs. I beheve that\nthere are very few Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians who do not look forward\nto the time in the near future when they will have a comfortable house to Hve\nin. Those who have children in school hope to have a house by the time their\nchildren return from school.\nThe next progressive step should be to get the Indian children admitted\ninto public schools of the country where they live. The Oklahoma schools,\nboth normal and pubhc, are open to Indian children as well as to white children. Some Indians are now sending their children to public schools with\nsatisfactory results, and the majority of the educated parents express a wish\nto send their children to school with white children. The Cheyenne and\nArapahoe Indians are comparatively wealthy. They have school accommodations for all their children of school age. Their homes are situated in a\nstate with laws prohibiting gambling, and where the prohibition law is\n\n"}
{"page": 1173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl PRINCIPLES\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nAPPLICABLE\n\nTO INDIANS\n\nii6i\n\nenforced; and what they now need is practical business experience, which\nthey cannot acquire while all their business is done for them by the government.\nThe present Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Francis E. Leupp, has made\nthe civilization of the Indian a study, and has inaugurated some very good\nprogressive rules in regard to their management, one of which is granting\nworthy, capable Indians the privilege of managing their own allotments.\nThe Indians as a rule are glad to avail themselves of this privilege. They do\nnot in all cases manage wisely, but when they do not, and they suffer inconvenience because of it, it teaches them to be more cautious in the future. A\nfew had the restrictions removed and have, by their own choice, become fullfledged citizens. In some cases when the restrictions were removed from\ntheir lands they have sold or mortgaged them. They do not always wisely\nspend mpney so derived, yet when they do not they furnish an object-lesson,\nand it is a practical one that will be taken note of by other Indians. This\nlesson is, if you sell your land and spend the money foolishly, you will become\npoor and have to work for a living just like thousands of white people.\nAs education, both literary and industrial, brought the Indians up to their\npresent state of civilization, we are justified in claiming that the education\nof the Indians will suffer no backward steps under the present administration\nof Indian affairs.\nWhen- 1 recall what these Cheyennes and Arapahoes were when I first\nknew them as wild roving Indians, then what they are today — some living\nin comfortable houses, v^rith telephone connections, and rural mail boxes where\nthey receive their mail daily — I feel that these Indians in a reasonable time\nwill become worthy citizens of this great government of ours.\nHOW\n\nFAR\n\nG. STANLEY\n\nARE THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION\nINDIGENOUS LINES APPLICABLE TO\nAMERICAN INDIANS?\n\nALONG\n\nHALL,\n\nMASS.\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nIn both the government and mission schools of British South Africa two\nmethods are now in use; the oldest and most prevalent one is much as we\nteach Indians and Philippinos. The Bantu child right from the kraal is\ntaught English from the start, and the ideal is to treat him in school as far as\npossible as if he were a white child, the course being about the same as for\nLondon children. The other, newer, method which, tho advanced by\nBishop Colenso, has only had a fair trial within the last ten years, is to educate the Kaffir child for the first few years in his own language, and only after\nthe third, fourth, or sixth year of school entirely to modulate over into English\nfor the bright ones who go on so far. The vernacular is at the base and\nEnglish at the top of the system. Elementary education must thus be conducted inthe native tongue. It is a little something like this that I plead for\nin our Indian schools.\nIn Africa, the difficulties and objections to this method\n\n"}
{"page": 1174, "printed_page": null, "text": "jj52\n\nnational\n\neducation\n\nassociation\n\nfindian\n\nare the same as with our Indians, but the first are being overcome and the last\nOne is that there are so many dialects that it is easier to bring all\nanswered.\nOf course\ntribes over to our tongue than for our teachers to learn their own.\nthe best\nof\nexpense\nthe\nat\nlaziness\nof\nargument\nan\npart\nin\nis\nThis\nit is easier.\ninterest of the child, but the best answer is that education should group\nchildren into cognate, linguistic stock where this can be done, and that teachers\nSome of\nmust do as missionaries have always done — learn the native tongue.\nthese tongues have but a few thousand words in them and these fit precisely\nAgain, it is objected that the native tongues\nthe child's stage of development.\nare uncouth and incompetent; but it is the common testimony of those whites\nwho have mastered them that they can preach better and indeed get nearer\nto the native soul in their own language than in English, and that nearly\neverything that the child can grasp up to ten or twelve years of age can be\nexpressed in them. Again, it is objected that they will and should die out,\nbut those who know how persistent indigenous tongues like the Gaelic are,\nknow that this is not true. They linger for centuries even in close contact\nIn some of the crudest of the Bantu tongues,\nwith a so-called higher language.\ne. g., the Tonga, the elements of nearly all the sciences, save only chemistry\nand mathematics, which need technical terms, can and have been put into\nlitde encyclopedias that bring the subject home to the mind and to the heart.\nThese tribes have a rich collection of folklore; and as this is of the vital sort\nthat lives from mouth to ear and not of the bookish sort that goes from hand\nto eye, some of them are little masterpieces, and have a high degree of both\nMatters of kraal life must and should be dealt\nliterary and moral worth.\nA new\nwith in the language of the kraal; and the same is true of the wigwam.\nlanguage cuts the child off in the most perceptive period from the stock of\ninherited ideas. With the death of their tongue \"something else will die out\n\"The very thinking process is impaired, if not\nthat can never be replaced.\"\nThe mongrel English that results from this method is a kind of\nstopped.\"\nYet they learn enough to come to\npigeon kaffir with many English words.\nThe old way\nlook down upon themselves and their race and its possession.\nof Anglicizing everything from the start is called by Junod \"a cleverly planned\nThey are expatriated in their own\nscheme to stamp out everything native.\"\nIt is simply amazing to see how much of\nhome and despise their parents.\nvery high value for practical and moral life there is in the customs and speech\nof aboriginal tribes; and if our schemes, like Jesus', aimed \"not to destroy\nTrue, many boys wish to\nbut to fulfil,\" far better results would be achieved.\nlearn English for the sake of its practical utilities to them, but this makes their\nintellectual processes superficial, and they become subde parvenus, craven\nAt the very best, the system only\nand servile, with the heart gone out of them.\nturns out caricatures, or pinch-backed imitations of white men, profoundly\ndissatisfied and restless. They have lost their old anchorage and not found\na new one; and thus the worst result of the contact between higher and lower\nWeissman, Boaz, and many other anthropologists have\nraces is realized.\n\n"}
{"page": 1175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] PRINCIPLES\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nAPPLICABLE\n\nTO INDIANS\n\n1163\n\nshown that in native gifts primitive people are hardly at all inferior to us;\nbut it is just as essential that they should evolve along the lines of their own\nheredity and traditions as it is for us to do so.\nDudley Kidd shows that the aboriginal Kaffir is a man, a gentleman, and a\ntrue sportsman, splendidly built, free, graceful in his movements, open in\nhis manner, well proud of his clan system, intelligent, social, kind-hearted;\nwhile the educated Europeanized Kaffir, in his second-hand clothes, is cringing,\nshoddy, and tawdry in his character, top-heavy with conceit. His modicum\nof civilization has injured him morally even more than it has benefited him\nmaterially. We have not understood him, have broken up his customs and\ndemolished his views of life, tried in twenty years to push him ahead six\nhundred. Flinders Petrie pleads for a practical application of anthropology,\nand well may we ask why does not our Indian Bureau utilize the results of the\nBureau of Ethnology, for no race has been more studied or has ever been\nworse treated than our Indians. Consider, too, the in many respects ideal\ncustoms of the African Vei, as explained by their Prince Momolu who, after\nlong study of our civilization, prefers his own, which compares favorably\nwith that of the Germans in the days of Tacitus, or the British under Alfred\nthe Great. Buttikofer, Landor, Cator and many others have described socalled savage communities that in certain most vital respects put us to shame,\nwhile the blood and oppression of primitive races have long cried from the\nground to heaven.\nOur education is too often slow, ethnic death for them.\nThe same is true in some degree of our industries which crush out native\noccupations. Why kill the clever Indian art of basketry, into which the\nsquaw sometimes weaves her very life, by our cheap and clumsy raffia work ?\nWhy teach young braves to make and wear coarse, cowhide shoes, when their\nmoccasins are far more hygienic and their construction far more instructive,\nwhile, like basketry, the output has a higher market value ? Why substitute\nthe life of the barrack-like government schools for that which Sitkla Sa has\ndescribed ? Why fit the young Indian, in the language of one of them, to\nclean the spittoons of the white man's civilization instead of helping him\nto develop his own ? Why not make him a good Indian rather than a cheap\nimitation of the white man? Why teach him our Sunday-school ditties,\nand let his marvelous native music, which Miss Fletcher and Natalie Curtis\nhave learned and taught us and which is so unique and even sublime, be\nforgotten ? Is a poor twentieth-century farmer or a reservation Indian better\nthan a noble red man of the Stone Age as an ideal to aim towards ? But we\nneed at least to learn what they have to teach us before it is all extinct. The\noriginal Indians of both North and South America have ever been called the\nmost religious race on earth. A large volume of their prayers on every occasion, now in the press, shows this. Would Jesus himself have swept all this\naway, or would he rather do for it what he did for the religion he found, elevate\nit, bring out the new from the old. Our missionary pedagogy is in its embryonic stage, and when it is unfolded, it will do for all faiths, low or high, what the\n\n"}
{"page": 1176, "printed_page": null, "text": "ji64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nMaster strove to do for that of the Hebrews — evolve it into a higher dispensation\nand reveal what lay concealed in it.\nOf course, conditions have changed: the buffalo is gone, the reservations\nare poor. We make it a crime for him to leave his impoundment ; we crop his\nhair; forbid the festivals and dances of his religion. I do not object to some\nof our industrial arts for him, but I plead for the pious conservation of all that\nis good and that can be kept or restored of the old tribal life — its traditions,\nfolklore, arts, industries, and above all its free, manly spirit. To let these\nperish is a crime for which our codes have no penalty and our lexicon no\nname. It is the slaughter of the soul of the people, in this case probably the\nnoblest of all races living in this stage of development. It is a crime even\nagainst the noble science of anthropology which still has so much to learn\nthat is passing away so fast that perhaps the very best of it all is likely to elude\nus. Can we not somewhere gather the remnant, and if the government will\nnot do it, will not some philanthropic millionaire help to bring together the\nbest weavers, tanners, bow-makers, those expert in lore of the forest and\nanimals, the bards, the flint-chippers, artists, and the rest, and revive at least\nsome of the best there is in tribalism, teaching the Indian to respect his own\nabilities, or at least to let him teach us his arts before he perishes; or is it too\nlate even for this ? Has anyone of them ever been so enamored of the pale\nface's works and ways as some of us have been of theirs, and if not, why not ?\nIs there no good Indian but one whose soul has been killed under our system ?\nIs the ghost dance in which the living hold holy commune ^vith the clouds of\nancestors in the happy hunting-ground still so dangerous that we must everywhere suppress this sacrament? Were the school Indians on the hill at the\nSt. Louis exposition really better men and women than their wilder congeners\nin the tents below ? These are questions to which everyone connected with the\nIndian Bureau of Schools has a glib and ready answer, which every popular\naudience will approve, and even some Indians have been well coached in such\nanswers. But there is a large and growing minority of intelhgent men and\nwomen in this country who read all these reports and who are not satisfied\nbut who want something better, different and more indigenous, and who would\nask the Indian bureau why it makes no use of the work of the Bureau of\nEthnology, or if the results obtained by the latter have no educational value\nwhether they are really worth the making — what other value have they that\njustifies the labor and* expense of making them?\nHORTICULTURE\nR. H.\n\nHOFFMANN,\n\nFLORIST,\n\nAND\n\nLANDSCAPE\n\nCARLISLE\n\nINDIAN\n\nGARDENING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCARLISLE,\n\nPA.\n\nHorticulture and landscape gardening are practically nature-study. The\nIndian youth are by nature fond of the natural world and its laws, and gifted\nwith a natural love of the beautiful. Consequently they are close observers\nand students of nature. With proper training we believe that they can become\neflficient in this particular line of work.\nIn the greenhouse they are eager to\n\n"}
{"page": 1177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nHORTICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nLANDSCAPE\n\nGARDENING\n\n1165\n\ncompare different species of their native plants and flowers, growing perhaps\nin wild profusion on prairie and mountain side. In this they manifest more\neagerness than most white children which have come under my observation.\nThe teachers of the different departments say it is marvelous what effect\nis produced by a promise of a visit to the greenhouse. New life and spirit is\nmanifested in the schoolroom after an hour of musing and study with nature.\nThe students of the Carlisle Industrial Indian School with proper training\nalong the line of horticulture, we believe, will make a success of their efforts\nin this department. They are not afraid to experiment with an idea they\nhave gained in the study of plant life; consequently when they have been shown\nhow in a lecture they are eager to apply their knowledge in a practical way.\nWe believe that much can be accomplished thru this department to elevate\nthe character of the surroundings into which many of these children go when\nthey return to reservation life.\nIn our small greenhouse we have raised about 20,000 bedding plants,\ngeraniums, coleus, cannas, etc. We have also several hotbeds where the children\nhave been taught to raise cabbage and tomato plants, lettuce, etc. Likewise\nunder the supervision of the agriculturist they have an opportunity to study\nthis work further in the gardening department. Chrysanthemums and carnations are cultivated in large numbers, from which cut flowers are taken to\nadorn the school and living-rooms and the hospital wards. A number of\ndecorative plants have been raised, palms, and the like, which are artistically\narranged by the pupils for public and social functions.\nLandscape gardening is taught in the beautifying of our extensive school\ngrounds. We have recently graded the lawn around the new hospital, the\nboys having the opportunity of starting the work: plowing, grading, raking,\nrolling the lawn, sowing the seed, staking off the driveways and walks, laying\nout flower beds in designs, planting of shrubbery and shade trees, sodding\nedges of walks, binding the crushed stone, and in fact everything connected\nwith landscape gardening. Many trees are set out on Arbor Day, a day set\napart by state proclamation in Pennsylvania.\nThe boys are taught pruning, trimming, and fertilizing the lawns and\nflower beds. In springtime the campus is covered with tulips and crocuses.\nThus is laid the foundation for beautifying the home and its surroundings.\nA more practical side of our work for commercial purposes is the nursery\nwhich has just been started. We have many fruit trees, California privet\nhedge, and hardy roses, set in the nursery. Here the Indian youth are taught,\nalong with the aesthetic culture, a useful and profitable side of the work so\nmuch needed to give them proper conceptions of true home life.\nEven weeds are worth the while to study, not only as to how they may be\ndestroyed, but also their uses for the culture of the honey bee, etc. Emerson\nsaid; ''Succory to mafch the sky, columbine with horn of honey, scented fern\nand agrimony, clover, catchfly, adder's- tongue, and brier-roses dwelt among.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1178, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\njjg^\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Indian\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBut our own Whittier put the poetic touch upon some of the common flowers\nthat have grown wild in our country when he sang:\nAlong the roadside, like the flowers of gold\nThat tawny Incas for their gardens wrought,\nHeavy with sunshine droops the golden-rod.\n\nWhy should not the practical as well as the beautiful be impressed upon\nthese sons of the forest, who are by nature lovers of the life shown in the natural\nworld ? We contend, therefore, that there is no more important department\nfor the education of the native American than that of horticulture. To show\nthe results of this training I quote an extract of a letter received from a boy\nwho, having spent part of a year in the study of horticulture, has had an opportunity to apply his knowledge thru the Outing System. He says: ''I have\ntransplanted a bed of strawberries, and other house plants. I have also\nedged the lawn along the walk and driveways. Have prepared some flower\nbeds, which I will fill with plants later on, thus putting into practice what\nI have been taught in the department of horticulture at the school. I shall\ngo back again to this department when I return to Carlisle in the fall.\"\nWith so large a field for useful and efficient service, we commend this\nstudy for wider and larger purposes among the young Indians.\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nLESSONS\n\nDemonstration lessons were given by teachers in the service, showing how the classroom instruction in the different grades may be correlated with the work on the various\nindustrial departments. Classes of Indian pupils were used in the presentation of these\nlessons, synopses of which are included in the report of the proceedings for the assistance\nof teachers who were not present at the institute.\nPRESENTED\n\nWITH\nTEACHER,\n\nA\n\nCLASS\n\nMOUNT\n\nOF\n\nTOPIC:\n\nSUGAR\n\nINDIAN\n\nPUPILS\n\nPLEASANT\n\nINDIAN\n\nBEETS\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nALICE\nMOUNT\n\nM.\n\nKINGCADE,\n\nPLEASANT,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nMICH.\n\nI have selected the beet-sugar industry for my subject because of its importance in\nour state. With two exceptions all the Indians attending Mount Pleasant School reside\nin Michigan, where there are twenty-four beet-sugar factories — a greater number than\nin any other state. Each year the beet growers are learning to produce larger supplies\nof beets and it is important for the children to acquire in school some knowledge of the\nindustries in which they will engage, after leaving school, as a means of livelihood.\nTeachers must not think that they must all teach sugar-beet raising; I do so because\nthe subject is of vital importance to my pupils. You must find out in what work the\nIndians in your locality are interested; it may be cattle or sheep raising, or lumbering,\netc.\nIn your classroom exercises help your pupils by giving them information of a practical\ncharacter respecting the paying industries in which they will most likely engage upon\nleaving school, that they may work intelligently.\nWe secured literature on beets from the Department of Agriculture and the experiment station at Lansing. These, together with newspaper reports on markets, crops,\netc., are used in the class for reading, composition, and arithmetic lessons. The industry\nincludes healthful and industrious habits, and enables the pupils to earn and save money.\nThis is a mixed class of primary- and fourth- and fifth-grade children and the lesson,\n\n"}
{"page": 1179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nLESSONS\n\nI167\n\nas I shall give it, is intended to cover the work that may be accomplished from the first\nto the fifth grade.\nTeacher. — Angelina and Bertha (primary grade) may go to the board and draw a\nfew beets showing the average size and growth of Michigan beets.\nLevi may work the problem he finds on the board, while the primary class is reciting.\nInteresting experiments are made in the garden by the small children. We buy\nthe seed, charging the pupils with them. The children plant the gardens and sell the\nproduce. This work is correlated with arithmetic, reading, writing, and other studies\nin the classroom.\nLet us look at Bertha's and Angelina's drawings.\nBertha, what can you say about your drawing ?\nThis (pointing to the drawing) is not a good beet, it is short and part of it has grown\nout of the ground.\nQ. — Angelina, will you tell us about yours?\nA. — This is a good beet, it has grown deep in the ground.\nTeacher. — Now come and sing us something about beets. (Bertha and Angelina\nsing a little song entitled '*Two Little Sugar Beets.\")\nTeacher. — Nancy may tell us on the board of the beets she raised.\nNancy (writes). — I raised 3 rows of sugar beets:\nI had 7 beets in the first row\nI had 10 beets in the second row\nI had 8 beets in the third row\nI raised 25 beets in all.\nI sold these beets to the teachers' club.\nbunch, so I had five bunches, or\n\nI put the beets up in bunches of 5 beets to each\n\n5)25 beets\n5 bunches with 5 beets in each bunch.\nI sold these beets for 10 cents a bunch.\nIf one bunch brings 10 cents, 5 bunches will bring\n5 X IOC, or 50c.\n\nI received 50c. for the beets, and I spent 5c. for the seed, so I cleared the difference between\nwhat I received and what I spent, or\n50c. — 5c. = 45c., clear profit.\nTeacher. — This subject is interestingly used in the higher grades correlating language,\ncomposition and other subjects, as I will now illustrate with fifth-grade pupils.\nQ. — Frank, tell me why we plant sugar beets, and something of the soil in which\nthey should be sown ?\nA. — Some of the reasons for growing sugar beets are: to make money, to establish\na paying business and to give employment to many people. The soil for sugar beets should\nbe strong and productive, but not newly cleared land. Beets do not contain as large an\namount of sugar when planted on low, damp land, corral or barnyard soil. Beets grown\nin such soil are of a low grade for sugar making.\nQ. — ^When is the best time to plow; and how deep do we plow?\nA. — It is best to plow in the fall, because where the ground freezes plowing has a\npulverizing effect and makes plant food available. We usually plow ten inches deep in\nMichigan, and some farmers use a fertilizer. Clover sod is a good fertilizer. After the\nground is properly prepared it should contain sufficient moisture and warmth to sprout\nthe seed. It is a good plan for the farmer to have the ground all well prepared in order\nto seize the first favorable opportunity for planting.\nQ. — Lucille, where do the seeds used in Michigan come from,' and how are they\nplanted ?\n\n"}
{"page": 1180, "printed_page": null, "text": "J 58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\njI The kind of seed most used in Michigan comes from Germany.\n(Lucille here\ndisplays some seed.) In planting we use drills for drilling the seed into the ground, and\na beet cultivator, which takes two rows at a time, the horse walking between the rows.\nThe average quantity of seed sown is about fifteen pounds to the acre; and to those experienced in sugar-beet growing this is not excessive, but a necessary safeguard because so\nmany things interfere with germination that it is wise to have the plants thick. They also\nhelp break the ground if it is dry or crusted, while if there were only a few they could not\nget thru. In Michigan we plant seed about half an inch deep, or just deep enough to cover\nthem.\nQ^ — Why has it been necessary to cultivate the soil up to the time of planting ?\nA. — The soil is cultivated up to the time of planting in order to kill the weeds, and\nto pulverize the soil so that it will cling to the seeds and enable them to extract moisture,\nfrom it. If the soil is in large clods, air circulates around the seed and deprives it of\nsufficient moisture to enable it to sprout.\nTeacher. — Frank may tell us more of the cultivation of the sugar beet.\nQ. — After blocking what is done ?\nA. — After blocking, which means thinning, we weed the fields. Beets should be\ncultivated once a week until they are ready to be harvested. They are ready to harvest\nwhen the leaves turn yellow.\nQ. — Levi, how are beets harvested?\nA. — Beets are first lifted. A specially constructed plow goes just beneath them and\ncuts the tap root, a man follows, takes a beet in each hand, slaps them together to knock\nthe dirt off, then he throws them in a pile. The leaves are now cut from the beet, and\nthey are usually shipped right away; if not, they are covered with the leaves that they\nmay not lose their moisture.\nQ. — How are beets sold ?\nA. — Beets are sold by the ton and bring from five to six dollars a ton. It is hard\nwork raising beets, but a farmer makes more money at it than raising hay. He usually\nplants about two acres and raises about fifteen tons to an acre, while he raises only about\ntwo or three tons of hay to the acre. If a farmer raises fifteen tons of beets on one acre\nand sells the crop for $5 per ton he has made $75 per acre, or $150 for his two acres,\nand has not spent more than $8 or $10 for labor.\nQ. — Tell us of a good fertilizer for sugar beets; of the influence of the crop upon\nthe roads; and of the crop rotations in Michigan.\nA. — Nitrate of soda is a good fertilizer for beet-sugar farms. The beet-sugar industry\nhas done more than any one thing toward the good-roads reform. The farmers hauling\ntheir grain can wait until the roads are good, but the beets must be delivered when the\nfactory needs them and that is the time of year when the roads usually are bad. After\nthe beets are harvested the fields should be planted in oats, fall wheat, potatoes, or other\nroot crops, or sown in clover or grass. The crop rotations practiced in Michigan are:\nsugar beets, oats, fall wheat, clover, then back to sugar beets. .\nTeacher. — The Indian boys of Mount Pleasant school have made considerable money\nby working in the sugar beet fields.\nQ. — Frank, tell us something about how the Mount Pleasant boys spend the money\nthey make in the beet fields.\nA.— Ward Pego made $10, gave half to his parents, and spent the rest himself.\nSam Leo earned $2 . 50, spent a little, loaned the rest to some boys who never paid him\nback. Alfred LeBlanc made $7 and gave it all to his mother. Mitchell Mobey\nearned $13 and spent it on having a good time, going to shows, etc. Christy Price\nmade $15, bought shoes, a shirt, a hat, a necktie, etc.\nQ' — How much are the wages for working in sugar-beet fields in Michigan ?\n^- — The wages for working in sugar-beet fields in Michigan are from $1 . 50 to $2. 50\nper day.\n\n"}
{"page": 1181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nLESSONS\n\n1169\n\nTeacher.— The Indian children at the Mount Pleasant School are taught the beet-sugar\nindustry so that they may learn the business and work in the sugar-beet fields during\nvacation, and after leaving school cultivate their ovi^nland and raise large crops and\nmake a good living.\nQ. — How does the sugar-beet crop rank as a food for animals ?\nA. — Aside from the sugar-producing qualities the sugar-beet crop ranks first among\ncrops as an animal food. As feed for cows it increases the milk supply, and it is nutritious\nand aids digestion. When fed to beef cattle it makes the steak and roast firmer, juicier,\nand better flavored. When hogs are fed upon sugar beets, a firm quality of pork is the\nresult.\nQ. — Do all of the beet factories in Michigan prosper ?\nA. — A few beet factories have failed because farmers were unable to get enough helpers\nand could not raise large enough crops to supply the factories; also because the farmers\nand their helpers were not sufficiently experienced and did not know how properly to\nraise the sugar beets.\nTeacher. — Levi may first state and then explain the problem he has worked on the\nboard.\nLevi states the problem: If you have a field of 20 acres in Michigan sown to sugar\nbeets, how much will your profit be if the crop yields 10 tons to the acre and you get $6\nper ton?\nLevi explains the problem: It usually takes 15 pounds of seed to the acre; the price\nhere for seed is 10 cents per pound.\nIf I' pound of seed cost loc, 15 lbs. will cost 15X loc, or $1. 50.\nIt costs $1 . 50 to seed i acre, to seed 20 acres it will cost 2oX$i . 50, or\nIt usually takes two helpers five days, at $1 . 50 a day, each, to plow 20 acres\nIf I helper for i day costs $1 . 50, 2 helpers for i day will cost 2X$i . 50, or $3\nIf 2 helpers for 1 day cost $3, for 5 days they will cost 5 X$3, or\nIt takes 15 helpers for 5 days at $1 a day for weeding.\nIf i helper costs $1 per\nday, 15 helpers will cost $1X15, or $15.\nIf it costs $15 for 15 helpers for i day, for 5 days 15 helpers will cost 5 X$i5, or. . .\nIt takes 5 helpers for bunching, at $1 per day for 5 days.\nIf i helper costs $1\nfor I day, 5 helpers will cost 5X$i, or $5.\nIf it^ costs $5 for 5 helpers for i day, then for 5 days it will cost 5 X $5, or\nIt takes 5 helpers for topping at $1 . 25 a day for 2 days.\nIf i helper costs $1 . 25\nfor I day, 5 helpers for i day will cost 5X$i. 25, or $6. 25.\nIf it costs $6. 25 for 5 helpers for i day, for 2 days it will cost 2 X $6. 25, or\nIt takes 2 helpers for loading, at $1 . 50 a day, for 5 days.\nIf i helper costs $1 . 50\nfor I day, 2 helpers will cost 2 X $1.50, or $3.\nIf it costs $3 for 2 helpers for i day, for 5 days it will cost 5 X$3, or\nTotal expense\nIf I acre yields 10 tons, 20 acres yield 20X 10, or 200 tons.\nIf I ton is worth $6, 200 tons will be worth $6X 200, or\nTotal proceeds of crop\nTotal cost of production\n\n75 ■ 00\n25 . 00\n12. 50\n15 -oo\n\n$1200. 00\n172.50\n$1027 . 50\n\nTOPIC:\nWITH\n\n15 • 00\n\n$172 . 50\n$1200. 00\n\nNet gain\nPRESENTED\n\n$30. 00\n\nA CLASS\n\nSTORE\n\nMETHODS*\n\nOF SMALL\nINDIAN PUPILS,\nBY THOMAS J. JACKSON,\nTENDENT, NETT l,AKE INDIAN\nSCHOOL,\nTOWER,\nMINN.\n\nSUPERIN-\n\nOur facilities as teachers of Indians cannot be excelled. We have everything which\nthinkers could desire in order to evolve practical methods and devices applicable to our\nspecial needs, out of which grows success.\n* A miniature store on the stage was managed by an Indian boy. Children with various sums to their\ncredit made purchases of calico, linen, clothing, stockings, etc., stating orally the amount to their credit, the\ncost of their purchases, and the balance still remaining to their credit on the books of the store. The boy\nmanaging the store made the proper entries in his books.\n\n"}
{"page": 1182, "printed_page": null, "text": "jjyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nMathematics is one of the difficult subjects to teach Indians because thinking constitutes the one condition necessary to progress — mere parrot work will not answer. Thinking such as mathematics requires must be born of a desire to master the difficulty presented.\nThe right condition is easily talked of but to realize it taxes a teacher of Indians to the\nutmost. Why ? Because, first, the Indian is perverse. He does not want, generally\nspeaking, what we have to give (except rations). Secondly, he has first to learn a foreign\ntongue before the stores of knowledge are opened to him. Until right conditions prevail\nwe are apt to blame the Indians for our failure.\nWhat is worth while to teach the Indians in mathematics? Do I hear someone\nsay, not to go beyond cube root ?\nIn the great scheme of education, subject-matter is the means. The end is the ability\nto think clearly, logically, effectively upon whatever engages one's attention. A human's\nworth is measured by the extent he is able so to apply himself. Education is made possible\nby means of subject-matter presented to the understanding. Facts gained, conditions\nrealized, are experiences thru which one gains mental power. The sum total of\na human's experiences constitutes his education.\nSpecialties are made up of definite lines of thought — investigation. Attention is\ncontinually directed to this or that fact or condition and the mind feeds, taking to itself\nwhat it wants. It is the wants that we as educators must look to because each individual\nmind is supreme.\nEnvironment is the mother of want. As want grows upon a mind its intelligence\nfosters, invents means to satisfy. Thru these mental processes comes the ability\nto think clearly, logically, effectively within the liniitations of each individual mind.\nWould you teach — make your pupils want. That teacher is the best who makes his\npupils want — actually want — what he chooses to present. Want is the gauge by which\nthe capacity of both teacher and pupil is measured. Wants may be many, but if we really\nwant something, do we not set the mental machinery in operation to devise means whereby\nthat want may be satisfied ? Surely we do. Every mind does the same regardless of\nthe color of the skin covering. Then is it not reasonable to expect that the children will\ntax their resources, thus gain in strength, to get what they want, really want, in school\nlife? Matter presented to the understanding of children begets and stimulates proper\ngrowth. Any healthy mind will have its wants, shaped by environment, hence growth\nsprings up as one's organism yields these wants.\nIn the absence of proper conditions, too many teachers go on painfully day after day\nfailing to touch the inner life of the children respecting this great subject of numbers.\nIf the grade be steep, put on more steam, then use sand; but surmount the difficulty to the\nbetterment of our cause.\nApplying a few of the simple principles of psychology to our needs we have a clear\ncourse to follow. What child does not like pretty new things and want them? The\ngovernment provides for the Indian children, but is it not wrong, positively wrong, from\nthe Indian's standpoint, to give these goods without money and without price ? Should\nnot a child feel a healthy independence in order to develop as mother nature intends ?\nWe, as teachers of Indians, have the United States government at our back and it is a\ngreat privilege to be able to use what is so lavishly placed at our disposal, but the fundamental principles of proper development should not be upset by unwise use of our bounty.\nI hold it as a matter of principle, backed up by economic and moral law, that we should\npay for what we get. Then our children should be so taught. Is there longer any use\nto hamper the healthy growth of our Indian boys and girls by educating them to believe\nthat it is the government's duty to provide for them ? Why not put our schools upon the\nbasis of work and pay, not receive and decay.\nWe can at least approximate the principle*\nSince environment conditions want, to create a proper condition for growth in an\nIndian school, I use a school store, the simple operation of which I shall attempt to illustrate\npresently.\n\n"}
{"page": 1183, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nLESSONS\n\n1 171\n\nOne of my wants was to make the government goods serve their best purpose, hence\ndevised a plan to have the children work on the school farm, as a matter of principle\nthus gain a credit and buy what they so much desired to have. So an account was opened\nwith each pupil and the device worked like a charm, because they were made to want,\nactually want, what I had to give later in the way of numbers.\nTo facilitate matters we made a little store, similar to this (a small store was installed\non the platform) right in the school room, took a large boy for storekeeper, threw away\nthe texts in arithmetic and went to work presenting matter to the understanding of the\nchildren. In time relations began to dawn upon the slow minds and I was able to say\neffectively to them, \" You cannot work that little problem because you do not know enough\nyet. This is what you must do first.\" A tittle direction at the right time counts for gold.\nWhen once in working order the store was managed completely by the pupils and it was\ntheir delight to solve the problems connected with the store accounts. Later texts were\nin place and the children used them, grasping their full meaning; from thence worked,\nas any pupil should work, with a view of accomplishing something for themselves.\nLastly, in the schoolroom, if there is one thing more important than others, it surely\nis this: Present matter to the understanding of each member of the class. Thru this\npractice wants are stimulated and developed in other more numerous and complicated\nways as the aspirant mounts the succeeding planes which mark the steps of his progress.\nTOPIC:\nCOMMENCEMENT\nEXERCISES\nAN ORATION\n\nENTITLED \" MY PEOPLE,\" BY ELIZABETH PENNY, FULL-BLOOD\nINDIAN,\nCLASS OF I908,\nCARLISLE\nINDIAN\nSCHOOL,\nPA.i\n\nNEZ PERCE\n\nI belong to a tribe living in northwestern Idaho, known as the Nez Perc^. The\nmeaning is \"pierced nose.\" The name of the tribe in Indian tongue is \"Tzupnitpalu.\"\nThe tribe numbers now about 1,500, all of whom have land.\nSince Christianity was brought into the Nez Perce country the people have advanced\nvery rapidly towards civilization. My purpose is to tell you of the manners and customs\nof my people a century ago. These Indians are well proportioned, the average height of\nthe men being about six feet.\nThe different places occupied by the bands of Nez Percys were (i), Kamiah; (2),\nLapwai; (3), Salmon River; and (4) Walawa, Oregon, the latter being the hunting\ngrounds of Chief Joseph, of whom most of you have heard. I will tell you some of the\ncustoms so far as I can remember them, as told by some old Indians concerning the habits\nof my tribe. Before the white men were ever seen by these Indians they had their own\nway of worshiping. It was told to me that in the beginning these Indians were entirely\nin darkness. They knew nothing of the work in the line of a religion. At that time there\nwas a certain person who had a true vision that in the future there was a great change\nto take place. He had a dream of the spiritual side of life, and he also received a song\nin his dream to be sung at the time of worship. Of course all the people were ready to\nbelieve his prophecies. The means of worship were very rude. Instead of sitting in a\nplace of worship, they danced in the form of a line. All the men and women took part\n•n the performance. (A song describing the above was now given by six Indian students\nfrom Carlisle Indian School, Pa.) At that time the Indians had a peculiar disposition.\nThey had a belief that some of you would call superstition. Even at the present time\nit is believed by some of the tribes that medicine men have supernatural power.\nWhen a boy was between six and thirteen years of age he was sent to a lonely mountain\n' This exercise was given for the purpose of showing the instructive features the Indian Office desires\nintroduced in school commencements.\nMiss Penny, attired in conventional graduating dress, was assisted by a band of Nez Perc€ Indians\ndressed in native costume, who illustrated her talk with songs, dances and various- tribal ceremonies, contrasting the home life and customs of the Indian in his native condition with that of a graduate of a government school. It was a forceful demonstration of what education is doing to prepare the Indian for citizenship; and by request of the audience was repeated at a subsequent session.\n\n"}
{"page": 1184, "printed_page": null, "text": "11^2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nfor several days with only a small portion of dried venison. The object of this journey\nwas to secure an extra preparation for his future life. It was believed that some power\nwas given him by some animal being which presented the stranger with a sacred song.\nIf he received a song and risked his life it would work a great change in his life. It may\nseem very ridiculous to you, but it was a common belief among my people. This was the\nfirst step toward becoming a dreamer, or an Indian medicine-man. One had to go thru\nyears of this sacred work before he could become a medicine-man. This process was\ncarried on during the winter season. A long tent was built and the sacred songs were\nsung by the individuals gifted with these songs. The person who began the ceremony\nstarted to sing and the rest assisted. When he became exhausted an aged medicineman breathed on him, and using his power the young Indian soon regained consciousness.\nIt was believed that this custom was a great factor in making the Indian a great warrior\nand increasing his power to endure hardships in securing food. (The students now\npresented this song, after the fashion above described.)\nWhen a medicine-man was called upon to treat a person who was sick, he was offered\nprobably two horses, blankets, and other things of value. The first thing he did was to\nhave a person announce at what certain tent he was to perform his duty, or, in other words,\nhis act of divine healing; and all were urged to come and assist in the singing. The process\nof his treatment was: first, to sing his song with the help of others; second, to make a\nfew motions over the body. Once through with these processes he was able to tell whether\nhis performances were hopeless or encouraging. If hopeless he ceased his performance!\nIf encouraging he continued his ceremonies at least once a day until his patient recovered.\n(Here the students chanted the weird incantations, and imitated the role of the mysterious\nmedicine-man.) Medicine-men never use medicine. They had faith in themselves.\nThese Indians believed that enduring hardships made them strong and able to conquer\ntheir enemies, such as dashing into a river of floating ice. In those days women were\njust as strong physically as men.\nAt that time it was a sad sight to see the handsome warriors leaving their homes\ngoing to war with other tribes. They bade their friends and their families farewell by\ngoing around from one tepee to another singing their parting-song. (A parting-song was\nnow sung by the students.) The warriors were followed about by some member of the\nfamily with about ten pairs of moccasins, and a small lunch at time of their departure.\nThe only way of sending messages to one another was by burning a balsam tree on the\nhighest point of the Rocky Mountains. This showed the people at home that they were\nsafe on their journey. The same way in returning. If they set fire to more than one tree\nthat meant good news. Upon returning they held a scalp dance. The object was to show\nhonor to the warriors who had secured scalps. They also danced to celebrate the victory\nover their enemies. (The dance they held on such occasions was now demonstrated by\nthe students.)\nThe custom of marriage in olden times among the Nez Perces was very peculiar.\nThey were very backward in courting. It is told that most the courting was done by\nthe parents. The wedding consisted of a dance, and the song they sang was full of life.\n(The wedding dance and song were now demonstrated by the students.) After the wedding\nthe bride followed the brave to his home, where she was expected^o do all the home work.\nShe had to get up at dawn and work till late in the evening. It was her duty to hand a\ndrink of water to her husband whenever he wanted it. It was also customary for her\nto take her husband's moccasins off. And during the meals each person had his own plate,\nand they ate separately instead of all together. The woman never thought of taking a\nbite of food before her husband. The man looked after the hunting and ponies, and\nprovided the best saddle pony for his wife.\nAll Indians at that time had Indian names, most of them referring to some animal,\nmountain, storm, cloud, thunder, earth, etc. The names were inherited from generation\nto generation.\nWhen a child was named there was a great feast prepared, and the parents\n\n"}
{"page": 1185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nLESSONS\n\nof the child presented gifts to some old man, or woman.\nEven now most of my people\ngo by Indian names.\nTOPIC:\nRUG-WEAVING\nDEMONSTRATION\nBY INDI*AN\nGIRLS,\nUNDER\nTHE\nDIRECTION\nOF\nINSTRUCTOR OF NATIVE INDIAN ART, CARLISLE INDIAN\n\nANGEL\nDECORA\nSCHOOL, PA.\n\nDIETZ\n\nThis demonstration of rug-weaving by Indian girls with native looms illustrated how\nthe Indian Office is teaching the Indian children to make practical application of the native\ndesigns in the manufacture of rugs of Persian and other weaves in common use. This\nwill eventually not only open up a larger field for the sale of products of the Indian but\nwill enable him to make a practical contribution of the native art of America to the art\nof the world.\nMrs. Dietz also displayed specimens of her pupils' work, showing what the Indian\nOffice is doing for the preservation of Indian art, and explained to the teachers how best\nto carry on this work in the class room.\n\n"}
{"page": 1186, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1187, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMEiNT\n\nOF TECHNICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Lonis C. Monin, dean, Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, HI.\nVice-President — A. B. Storms, president, Iowa State College, Ames, la.\nSecretary — George A. Merrcll, principal, School of Mechanical Arts, San Francisco, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, June 30, 1908\nThe session of the Department of Technical Education was called to order in the\nEpworth Memorial Church by President Monin at 9:30 o'clock.\nThe president's address, \"Engineering Degrees,\" was delivered by President Louis\nC. Monin, dean of the Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, 111.\nFred W. Atkinson, president, Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, made a report by the\nCommittee of Seven on Entrance Requirements to Colleges of Engineering,\n\"The Desirability of a Five-Year Course for Students of Engineering\" was discussed\nin an address by A. Marston, dean of the College of Engineering, Iowa State College,\nAmes, la.\nSECOND SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July i\nThe Department met in joint session with the Department of Secondary Education\nfor the discussion of the general topic, \"The Cosmopolitan High-School Curriculum.\"\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nAfternoon, July 2\n\nThe Department met at 2:30 o'clock with the Department of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation in joint session for the discussion of the topic, \"What Is Agriculture — Elementary— Secondary — College ?\"\nAn address on this topic was read by A. C. True of the United States Office of Experiment Stations, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.\nThis paper was discussed by C. F. Curtis, dean of Division of Agriculture, Iowa\nState College, Ames, la., and others.\nOn motion, the following named were elected as officers of the Department for the\nensuing year:\nFor President, Louis C. Monin, dean, Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, III.\nFor Vice-President, Albert B. Storms, president, Iowa State College, Ames, la.\nFor Secretary, George A. Merrill, principal, School of Mechanical Arts, San Francisco, Cal.\nThe Department then adjourned.\nArthur J. Wood, Acting Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND\n\nLOUIS\n\nC. MONIN,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\nENGINEERING\n\nDEGREES\n\nDEAN,\n\nARMOUR\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nTECHNOLOGY,\n\nCHICAGO\n\n\"75\nThe work which the new Department of Technical Education, organized\nlast year at the Los Angeles meeting of the National Education Association,\n\n"}
{"page": 1188, "printed_page": null, "text": "II76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nundertook from the outset is in the direction of greater uniformity as to the\nkind and amount of instruction in technical schools and colleges. We believe\nwith Henry Van Dyke thatLife is an arrow, therefore you must know\nWhat mark to aim at, how to use the bow,\nThen draw it to the head and let it go.\n\nTherefore the endeavor of our investigations and discussions is to determine more definitely the three phases of engineering education; viz., the\nstarting-point, the course of study, and the results to be obtained. The Los\nAngeles meeting took up the question of entrance requirements to colleges of\nengineering and appointed a committee of seven to report at the Cleveland\nConvention.\nIn consulting the program bulletin of this year's meeting, you will see\nthat the papers and discussions deal chiefly with the course of study and with\nquestions as to the dividing-line between the high-school and the college\ncourses. These discussions point naturally to the conclusion of an engineering\ncourse; namely, to the question of engineering degrees.\nIn our attempts to recommend some standard course of study for engineering colleges, no definite agreement can be reached without some agreement\nas to the starting-point, and again without some agreement as to the definite\nmeaning attached to engineering degrees. We realize and appreciate that as\nearly as 1894 the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education took\nup the discussion of all these questions and carried it forward to good results.\nHowever, we are as yet very far from having reached the desirable clear perception of aims or the ripe completeness of system and methods. It is of\ngreat importance that the Department of Technical Education should also\nfully discuss these matters and formulate definite views in regard to them.\nAs the question of aim may fitly become the topic of next year's meeting,\nI wish to point to the desirability that degrees in colleges of engineering should\nbe awarded according to some more uniform system. Knowing more clearly\nthe goal toward which we are striving, the difficult problems of the proper distribution ofprofessional and cultural studies, of the length of the college\ncourse, the amount of shop work required, etc., may be dealt with more speedily\nand more profitably. With your permission I should like to lay down the following proposition : If the degrees of Mechanical Engineer, Electrical Engineer,\nCivil Engineer, etc., are to indicate the high professional standing of the\nbearers of them, and if they are to be on the same level with the degree of\nPh.D., they should never be conferred at the end of an undergraduate course.\nIn the evolution of our educational system, three means have been found\nto award the scholar and to indicate the successive steps by which he may\nreach the highest professional standing. The first, or lower degree of efficiency, idesignated\ns\nby the degree of Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Arts.\nAfter more intense and specialized work, the scholar may reach the second\nor higher degree, namely, that of Master of Science or Master of Arts; and the\n\n"}
{"page": 1189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)]\n\nENGINEERING\n\nDEGREES\n\n1 177\n\nthird step is indicated by the degree of Doctor of Science or Doctor of Phi\nlosophy.\nMy suggestion is, therefore, that at the completion of the four or five years'\nundergraduate course the degree of B.S. shall be conferred; after one or two\nyears of postgraduate work, the degree of M.S., and that of the engineering\ndegrees, M.E., E.E., C.E., etc., shall be conferred only after three or four\nyears' practice and the writing of an appropriate thesis.\nEngineering is now recognized as being one of the learned professions, and\nif our notions as to what the engineering degree should represent were more\ndefinite, I hold that it would be much easier to map out a standard course\nof study and, also, to place more accurately the lines of demarcation between\nhigh-school work and college work, and between undergraduate work and\ngraduate work.\nThanks to the procedure and effective agitation which the Educational\nReview, under the leadership of President Butler of Columbia University, has\nkept up for many years in regard to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, we\nhave reached almost entirely uniform practice in the awarding of such a degree.\nThe result of the Review^ s efforts has been that the degree of Ph.D., now\nawarded only in course, has become the recognized reward for continued\nand successful resident postgraduate work. Can we not agitate in a similar\nmanner in behalf of the engineering degrees ?\nThe chief reasons why the engineering degrees should not be awarded at\nthe end of the undergraduate courses are:\ni) Such degrees should be on a higher plane than those offered by\nthe Baccalaureate.\n2) The work done in the college is academic and not practical and\nshould, therefore, result in the academic degree and not in a degree which is\ndescriptive of a certain kind of practical work ; for experience and judgment,\nas well as knowledge, are necessary in the complete education of an engineer.\n3) It is inconsistent for a university to confer in its college of liberal arts the\ndegree\nA.B. and*\nin its college of science or engineering the degree of M.E.\nor E.E. ofinstead\nof B.S.\n4) The awarding of the E.E., M.E. and C.E. degrees at the end of the\nundergraduate course allows of no intermediate or higher degrees. It is\nalready the highest that can be obtained. It gives the young man an exaggerated opinion of his ability, and the contrast between aspiration and performance\nis too apparent. The training in engineering schools is chiefly in mathematics,\nscience, and drawing, and the degree should attest to this fact. According to\nthe views of the late Professor Thurston, \"the engineering school is simply the\nfirst stage of professional work and the degree should indicate that fact.'*\nIf this is so, then the B.S. degree is more properly awarded than the M.E.,\nE.E., C.E., etc.\nIn regard to the degree of Doctor of Engineering, the best practice would\nbe to place it on the same level with the Doctor of Laws; namely, to award it\n\n"}
{"page": 1190, "printed_page": null, "text": "Iiyg\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nas an honorary degree only. In this way, the differentiation between the\nengineering degrees, M.E., E.E., C.E., and the degree of Doctor of Engineering could be made in the same way as between the Ph.D. and the degree of\nLL.D.\nI have ventured to offer these suggestions merely as a means of provoking\nthought and discussion in regard to the work of engineering colleges. The\ntendency of our times is toward more definite aims and methods, and if we\nwish to be just to the students of the engineering profession and to the demands\nmade by the public, by the engineering societies, and by the home, upon the\ncollege of engineering, we must not merely improve methods of teaching, but\nalso announce more clearly the ends and aims of the work of colleges of engineering.\nADMISSION\n\nREQUIREMENTS TO COLLEGES\nENGINEERING\n\nOF\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF SEVEN TO THE DEPARTMENT\nTECHNICAL EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nASSOCIATION\nFRED\n\nW. ATKINSON,\n\nPRESIDENT,\nBROOKLYN\nPOLYTECHNIC\nNEW\nYORK,\nCHAIRMAN\n\nOF\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nYour Committee on Admission Requirements, appointed by the chairman\nof the department on October 25, 1907, presents the following preliminary\nreport:\nThe committee, after considerable consultation by correspondence, at a\nmeeting held on April 11, decided that it should undertake an investigation\nalong three general lines — the collection of data as to existing conditions of\nadmission to technical colleges; the extraction from these data of plans for\nimprovement; and the presentation of recommendations to the several technical institutions, to the preparatory schools, and to the principal general\nagencies having anything to do with the determination of entrance requirements.\nUpon the recommendation of Professor Tyler and Dean Goetze of the\ncommittee, the chairman has attempted to get in touch with the two particular\nagencies— the College Entrance Examination Board and the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Altho neither of these bodies\nwas originally designed to consider such questions as entrance requirements,\nboth have already collected data, particularly the latter, which has carried on\ninvestigations on a national scale. A preliminary survey of the information\nalready gathered convinces the committee that there will be considerable\neconomy and other advantages in utilizing this material and in adapting any\nsupplementary inquiry it may make to the form of the information thus already\ncollected.\n\nIn New England there is also the Intercollegiate Certificate Board. This\nboard is the representative of thirteen New England colleges, *'no two of\n\n"}
{"page": 1191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nADMISSION\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nIN ENGINEERING\n\n1179\n\nwhich,\" writes Professor Nathaniel F. Davis, its secretary, \"have identical\nrequirements for admission.\" The North Central Association of Colleges\nand Secondary Schools is a similar organization. The National Conference\nCommittee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary Schools is just now considering questions relating to admission, particularly the question of time\nunits. The Committee of Review of the College Entrance Examination\nBoard will soon submit to that board for its consideration a report in regard\nto the Carnegie system of units.\nThus it is seen there is a movement toward a standardization of entrance\nrequirements for colleges and universities. In this movement the rights and\ninterests of the engineering colleges should be represented. At this particular time when there is a rapid increase in the demand for technical courses,\nthe representatives of the technical institutions should be in a strong position\nto exercise a salutary influence on secondary education and at the same time\nimprove the foundations of engineering education.\nThe committee believes that during the coming year the first thing to be\ndone is to collect and tabulate information upon points and institutions already\ncovered by the Carnegie Foundation and by similar organizations. After\nthis is done the committee will endeavor to fill the gaps so that there will be a\npretty complete collection of data as to present conditions. A similar procedure to that adopted in 1895 by the special committee on entrance requirements of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education will be\nfollowed. By the use of circulars asking for certain facts and expressions of\nopinions on certain matters, an attempt will be made to obtain information\nat first hand from the colleges offering instruction in engineering and from\nthe leading secondary schools of the country which prepare students for technical colleges. Professor H. W. Tyler of this committee was secretary of. the\ncommittee of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education which\nperformed a most valuable service twelve to thirteen years ago, and thus the\ncommittee will be able to profit by his experience and expert advice, and begin\nits work where that committee left off.\nTo gather and tabulate the statistics and to summarize the opinions will\nrequire the services of a clerk. There will be also the expense items of printing\nand postage. It is respectfully requested by this committee that this department apply to the proper authorities of the National Education Association\nfor an appropriation not exceeding $500 to carry on the proposed investigation.\nThe work of the Carnegie Foundation and the College Entrance Examination Board will be of great assistance to this committee, but those actually\nengaged in engineering instruction should correlate and digest their data and\nformulate recommendations from, the point of view of engineering education.\nThis committee should find out what variations in requirements still exist,\nwhat can be done to bring about greater uniformity, how, for example, the\ncommon branches can be eliminated from the secondary school, by what means\ninstruction in mathematics and in science in secondary schools can become\n\n"}
{"page": 1192, "printed_page": null, "text": "liSo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nmore efficient. After agreeing upon the subjects to be required, it may be\npossible to reach some decision as to the time to be given to each subject.\nIt should attempt to decide what studies shall be required, what studies shall\nbe considered as options, and what as electives. Only by following a very\nbroad line of investigation can it learn the methods and conditions prevaiHng\nin different localities. Among matters worthy of investigation it should ascertain the truth of the statement which is often made that secondary schools\ntreat the academic colleges a little more fairly than the technical schools. I\nshould attempt to answer the following and similar questions:\n1. Are the entrance requirements to the technical schools too high ?\n2. Do the present entrance requirements include a greater number of subjects than\nis desirable?\n3. Do the secondary schools give us the right preparation in such subjects as English,\nor are the secondary schools and grammar schools slighting the fundamentals for matters\nof less import ?\n4. Is it desirable that a student entering a technical school shall be given physics or\nchemistry or other scientific subjects in the secondary schools, or should his training\nbe as liberal as possible, leaving the scientific work to be given in the technical school ?\n5. To what extent can mathematics be given successfully in the preparatory schools ?\n\nThese and similar problems represent the difficulties which the engineering\ncolleges are wrestling with today. While appreciating the limitations under\nwhich the secondary schools labor in preparing a few men for college and a\ngreat many men for the world at large, it does seem to this committee that if\nthose engaged in engineering instruction could get a little closer to the secondary\nschools, matters of mutual benefit might be discussed and some knotty problems solved.\nIt is recommended by this committee that a committee on entrance requirements to technical colleges be appointed by the Department of Secondary\nEducation to cooperate with it in getting full information from the secondary\nschools.\nThe secondary schools might very properly have something to say about the\nnormal scale of estimating entrance requirements recently worked out by the\nCarnegie Foundation.\nIn any distribution of time in secondary school curricula those engaged in\nthat instruction can tell what is practically of advantage to the colleges and to\nthe secondary schools. Among the schools there is a very great difference in\nthe time allotted to the same requirement. The school which assigns the\ngreatest number of periods to a subject does not always obtain the best results.\nIt may be that this investigation will show that the preparation depends more\nupon the school than upon the time allotments in the curriculum and that it\nwould be preferable for the engineering colleges to define the quantity required\nand to leave the school largely to itself in accomplishing the work.\nIf this committee on admission requirements can accomphsh the work\nwhich it now plans to undertake I believe personally that it will perform a\nvaluable service for the whole educational system of the country.\nThe com-\n\n"}
{"page": 1193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFIVE-YEAR\n\nENGINEERING\n\nCOURSE\n\n1181\n\nmittee welcomes suggestions and would be glad of instructions from the Department of Technical Education.\nRespectfully submitted,\nFred W. Atkinson,\nPresident of Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., Chairman.\n\nM.\n\nE.\n\nCOOLEY,\n\nDean of the Department of Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n\nFrederick A. Goetze,\nDean of the Faculty of Applied Science, Columbia University, New York City.\n\nA. Marston,\nDean of the Division of Engineering, Iowa State College, Iowa.\n\nIra O. Baker,\nProfessor of Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, HI.\n\nHarry W. Tyler,\nProfessor of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.\n\nDexter\n\nS. Kimball,\n\nProfessor of Sibley College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\n\nCommiUee\n\na.\n\nFIVE-YEAR\n\nENGINEERING\n\nMARSTON,\n\nOF\n\nDEAN\n\nCOURSE\n\nTHE COLLEGE\nOF\nUNIVERSITY,\nAMES,\n\nOF STUDY\n\nENGINEERING,\nIOWA\n\nIOWA\n\nSTATE\n\nIt now seems probable that the present will prove to be a memorable date\nin engineering education, marking the close of its first great epoch, and the\nbeginning of a second still greater.\nDuring the first epoch, technical education has fought its way to a recognized equality with other education, and in the ideals of education, has placed\n\"to do\" on a par with \"to know.\" Our ideal of the well-educated man is no\nlonger the secluded scholar, engrossed in his studies even to forgetfulness of\nlaboring humanity. Today, the ideal, educated man must be able to translate into action, for the service of his fellow-men, every bit of his ability to\nknow, to search, to think. Moreover, today, scientific and technical knowledge have become such. an important part of the world's total knowledge, that\na man cannot be considered to have a broad education who has not given\nsome study to science and technology.\nNevertheless we must confess that during this first great epoch, the aim of.\ntechnical education has been almost exclusively the training of men for purely\ntechnical work. In engineering, for example, that education has been considered the best which best fitted men for purely engineerinjg design and construction. Ifthe path of a man with an engineering education led into a\nlife-work outside of what is ordinarily regarded as engineering, he was considered tohave wasted his college days.\nAt the present time, the world's demand for technically trained men has\nprogressed beyond this point. It is no longer sufficient for the world's needs\nfor society to have at command, for hire, the services of an isolated body of\nmerely technical men, employed to secure the benefit of the practical appli-\n\n"}
{"page": 1194, "printed_page": null, "text": "1j82\n\nnational\n\neducation\n\nassociation\n\n[Technical\n\ncations of modern science. We have^come to the time when the wonderful\ndiscoveries of science have so revolutionized the world and have become such\nan essential part of our civilization, that, on the one hand, some technical\ntraining has become necessary for the humblest workman, while, on the other\nhand, the members of the technical professions are being drafted into the\nworld's widest activities.\nHence we have at the present time two great movements begun in technical\neducation, movements apparently distinct, and even opposed, but which in\nreality are due to the same cause, and are essentially harmonious.\nOne of these is the development, as distinguished from professional technical education, of industrial or trade education, a development which is\nfinding its main expression in manual-training schools and trade institutes.\nFacilities for such education must be supplied for siich vast numbers of\nstudents, to meet modem conditions, that the high schools, rather than the\ncolleges, seem destined, both by numbers and location, to be its principal\nagents, tho the colleges and institutes must play their proper parts by\ndeveloping higher trade schools.\nThe other great movement is the liberalizing and broadening of professional\ntechnical education, which just now is finding active expression in many\nengineering schools in the establishment of five- and six-year courses of study.\nThus California, Columbia, Cornell, Iowa State College, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Wisconsin have adopted optional five-year engineering\ncourses, and Minnesota, compulsory. Nebraska and Michigan are adopting\nsix-year optional courses, and most engineering schools located at universities\nhave arrangements whereby a student can obtain both an A.B., or B.S., and an\nengineering degree in a total of six years of work.\nAmong both engineering educators and practicing engineers the main\ncriticism of engineering education in recent years has been to emphasize the\nimportance of broad, fundamental, and liberal training, as contrasted with\nnarrow or special work in engineering details. In the transactions of engineering societies, and in papers in engineering journals, the leaders in the profession have been demanding broad training for engineers in no uncertain\nterms. Thus Mr. Robert Moore, president of the American Society of Civil\nEngineers, has said,\nThe engineer must also know something of language and literature, of political science\nand of history, in order that he may correctly understand and evaluate the knowledge\nparticular to his own calling. He who aims at the highest success as an engineer must\nbe a more learned man than his predecessor of the last century.\n\nMr. L. B. Stillwell, consulting electrical engineer, New York City, says,\nThe ideal education cannot be too broad. The aim should be to educate and train,\nrather than to inform.\nThe engineering training might well follow a collegiate course.\n\nIn the proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, and elsewhere, our most prominent engineering educators have similarly\nemphasized the importance of a broad foundation in engineering education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFIVE-YEAR\n\nENGINEERING\n\nCOURSE\n\n1183\n\nProbably most of the engineering schools which keep closely in touch\nwith their engineering alumni have been in receipt of expressions of opinions\nsuch as these, which have come to the writer from prominent engineering\nalumni of the Iowa State College: From W. C. Armstrong, terminal engineer,\nChicago & North- Western Railway, Chicago, III :\nI have always been an advocate of the broader courses of study. I would therefore\nsay that any scheme for lengthening the course of study should have for its first object\nthe extension of those subjects which make for a liberal education.\n\nFrom S. H. Heges, president Puget Sound Bridge and Dredging Co., Seattle,\nWash.:\nIf an engineering course could be laid out with the first four years partially of a\ngeneral nature, and the last two years largely technical, it would seem a move in the\nright direction.\n\nFrom M. J. Riggs, superintendent American Bridge Company's plant, Toledo,\nOhio:\nMore and more the engineer is to fill the higher place. We have reached the point\nwhej-e the full development of all our vast resources, the careful conserving and wise\nuse of Nature's gifts to us, the active management and direction of our great industrial\nactivities are coming into the hands and under the minds of the engineers.\n\nThus both the united demand of practicing engineers and engineering\neducators, and the most recent action of many of our strongest engineering\nschools indicate that a new era of broad engineering training is now beginning.\nProbably there would be scarcely a dissenter, at the present time, from the\nopinion that the ideal engineering education, were it possible of attainment,\nwould be the equivalent of a complete college course, plus a complete technical\ncourse.\nThe fact is, as Mr. Riggs has pointed out in the quotation already given,\nthat the engineer of the present and the future must more and more be called\nupon to direct the world's highest activities.\nIt is not merely that the highest engineering work calls more and more\nfor men of the broadest judgment and character, with the highest executive\nabilities; there is, besides, an increasing demand for technically educated men\nfor superintendents, managers, secretaries, directors, presidents, and owners\nof all large manufacturing and commercial enterprises, light, power, and\ntransportation companies. In addition to this, there is need for men with\nengineering training in the public affairs of every community and even in\nthe councils of the nation itself. It is not an insignificant sign of the times\nthat one of the prominently mentioned vice-presidential possibilities at the\nrecent national Republican convention was a famous engineer, and that one\nof the engineers from whom quotation has been made in this paper was\nrecently a candidate for mayor of one of our large cities.\nSociety needs in its public affairs today the high honor, the absolute\nhonesty, and the perfect fidelity to truth and to Nature's laws, which are the\nabsolute essentials of high engineering success. In addition to these highest\nqualities, we need the technical skill of the engineer in dealing with fran-\n\n"}
{"page": 1196, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ti84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nchises, and public utilities in general, transportation problems, commerce,\nmanufacturing, labor, questions of public safety, the development and the\nconservation of our natural resources. Already one of our great states has\nplaced its public utilities very largely under the direct charge of a commission\nwhich is guided by the expert advice of a large engineering corps, and which\nhas most extensive powers in connection with rates and taxation. Already\nimminent danger of the exhaustion of our natural resources indicates plainly\nthe necessity of expert technical skill in directing the poUcies of the nation.\nThe new era of broad opportunity now opening to the engineer demands\nera of broad preparatory training. Recognizing then that\ncorresponding\na\nthe ideal education for an engineer would be the equivalent of a four-year\ngeneral college course, plus a four-year engineering course, we may inquire\ninto the different methods of approaching this eight years' ideal.\nFIRST PLAN. — SEVEN-YEAR\n\nCOURSES\n\nWithout any special selection of college studies, there are usually enough\nduplicate subjects to enable a graduate of any good college to complete a\ncourse in any good engineering school in three years, making the total time\nfor both seven years. Probably every engineering school has a few students\nwho are following this plan, having decided very late in their college work to\ntake up engineering.\nSECOND\n\nPLAN. — SIX- YEAR\n\nENGINEERING\n\nCOURSES\n\nBy special selection of electives in the college, it will be possible, if the\ncollege of arts will give credit toward its degree for a few studies taken in the\ncollege of engineering, for a student to complete an engineering course in two\nyears after graduation in the college of arts, thus making the total time six\nyears. Probably most engineering schools located at universities have had\nsuch an arrangement as this, definite or tacit, for several years, and it is one\nof the discouraging things in connection with higher engineering education that\nonly a small number of students have availed themselves of this opportunity.\nThe increased expense and time and the deferred age of entering upon lifework occur as among the reasons.\nIn addition it should be noted that, with this plan, the student is for four\nyears almost entirely out of touch with engineers and engineering work, for he\nis under entire control of the arts faculty instead of the engineering faculty.\nWhen we reflect how very much enthusiasm for one's profession and close\ntouch with all its activities have to do with success or failure, and with the\novercoming of difficulties in securing an education, we must include lack of\ncontrol by the engineering faculty as among the most important causes of the\ncomparative failure, up to this time, of six-year engineering courses.\nNevertheless, a six-year engineering course, could the students be induced\nto take it, and especially if it were controlled by the engineering faculty thruout\nwould come the nearest to ideal engineering education of any plan which is\npracticable at the present time.\n\n"}
{"page": 1197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFIVE-YEAR\n\nENGINEERING\n\nCOURSE\n\n1185\n\nHence we find Nebraska and Michigan now outlining such courses in\ndetail, for publication in their new catalogs.\nHowever, in view of the past unsatisfactory experience with six-year courses,\nmost of the engineering schools which are taking action this year toward\nbroader engineering education are trying a compromise between the present\nand the ideal as follows:\nTHIRD\n\nPLAN. — OPTIONAL\n\nFIVE-YEAR\n\nENGINEERING\n\nCOURSES\n\nCalifornia, Cornell, Iowa State College, and Wisconsin are offering optional\nfive-year engineering courses, in which the work is oudined in detail for each\nyear, and which are under direct control of the engineering faculty. The\nadded year of work is in each case composed of cultural subjects.\nWisconsin also varies this by offering four-year engineering courses with\none year of arts college work required for entrance.\nThe Massachusetts Institute of Technology will offer a general three-year\nscientific course, of such nature that a student who has taken it can complete\nany of the regular engineering courses in two additional years.\nColumbia outlines a plan of elections in the arts college, whereby a student\ncan obtain the B.S. and an engineering degree in five years of work, remaining,\nhowever, under control of the arts faculty for the first four years.\nFOURTH\n\nPLAN. — COMPULSORY\n\nFIVE-YEAR\n\nENGINEERING\n\nCOURSES\n\nMinnesota is taking the most radical action, and is abolishing its present\nfour-year engineering courses entirely, replacing them by so-called five-year\nengineering courses, which include a considerable amount of cultural work.\nAs, however, it is proposed to give the B.S. degree at the end of four years' work,\nit is expected that a large number of the students may drop out without\ncompleting the fifth year.\nIf the optional five-year engineering courses now being established at\nvarious schools should attract a large number of students, or if general engineering conditions should continue to develop as strongly toward broader and\nhigher ideals as they have in recent years, it seems very possible that compulsory five-year, or even six-year engineering courses, or, what is equivalent,\nrequiring one or two years of general college work for entrance to four-year\ntechnical courses, may be the logical outcome of the present experiments.\nIn the meantime, however, there are many considerations which are\ndetermining most of the engineering schools in favor of conservative action,\nand against compulsory five-year courses at present. Engineering courses\nwhich can endure, like other phases of civilization, represent the action of\nmany general forces and laws of demand, resulting from actual needs of\nsociety. These forces and laws of demand do not change suddenly, but slowly,^\nand the engineering school which would not run risk of a Quebec bridge failure\nof its educational structure must not get too far outside of established principles\nof engineering education.\nIn addition to these general considerations there is the problem of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1198, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technica\n\nways and means of the students. The writer is glad to bear testimony corroborative ofthat of many others, that much of our best material for the making\nof engineers consists of the young men of little means, from the farm, or the\nsmall town, or from the sons of mechanics, who must by their personal labors\nsupplement home sacrifices to meet the expenses of a college course. Within\na few years the expenses of college courses have been greatly increased, by\nhigher tuition fees, by higher prices in general, and by more expensive standards\nof college life. Besides this, entrance requirements have gone higher and\nhigher, making the preparatory education more costly.\nTo add, at the present time, two compulsory years, or even one, to the four\nalready required for engineering courses, may be to shut the door of opportunity\nto men who would otherwise become our very best engineers.\nThe introduction of five-year courses, parallel with four-year courses in our\nuniversities and colleges, must bring up again the question of engineering\ndegrees. In the granting of engineering degrees there is already altogether\ntoo much inconsistency and lack of uniformity in the practice of our American\nschools. While it is true that most of the engineering schools in the United\nStates grant only a bachelor's degree at the end of four years of college work,\nyet even this bachelor's degree is different at different institutions, and we still\nhave a few schools which grant the C.E. and M.E. degrees, etc., for four years\nof work.\nThe writer believes that the engineering schools should adopt uniform\nregulations, calling for the use by all of some one form of bachelor's degree for\ngraduation at the end of four, years of college work.\nThe professional degree of C.E., M.E., etc., could then be kept for five\nor more years of work, the M.C.E., for still more advanced work, and here,\nalso, a uniformity of practice ought to be secured. Such uniformity would\ngive to each degree a definiteness of meaning which it does not now possess.\nIt would be a mistake to suppose that the engineering schools which are\nadopting five-year engineering courses anticipate that such courses will prove\na solution for all the problems of engineering education, or even that they will\nat once attract large numbers of engineering students. We are offering such\ncourses because we believe that the times make it our duty to offer opportunity\nfor broader engineering training to those who can be induced to take advantage of it, because we believe that such courses represent one step in advance\nalong the inevitable line of progress in engineering education, and because we\nhave absolute faith in the higher and larger opportunity for service which must\ncome to the engineer of the near future.\n\n"}
{"page": 1199, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF RURAL INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — E. C. Bishop, deputy superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Nebr.\nVice-Presideni — D. B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S. C.\nSecretary — E. E. Balcomb, Department of Agriculture, State Normal School, Weatherford, Okla.\nFIRST SESSION.— Thursday Morning, July 2, 1908\nThe department met in the Plymouth Church, Cleveland, and was called to order\nat 9:30 o'clock by President Bishop.\nProfessor B. M. Davis of Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, read a paper on the subject, \"What Constitutes Successful Work in Agriculture in Rural Schools?\"\n\"The Work of the Normal School in Preparing Teachers to Teach Agriculture\"\nwas presented in a paper by Henry G. Williams, dean of State Normal College, Athens,\nOhio.\nThis paper was discussed by Charles Evans, superintendent of schools, Ardmore,\nOkla., and W. L. French, Department of Agriculture, State Normal School, Peru, Nebr.\nHon. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States commissioner of education, presented\n\"Notes on National Aid in Agricultural Education.\"\nPresident Bishop then appointed the following committees:\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nH. G. Williams of Ohio\nE. D. Cameron of Oklahoma\nW. L. French of Nebraska\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nAlbert B. Graham of Ohio.\nCharles Evans of Oklahoma\nW. W Stoner of Nebraska\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Afternoon, July 2\nThe department met in the Epworth Memorial Church in joint session with the\nDepartment of Technical Education.\nAn address on \"What Is Agriculture — Elementary — Secondary — College?\" by A.\nC. True of the United States Division of Experiment Stations, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, was read by Dick J. Crosby of the Department of Agriculture,\nDr. True being absent on account of illness.\nA discussion followed this paper, led by C. F. Curtis, dean of the Division of Agriculture, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, and others.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nEvening, July 2\n\nThe department was called to order in Plymouth Church at 8 o'clock.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:\nWhereas, The need for conserving our national resources, the call of the farm for\nyoung men and young women whose ideals of society and labor are realized in country\nhomes and in the field, the use that can be made of the school in preparing rural youth to\npass off the shackles of drudgery and enter into the joy of work in a day mental, moral\nand manual; therefore, be it\nResolved, (i) That the Department of 1187\nAgricultural Education of the National Education .Association encourage\nthe normal schools to offer courses in applied science that\n\n"}
{"page": 1200, "printed_page": null, "text": "jjgg\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nwill meet the need of the teacher of agriculture in elementary rural schools, and of those\nteachers in secondary schools whose surroundings are distinctly rural.\nimprove(2) That some study of the conservation of agriculture resources and the social literature\nments and enrichment of rural living be made such a part of courses in sciences,\nand sociology as will properly prepare teachers to become effective agents in elevating rural\npeople to a higher plane of living and of making a living.\n(3) That members of Congress be urged to appropriate liberally to state normal\nschools for the preparation of teachers of the agricultural sciences in the elementary and\nsecondary schools.\nFurther, Whereas Great Britain has been sending teachers to this country for the\npurpose of studying methods of agriculture and other industrial education, we earnestly\nurge presidents of colleges and normal schools and boards of education to make it\npossible by financial and other inducements for our American teachers to make similar\nstudies abroad. Be it further\nResolved, That the President appoint a committee to suggest to this section at its next\nmeeting a modification of the present method of teaching the sciences in our regular\nhigh schools so that a graduate may be qualified to teach the rudiments of agriculture\nin°our rural schools and at the same time be eligible to enter college.\nThe report, was, on motion, adopted.\nThe Committee on Nominations, thru its chairman, H. B. Williams, of Ohio,\nreported the following for officers of the ensuing year:\nFor President — David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial\nCollege, Rock Hill, S. C.\nFor Vice-President — Albert B. Graham, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nFor Secretary — E. E. Balcomb, Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla.\nOn motion, the secretary of the department was instructed to cast the ballot for the\nactive members present for the nominees as presented. The ballot was so cast, and\nthe nominees were declared elected officers for the ensuing year.\nThe following papers on the general topic of \"School Gardening\" were presented\nand illustrated with lantern slides:\n(i) \"School Gardens as Conducted by the Cleveland Public School,\" Charles Orr,\ndirector, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\n(2) \"Work of the Home Gardening Association at Cleveland,\" by Starr Cadwallader,\ntreasurer. Home Gardening Association, Cleveland, Ohio.\n(3) \"Development of School Gardens at the National Capital,\" by Susan B. Sipe,\nNormal School No. i, Washington, D. C.\nThe president appointed the following committee in accordance with the resolution\nadopted by the department to investigate and report at the next meeting on the practicability ofarranging a course of study for high schools that would, at the same time, prepare\npupils for life and to meet the entrance requirements of colleges and universities:\nAlbert B. Graham, Ohio State University, Columbus, O.\nE. E. Balcomb, Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla.\nClarence H. Robison, State Normal School, Montclair, N. J.\nThe department then adjourned.\nE. E. Balcomb, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND\nWHAT\n\nCONSTITUTES\n\nBENJAMIN\n\nMARSHALL\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSUCCESSFUL WORK\nTURE IN RURAL SCHOOLS?\n\nIN AGRICUL-\n\nDAVIS,\n\nOXFORD,\n\nMIAMI\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nOHIO\n\nEducation to meet efficiently the demands of society must be dynamic.\nIt must be a living, active agent. As soon as one demand is met education in\nthat particular direction tends to become static. Organization necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 1201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSUCCESSFUL\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nI189\n\nfor efifective school work requires definiteness, even to details. When once\ncrystallized into a course of study and methods of procedure, when formulated\ninto a textbook, when taught successfully by an average teacher, a school\nsubject becomes a fixture in an educational system. Times may change when\nthe subject no longer fulfills its important function; but it continues to exist and\nto hold a prominent place in the curriculum.\nWhile it is making its real contribution to education by serving society,\nits position is unquestioned. But when conditions in society arise making\nnew demands upon an educational system, the old and once useful subject is\njustified by attributing to it a peculiar virtue known as cultural value.\nNo progressive civilization has escaped the difficulties attending the transition ofparts of its educational system from the dynamic into the static phases.\nThe modern Greeks are said to be failing as a nation largely because of\ntheir reluctance to modify an education which embodies the ideals of the old\nGreek civilization. The whole trend is to develop a literary and professional\nclass far in excess of the needs of the nation.\nOur own development as a nation must be attributed, in part, to the\nreadiness with which our education in all its departments, especially in its\ntechnical and professional aspects, has met the demands of progress. Indeed\nin cities, for our progress has been mainly urban, plans to make the schools\nfulfill these demands, while always commendable in spirit, have not always\nbeen well advised. Most of the so-called fads have city origin, and a fad\nin education is merely an ineffectual attempt to meet a social need.\nContrasted with this adaptive tendency, we find rural education characterized by a conservatism which clings to old ideas and old methods, and by a\ntendency, when changes are made, to employ educational imitation instead of\neducational adjustment. It not only tends to remain static but is httle influenced by progress in other activities in life.\nThe movement for agricultural instruction represents an effort to make\nrural education dynamic. There is a growing sentiment that agriculture in\nsome of its phases may function as a school subject not only for the direct\ncontribution which it may make, but, in a far more important way, for the\ninfluence it may have in connecting school with life.\nWhat constitutes successful work in agricultural instruction is not easy to\nanswer, and if a satisfactory answer were to be given today it would not hold\nin a few years, for successful instruction would continually develop new conditions which in turn would exact new requirements. Just now an adequate\nconsideration of the question must take into account the present static condition of rural education which expresses itself in the conservative attitude of\nthe rural population toward all matters educational. Taking the country\nas a whole, in spite of the propaganda for agricultural education which is\nspreading over the land, there is as yet little recognition of the fact that rural\nschools are capable of more than they are now doing.\nThe American farmer has been forced thru economic stress to abandon\n\n"}
{"page": 1202, "printed_page": null, "text": "jjQQ\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nhis old farm machinery and install new, but he is generally content with the\nold educational machinery which was installed to meet pioneer conditions.\nTo him the rural school, or any school in fact, is linked somehow with the\nmysteries of books. It is hard to persuade him that the school may even\nmaterially aid in the prosperity and progress of the community. He must\nbe shown, and the demonstration must often be on the low plane of dollars and\ncents. He is especially lacking in appreciation of scientific achievement and\nexpert opinion. If the schools could do nothing else, their work in agriculture\nwould be amply justified if, thru its influence, in another generation this\nattitude could be changed.\nThe formation of this section of the National Education Association is\nin itself an expression of the confidence of representative men and women\nin the movement for agricultural education. The question of what constitutes successful work in this subject in rural schools is a fitting one to be discussed at this meeting. I have tried, by way of introduction, to point out\nvery briefly a few of the general aspects of the question. As a further consideration ofthe subject, I wish to present a sort of cross-section of the work\nand views of some of those in various parts of this country and Canada who\nare making successful use of the subject, or who are actively interested in the\nimprovement of rural schools. In order to obtain a consensus of opinion\non the nature of successful work, on the difficulties, on the evidences of\nsuccessful work as shown in attendance, in attitude of patrons, and in interest\nin other school work, these points were embodied in a circular letter and sent\nto about four hundred men and women in various parts of this country and\nCanada who were known to have some interest and experience in the promotion ofagricultural instruction as a means of improving the rural schools.\nThis letter met with generous response not only in numbers but in full answers.\nThere is abundant evidence in these replies that the subject is -being seriously\nconsidered as a real factor in rural education. One of the most significant\npoints in this connection is the present attitude of the state departments of education toward the subject as contrasted with their attitude a few years ago.\nAbout five years ago in response to similar inquiries sent to over thirty states,\nbrief and unsatisfactory replies were received. Many failed to respond at all.\nWith this experience in mind, the full replies from practically all the state\ndepartments addressed came almost as a revelation. Without exception the\nreplies indicated a lively interest in the question. The following extracts\npresent a good summary of opinion from the standpoint of administrative\nheads of these departments:\nWe have a law in this state requiring agriculture to be taught in the common schools\nof the rural districts, but we have thus far not been very successful in our efforts for the\nreason that teachers are very inadequately prepared. We are meeting the need in a\nmeasure in our county training schools, of which we have now sixteen in operation, and\nwe are also giving all the help we can in our county institutes. It is a problem I suppose\neach state has to meet in accordance with its local needs and conditions. Our country\nteachers are changing at the rate of one-third the total number each vear or nearlv that,\n\n"}
{"page": 1203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSUCCESSFUL\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1191\n\nand the salaries are so low that we can scarcely expect teachers to qualify themselves\nvery efficiently for their work. To sum up, we are securing all the aid we can from\nour county training schools, from our teachers' institutes, from our high schools, from our\nagricultural college, and from our normal schools.\nStudents are being trained in this special work and the indications are that the work\nwill be introduced into the public schools in the near future.\nIn my opinion the most successful work in agriculture is in our township graded\nschools and consolidated schools, where both laboratory and field work are accomplished.\nI do not believe it is possible to do much in the one-room district schools for the\nreason that teachers are not qualified to do the work there. We encourage the teaching\nof agriculture in the district schools, however, when we find teachers who are well qualified\nto do the work. If we insisted on having agriculture taught in all the schools without reference to the qualifications of the teachers to do this work we should retard the movement,\nrather than help it along.\nThe teaching of agriculture in our public schools is in its incipiency in this state.\nWTiile we have a textbook on the subject in our public-school course, it is being taught\nin a very indefinite way. We are trying to develop an interest in the subject by getting\nthree or four hundred teachers to take the course in agriculture at the summer schools of\nthe state university.\nOur main effort must be to prepare teachers who have taste and love for that kind\nof work and that kind of life.\nThe subject of teaching agriculture in the public schools has been given but little\nattention until recently. During the present year there has been quite a stimulus along\nthe line of introducing agriculture in the rural schools. Many of the county superintendents are encouraging their teachers to teach the subject this year.\nAbout all that can be done at present is to relate the general work more closely with\nagriculture, to educate our children so that they can read a farm treatise or agricultural\njournal intelligently, and to put them upon that intelligent inquiry that will arouse their\ndesire to attend some agricultural college or high school.\n\nThe replies of over one hundred persons, representing geographical distribution ofthirty-three states of this country and three provinces of Canada,\nwere tabulated under the following heads :\na) Nature of agricultural instruction that seems to be most successful under average\nschool conditions.\nh) Chief difficulties in the way of using agriculture as a school subject in schools of\naverage rural communities.\nc) Added interest in school work that may be attributed to such instruction, as indicated (i) by increase in attendance in grammar grades or high school; (2) by more interest\nand support on part of patrons; (3) by reaction on other school work, i. e., by helping\nother school subjects.\n\nA general summary of the replies on nature of successful work brings out\ntwo things: {a) The most efficient work is to be found in the high schools of\nrural communities ; {h) A great many phases of agriculture- are adapted to\nsuccessful use — the success depending not so much upon the particular subject as upon whether it touches the life of the community.\nThe latter point,\n\n"}
{"page": 1204, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ijp2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nwhich is very generally emphasized, is well expressed in these words of a Wisconsin writer:\nIn rural schools, the most successful agricultural instruction is that which begins\nwith the agricultural activities of the local environment, and which finds in these activities\ncertain problems which then become subjects of investigation, and even experiment in a\nschool garden. In town schools the best plan is to begin with the school garden and\nemphasize the aesthetic side; then work out to beautify the city, and on this basis work\nout to the great typical processes of agriculture.\n\nArranged in order of frequency in replies the following is a list of various\nkinds of work said to be in successful operation :\nTextbook accompanied by experiments.\nGarden with experimental plots for plant breeding, soil inoculation, and other soil\nexperiments.\nSimple experiments such as determining soil ingredients, plant food, effect of fertilizers, seed testing, etc.\nContests of various kinds intended to awaken interest of patrons as well as of pupils.\nBoys' clubs, including nature-study clubs.\nCollections of economic plants, weeds, and weed-seed, and insects.\nSeed germination, including tests of viability.\nUse of bulletins as supplementary reading.\n\nA few writers call the attention to the importance of making better use of\nthe sciences in the high school. One of them suggests, for example, in connection with the study of physics: the consideration of the soil, capillarity and\nporosity of the soils, film and gravity water, evaporation and mulches, setting\nthe plow, adjustment of collar and hames, osmosis in plants, ventilation, etc.\nReports on the difficulties of agricultural instruction are monotonously\nalike. The same opinion is expressed by all on two points: lack of efficient\nteachers, and indifference and sometimes opposition on the part of the patrons\ntoward the introduction of agriculture in the schools. Crowded curriculum,\nshort school year, and scattered schools are also prominently mentioned.\nA few quotations on these difficulties may be of interest:\nMechanical minds of the rural school teachers. They must have the knowledge\nwhich they are to teach in some definite working form so they can prepare the night before\nand so that the children under the prevaiUng plan of ten-minute recitations may repeat it\nover and over again in the so-called study period.\nThere is a lack of interest and enthusiasm on the part of those supervising the schools.\nNon-interest of teachers. Teachers not to blame. They were seized as babies by\na course of studies, placed in the school high chair and were fed ever after with material\nthat could be brought to them. They were carefully weaned from large and active things\nthat could not be brought to the high chair.\nFarmers say that it is preposterous to think that the little pink-cheeked school marms\ncan teach their children to farm.\nLack of interest in agricultural work on part of children, many of whom have to do\nslavish toil at home on the economic scale. Agriculture is too much a synonym for hard\nwork according to the usage of the fathers. It is really the knowledge of the scientific\nprinciples underlying the subject with which not only children but men should approach\nthe subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 1205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUCCESSFUL\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1 193\n\nAs to the success of the subject as indicated by increase in attendance, by\nadded interest on part of parents and pupils, and by reaction on other school\nwork there was not a full expression of opinion. In many instances agricultural instruction has not been given long enough to justify an opinion on\nthese points. Of the replies given, most of them indicate a gain, which might\nbe attributed to the influence of agriculture, in all these particulars. In spite\nof the difficulties attending its general introduction at present, its usefulness\nas measured by these tests is being demonstrated in many places. This point\nmay be more apparent by reference to parts of a few letters:\nIt has added interest on the part of pupils in seventy-five per cent, of districts; and\non part of patrons in fifty per cent, of districts. We have secured about twice as many\ngraduates from the common schools this year as ever before. I believe that agriculture\nassists in holding the boys and girls thru the seventh and eighth grades.\nI am convinced that the subject of rural school agriculture has aroused among the\npupils of the country-school districts a marked interest in school work by adding a freshness to recitations which was formerly absent, and which is still lacking in many schools\nnot doing anything with this subject.\nI know of boys who are in the high school who have received their inspiration to\ntake up advanced work because of the study of agriculture. I find that the study of\nthis subject has been a great preparaton for science work in the high school. Pupils who\nhave done such work are far in advance and generally show much more interest in science\nthan others who have not had such preparation..\nIn nearly all cases it helps the study of other studies. It improves the boy's observing power, and creates in him the desire to know more of the nature that produced him\nand makes him interested in the question of education generally. All this is based upon\nwhat I have observed in this state and other places.\nThe introduction of agriculture into the curriculum of the schools has influenced\nthe whole system and is destined to influence it much more. The motor side is being\nemphasized in education. This reaches the motor type. The \"point of contact\" is\nprovided in just such work. The ultimate career, efficiency, and character of these types,\nthat might otherwise be lost to society, are things that cannot be estimated in their power\nfor good.\n\nIt is evident that if this fragment of a cross-section of the work and views\nof those interested in agriculture for the improvement of rural schools is at\nall representative, and I believe it is, altho the subject-matter varies much in\ndifferent localities, the chief element of success lies in its possibilities of making\nschool life part of the community life.\nIf the subject is to have a permanent and increasingly important place, it\nmust have the support of the community. Without eflficient teachers who are\nable to make the subject worth while such support cannot be secured. Nearly\nevery year the legislature of some state places agriculture upon the required\nlist of studies to be taught in the common schools. But reports from these\nstates are not particularly encouraging. Efficient teachers are not created\nthat way. This brings us to the most serious part of the whole problem.\nAs already' indicated the subject has proved itself.\n\nIt has done this over a\n\n"}
{"page": 1206, "printed_page": null, "text": "JJQ4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nvery wide geographical range. The question no longer concerns the subject\nitself but well-qualified teachers.\nThe agricultural colleges while making contributions in the way of literature arc not supplying teachers, even to high schools. Most of the normal\nschools are fitting teachers for city employment. Great numbers of our rural\nschool teachers are now being drawn from the graduates of small high schools.\nIt would seem then that the efforts of those who are interested in agricultural\neducation as it affects the rural-school problem should be centered on the\nsmall rural high schools, and to secure for them principals who are able not\nonly to direct agricultural instruction but who are capable of, and interested\nin, making the school serve the highest interests of the community.\nAs a further investigation of this subject an inquiry as to the source of\nsupply of rural high-school teachers, particularly of rural high-school principals, would be interesting and profitable. What training is being given to these\nteachers that may help them to adapt the work of a high school to the needs of\na particular environment ? Altho the discussion of this question is beyond\nthe limits of this paper I venture the suggestion that another static element\nwill be fouhd which is nearly, if not quite, as formidable as the attitude of the\nrural population itself.\nAfter all, the efforts toward the introduction of agriculture in our schools\nare part of a larger movement in education. What constitutes successful work\nis not determined by subject-matter, nor even dependent upon special training\nfor one class of teachers, but rather in the way it catches the spirit of this\ngreater movement which is trying to adjust our education to the needs of a\nprogressive civilization, a movement in which true culture is not regarded as\na vague ideal, but something that expresses itself in real service to humanity.\nDISCUSSION\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE NORMAL\nTO TEACH\n\nSCHOOL IN PREPARING\nAGRICULTURE\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCharles Evans, superintendent, City Schools. Ardmore, Okla. — It is altogether\nfitting that in this first gathering of the newest section of the National Education Association the first appearance of the newest state of America should be recognized:\nFirst, because of its native agricultural wealth. Stretching thru a little more than\nthree degrees of latitude, yet such is the splendid balance of Oklahoma's climate end\nthe diversity of its soil that she embraces products peculiar to three zones. She produces as much cotton of the South as North Carolina, as much of the wheat of the\nNorth as Michigan, and as much corn of the great Central Belt as Kentucky.\nSecond, because its active energies must lie in this field until the course of empire\nplaces the center of population and commerce closely about or upon the geographical\ncenter.\nThird, last, and most far reaching of all, because the founders of this new commonwealth have sent you here today not simply a message of good will but a declaration of\nsupport on this idea of agriculture. Here is an article of agricultural faith, taken from\ntheir twentieth-century constitution, called by some \"The Twentieth-Century Declaration of Rights, \" which says: \"The legislature shall provide for the teaching of the elements\n\n"}
{"page": 1207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUCCESSFUL\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1195\n\nof agriculture, horticulture, stock feeding, and domestic science in the common schools\nof the state.\"\nTruly in the light of such sincere offerings of her agricultural faith Oklahoma has a\nright to the respect of this worthy movement.\nIn stating Oklahoma's position on agricultural education, her way of reaching the\nquestion thru the schools to the teacher is fundamentally stated. It occurs to me\nthat in that constitutional convention must have been some man who was made to get,\nin his boyhood rhetorical sweat-shop, old Quintilian's Rule for Clearness. You remember it: \"So speak that one not only may understand, but that he must understand whether\nhe will or not.\" So when this constitution maker took hold of this agricultural clause he\nexclaimed, \"Oklahoma's blessings are mainly gifts of her fertile soil and salubrious air.\nTouched by untrained minds her hills and valleys now yield untold harvest. What the\ninfluence of science and soil-education upon her sons and daughters would be only the\nimagination could conjecture. But suggestion to legislatures will but be evaded. Providing fine institutions of learning will not suflSce. Ah, Quintilian's old rule at my elbow\n— Article 13, section 7 — the legislature shall provide for the teaching of the elements of\nagriculture, horticulture, stock feeding, and domestic science in the common schools of\nthe state. There, that reads so that the legislator, the state superintendent, the state\nnormals, and university, with the teacher of the public school, may not only understand,\nbut they must whether they will or not.\"\nUnder the inspiration of this article the first legislature of Oklahoma drafted some\nlaws on agricultural education that for their penetration and consolidation of the school\nmass on one great theme are without a parallel in the history of this nation or any nation,\nperhaps. Dr. J. H. Connell, president-elect of the State Agricultural and Mechanical\nCollege in conversation with a celebrated educator laid before him the agricultural laws\nas enacted by the recent legislature. This man with expressions of wonder said, \"No,\nConnell, you cannot make me believe that.\" \"Why?\" \"Because there never was a\nlegislature on earth that had enough sense to make such splendid laws as that.\"\nThe gist of this law is that agricultural education must go on in every institution under\nthe state. The strong departments which have been maintained in the normal schools\nheretofore will be strengthened, while in the Agricultural and Mechanical College it is\nchief, of course. Appropriations for five or more secondary schools of agriculture, to be\nplaced in such parts of the state as farm interests demand, were made. These will be\nclose links between community or school districts and state sections or state normal school\ndistricts, which closes the circuit completely from the one-room public schools up to the\nAgricultural and Mechanical College.\nNow, since there was a chance that all these agricultural stations should get selfcentered and absorbed and forget each other there was a demand for a. Man, a man who,\nby keen insight, and keener outsight, could dispatch to the various stations such messages\nas \"Wake up\" — \"Close up\" — \"Get right\" — \"I am coming to help.\" A man who knows\nagriculture and everybody knows that he knows. It is the best part of my answer to\nthe question toward which I am supposed to address myself when I say Oklahoma felt\ndeeply this question of how to make her state normals helpful, and answered it by creating\nthe office of supervisor of agricultural education. And may I not add further that in\nsearching for a man she found him in one whom you have honored and who has honored\nthis educational section by helping bring it into existence. Professor E E. Balcomb, of\nWeatherford, Okla.\nIt may seem that I have talked only of what my state is doing to prepare for this great\nwork and left the point of discussion untouched, but if I have localized and narrowed\nmy view it is to secure the power which comes and could only come irom the new and\nunparalleled position taken by that state. Let Oklahoma's three normals teach the\ngreat throng of teachers which comes annua ly to their doors the elements of agriculture\nin field and laboratory as the state demands;\n\nlet them be centers of farmers' annual insti-\n\n"}
{"page": 1208, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1 196\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\ntutes as they must be; let them articulate by press and bulletins with universities above\nand secondary and primary schools below, as they must; let them send out their professors of agriculture to lecture and hold institutes for counties, thereby placing in every\nsummer institute a representative normal man, as they must; let them be touched to duty\nand inspiration by the capable and vigilant supervisor of agricultural education of the\nstate as the law demands, and you have that breadth, that depth, that vital answer to the\nquestion, \"How can state normals assist in agricultural education,\" which a great western\nempire wonderful in its individuality can give and better still has given.\nII. THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\nW.\n\nL.\n\nNORMAL\nTO TEACH\n\nFRENCH,\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOL IN PREPARING\nAGRICULTURE\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPERU,\n\nTEACHERS\n\nNEBR.\n\nThe wording of the topic assumes it for granted that agriculture in some form should\nbe a positive and integral part of the subject-matter taught in our public schools. It also\nassumes that the reasons for such instruction are both obvious and sufficient.\nIt then becomes the privilege and the prerogative of the normal school to determine\nwhat that work shall consist of. This is true because of the relation the normal school\nsustains to the public schools in shaping their educational policies and in training the\nteachers for the public schools. It is the province of the normal school to select material\nfrom the wide and varied courses of our higher institutidns of learning and simplify,\nadapt, and disseminate it according to the peculiar needs of the children to be taught.\nAs the mother bird goes forth in search of food for her young, scrutinizing, rejecting,\nselecting, and, in the wisdom of motherhood, feeding her dependent ones, so must the\nnormal school scan the whole field of human endeavor and with all diligence and caution\nfind that which will best supply the needs of her charges and give it to them in the quantity\nand quality and manner best suited to their conditions.\nAgriculture as a science in the public schools is new and untried. I believe if it is\nproperly handled it can be shaped into a course that will lead to true teaching in all subjects instead of that stilted, stifled, mechanical routine which, by its hollow clattering,\nrings the death-knell to the interest and enthusiasm of our rural children for school work.\nIn order that we make no misfit in selecting what to teach, let us apply the tailor's\ntapeline to the minds and experiences of our country children. No hand-me-down course\nwill do here, for it will be used only under compulsion and be discarded at the earliest\nopportunity\nCall to mind the experiences of a family for a day on the farm. Out of bed at break\nof day ! To the chores — to breakfast — to the fields — each one to the work he can do the\nbest. It is a veritable hive of thrift and industry where there is \"something accomplished*\nsomething done,\" and each one feels that he has \"earned a night's repose.\" Already\nthe farmer has appropriated to himself many modern conveniences and is buoyant with\nhope for better things to come. He is ambitious for his children to have opportunities for\ndevelopment commensurate with the deserts of a happy, honest, hard-working people and\nnaturally looks to the public schools for help. But what do the children find on entering\nschool ? Their teacher is a stranger to them, perhaps, and, in many cases having been\nraised in town or in the city, is unfamiliar with the conditions of their home life. Even\nif she has at one time been one of them, she has received her training, education, and\ninspiration for teaching from sources entirely foreign to the country children. What\nsubject in the curriculum bears directly upon the interpretation and embellishment of\nmodern rural life ? What books tell the little farmer that his is a calling in life worthy of\nhis highest ambition and may be fraught with health, wealth, and happiness ? Instead,\nboth books and teacher have a tendency to spirit him away from the scenes of his infancy,\ninterest him in other lines of activity, and, by ignoring the conditions of his home life, lead\nhim to feel, by a negative process of teaching, that the place to achieve greatness is any-\n\n"}
{"page": 1209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nPREPARING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nOF\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1197\n\nwhere but on the farm. This is wrong. It is undoubtedly true that a people must\nfind in their own environment the material upon which to base their education. To go\nfrom the known to the related unknown is no new theory. To establish any other position\nthan the home and the farm as a common center upon which to turn the illuminating\nrays of educational principles is unnatural, distorting, and productive of great harm 10\nrural children.\nWhat then would be the most helpful and interesting line of educational development\nfor these boys and girls ? There can be but one answer. It should be such a line that will\nstart them to thinking of agricultural affairs. They should develop a trtste for agricultural\nstudy and investigation, a desire to know and read about and do things that pertain to the\nsuccess and welfare of their homes. Above all they should increase respect for their work\nand a pride in their calling. \"Then their pleasure in home work will be quickened;\nthe dreariness of dull farm labor will disappear, and the attractions of town and city life\nwill cease to lure — not because the latter becomes less attractive, but because the former\nbecomes more attractive.\"\nMany of our people must of necessity, if not from choice, follow agricultural pursuits\nfor a life-work. Why not then place before them knowledge of things with which they\ncome in daily and lifelong contact ? Illuminate and dignify the strenuous and too often\nirksome labor by teaching the applications of the natural laws and principles which underly\nsuccessful farm operations.\nIt is distressing to observe how foreign the instruction given in our common schools\nis to the lives of those who attend them. The textbooks tell of things the children's eyes\nhave never seen, and grotesque indeed are the mental images as they grind out their\ntasks in the abstract.\nAn incident or two will illustrate this. A class of three in arithmetic was assigned an\nadvanced lesson in stocks and bonds. Two were of foreign descent, and handled the\nEnglish language rather poorly. The next day the teacher asked: \"Mary, what is meant\nhere by stocks?\" Mary replied \"in all earnestness, \"Well, I think cornstalks.\" The\nmembers of that class have never yet had any personal knowledge of stocks or bonds\nbut we have all lived in most intimate and constant relations to cornstalks.\nMy father tells how he, in school, was compelled to stand crouched under a table\nuntil he learned by heart \"a future contingency is best expressed by the subjunctive\npresent, but a mere supposition assumed as a fact requires the indicative mode.\" What a\ndelightful inspiration that must have been to him all his life as he cared for his horses,\nfed his hogs, and worked in the field.\nWe would ask for a more rational order of things. Not that each school district\nshould own and operate a farm in connection with the school, maintain a herd of domestic\nanimals to illustrate the principles of stock-raising and dairying, or provide a garden or\norchard for the use of the public schools. This would be as absurd as the existing extreme.\nWe should, however, give such training as will enable the student to enter into a sympathetic\nunderstanding of the principles underlying these operations, and use for illustrations the\nvery things found on the farms and in the homes We should teach them the important\nfacts about soils — not chemistry, geology, or physics. We should teach them the important\nfacts about the plants of the farm and garden — not botany. We should teach them the\nimportant facts about the domestic animals, birds, and insects — not zoology.\nIt is the personality of these things that surround country life which the children\nneed to know. When we form a new acquaintance, we do not proceed in any anthropological order to determine what kind of a person he is. We note his actions, his conversation,\nhis likes and dislikes; we watch his performances when surrounded by these conditions\n— then those — his business traits, his social traits, and thus it is that we come to know\npeople. In just this way children should be led to know the things of their homes and\nsurroundings, and the only way to do it is to bring them into constant sympathetic visitation with the things that have an important bearing on their daily lives.\n\n"}
{"page": 1210, "printed_page": null, "text": "iiyS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nThe illustrative phase of this work is an absolute necessity. No teacher can succeed\nwithout it and there is no reason why she should not use it. The soil from the school\ngarden, the grains, the vegetables and flowers, the domestic animals on the near-by\nfarms, the birds, the insects — these are all about and are themselves the open book of\nnature without the use of which the class work falls short of the mark.\nTo make sure that I am understood on this point, let me call attention to one instance\nwhere the value of illustrative material was made clear, and this is a typical case. In the\nWest the conservation of moisture is an important topic and we lay great stress upon it\nin our classes. During my leave of absence, Professor Gregg, of the Department of\nBiology of the Nebraska State Normal at Peru, taught the agriculture. After having taught\nthe class in his inimitable way from the textbook how moisture is conserved by a soil\nmulch, he brought before them, a class of 138 students of average ability, this simple apparatus: Two pails, each filled with the same kind and amount of soil, were suspended upon\na balance. This soil was thoroly moistened, then allowed to form a crust on top. In\nthe presence of the class he stirred the surface of one pail and left the other untouched,\nand asked for a vote as to which pail would lose moisture the more rapidly. One hundred\nstudents voted that the pail which was stirred would lose its moisture the faster, and\nthirty-eight that the crusted pail would dry out first.\nWe believe it is entirely possible for the average teacher, having had a reasonable\namount of instruction, to grasp the meaning and intent of this line of work. When agriculture has received half the attention that is given to arithmetic, grammer, history,\nand geography, our teachers will be able to present this subject with even greater efficiency\nthan they teach these at present. Teach them a little more about plant roots and not\nso much cube root. Let them calculate the exchange of soil moisture and fertility for\nbountiful crop production and a little less of exchange of foreign currency. Let them\ncompute the partial payment that the unprofitable cow gives in return for her feed and\ncare instead of taking days to determine the exact number of cents due John Jones on that\nmiserable note that has been hanging fire for the last five years. Do this and the objective,\ntangible, first-hand material will so vitalize the country and village schools that they will no\nlonger mark time with dead motion and be an isolated operation foreign to the experiences\nof country people, but will be a center for intelligent constructive growth for good in the\ncommunity.\nThis work can be planned and organized by a few leaders, but the teachers of the\npublic school must be the* ministering servants to carry it to the minds and lives of the\nchildren. In Nebraska we have 20,000 boys raising corn for the international show, and\nthey need teachers who know enough about corn, not only to talk intelligently about\ncorn, but actually to assist them and give directions how to prepare ground, plant, tend,\nand select this corn. The teacher must believe in this work. She must learn it; she\nmust know how to plan it so that the children can understand and do it.\nSuch education will not destroy the appreciation of the farmer-boy for history, literature, mathematics, and the like. It will give him a relish for them. He will be as much\ndelighted as of old to learn how the \"cackling of geese saved Rome,\" and the cackling of\nthe hen also sends a thrill of joy thru his being as he thinks of another prospective prize\nbird for the next poultry show and how the books at the grocery show a balance to his\ncredit.\nHe will learn the story with as keen an appreciation as ever how the \"neighing of a\nhorse made Cyrus king,\" and as the nickering of his own faithful beasts greets him in\nthe early twilight of the crispy morning he will feel a bound of pride for this mark of appreciation for the balanced ration and proper care he now knows how to furnish.\n\"The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea.\" It did for Thomas Gray, but the\ncows do not cease to be an object of interest when they reach the barnyard gate. The\nfarmer-boy lets down the bars, houses and grooms them with a sympathetic hand, and\nas the rhythmic thuds resound from the milk-pail he whistles a merry tune in unison, and\n\n"}
{"page": 1211, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\nDepartment)\n\nNOTES\n\nON\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1199\n\nwonders whether Bessie, Boss, or Brin will win out in the friendly contest for pounds of\nrailk and percentage of butter fat.\nTo give such instruction that will enable the teacher to secure these results is the\nwork of the norma schools in training teachers to teach agriculture.\n\nSOME\nELMER\n\nNOTES\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nON AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBROWN,\nU. S. COMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON.\nD. C.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nI should like to recall a view or perhaps a sentiment — it is vague and\nelusive at best — which I can now recognize as one of the forces at work in the\nsociety in which my boyhood was passed. I think you will recognize it,\ntoo, as one with which you have long been familiar, tho it is not at all\ncertain that I shall be able to give any adequate account of it. I refer to\nthat spirit of loyalty to the humdrum, necessary work of life which sometimes shows itself in a half-wistful seeking for some sign or footprint of the\ngreater concerns of the world in these very common things of every day. It\nis some intimation that the great and important things are not all of them\nremote, but that if we could see more clearly we should find them hidden\naway, in some wise, among the plain facts of a routine life of toil.\nThis is a very imperfect putting of the case, but I can only trust that some\nof you will piece out my poor words from your own rich experience, will find\nthe things I speak of back in some unhackneyed corner of the brain, and will\nanswer to my indictment, \"Even so, it is so.\" I know that the thing was\npresent and very much alive in the half-consciousness of my boyhood, and\nI have found it cropping out in other lives. It is the spirit that rejoiced when\nWill Carleton found a mild and genial poetry in the familiar things of a\npoor life on the farm, and that has given a more enthusiastic welcome to the\nsubtler insights of James Whitcomb Riley. It felt the scientific honor, even\nmore than the prospect of a profitable sale, when a railroad survey party\ncrossed the farm, or when the state geologist inspected its outcropping of\nlimestone or its hint of petroleum or coal. It straightened up with new\ndignity when the granger movement gave promise not only of correcting\nburdensome discriminations, but of playing a part in state and national\nelections. It cut out from the magazine a woodcut of Millet's ''The Sower\"\nand pasted it on the wall, and it blessed the artist who could make men see\nthe majesty of a man's work in the field.\nTo find that our daily task joins on to the ideas which make the great\nworld of ideas — that is the discovery which many a boy and girl has made with\nthe joy of a great surprise, and many another boy and girl have longed for it\nwithout knowing what the hunger was, deep down in their uncorrupted souls.\nAnd just about as blindly and unconsciously our education has been groping\nafter this same unrealized end — to bring home to the plain day's work the\nideas that make our world of thought, to hitch our little wagon to a star. That\nis what the new movement in agricultural and industrial education, as I see\n\n"}
{"page": 1212, "printed_page": null, "text": "I200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nit is aiming at. And that is what makes this new movement not only a thing\nto be reckoned with theoretically and practically, but a thing which lays strong\nhold upon our very affections and emotions.\nI do not pretend to approach this subject with cold analysis, for it touches\nupon aspirations and sentiments which were very intimate to my own boy-life,\nand I am sure they belong to the innermost life of many a boy and girl of this\nlater day. That is to say, they belong to our common humanity: and whoever shall teach us how to educate from our thought-world into the work of\nHfe and from the work of Hfe into our world of thoughts and ideals again,\nwill satisfy one of the finest cravings of that common humanity. It is because\nI believe the choicest leaders of this new industrial-education movement are\ndoing this very thing, that I rejoice in their successes and find it hard to\ncriticize even when I think they are taking an unwise turn.\nThere can be no doubt of the possibility of doing good work in the way\nof agricultural instruction in schools of secondary grade. The success of the\nstate agricultural school of Minnesota has made this clear. The accounts of\npersonal visits to five other schools, by competent observers, presented by the\nCommittee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communities, while\nthey may moderate some of our more extravagant expectations, show clearly\nenough that promising beginnings have been made in widely scattered states.\nA practical education has been shown to be feasible in schools which train\nfor the farm and for the work of the home upon the farm. It has been proposed that agricultural education be employed as a specific means of keeping\nyoung people from leaving the farm and going to the city. I do not doubt\nthat it will have an influence in that direction, and we may earnestly hope that\nit may. But it is not good to have education turned too definitely to any other\nend than education. Let us give the young people of our rural communities\nthe best education that we can, and an education which utilizes the inherent\ninterest of their environment and gives them power over that environment.\nThis is about all we can legitimately do by way of educating them to stay upon\nthe farm, whatever their inborn aptitudes may be. But it is also one of the\nbest things we could possibly do to keep on the farm those who are suited to\nthe life of the farm and care for that life at its best.\nDiversity is still desirable in our American education — diversity of form,\nwith growing unanimity in standards. But this is to be a diversity within\nlimits. Under our system of educational administration, free variation is to\nbe cherished particularly as between the several states and unity is to be more\nparticularly sought within the state. I speak of unity within the state rather\nthan flat uniformity. Even here we must have a fair amount of free play\nfor variation. But we are to strengthen and build up in each of the states its\nown educational establishment, with all manner of help from the experience\nof other states, but with freedom to adopt what it will from their experience\nand freedom to experiment in directions that nowhere else have been explored\nto the end.\n\n"}
{"page": 1213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNOTES\n\nON\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1201\n\nSo I look with some misgiving on the proposal to give national aid to\nsecondary schools of agriculture of one predetermined kind for all the states.\nIn this I refer, of course, to the Davis bill. In itself the school proposed, or\nrather the -system of schools, presents a highly attractive and promising educational organization. But it may be doubted whether it is equally good for\nall of the states. For some states it might even prove to be so greatly at variance\nwith the existing educational establishment as to make an undesirable division\nor even opposition in the state's educational forces.\nOne thing may, however, be fairly and unhesitatingly conceded to the\nadvocates of this plan. A new type of school requires favorable conditions in\nwhich to establish clearly its difference from the prevaihng type. There is a\nreal danger that the new will be swallowed up in the old, soon losing its distinctive character and failing of its rightful influence. The new movement of\nindustrial education has something more to offer than merely a new subject\ntaught in the old way. It offers something of new method as well as new\nmaterials of instruction, and, what is still more important, a new attitude and\ndirection of effort, for both teacher and pupils. While we are waiting for\nnational aid, or wholly apart from the question of national aid, the free experiments which are making in the secondary schools of different states should\nseek and find the ways in which the new type of education can establish and\ndemonstrate its essential character.\nBut if we go too far in our emphasis upon differences we shall lose our hold\non unity. For many years we have had the teaching of trades in public schools.\nBut it was confined to schools of a penal character, and failed to make any\nimpress on our general education. It would be a misfortune and a disappointment ifthis new movement in industrial education should give us only educational curiosities, in the form of schools quite apart from our main educational\nsystems. Neither do we wish to see the vocational idea in education carry on\na fight to the finish with the idea of liberal culture, a fight which should leave\nvocational schools in full possession of the fields, with the few surviving\nschools of culture appearing in their turn as queer specimens in an archaeological museum. The finer purpose of the industrial-education movement, if I\nunderstand that movement correctly, is not to set up vocational training as\nover against our established training for citizenship. It is, instead, the purpose\nto bring all education into touch with life and with the actualities of ordinary\nexperience. This is not separation, secession, revolution. It is variation\nwithin unity and for the sake of a richer unity. It is a well-ordered and\nwholesome evolution.\nIn such a purpose as this the most of us, I am sure, can heartily join. But\nit will take some years of close study and free experiment to find the best ways\nto that end and get them all in order for common use. Any general forward\nmovement should be taken not only on the information brought in by scouting\nparties but with some fairly reliable chart of the field for our guidance. Or,\ndropping the metaphor, the whole country should not be bound to one form\n\n"}
{"page": 1214, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nI202\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nof agricultural education of secondary grade, till the situation has been adequately canvassed and the numerous elements which should have weight in\nsuch matters have been carefully evaluated.\nWHAT\nA. C. TRUE,\n\nIS AGRICULTURE— ELEMENTARY,\nAND COLLEGIATE?\n\nSECONDARY\n\nU.\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nS. OFFICE\n\nOF EXPERIMENT\nSTATIONS,\nAGRICULTURE DEFINED\n\nD.\n\nC.\n\nAgriculture may be defined briefly as the theory and practice of producing\nand utilizing plants and animals useful to man. It includes not only production in the narrow sense of that word, but also the theory and practice of soil\nmanagement; of utilizing agricultural products as food for man and domestic\nanimals, or as the raw materials for manufacture into butter, cheese, sugar,\ncanned goods, preserves, and the like; of the construction of farm roads,\ndrains, irrigating systems, water and sewage systems, buildings, implements,\nand machinery, and of such matters as employing labor, preparing articles for\nmarket, marketing, and keeping farm records and accounts. It includes not\nonly what is embraced in farming, but also horticulture and forestry. It is a\nbroad and complex subject, embracing both the art or practice of producing\nplants and animals and the theory or science upon which such production is\nbased.\nThe art of agriculture dates back to the time when primitive man first\nbegan to exercise dominion over the beasts of the field to aid him in his migrations or to furnish him food and clothing, to the time when he first discovered\nthat by saving some of the seeds of the plants he was fond of consuming and\nplanting them in the ground he could reproduce those plants in abundance.\nIt grew as he discovered that thru forethought and care and labor on his\npart he could make the animals and the plants minister more and more to his\npleasure and well-being. Gradually he subdued more lands, improved the\nplants he was cultivating and selected others for his use, devised new implements to make his labor more productive or to enable him to shift more of his\nburden upon the animals that served him, and finally developed something of\na system of agricultural practice — the art of agriculture.\nBut this ancestor of ours, the husbandman and shepherd of ancient history,\nknew nothing of the reasons for the improvement in his plants and animals,\nnothing of the underlying principles of his art. He belonged not among the\nwise men of his day; his not to ask the reason why. It remained for the\nLiebigs, the Boussingaults, and the Gilberts of a later day, men called scientists, tolay the foundations upon which the science of agriculture should be\nerected. These men and their associates and followers— chemists, botanists,\nphysicists, physiologists, bacteriologists— conducted fundamental researches,\nsome of which designedly and some incidentally were concerned with the\nmaterials and processes of agriculture. Thus these seekers after truth in\nnature and the investigators connected with modern institutions, known as\n\n"}
{"page": 1215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nWHAT\n\nIS AGRICULTURE?\n\n1203\n\ndepartments of agriculture and agricultural experiment stations, have accumulated a great fund of knowledge concerning the physical and biological laws\nof nature, which is gradually being sorted and classified and organized into a\nscience of agriculture. The process is not complete, the science of agriculture\nis not clearly defined and fixed — neither is botany nor chemistry or any other\nscience. But there has been organized a sufficient body of teachable knowledge concerning the underlying principles of agriculture to warrant our calling\nit the science of agriculture. The process has gone far enough to enable us\nto distinguish between the art of agriculture, which is concerned with the\npractice of producing and utilizing cultivated plants and domestic animals,\nand the science of agriculture, which may be defined as that body of knowledge\n(gained and verified by exact observation and correct thinking, methodically\nformulated and arranged in a rational system) in which the facts relating to\nthe production of plants and animals useful to man and the uses of these plants\nand animals are accurately set forth, and a rational explanation is given of the\nphenomena and laws involved in such production and uses.\nWe may draw a very reasonable analogy between the science of agriculture\nand the science of medicine. Both have been profoundly affected by recent\nresearches in other sciences and are in process of reconstruction and development. Both use materials drawn from many sciences, and these materials are\ngrouped in new and special ways with reference to their ultimate usefulness as\na basis for an art or practice. This practice is clearly differentiated from the\nscience and yet indissolubly united with it. In the case of both agriculture\nand medicine the science is now, as we believe, on a sound basis and rapidly\ndeveloping along right lines, and the practice is every year being more profoundly and beneficially affected by the science explaining the principles upon\nwhich its processes are founded and revealing the facts and laws by means\nof which its operations may be further improved.\nThe fact that there is an art of agriculture, and that this art in its cruder\nforms involves comparatively simple operations in no way militates against the\nneed and feasibility of our having and teaching a science of agriculture. We\nreadily grant that many of the operations of agriculture may be performed\nby persons ignorant of the science, but it is already evident that a right\nknowledge of the science may be very helpful in the practice of the art. It\nis also becoming apparent that the teaching of chemistry, botany, and zoology,\neven on their economic sides, is not enough to satisfy the demands of agriculture. There must be teaching of the science of agriculture as such, from the\ncollege down.\nTHE\n\nFEASIBILITY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\nAGRICULTURE IN\nSECONDARY\nSCHOOLS\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nHaving defined agriculture as an art and a science, it remains for us to\nconsider what it is feasible and desirable to teach under the name of agriculture in schools of different grades.\nThe rapid development of the science of agriculture and the widening of\n\n"}
{"page": 1216, "printed_page": null, "text": "J204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nits boundaries have led to apprehension that failure is likely to result from\nattempts to teach the subject in the schools of primary and secondary grades\nwhich are attended by the great body of our young people in agricultural\ncommunities, who from the necessities of their condition and environment are\nunable to attend colleges of agriculture. On the contrary, every step in the\nmore definite definition of the science of agriculture and in the development of\nthe pedagogics of the subject has resulted in the multiplication of textbooks,\npamphlets, and other printed material designed for use in teaching agriculture\nin elementary and secondary schools. And the demand that agriculture shall\nbe taught in such schools has more than kept pace with the preparation of\nsuitable material.\nAs to the feasibility of using this material in the lower schools we may\nagain resort to analogy between such a large term as agriculture and such\ncomprehensive terms as mathematics and language. It would of course be\nabsurd for anybody to hold that because mathematics is such a large subject\nas a whole we should not teach any of it in elementary schools, and yet this is\nthe position some people seem to take with reference to agriculture.\nThe proper thing of course in such a subject as mathematics is to begin\nwith a few simple topics, selected out of the vast mass of material, and then to\nincrease the range and difficulty of the topics as we rise in grade of school.\nWe teach simple arithmetic in the elementary school, alegbra and geometry\nin the high school, calculus in the college. We can follow somewhat the same\nplan with reference to agriculture.\nOn the other hand, while we teach some mathematics and its application\nin the elementary school, we do not attempt to make these practical applications cover a very wide range. It will be absurd to expect children in the\nelementary school to have practice in the complicated arithmetic required in\nbanking, insurance, or surveying. They can, however, learn to keep simple\naccounts. In a similar way the practicums connected with agriculture in the\nelementary school will deal vrith the simple practices of agriculture and not\nwith the subject as a whole in its more complicated aspects.\nWHAT OF AGRICULTURE SHOULD BE TAUGHT IN SCHOOLS OF\nDIFFERENT GRADES\n\nThe Elementary School and Small Rural High School Where Sciences\nAre not Taught\nIn rural elementary schools with courses of study extending over eight\nyears, we believe that elementary agriculture should be taught in the seventh\nand eighth years. As a preparation for this work during the first six years of\nthe course the pupils should engage in nature-study work deaHng largely\nwith the common things of the farm and home, the roadside, and the school\nwith a view of developing the powers of observation and stimulating a lively\ninterest in the phenomena of nature and the operation of nature's laws.\nWith such preparation pupils of the seventh grade will welcome the more\nsystematic teaching of carefully selected and properly graded topics direcdy\n\n"}
{"page": 1217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nWHAT\n\nIS AGRICULTURE?\n\n1205\n\nrelating to agriculture. The basis for this work may well be an elementary\ntextbook of agriculture, the subject-matter of which may be mastered in two\nyears. Considerable supplementary literature, such as some of the Farmers'\nBulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and some of the bulletins ofthe state agricultural experiment stations, may also be used. Such literature should be liberally supphed in the schoolroom, as should also other agricultural textbooks and manuals, encyclopaedias, and agricultural journals, not\nalone that the pupils may store their minds with information, but that they\nmay become familiar with the sources of reliable information concerning the\nproblems of the farmer's business, and learn how to secure and use this information.\nThe oral work of the classroom should also be supplemented in many ways.\nThe literature of agriculture should never divorce the pupil from actual and\nsympathetic contact with the materials of agriculture. There should be simple\nlaboratory exercises with soils and plants, some practice in identifying types\nof farm animals and in caring for these animals at home, and home-gardening\nor field-crop work involving some consideration of the selection and testing\nof seeds, methods and principles of culture, comparison of yields, and the\nutilization of products. How such exercises may be systematically worked\nout for primary schools is illustrated in Bulletin 186 of the OflSce of Experiment\nStations. The time to be devoted to agriculture will necessarily vary in different schools, but it is believed that on the average not less than one hour a week\nduring the seventh and eighth years will be required to make the class work\nand the supplementary exercises effective.\nThe chief aim of the teacher of nature-study and agriculture in the elementary school should be to create in the child a love of nature and country\nlife, and to open his mind to the opportunities for pleasing and profitable study\nthruout his life to be found in the things and operations connected with\nagriculture. For this purpose, clearness and simplicity are essential.\nThe Non-technical High School\nIn the noh-technicai secondary schools where agriculture is taught we\nbelieve not only that the instruction in agriculture should be of higher grade\nthan that in the elementary schools but also that it should involve some knowledge on the part of the pupils of the principles of botany, chemistry and physics.\nAgriculture should now include some study of the morphology and physiology\nof cultivated plants, the influences of heredity and environment upon them,\nsoils and other physical and biological agencies in their relations to crop\nproduction, breeds of animals, the principles of feeding and the compounding of rations, the care and handling of milk and its products, diseases and\ninsect pests and how to combat them, farm machinery, farm records, and\nother like topics.\nThe laboratory exercises and field-work of the secondary school should be\nmore complex than in the primary school and should deal more with the\nunderlying principles of agriculture, more with the science of agriculture.\n\n"}
{"page": 1218, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nGreater attention should be paid to arranging field trips and excursions to\nneighboring farms, dairies, creameries, etc., and to giving the students problems to work out in the orchards, fields, and barns at home. Special attention\nshould be given to the forms of agriculture predominant in the region of the\nschool. And the teacher should ever keep in mind that the object of this\nsecondary work is to aid directly in making intelligent and progressive farmers\nand horticulturists, not theorists and amateurs but practical and successful\nworkers. As a rule one teacher will have to direct all of the agricultural work\nof such schools.\nThe character of the agricultural instruction suited to high schools is\nillustrated in the eleventh report of the Committee on Instruction in Agriculture of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment\nStations, which has been published as Circular yj of the Ofiice of Experiment\nStations,\nThe Technical Agricultural High School\nIn the technical agricultural high schools as they exist today the instruction in agriculture is more highly specialized than in non-technical high\nschools, and the technical schools have the further advantage of a good equipment in laboratories, fields, barns, and other conveniences, and usually a corps\nof agricultural teachers, each a specialist in some phase of the subject. In these\ninstitutions there is an opportunity to teach not only the principles of the science\nof agriculture but also much of the practice. The students have opportunity\nunder expert guidance to acquire some skill in judging and feeding live stock,\nin operating the dairy and the creamery, in handling improved farm machinery,\nand in the other work of a modern, well-equipped farm. These schools should\nbe held rigidly to the aim of producing intelligent and successful workers in\nsome branch of practical agriculture, but their courses may at the same time\nlay a sound foundation for the work of the agricultural college.\nThe Agricultural College\nThe work of the agricultural college is still more advanced, more scientific.\nAdvanced botany, chemistry, physics, zoology, entomology, and bacteriology\nare taught, and the science of agriculture is emphasized more than the art.\nUsually a previous knowledge of farming operations is assumed, and the time\nof the students is devoted to acquiring a thoro knowledge of the broad\nunderlying principles of agriculture. They have opportunities to familiarize\nthemselves with the research work of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the agricultural experiment stations connected with the colleges\nof agriculture, with the history of agriculture and the great agricultural\nproblems of the day, with the business of agriculture in its relations to manufacturing, commerce, and other business operations, and with the social\nproblems of rural communities.\nThe business of the agricultural college is to train the leaders in agricultural progress— the teachers, investigators, journalists, state and federal\nofficers engaged in promoting agriculture, and the managers of large enter-\n\n"}
{"page": 1219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS AGRICULTURE?\n\nI207\n\nprises and special agricultural industries. The agricultural college faculties\nand courses should be organized on a comprehensive and thoro plan, and\nthe students, during a part of their undergraduate course, and in all of their\ngraduate courses, should have as ample opportunity for specialization and the\nthoro mastery of the subjects to which they expect to devote their lives as is\ngiven in other scientific and industrial subjects with which the college and the\nuniversity deal.\nSUMMARY\n\nSummarizing briefly, we have attempted in the foregoing discussion to\ndefine agriculture as an art and a science, to show that there is a teachable\nbody of knowledge concerning the principles of agriculture, and to point out\nthe possibiHties and limitations of the subject in schools of different grades.\nWe believe that it is desirable, and will soon be practicable, to teach agriculture in all schools attended by children residing in rural communities, but\nthat much care should be exercised in selecting the materials for study in the\ndifferent grades of schools.\nWe would confine the agricultural instruction in the elementary schools\nto the simpler facts and principles relating to the production and use of plants\nand animals useful to man, insist that the students of agriculture in secondary\nschools have some knowledge of science in its relations to the practice of\nagriculture, emphasize the practical side of agriculture in technical agricultural\nhigh schools, and bear heavily upon the training of agricultural college students\nin the primary physical and biological sciences, as well as in the science of\nagriculture, the relations of agriculture to the manufacturing and carrying\nbusiness of the world, and the efficient and satisfactory social organization of\nrural communities.\nDISCUSSION\nC. F. CuRTiss, dean of Division of Agriculture, Iowa State College. — The demand\nthat agriculture be taught in the public schools is generally recognized. It is of recent\norigin. It is popular and permanent. Its success in the curriculum of the colleges is\nfully established. Greater progress has been made in teaching agriculture in the colleges\nand in the elementary schools than in the secondary schools. This is natural but illogical.\nA system built strongly at the top and bottom, but weak in the middle, is defective.\nWith a symmetrical development, the secondary schools will afford the widest field\nand the opportunity for greatest usefulness in agricultural education. But a small percentage of the population of any country can ever attend college. The most significant\nmovement of the twentieth century is the demand for higher education. This demand\ncannot be met by the colleges alone, however eflQcient and numerous they may become.\nThe high schools and secondary schools are destined to occupy a larger place in our\neducational system. Their curriculum will be broadened to include agriculture and other\ntechnical work. The time has already come for a differentiation of courses. Comparatively asmall percentage of the high-school graduates ever attend college, but there\nshould be less overlapping and duplication of work for the high-school graduate who\nwishes to take up a college course. He should have different training in his last year, at\nleast, from the student whose education stops at the high school! He should, under a\nproper system, have more credit on entering college than he now gets from his high-school\n\n"}
{"page": 1220, "printed_page": null, "text": "^2^g\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Ruial\n\ncourse. The agriculture introduced in the secondary schools should meet the requirements for technical training of the student whose schooling stops there, and it should also\narticulate with the college course.\nAgricultural instruction should begin with nature-study. Nature-study is not properly\nstudy in the initial stages. It is observation; it is seeing; it leads to thinking, to reasoning, to comprehension of principles. It then becomes study and may be classed as\nelementary instruction in agriculture.\nInstruction in agriculture, whether elementary, secondary, or collegiate, must be real\nand not perfunctory. It must deal with living objects and things, and not mere theory.\nIt must reach the spirit of the farm and modern country life. It is more difficult to teach\nagriculture successfully in the elementary and secondary schools than in the colleges.\nIts introduction there must not await the coming of the textbooks— even good textbooks.\nAt the outset textbooks are likely to hinder rather than help the progress of agriculture\nin the elementary schools. The land-grant colleges made a virtual failure for the first\ntwenty-five years of their existence in their efforts to teach agriculture, largely because\nthey adhered too closely to the textbook method.\nThe great problem is teachers. The colleges have no more difficult or important\ntask before them today than the training of teachers for instruction in agriculture in the\nelementary and secondary schools. The colleges must train teachers for the secondary\nschools in agriculture, and they in turn may be of great assistance in training teachers for\nother secondary schools and for the elementary schools.\nI have no fear of the separate agricultural high schools. No valid argument can be\nurged against them that could not be, and was not, used against establishing the landgrant colleges. They will not create peasants in America. On the contrary they will\nestablish higher standards of American farm life, and higher ideals of citizenship. I think\nit is unwarranted and unjust to charge that similar schools have peasantized Europe.\nPeasantry exists there in spite of such schools and not as a result of them. The peasantry\nof Europe does not reach the agricultural high school; if it did it would cease to be peasantry.\nThe secondary technical schools of Germany train the landholders and proprietors of\nagricultural estates, who constitute the real aristocracy of Europe, as they are destined\nto in America.\nNotwithstanding this view, however, I believe that the village and city high schools\nwill eventually constitute the chief agency for furnishing secondary instruction in agriculture. The separate agricultural high schools can never be numerous enough to meet\nin any adequate degree the demands for this kind of instruction. They will not displace\nagriculture in the village and city high schools. They will serve to strengthen and sustain\nit. Such schools must not be mere trade schools. They should train men and women\nfor life and citizenship, as well as for the great industries. The village and city schools\nshould serve a similar purpose. They will not succeed in teaching agriculture by endeavoring to instill mere principles and theories, or even the science of agriculture. They\nmust plant their feet firmly on the soil and get into actual contact with things agricultural,\nand point out .the real relation between the science and the art of agriculture. This has\nbeen conclusively demonstrated in the land-grant colleges. It will be even more essential\nin giving successful instruction in elementary agriculture. This can be done by access to\nfields and gardens; to laboratories and live stock. The initial problem is to secure the\nteacher with the right spirit and training, and with a genius and enthusiasm for the presentation ofthis subject. Suitable equipment and facilities may be expensive and difficult to obtain, but they are essential, and they will follow quickly when once the right kind\nof teachers is secured. A strong teacher in this field will find a way to get equipment\nfor teaching the work successfully.\nAn indifferent teacher will fail with any equipment.\nThe danger at the outset lies in undertaking too much and making it too intricate,\nparticularly in the elementary schools. Doctor True has very properly emphasized the\nimportance of limiting the elementary work to simple and clear demonstrations and prin-\n\n"}
{"page": 1221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENING\n\nIN CLEVELAND\n\n1209\n\nciples. The simple lessons clearly presented will lead up logically to the more technical\nwork, and our system of agricultural education will eventually be built from the bottom\nup instead of from the top down.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENING\n\nCHARLES\n\nORR,\n\nAS CONDUCTED\nSCHOOLS\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nIN CLEVELAND\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nOHIO\n\nThat elementary agriculture and school gardens should have had so small\na place in our public schools has been a source of some wonder to many students\nof our educational system, both at home and abroad. We do not of course,\nas a people, underrate the importance of agriculture in our economic system,\nas is evidenced in the enormous annual expenditures of our national and state\ngovernments to disseminate information as to agricultural matters direct to\nthe people. Indeed, no country in the world compares with our own in the\nnumber of printed pages issued annually at government expense with reference\nto these subjects. Many of the states support agricultural colleges and schools,\nand a bill now pending in Congress provides for an annual appropriation in\naid of agricultural education in all secondary schools. There are signs, too,\nthat the indifference of local school boards to the fact that much can be done\nwith agriculture even in our city schools is passing away.\nA survey of the present development of school gardens in Europe, in Canada,\nand in the United States may be found in a bulletin by James Ralph Jewell,\nissued by the Department of Agriculture ; and information is to be found in\nother bulletins and circulars of the department and similar sources easily\navailable.\nA few of you may not know that the countries of Europe have long recognized the value of the school garden as a factor in the education of the child.\nIn France instruction in agriculture in primary and elementary rural schools\nis obligatory. Four thousand of these schools have gardens attached to them,\nand in 160 primary schools more than 15,000 children receive instruction in\nagriculture. This instruction, which is for boys and girls between thirteen\nand sixteen years of age, includes practical ideas about vegetation ; the duration\nof growth and reproduction (by seeds, buds, grafts) ; different kinds of land,\nfertihzers and their use, and rotation; the use of agricultural implements and\nmachines; principal operations in agriculture, such as breaking up land,\nplanting, transplanting, drainage, and irrigation; principal crops of France\nand of the locality; diseases of plants, parasites; legumes, fruits, flowers;\nuse of sash; training and pruning fruit trees; care of domestic animals; and\nbee culture.\nThe aims of this instruction as defined by the minister of agriculture are to\ngive the greatest number of country children that degree of elementary knowledge which is essential to enable them to read a modern book on agriculture or\nattend an agricultural meeting with profit, and to inspire them with a love\nof country life, so that they may prefer it to that of towns and factories. In\n\n"}
{"page": 1222, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntRural\n\norder to supply teachers with an adequate knowledge of the principles of\nagriculture, a course of agriculture is taught in all normal schools for men.\nIn Italy the establishment of school gardens in connection with elementary\nschools, both rural and city, is also compulsory. Austria-Hungary now has\nsome twenty thousand school gardens under compulsory provision. Germany\nhas many thousand, tho they are not as yet an organic part of the school\nsystem. The school laws of Belgium, Sweden, and Switzerland all provide\nfor compulsory instruction in agriculture and for school gardens, and even\nRussia, which we think of as lacking in progress, has established these gardens\nto the number of over eight thousand.\nBut while the schools of the United States have lagged far behind those of\nEuropean countries in this agricultural education, there is an awakening\neverywhere to the opportunity. It happens that in Cleveland conditions have\nbeen favorable for a start in the development of a system of school gardens,\nwhich, as is hoped by its promoters, may at least help to point the way.\nAs in many things now generally accepted as a legitimate part of school\nwork, school gardens in Cleveland received their impulse from the outside.\nThe Home Gardening Association, founded in 1900 to encourage gardening\nin the immediate neighborhood of Goodrich House, rapidly extended its field\nof work and influence to include the whole city. From the first it had the\nhearty cooperation of the school authorities, and thru the agency of the\nschools about 250,000 packets of flower and vegetable seeds, at a penny a packet,\nand many thousand bulbs are annually distributed. In 1904 the association\nemployed a director and paid the cost of four gardens. The success of these\ngardens and the interest they aroused induced the Board of Education to\ncreate the position of curator of school gardens, believed to be the first position\nof the kind in a city system in the United States. The director of schools\nappointed to this position Miss Louise Klein Miller. The duties of the\nposition include also the beautifying of school grounds, care of a botanical\nand propagating garden and lectures in the public schools on home gardening.\nThe success of all branches of this work is notable and is due of course largely\nto her ability, interest, and enthusiasm.\nIt is granted that the city school garden must fulfill a mission somewhat\ndifferent from that of the rural or town school. It may, for instance, be\nthe only opportunity the city child will have to observe the processes of nature,\nwhich are quite familiar to the country child. Instances of awakened interest\nin the wonderful things of nature thru contact with our gardens are matters\nof daily experience. From a love and care for the things of nature the child\nrises to a deeper love and respect for his comrades, and thru that again to\nthe love of the Creator of all things.\nCleveland, Hke other large cities of the Middle West, has attracted many\nfamilies whose ancestors were well rooted in the soil and who thru our\nchanged industrial conditions have been forced into an unnatural environment.\nThe sons of these fathers feel perhaps an unconscious but almost irresistible\n\n"}
{"page": 1223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENING\n\nIN CLEVELAND\n\n12 1 1\n\ndesire to get back to the soil. The school garden opens up an opportunity\nwithout which the boy might be doomed to spend his days in employment in\nthe shop or store, in work for which he is by nature unsuited. This possibility\nis one of the most hopeful of many which the city school-garden has revealed.\nSchool gardens as now organized in Cleveland include:\nFirst, gardens for the normal child, as at Warren, Doan and Rosedale.\nSecond, gardens for defective or backward children, as at Outhwaite, Fowler, Oakland, and Orchard.\nThird, a garden for the delinquents at the Boys' and Detention School.\nFourth, kitchen garden in connection with the cooking-school for the elementary\ngrades, conducted at Oakland School, one of several centers for elementary manualtraining work in the city.\n\nThese four types are intended to illustrate the possibilities of school-garden\nwork in a city-school system. It is hoped to develop them indefinitely, depending of course upon the funds available. It was found this year to be desirable\nto reduce the number of gardens for normal children from eight to three, in\norder to increase the number for defectives, and to organize the other work\nas outlined.\nIt should be understood that our school-garden work is not as yet a part\nof the school curriculum, being entirely voluntary upon the part of the child,\nand done outside of school hours. Normal children of the fifth, sixth, seventh,\nand eighth grades, both boys and girls, make application for gardens upon a\nblank, reading as follows;\n\"I desire a garden in the\nschool garden and agree to be punctual and regular\nin attendance and efficient in my work.\"\n\nThe assignment having been made, a superintendent and head gardener\nare selected.\nThe head gardener is responsible to the superintendent, who in turn reports\nto the curator. The beds vary in size — depending on the space available and\nthe number of gardens — from 5X10 feet to 16X20 feet. The laying-out of\nthe gardens and walks is a matter of careful consideration. A plan is drawn\nup and measurements taken, the whole process being a practical application of\narithmetic. The general plan of planting is discussed, and an effort is made\nto impress the child as to his responsibility, not only for the care of his own\nplot, but to the community, as represented by the garden as a whole, and also\nto the head gardener and superintendent. An incident will illustrate the\npossibilities in the teaching of citizenship and obedience to authority. In one\nof the gardens the head gardener, a younger and rather small boy, directed an\nolder boy to perform some task. The older boy refused, saying, \"I won't\nbe bossed by a kid.\" The matter was referred to the curator, who called all\nthe gardeners together and discussed with them the relation of employer and\nemployed, superintendent and workman, the state and the citizen. The\nrebellious gardener returned to his work feeling that he was not humiliated by\nbeing bossed by a classmate, but rather that he was dignified by executing the\ncommands of a superior.\n\n"}
{"page": 1224, "printed_page": null, "text": "J 2 12\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\nThe soil having been prepared and the seeds duly planted, there is a waiting\nperiod until the plants appear, which is occupied in preparing the walks, or\nwork among the perennials in the border, or in watering the beds. The finding\nof an earth-worm arouses a discussion as to use of the worm in Nature — what\nbecomes of them in winter, etc. The properties of soils and the effect of water\nand sunshine, the measure of time as shown by the garden sun-dial, and many\nthings the city child is curious to know, are talked over from day to day. The\nchild's whole heart and soul are soon in his work, and as the garden grows, and\nthe weeds come on, no task is too much for him, for so does \"the labour we\ndelight in physic pain.\"\nA sense of ownership is encouraged by permitting the gardener to take home\nthe product of his labor. A careful record is kept by each child of the date\nof planting and gathering and the number of each vegetable raised. Order,\npunctuality, and industry are insisted upon as cardinal principles to be observed\nby all successful gardeners.\nThe method pursued in gardens for defectives is necessarily somewhat\ndifferent. These were conducted at five schools in the present year with\nninety-seven individual gardens. Practically all the defective children at\nthese schools take part in the work. Those unable to plant seeds or to measure\nwalks and beds took delight in keeping the paths free from weeds and rubbish.\nThe mentally deficient derived much profit from the work. The physically\nweak were benefited by continuous exercise in the open air and sunshine.\nAs a result of our experience it is confidently believed that the school garden\nfor the defective child has a distinct mission, not only as being helpful in\nrestoring it to a more normal condition of mind and body, but as opening up a\nway to an occupation in life.\nThe garden for delinquents begun this year is attached to the truant and\ndetention school. Only a small beginning has been made as yet, but the\nresults obtained encourage us to think that much may be done in another year.\nThe method is similar to that in the gardens for defectives. We find the boys\nat this school eager to take up the work and some who are confirmed truants\nhave come to love the garden. We regret that conditions will not permit these\nboys to remain at school during the summer vacation.\nThe kitchen garden at Oakland is the only one of its type yet opened in\nCleveland. It is of special interest in view of the widespread development of\ncooking and domestic training in elementary and high schools. The garden\nis located immediately outside the door of the cooking-school and is planted\nwith such vegetables as are commonly used on the table, and also some of the\ngram foods, and flax, hemp and other fibrous plants from which textiles are\nmade.\n\nThe planting this year was done by a regular gardener, but the children\ntook great interest in the work and it is hoped next year to perfect a plan by\nwhich they may sow, plant, and cultivate every vegetable they are likely to\nrequire for their work or lesson. It will be seen that this kind of garden-\n\n"}
{"page": 1225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nCAPITAL\n\n12 13\n\ning enables girls to understand the plants which form our chief daily\nfood.\nAs has been suggested by one who has given much study to this form of\ngarden, it awakens in these girls a newer and deeper interest in things that have\nheretofore had only a market value; and those who acquire such a practical\nknowledge of gardening during school Hfe will readily see in later hfe, if they\npossess only ever so small a garden, a means whereby a little saving to the\nfamily purse may be effected and the household continually supplied with\nfresh home-grown vegetables.\nIt would not be possible in the space allotted to give more than an outline\nof the work attempted. I hope by means of the discussion, and some slides\nwe have prepared, to illustrate more fully what we are doing. During the\npresent season we conducted three hundred twenty-four gardens at nine\nschools, embracing the various types mentioned. We feel that we may properly\nclaim that the whole represents a system of school gardens. As has been stated\nthey are not as yet a part of the school curriculum, but their promoters are\nhopeful that they may be in the near future.\nDEVELOPMENT\nSUSAN\n\nOF SCHOOL GARDENS\nCAPITAL\n\nB. SIPE, DEPARTMENT\n\nOF BOTANY,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.\n\nAT THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNO. I\n\nC.\n\nSchoolground decoration, home gardens, and community gardens of individual plots for the teaching of agriculture and horticulture are the lines along\nwhich gardening has developed in the public schools of the District of Columbia.\nAs teachers we had no civic conscience until 1903. As a part of the general\neducational awakening we realized the value of attractive surroundings and\nthat our immediate school surroundings were not a credit to the capital. No\ngrass, trees, shrubs, nor flowers were growing anywhere except at one suburban\nschool ; so little had we noticed the matter that new buildings were occupied\noften months, occasionally a couple of years, before the grounds were graded.\nCongress states definitely how school funds shall be spent and as there was\nno appropriation for gardens, the authorities were powerless to help. Teachers\nand children undertook the work at first strictly from the desire to make a\nmore beautiful city. The children hauled the soil from every available space ;\ntools were brought from home; shrubbery was donated; one school protected its newly made lawn by a broomstick fence. Time now is beginning\nto show results. They have the earmarks of the amateur, but their success\nwas sufficient to have Congress make a definite appropriation for gardens last\nyear and to increase that appropriation this year.\nOf what value is it ? The influence on the homes is worth the effort we\nhave made. Children, thru their desire to imitate, are sure to do at home\nwhat thev do at school. So the Board of Education encouraged this natural\n\n"}
{"page": 1226, "printed_page": null, "text": "1214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Rural\n\ninstinct by making it easy for the children to procure seed. A local seedsman\nwas allowed to take orders from the children for seeds at a cent a package.\nThis privilege has been granted for four years, the sale increasing markedly\nthis year. It is about two and a half times larger than the first year. Some of\nthe home gardens have brought in a financial profit, but their best results are\nthe closer and more harmonious relations they bring about between home and\nschool. Many of the teachers have visited the home gardens. At most of the\nschools the children bring their products to the teachers on an assigned day in\nthe fall. Parents come to see the results, and naturally, relations are pleasanter\nthan if complaints caused the visiting.\nWe use the garden also as a means to reduce flower thefts and vandaHsm.\nFrom it we preach the doctrine of ownership. Each child is permitted to\nspend a cent for a bulb to be planted in the school garden in the fall. The\nteachers impress the children with the facts that they own the bulbs and that\nthey are making the world more beautiful for themselves, the neighborhood,\nand passers-by. They must as owners protect their property, remembering\nat the same time that their neighbors are also owners and lovers of their own\ngardens. Some remarkable changes have been made from this teaching,\nparticularly among the foreign children. It is a teaching, however, that must\nbe kept constantly before children.\nHon. James Wilson, secretary of agriculture, urges the necessity of courses\nin agriculture and horticulture in normal schools that we may have teachers\nnot ignorant of the subject. Acting upon the advice of Dr. B. T. Galloway,\nchief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Secretary Wilson offered to each of the\ntwo normal schools of the city a greenhouse where work vastly different from the\nold form of botany might be carried on. Later he offered land for a garden\nwhere normal students might conduct practice classes. This land is a part of\nthe park system and was a beautiful stretch of lawn. The growth of children\nwas of more importance to the secretary than the growth of grass. This garden\nhas attracted widespread attention so I shall not describe it here. The boys\nwho have individual plots in it are mostly from the sixth grade. It is a form\nof industrial training for them. They report for the lessons in classes varying\nin size from fifteen to fifty, once a week during the spring and fall. During\nthe winter a series of lessons is given in the schoolrooms on soils, the needs\nof plant life, germination, etc. These lessons are wholly experimental in\nnature, the children setting up all of the apparatus and performing the experiments. During vacation the work is volunteer, and girls as well as boys enter\nthe classes. Seven other gardens of this nature have been established thru\nthe city. One of the most interesting ones is in an ordinary city back yard.\nThe ash pile was removed from the yard, the ground fertihzed. A class of\neighteen sixth-grade boys were given small plots. They raised $35 worth of\nvegetables there last season. In all eight hundred children are being taught\nto be producers during the vacation.\nOne of the best results of the garden work is the practical tendency it is\n\n"}
{"page": 1227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nCAPITAL\n\n1215\n\ngiving nature-study work. At first the planting of the garden seemed to be\nthe end. Now it is becoming a means to an end. Nature-study lessons\nwhere possible are given in the garden. Arithmetic is given a practical application. Material for drawing, language, composition are furnished. Teachers\nneed to be taught how to use the garden.\nA legitimate part of school work is to teach how to enjoy the leisure moments of life. The love for flowers, trees, birds, the outdoors, fostered in\nchildhood, will make new joys in vacation in manhood. It falls to the school\nto give such teaching. The present generation of parents, and, I regret to\nsay, much of the present generation of teachers, have yet to learn to derive\npleasure and appreciation from the simple things of life. To illustrate: The\ntrees of the capital are the pride of Washingtonians. Monuments and public\nbuildings are not to be compared with them. Riding on a street car behind\ntwo visitors, I overheard this conversation; **I would like Washington if\nthere were not so many trees.\" **Yes,\" said the other, \"and too, if they did\nnot waste so much space in parks. I like trees and grass, but I like them in\nthe country where they belong.\" It is not difficult to picture their home\nsurroundings nor their early training. Again, let me repeat, it is the province\nof the school to teach appreciation of the beautiful in art and in nature that one\nmay enjoy his idle moments.\nThe gardens at the capital have grown so in the past four years that they\nare demanding a recognition in the form of a supervisor and corps of teachers\non an equality with other lines of special work. It may be some time, however, before Congress makes such provision. At present the work of the city\nis directed by the botany department of the normal school thru teachers'\nmeetings and printed matter.\n\n"}
{"page": 1228, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1229, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS\nOF WOMEN\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresidenf— Miss Laura Drake Gill, president, Association of Collegiate Alumnae, Washington, D. C.\nVice-President — Mrs. Frederic Schoff, president, Juvenile Court of Probation Asso., Philadelphia.\nSecretary — Mrs. Philip N. Moore, trustee of Vassar College, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Thursday Morning, July 2, 1908\nPresident Laura Drake Gill called the Department to order in the Pilgrim Church\nat 9:30 o'clock.\nUpon motion a Nominating Committee was appointed as follows:\nMiss Katharine Dopp, of the University of Chicago.\nMiss Edna Day, University of Missouri.\nMrs. Orville T. Bright, of Chicago.\nIt was moved by Mrs. Herbert Mengel of Louisville, Ky., seconded, and carried, that\nthe president of each of the five organizations appoint one member to act with the three\nexecutive officers in planning the work for the coming year.\nIt was suggested that the \"Aim and Principles\" be read as presented by Miss Mary\nAbbott, chairman of the Educational Committee of the General Federation of Women's\nClubs, and then given to the organizations in membership.\nThose were read by the Secretary, as follows:\nAIM\n\nWhereas, education in the United States is not a national, but a state affair and\nthere is so much diversity in the educational methods of various communities that the\neducation a child receives depends largely upon the place where he lives, it shall be our\naim to bring about, as far as possible, such an equalization of educational advantages\nthat all children in every part of the United States may receive an equally good education.\nGENERAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\n1. All children of the United States should be educated; therefore, in every state,\nwe will work for a compulsory law, backed by a good child-labor law.\n2. Suitable school buildings should be provided; therefore we will endeavor to\nobtain, in every community, a well-built, well-equipped, well-cared-for building in which\nto carry on the school work.\n3. Teachers should be thoroly trained and adequately paid for their work; therefore,\nin every state we will seek to secure normal schools of definite standard; minimum professional requirements, without which no one may be permitted to teach; and a minimum\nsalary for less than which no one may be asked to teach.\n4. Schools should be under expert supervision in order to accomplish their best work;\ntherefore, we will urge that, in every state, provision be made for placing all schools under\nthe care of trained superintendents.\n5. School work to be satisfactory should produce three results in the pupils — knowledge, efficiency, character; therefore, we will make the effort to introduce into all schools\ntraining for the hand as well as for the head, and definite instruction in ethics and civics.\nThe president announced that only those in active memership may vote on the ques\ntions coming before the Department.\nPresident Gill opened the regular program with remarks concerning the appropriate\nwork of such a department as this, stating1217\nthere would naturally be some divergence of\nopinion upon methods.\n\n"}
{"page": 1230, "printed_page": null, "text": "218\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[W.\n\nThe conservative view of the members present at the conference of Wednesday\nretained the name under which the Department was organized.\nHon. Elmer Ellsworth Brown. United States commissioner of education, read a\npaper upon \"Suggestions for Effective Cooperation.\"\nMrs. Florence Kelley of New York presented \" Laws Regarding Child Welfare,\" which\nwas followed by discussion by Mrs. Herbert Mengel of Louisville, Ky., and Miss Jane\nAddams, of Chicago.\nAt this point it was stated that Miss Katharine Dopp who had been appointed chairman of the Committee on Nominations was not present. Upon motion, Mrs. O. T.\nBright was made chairman of the committee, and Miss Sadie American of New York\nCity was added to the committee.\nThe third topic, \"Women's- Work in the Socialization of the Schools,\" was presented\nby Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum of Cumnock School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nMrs. Edwin C. Grice of Philadelphia discussed the subject from the side of the city\nschools.\nAn interesting discussion was opened by Mrs. Hefferan of Chicago upon the proposition that the curriculum of the high school should include manual, trade, and professional training.\nMrs. Frances W. Leiter, national superintendent of physical education, department\nof the W. C. T. U., of Mansfield, Ohio, spoke of the deficiency of the schools in educating\nthe mind but not the body.\nThe active members were then asked to adjourn for the election of ofl&cers. At this\nmeeting the Nominating Committee reported and the following were chosen as ofl&cers of\nthe Department for the ensuing year:\nFor President, Miss Laura Drake Gill, Washington, D. C.\nFor Vice-President, Mrs. Sarah S. Piatt Decker, Denver, Colo.\nFor Secretary, Mrs. Herbert W- Mengel, 2524 Park Place, Louisville, Ky.\nThe Department then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nAfternoon, July 2\n\nThe Department met at 2:30 o'clock with the Department of Child-Study in Euclid\nAvenue Baptist Church, at which meeting the Department was represented in an address\nby Robert W. Bruere, secretary of the N. Y. Committee on the Physical Welfare of School\nChildren, in an address on the \"Physiological Age and Child Labor.\"\nMrs. Philip N. Moore, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE WORK OF WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS IN EDUCATION:\nSUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE CO-OPERATION\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nU.\n\nS. COMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFor those who wish to see the National Education Association represent\nour educational interests in the broadest way, a peculiar significance attaches\nto the launching of this new department. An educational work of large significance and varied character, already in full progress, is here brought into\nconnection with the comprehensive undertakings of this Association. While\nthe responsibiHty for the establishment of the new department is widely shared,\nI should like at this time to recall in particular the part taken by Miss Mary\nM. Abbott, of Watertown, Connecticut, who shortly before her death had been\n\n"}
{"page": 1231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n12 19\n\nlaboring with great faith and devotion to bring about the arrangement which\nhas here been consummated. I saw her but once, when she was devoting her\nbest energies to this undertaking, and I had never known her aside from this\nenterprise; but I was much impressed with the really religious earnestness\nwhich she brought to her task. That spirit, I am sure, is shared by many\nothers, and it gives promise that this department is to be one of the most useful\nbranches of our general organization.\nIn the beginnings of modern schooHng, a great deal depended upon the\nlabors of unpaid organizers and overseers, mostly women, whose benevolent\nspirit found in the support and improvement of schools its best way of discharging the responsibility of the well-to-do toward the poor of their neighborhood. Those who have read that interesting work, The Gurneys of Earlham,\nby Augustus J. C. Hare, will recall the conscientious devotion to the education\nof the poor displayed by different members of the Gurney family, and particularly byits most conspicuous member, Mrs. Elizabeth Fry. There is much of\nthe same sort to be found in the personal histories of eighteenth- and early\nnineteenth-century England, and the same spirit reappears in the early education societies of our American cities, in New York, in Boston, and in Philadelphia.\nIn both England and America the rise of well-ordered systems of public\neducation threw endeavors of this kind into an eclipse. In place of schools\nsupported, with the greatest difficulty, by private subscription, there\nappeared schools established by law and maintained by taxation. Teaching\nbecame both a professional occupation and a branch of the civil service. The\nresponsibiHty for everything educational, at least of everything in the nature\nof public and organized education, was shifted to a body of professional\nservants of the commonwealth. The educational societies went out of existence, as did the American Anti-slavery Society, when the thirteenth amendment to our Constitution was adopted. The contributions and the benevolent\nactivities of those who had carried the burden of schools were transferred to\nother charities. Education had simply ceased to be an eleemosynary and\nmissionary enterprise, and had become a part of the ordinary administration\nof state and local governments.\nNow, it is plain to see that, while education gained a great deal more than\nit lost by the change, the loss was real and serious. Fortunately, the professional teachers who took up the educational burden were themselves human\nas well as professional. Some of the finest devotion to the welfare of little\nchildren and to the wider purpose of the public weal, appears today in their\nactivities. It was necessary to their best service that as they became more\nprofessional they should become more than professional, and many of them\nhave come up gloriously to this higher plane. But it takes large natures to\ncarry out so large a program, and it is not surprising that it has been done with\nvarying degrees of success. The best teachers of all see most clearly this\nneed, that new ways shall be found of bringing to the support of the modern\n\n"}
{"page": 1232, "printed_page": null, "text": "I220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\npublic school some of those finer forces of our community life that once made\nthe school and kept it alive.\nMatters which lie wholly in the field of science— the method of constructing\na bridge, of testing our milk or water supply, of combating an epidemic, of\ndetermining a question of legal right— these things are professional; and\nextra-professional interference in such affairs would do more harm than good.\nIt is when we come into the field of morals that every man is responsible for a\njudgment of his own, and cannot shift it to the shoulders of another. And\neducation, is essentially a question of morals. It is a question in which the\nprofessional point of view cannot pre-empt the whole field, and in which the\nnon-professional citizen is morally bound to have opinions of his own.\nEvery public question, to be sure, has a moral side. The building of\nbridges, the conduct of dairies, the practice of the physician and the attorney:\nthese are questions to which the common citizen cannot be indifferent. In\neducation, too, there is a large field of professional knowledge, in which interference bythe general public, or even by a board of education representing the\npubHc, could only do more harm than good. Within its Hmil^, the professional\njudgment of the trained and experienced teacher is to be more scrupulously\nrespected today than ever before. Not a book should be placed in the school\nlibrary nor a picture on the schoolroom wall ; no society, no matter how good\nits object, should be formed within the school under pressure from without;\nno special method nor device of teaching or of government should be imposed\nupon the school unless it have the approval of the teaching force within the\nschool.\nWe have then a large range in which the professional teacher should clearly\nhave the right of way, and an equally clear outlying territory, of great importance, in which we are dealing, not with professional responsibility, but with\nmoral and community responsibility. And these two are fringed in together\nin an intermediate shadow land where some of the most vital questions of today\nare found.\nThis new department deals with that outlying field and with that indeterminate shadow land. Its relation to the schools is non-professional and\nmoral. It is to further a return to the side of popular education of those\nbenevolent and missionary endeavors which were once the main support of\npopular education. But we are to remember that in the intervening years the\nspirit of the benevolent missionary has changed. The spirit which did things\nfor others for their good has been transformed into the spirit which does things\nwith others for the common good. In this old spirit, renewed and remade, it\nis to be hoped that the department which you have inaugurated may become\na rallying-point for those good influences in our communities which seek to\nfind ways of working for and with the common schools. It is right that\nwomen should lead in this cause. They have shown capacity for such leadership. But it is to be hoped that men and women ahke who desire that the\nnon-professional responsibility of our communities for public education shall\n\n"}
{"page": 1233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1221\n\nbe adequately discharged — that all of these who have a mind to make education of more worth in their communities than it has been at the best hitherto\n— shall know better what to do and shall do it with better courage for the\nenlightenment which this department can give.\nYou will not expect my suggestions to take the form of a detailed program\nof topics for your consideration. Much of your work has already been blocked\nout by the societies that are here represented. Much of it must arise to meet\nthe special need and occasion. The general platform on which you had met\nby common agreement before this department was organized embodies a\nnumber of the most important proposals for educational improvement on\nwhich the friends of education generally are agreed. In these matters, your\nwork is that of bringing into effective prominence a number of improvements\nin which at least a passive unanimity has already been secured.\nI should like, however, to indicate a general line of advance in the educational affairs of our larger centers of population, a plan which is extremely\nsimple and yet must be regarded for the present as somewhat visionary. I\nshould like to see all of the teachers organized for the consideration, from time\nto time, of definite proposals for the improvement of the schools; and all of\nthe parents of school children organized, with other interested citizens, for a\nsimilar purpose. Without hampering our educational authorities in any of\ntheir ordinary work, and without relieving them of their ultimate responsibility fo( all of the work of the schools, I should like to see an informal and\nhabitual referendum agreed upon, under which all proposals for far-reaching\nchanges in the plan of education should be considered at length by these two\nindependent bodies. All manner of conference and cooperation between the\ntwo should take place, and certain committees of conference and more general\norganizations should include teachers and parents on equal terms. Endless\ndelays should, of course, be avoided; but by some such arrangement as this\nwe might be reasonably sure that no sweeping change should be made till it\nshould be fairly well understood by those who, next to the pupils themselves,\nare most concerned with the experiment.\nBut such an arrangement should not only prevent sudden and ill-considered change. It should prevent long-continued and equally ill-considered\nlack of change. We need to keep the spirit of invention alive in our school\nsystems, for new times call for new measures. In both of the bodies to which\nI have referred the spirit of initiative should be fostered. In education as in\nother fields, the great majority of new inventions fail and ought to fail. But\nthe hundredth one or the thousandth, that is a thing of great price. Let the\nbody of non-professional friends of education be one in which a premium\nis placed upon suggestions for improvement and reform. Let fair consideration be given to suggestions of this kind. If they are widely approved, let\nthem be passed on to the body of practical teachers for a second approval,\nor for modification or rejection. Or let the procedure be 'turned about, as\nthe occasion may demand.\nBut let us thru this means have, from year to\n\n"}
{"page": 1234, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1222\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women'\n\nyear, proposals sent up to the education authorities which represent not merely\nthe half-baked enthusiasm of some bright leader who has won a sudden following, but the serious conviction of those who have looked into the matter\nwith care and conscience, some of them from the side of what the community\nwants, and some from the side of what the schools can do.\nMy own suggestion, as you see, is none too thoroly baked, and in this\nform it has not yet run the gauntlet of either a body of teachers or a body of\nfriendly neighbors of the school. I hope it may have criticism, however, from\nboth of these sides. And I venture to put it forward here in the hope that it\nmay be one of the many proposals for the good of our education which you\nshall discuss to some good purpose in this first meeting of your department.\n\nLA WS FOR THE CHILDREN'S WELFARE. AN IDEAL A TTAINABLEIN 1920: CHILD LABOR; COMPULSORY EDUCATION\nREGISTRATION OF BIRTHS;\nJUVENILE COURTS\nMRS.\n\nFLORENCE\n\nKELLEY,\n\nGENERAL SECRETARY,\nNATIONAL\nLEAGUE,\nNEW\nYORK CITY\n\nCONSUMERS'\n\nBy an attainable ideal I mean an end desirable in itself which may by\nconcerted effort be attained within a dozen years in every part of our nation.\nIt is the thesis of this paper that we may reasonably strive to obtain by 1920\nin every state the complete, uniform registration of births; the free, compulsory education of boys and girls, to the sixteenth birthday; and^anishment of employment at indoor gainful occupations to the same age, sixteen\nyears. When these things exist much work now done by the juvenile courts\nwill be superfluous and such courts will then be able to devote themselves to\nthe noblest of their tasks, that of protecting children against injury by adults.\nFor the purpose of this paper, therefore, the word childhood is taken to\nmean the period before the sixteenth birthday. A child is a boy or girl not\nyet sixteen years old.\nFor several years there have been visible converging tendencies toward\nprolonging childhood to the sixteenth birthday.\nCOMPULSORY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWhen it is proposed to keep all the children iil school to the sixteenth\nbirthday, the obstacle which looms largest is poverty. Some widowed mother\nor disabled father, an orphan boy or girl rises before the mind's eye and the\nquestion obtrudes at once, \"Are they to starve or are they to be pauperized?\"\nNow, this paper deals with the period of a dozen years, until 1920, and during every year of that interval the proportion of widows and orphans, and of\ndisabled fathers, will diminish. For alcoholism, tuberculosis, preventable\naccidents in industry, and finally, and far more important than we have\nhitherto realized, venereal disease, are four exceedingly important causes of\norphanage and of disability of parents.\nEacK^of these evils is the especial\n\n"}
{"page": 1235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLAWS\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nWELFARE\n\n1223\n\nobject of a national society devoted to the annihilation of one terrible scourge.\nWe may, therefore, confidently look forward to a time when children will have\nfathers able to support them far more generally than is the case today. Then\nthe widow and orphan will not so painfully haunt the minds of those who\nstrive to free childhood from toil and to keep our children schoolboys and\nschoolgirls.\nMeanwhile, several states boldly and wisely confront poverty and make it\nthe legal duty of the community to provide for school children in cases of\nascertained need. Among these are the new state of Oklahoma and the\nolder states of Nebraska and Ohio.\nIt is well to borrow from the experience of those states which are putting in\npractice transition measures. Thus New York now tests the children of\nfourteen years as to their fitness to leave school, requiring them to continue in\nattendance until they have working-papers, which can be obtained only by\nthe cooperative approval of responsible officers of two departments especially\nwell fitted to pass upon the children's development. Neither the Department\nof Education alone, nor the Department of Health alone, is intrusted with the\nimportant task of deciding when children already fourteen years old may leave\nschool.\nBoth departments must co-operate and they must agree.\nThe initiative rests with the principal and the class teacher of the school.\nUpon the child's demand they must make themselves responsible by a signed\nstatement that Sally is, according to the school record, fourteen years of age,\nand has finished the first half of the fifth year^ of the curriculum, and can read\nand write simple sentences in the English language. With this school record\nSally goes forth from school to the examiner's office at the Department of\nHealth. There she is weighed, measured, and tested as to reading and writing\nin English by means of simple sentences dictated. If her proof of age and\nall these preliminary tests are satisfactory, a woman physician looks her over\nand signs and files as a public document the statement that, in her opinion,\nSally is of the normal development of a child of her age and in good health.\nThen, and then only, is a certificate issued authorizing Sally to begin to work.\nWhile it may be difficult to learn the exact age of Sally, and she might,\ntherefore, be robbed of several years of school life (if left to the veracity of\nher parents, or to their reverence for the sanctity of an oath), the experience\naccumulated in the city of New York shows that it is perfectly easy to ascertain\nby personal examination whether Sally can read and write English, how many\npounds she weighs, how many inches she measures, and whether she is sound\nin wind and limb. The grade that she has reached in school, too, can be\nascertained without strain upon the truthfulness of anyone concerned.\nThere is relatively little difficulty in getting laws for children enacted.\nThe trouble arises when they come to be enforced. For this reason, it is of the\nhighest importance to make the laws as nearly as possible automatic, and to\nhold adults responsible for the obedience of their charges.\n■ The work of Grade <; A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1236, "printed_page": null, "text": "J224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nWhenever the state factory inspectors find in New York a child at work\nwho has never had working-papers, they thereby automatically convict of violation of the compulsory-education law the child, its parent, and employer,\nand also the principal of the school last attended by the child thus permitted\nto escape illegally from school.\nThere is a perennial effort to substitute some single physical or mental test\nfor the minimum age of school attendance and for beginning to work, but\nthis should never be done. Today fourteen years constitute the shortest\nperiod of freedom from work which can rationally be assigned. What the\nchildren need in order to develop into sturdy, intelligent citizens is long,\ncarefully guarded childhood, and a continuing process of education adapted to\nour national life with its industrial strain, and its ever-increasing demand upon\nthe health and intelligence of the citizens. All the objective tests, physical\nand mental, are valuable in proportion as they reinforce the age minimum and\nassure the children freedom from toil until it is reached.\nWith the lengthening school year, and the increasing period of compulsory\nattendance, comes naturally vocational training for the children fourteen to\nsixteen years old. Thus New York and Massachusetts have recently established state commissions for promoting trade and industrial schools, and are\nextending the teaching of agriculture, too, downward from the agricultural\ncolleges to the secondary schools.\nWe who advocate long school life, with freedom from toil, perceive most\nkeenly that school gardens, domestic science, manual, industrial, trade and\nart training are the best agents for keeping children in school, far better than\ntruant and probation officers, health and factory inspectors, altho all these\nfour sorts of enforcing authorities will doubtless continue to be necessary for\nan indefinite time.\nWith compulsory education — as a vital part of it— must be incorporated\nthe requirement that a reasonable part of the curriculum be completed. It\nlittle profits a child to sit, year after year, in a schoolroom, learning nothing,\nas befalls many a one today in inappropriate classes, following ill-adapted\nstudies, growing stupider, not abler, with the passing years.\nCHILD\n\nLABOR\n\nThe best child-labor law is a compulsory-education law keeping the child\nin school forty weeks in the year to the sixteenth birthday. But even this\nleaves certain possibihties of particularly injurious labor, as when school children work in cotton mills thruout the summer vacation from the age of twelve\nyears in New Hampshire; or at night in glass factories at twelve and fourteen\nyears, as in New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Indiana;\nor in the messenger service ; or driving milk- wagons and serving newspaper\nroutes at injuriously early hours in the morning. Or school children may,\nunder the sweating system, do a large variety of work in manufacture, in the\nhome, out of school hours, to the grave injury of school work and of health.\n\n"}
{"page": 1237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depnrtment]\n\nLAWS\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nWELFARE\n\n1225\n\nTo meet these dangers, several states prohibit outright all work at night\nfor children below the age of sixteen years: e. g., Illinois in all gainful occupations, and New York after 5 p. m. in manufacture, and after 7 p. m. in retail\ntrade and the delivery of merchandise and messages; while Massachusetts\nforbids such children to work after 6 p. m in the textile mills.\nSecond only to the widespread dread of suffering for orphans and children\nof widows, if forbidden to work, is the fear of driving industry out of a state by\nsudden sweeping banishment of large numbers of cheap young workers from\nthe labor market. No state, therefore, has hitherto prohibited outright the indoor employment of children below the age of sixteen years. And the methods\nof gradual approach to the sixteenth birthday as the time for beginning to\nwork vary in the different states. The tendency in this direction, however,\nin the northern states, is conspicuous. Thus eleven states^ now forbid\nchildren below the aga of sixteen years to work in mines, or in specific industries\ninjurious to the health, or in both mines and such industries.\nA third method of reducing the number of children working before the\nsixteenth birthday is used by the fourteen states which forbid them employment longer than eight hours in one day. This list includes four great industrial states — New York, Illinois, Ohio, and Wisconsin^together with nine\nmining states of the Far West, and Nebraska. In the stockyards at Chicago,\nwhen the eight-hour day for the children to the age of sixteen years took effect\nin 1903, approximately one thousand boys and girls are said to have been\ndismissed.\n•A fourth means of reducing the numbers of children employed below the\nage of sixteen years is to require them to read and write Enghsh before beginning to work for wages. This is done in nineteen states. Among other effects,\nthis provision tends to discourage the importation of detached foreign children\nof tender age, for purposes of exploitation.\nThe child-labor legislation of this nation will never be just to the children\nor to the employers until some minimum is established by the federal government, below which no state may go in its protection of its children. A child\nin Georgia, North or South Carolina has the same need of fourteen years of\ntoil-free growing-time as a child in Oregon or Illinois. But there is no age too\nyoung for work in cotton mills in those three southern states for children who\nhave the misfortune to be orphaned or afflicted with a disabled parent. If\nnot the Beveridge bill under the interstate commerce clause, then some other\nlaw (perhaps under the general welfare clause of the federal constitution) must\nbe enacted to establish an irreducible minimum of protection against too early\nindoor work for all the children in all the states, under the enforcement of the\nnational government.\nMeanwhile, in order that both nation and states may legislate wisely, there\nis urgent need of a federal bureau in the Department of the Interior to afford\n' These states are, for mines, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania (inside anthracite mines), and Texas;\nfor specific occupations, Kentucky, Minnesota, Mississippi, Ohio, Wisconsin; for both, Illinois and Mon-\n\n"}
{"page": 1238, "printed_page": null, "text": "J 2 26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nsuch ample current information about the children as the farmers now have\nconcerning crops of all kinds. Is there any crop coming on in America today\nwhich compares in importance with the citizen crop ? Or any concerning\nwhich it is so difficult to get trustworthy information ?\nREGISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nBIRTHS\n\nIt seems a simple thing to require that every child should be registered when\nbom. Such registration, however, is lacking in a very large part of our country, the registration area being a well-known portion treated separately in the\npublications of the United States Census. Registration calls for the existence\nof some intelligent and responsible official, an officer of the board of health,\nor a city, county, or parish clerk, whose especial duty it is to keep such registers, thus placing upon the community the burden of a modest salary.\nThe registration of a new-bom child costs a few moments of the busy doctor's\ntime, spent in filling out and maihng the required blank to the registering\nofficial, and there is also the cost in each case of the blank or postal card.\nEven where, in some of the great cities, registration is obligatory upon physicians and midwives, neghgence on the part of both is sadly common. A\nreputable physician in Chicago, with a large obstetrical practice, once told\nme that, having no blanks at hand, she had failed to register twenty-seven\nchildren within the year. In New York City, Health Commissioner Darhngton has recently furnished blanks to all local physicians and has published\nanew a reminder in the newspapers that failure to record a birth is an offense\npunishable by a fine of $50 . 00.\nThere is one simple device warranted to secure obedience to the registraflon\nlaw, even by the busiest and most indifferent doctors and midwives. Whenever a child dies before the fifth birthday, the birth records should be searched.\nIf the record is missing inquiry of the family elicits the name of the doctor or\nmidwife responsible for the failure to record the birth. Immediate prosecution should uniformly follow. Where this method is unflinchingly followed,\nregistration becomes, as it should be, a matter of course. Every child should\nbe required to produce its birth certificate at the time of entering school.\nThis requirement enlists the interest of parents in registration.\nIt is particularly desirable that women of intelligence should take up this\nsubject, because the number of ignorant midwives is increasing rapidly and\nthese are particularly flagrant in their disregard of the registration laws,\nwhere such laws exist.\nChildren born in this country, outside the registration area (or in places\nwithin the area where the registration laws are not respected) are, and for a\nlong time will be, increasingly sufferers from inability to prove their age under\nthe growing effectiveness of the child-labor laws in the industrial states. The\nmore efficient the registration of births, the easier the enforcement of the compulsory education and child-labor laws, and the greater the benefit accruing\nto the children from them. In cases of crime against little girls where the age\nof the child is a material point in the trial of the case, registration of births is of\n\n"}
{"page": 1239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLAWS\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nWELFARE\n\n1 22 7\n\nthe highest value to the children. Without such registration, it is an easy\nmatter to frighten ignorant parents into false statements as to the age of the\ngirl, and practical immunity to criminals for crimes against girls of tender\nage can often be secured in this way.\nThe greater the difficulty in securing to the children this right to be registered at birth, a right which they enjoy as a matter of course in all civilized\ncountries^ save our own, the greater the need of beginning to strive for it at\nonce, without further loss of precious time.\nJUVENILE\n\nCOURTS\n\nWhen the children are all effectively kept in school to the sixteenth birthday, and out of nightwork and the messenger and newspaper trades, the present\nduties of juvenile courts will be greatly reduced, and due attention. can then be\ndevoted to the enlightened and noble functions for the performance of which\nthese modern institutions properly exist. For, delinquency due to absence\nfrom school or to unfit and demoralizing employment being eliminated, the\ncourts will naturally be occupied with protecting children from injury by\nadults.\nThis the adult delinquency laws are only beginning to enable them to do.\nToday the time of many juvenile courts is unduly absorbed in committing\nto institutions in crowded portions of great cities as incorrigible children who\nare able and active, but mischievous, who only need country life and freedom.\nOn the other hand, feeble-minded children who need custodial care are at\nlarge in great cities and suffer all their lives from their liberty. Fortunately,\nboth judges and public are increasingly alert to perceive the tragic absurdity\nof this practice, and the segregation of custodial cases among children commands every year an increasing share of attention and effort.\nIt is, moreover, in many cases, the drunken or otherwise unfit parent who\nshould be incarcerated, not the children, for whom often a suitable home could\nbe found if the noxious parent were effectively segregated.\nThe all-essential element in a juvenile court is the judge. Given the right\njudge, and he may be trusted to take the initiative in getting wise laws enacted\nand suitable probation officers retained (preferably selected from eligible\nlists under the civil service law) . Today, however, there are several judges\nof juvenile courts so grossly and grotesquely unfit for their high position that\nthey are a disgrace to the committees which tolerate them, and a curse and\nblight to the children whose fate they largely decide.\nThese judges of juvenile courts are all exerting their malign influence upon\nthe lives of helpless boys and girls in cities in which women have no voice\nin the selection of judges. The most urgent need at the present moment is\nfor more power and responsibility on the part of women in this respect. Committees of women voluntarily cooperating with the judge after he is elected,\n'The Child Labor Committee of New York succeeds in getting from Europe transcripts of oflScial\nbirth records of children born in every country in Europe except Russia. Even Turkish records afford\ntranscripts.\n\n"}
{"page": 1240, "printed_page": null, "text": "22g\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nand women probation officers, working under the direction of the judge, constitute only the beginning of the participation of women in this responsibility\nfor children under the law. The children need women learned in the law as\nassociate judges, and in cases of crimes against little girls there is dire need of\nwomen as lawyers. Only those who have striven to bring to justice criminals\nguilty of heinous crimes against little girls have any idea how loath are counsel,\nprosecuting attorneys, judges, and juries, to visit upon these criminals the\npenalty which the law prescribes.\nIn New York City our newsboys' law, child-labor law, and compulsoryeducation law are daily frustrated by the unfitness of the elected magistrates\nto administer statutes framed for the protection of children.\nIt is by no means an accident that the first excellent juvenile court in the\nrepublic grew up in Denver, where its judge is kept in office by the combined\nefforts of enlightened fathers and voting mothers and teachers, in defiance of\nthe utmost efforts of the poHticians of both parties to dislodge him, and end\nhis infinitely valuable work.\nIndeed, for all the four forms of protection of children here under discussion, our efforts must continue to end in frequent failure as they have so\nlargely done hitherto, until the mothers, the teachers, and all interested women\nin the community bear their full share in the election of the judges and all the\nofficials who make, interpret, and enforce, or fail to enforce, the laws.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Jane Addams, Hull House, Chicago, 111. — There is in Chicago a close and\nfriendly co-operation between the organizations of women and the public authorities. In\npursuance with this general policy, there is a committee of women who have organized\na \"League for the Protection of Children,\" whose fifteen paid officers are constantly\nco-operating with the police in overseeing dance halls, billiard rooms, and many other\nplaces of public amusement that they may be kept law-abiding, and as decent as possible.\nThe League insists that all adventitious dangers shall be removed, and each officer in\nhis own neighborhood tries to discover the pitfalls and temptations into which the boys\nand girls constantly stumble. They also investigate those respectable places which may\nyet become most dangerous if they are unguarded. One of the officers last month made\nan investigation of the waiting-rooms in the large department stores to discover how far\nthey were used as a place for decoying ' girls. Within two weeks she brought ten men\nbefore the Criminal Court, and secured a conviction in each case.\nNot all of the work of the League, however, is restrictive. The officers are most\nenthusiastic over the beneficial effects of the athletic fields and playgrounds lately established in Chicago, and they believe that well-directed and vigorous recreation will do\nmuch to substitute innocent pleasure for crime. A decided faliing-off in the number of\njuvenile arrests is found in the neighborhood of these small parks. Under the Sage\nFund, a careful study is being made into the records of the past ten years of the Juvenile\nCourt of Chicago, from which the Committee hope to receive many valuable suggestions.\nThe truth is, we do not really know our cities, and we utterly fail to make the connection\nbetween the perfectly unnecessary crime on the one hand, and the help which might\neasily be rendered on the other. It is a worthy work for organizations of educated women\nto bring these problems before the intelligent interest of the community.\n\n"}
{"page": 1241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOMPULSORY\n\nCOMPULSORY\nMRS.\n\nATTENDANCE\n\nSCHOOL\nHERBERT\n\nIN THE\n\nATTENDANCE\nW.\n\nMENGEL,\n\nSOUTH\n\nIN THE\n\nLOUISVILLE,\n\n1229\n\nSOUTH\n\nKY.\n\n** Nobody never comes in here and nobody never goes out. My paw just\ngrowed up and never knowed nothin' and so did his paw afore him. Sometimes when I be hoeing corn on the mountain side, I looks up the creek and\ndown the creek and wonders if there ain't nobody never comin' to larn me\nnothin'.\"\nWith these words, a well-known Kentucky author headed a newspaper\ncontribution on educational conditions. They were the words of a small\nbackwoods Kentucky boy who thus unconsciously voiced the cry not only of\nthe thousands of children in Kentucky, but of the thousands and tens of\nthousands of children of the South who are growing up without any school\nprivileges whatever.\nI have been asked to speak upon compulsory school attendance in the\nSouth. I might as well begin by confessing that as yet there is no such thing\nin the South. If compulsory school attendance depended upon a compulsory\nschool law alone, then we people of Kentucky might have been sitting with\nfolded hands for many years and have puffed ourselves with pride that we alone\nof the southern states possessed such a far-reaching enactment. But unfortunately the law is one thing and the enforcement of the law is quite another.\nComputing an average from six states immediately south of Kentucky,\nI find that 30 per cent, of the white children between the ages of ten and fourteen are not in school. Think of it ; 30 per cent, of the white children out of\nschool at that period that should be most sacredly guarded because it is the\ngolden educational and preparatory period in the life of every girl and boy!\nHave you ever read No. 5 John St., and do you recall the efforts of the\nhero to uplift his fellow men. and how one girl pathetically shook her head\nsaying, ''Oh, why didn't you catch me while I was a kid?\"\nMy friends, there are hundreds of thousands of children in the South today\nperfectly capable of becoming worthy citizens if we can but catch them while\nthey are yet \"kids.\" We can do this only thru the school, we must put\nthem in school, but we cannot do it by merely legislating to that effect, for if\nwe turn to Kentucky, where the law declares that children between the ages\nof seven and fourteen must be in school, we find that 22 per cent, of the white\nchildren between the ages of ten and fourteen are out of school. In the city of\nLouisville alone, where, according to the last school census, there were 62,000\nchildren of school age, only 40,000 were in school.\nI think I am making a low estimate when I say that probably 8,000 of the\nchildren out of school were between the ages of ten and fourteen. You would\nfind them in the tobacco factories, the woolen mills and workshops of various\nsorts, or, worst of all, spending their days and nights in that school for crime —\nthe streets.\n\n"}
{"page": 1242, "printed_page": null, "text": "J230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nIt is thus evident that something is needed in Kentucky besides mere law\non the subject.\nIn the first place, it is impossible to have school attendance without the\nenforcement of rigorous laws restricting child labor. School attendance is\nincompatible with a condition of affairs that permits children ten and twelve\nyears of age to be at work. Child labor has been one of the things pulling\nagainst school attendance in the South. It is the thing we must fight and are\nfighting very successfully in several states. The people of Kentucky are\ncertainly to be congratulated on the new law which went into effect June 15,\nand which prohibits the employment of any child under fourteen or any child\nbetween fourteen and sixteen being employed without giving proof of age and\nproof that certain educational requirements have been met. This law we feel\nis a great step forward and it is bound to affect school attendance very\nmaterially.\nIt is just such a law as this, accompanied as it must be by a compulsoryeducation law, that is most needed in the southern states. Neither one can\nbe effective without the other, but together they will mean much to the South,\ntho they in turn demand much from the South, and it is these new demands\nthat we must be prepared to meet.\nIn the first place, we must have thousands of additional schools and\nteachers. There is not a southern state today where school attendance could\nbe made a test of the efficiency of the protection of its children because there\nare not schools enough to enroll the children if they were all dismissed from\nthe mills.\nThere are thousands of children living in the rural districts of the South\nthat have never had a school within their reach, like the little boy who looked\nup the creek and down the creek watching for someone to come and \"larn\"\nhim something.\nWe must have not merely more schools, but better schools: schools that\nappeal to the children, that respond to their needs, that give the boy and girl\nmore in the way of a trade education than those early years in a factory could\npossibly do.\nBesides we must have comfortable and attractive schools. The dilapidated tumble-down rural schools of the South have greatly affected school\nattendance. They have excited neither interest nor respect and are largely\nresponsible for that educational apathy that has been holding the South back\nfor years. But this apathy must go and if the women of the South are of one\nmind on any one thing, it is in their determination that it shall go, and that in\nits place shall come the feeling that every man, woman, and child has his share\nof responsibility in upbuilding the schools.\nTwo years ago the Kentucky Federation of Women's Clubs set out to\nexploit the educational conditions of their state. We have done this with a\nsort of religious fanaticism that has not been popular with some of our people,\nbut certain it is \"Kentucky's bubble of self-complacency has been punctured,\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1 231\n\nand Kentuckians have set to work. The evidence of revival is on all sides.\nNever has any previous legislature enacted so many laws and made so many\nappropriations for education as the legislature of the past winter. The club\nwomen have made speeches, and written pamphlets, and carried on a strenuous newspaper campaign— all in behalf of better schools. They have recently\nraised a fund of $3,000 to be used in paying the expenses of the women who\nare organizing school-improvement leagues. Forty of our counties have\nalready been organized and soon the state will be covered with a network of\nleagues not only working to improve the schools, but arousing a public sentiment that will initiate and compel better legislation and push us on to still\ngreater endeavor. In this league work we have followed the example set by the\nwomen of Georgia, Alabama, and North Carolina.\nAnd now in conclusion let me say that I hope I am not leaving you only\nwith the impression that we have no compulsory school attendance in the\nSouth, but I want you to feel that we are going to have it; that our faces are\nset in the right direction and that we are working hard for the things that will\nmake compulsory school attendance possible. As a member of the largest\nbody of organized women in the South, I come to you today to assure you that\nwe are in the fight to stay and that we will not be content until our pubHc\nschools can answer for the whereabouts of every child within their jurisdiction\nand guarantee to the nation that all our children are not only being properly\neducated, but properly safeguarded.\n\nMRS.\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nWORK\n\nO. SHEPARD\n\nBARNUM,\n\nIN THE SOCIALIZATION\nTHE SCHOOLS\nCUMNOCK\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES,\n\nOF\nCAL.\n\nSomething of the significance of this new department, affiliating the\nNational Organizations of Women with the National Education Association,\nis obvious to all ; but only those of us who have long been active in both school\nand club and fully realize the possibilities of concerted action can adequately\nrejoice. In the schools we have seen burdens multiplying almost beyond\nendurance. In the women's organizations we have exulted in their sense of\nlife and power, in their abounding willingness to strive for the common welfare.\nSuch mutual realization should be general, and may become so thru this\ngreat new channel of communication. The women's organizations should\nknow that demands of society on the school system have multiplied from the\ncomparative simplicity of the three ^'R's\" to include: the three '*H's,\" the\nhead, the hand, and the heart; the three \"C's,\" character, conduct, and citizenhip; to say nothing of the three \"B's,\" the supplying of body, brains and\nbringing-up. They will listen with concern and a determination to help when\nthey hear your highest authority say, ''The school has taken over the entire\nresponsibility for education which it formerly shared with the home, the farm,\nthe apprenticeship, and a social order in which the individual was normally\nbrought into contact with a number of industrial processes.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1244, "printed_page": null, "text": "1232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Women's\n\nOn the other hand, this new intercourse will show the teachers that the\nclubs have progressed ; that they have, most of them, passed beyond the first\nstage of self-improvement by papers extracted from encyclopedias, which\nseemed to the teachers superficial; beyond the second stage of organization\nfor its own sake, which seemed self-aggrandizement; that they have found\nthemselves and their mission in social service, in which they have already\nmade a wonderful record.\nOne fear may linger and make your welcome reluctant — the fear that our\nenthusiasm may wane and our cooperative undertakings not prove permanent. That this is improbable will appear if we summarize briefly the work under way and observe that it is not so much the assumption of new duties\nas it is the performance in new ways of duties as old as the race. The social\nand industrial revolution of the nineteenth century is very familiar, and my\nnecessary reference to it may seem less trite if given by means of a specific\nexample — an account of the work of a certain Mrs. Bryant of our greatgrandmothers' time.\n\nMrs. Bryant made the coats and breeches, the pinafores and other garments worn by\nher large family. She even made the green broadcloth suit that her husband wore in the\nMassachusetts Senate. The wool and tow came from sheep and flax raised on the home\nplace. She gathered and prepared straw, braided it into hats and if they were for the\nwomenfolk even made flowers for their adornment. She raised geese and plucked them\nfor pillows and feather beds, or used their skins for tippets. She made twine and of the\ntwine a harness. She kept her husband and children in handkerchiefs and stockings.\nShe tended the bees, brewed beer, cleaned tripe and manufactured sage cheese, sausage,\ncandles, and soap.\n\nOf course, she also washed and ironed, baked, prepared all food from\nits crudest forms, and nursed the sick. When we think we are busy we should\ncompare our domestic life with Mrs. Bryant's. Then we should realize what\nan army of workers is now serving us in these manifold ways ; what responsibility we should feel for their welfare and that of their children ; what pains we\nshould take to have children regain in some way what they had in Mrs. Bryant's home and obviously have not in yours 'and mine — the opportunity of\nobserving and learning these many handicrafts. We have been reheved by the .\nnew social order of what seems a dozen women's work and have been left with\nour own time comparatively free. This time is due and should be devoted to\nthe new social order. To our homes and families we are still responsible for\nthe cleanliness, wholesomeness, order, human justice, and kindness which\nMrs. Bryant gained thru personal supervision. We shall have to gain them\nthru the Interstate Commerce Commission, Consumers' League, state, county,\nand city boards of health, and other public agencies, and especially thru the\nschools.\nIt is possible to give here only a very brief summary of woman's work for\nthe socialization of the school, merely selecting the most important kinds of\nwork and a few notable instances of each.\nProbably the largest number of organizations are interested in domestic\n\n"}
{"page": 1245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1233\n\nscience, manual training, industrial training, school gardening, agricultural\ntraining, vocational studies, technical and trade schools. Their efforts extend\nall the way from ''agitating for more buildings so that manual training may be\nadded\" to securing a permissive law, as they have in Arizona, and supporting\nthe work at heavy expense. The clubs have given a very large number of\nscholarships for education in this and other directions. They have secured for\nindustrial pursuits a regular place in the curriculum of many schools and\ncolleges — notably in the State College of Kentucky and in Wisconsin, also in\nseventeen counties in Maryland, and elsewhere thruout the South. It was\nencouraging to find a long Hst of industrial and allied subjects on the program\nof this session of the National Education Association. We can joyfully urge\nthe volunteer workers to become association members, get the Report and says\nas President Roosevelt said to Mr. Riis: ''I have read your book and have\ncome to help.\"\nNext in popularity are the very numerous efforts to improve and beautify\nschool grounds and schoolhouses. This is obviously an extension of the\nprovince of the home-maker. Notable instances are those of which Mrs.\nGrice will tell us and those of other parent-teacher associations. For beautifying one school building, three hundred dollars is reported from Oregon, and\nso on across the continent to Maine, where improvements are reported in\nfive hundred school buildings and grounds.\nFollowing the migration of home interests into community life we find\nthe women's organizations beginning to aid the schools in looking after the\nextra time as well as the extra tasks. Day nurseries are supplied that those\nchildren may be in school whose mothers are in the factories. Kindergartens\nalso are so provided. The club in Bisbee, Arizona, supports one. A club in\nFlorida maintains one for the negroes ; South Carolina has seventeen, seven\nof them supported by clubs. For the young girls and boys who must go to\nwork even at the legal age, night schools are provided; also vacation schools\nand playgrounds for all. In Los Angeles we have six playgrounds supported\nby the city under a commission whose president is an experienced federation\nworker and whose secretary is a setdement woman. The Chicago clubs help\nsupport eleven playgrounds ; the Woman's School Association of New Haven\nmaintains three summer schools and three playgrounds ; the Council of Jewish\nWomen and others in Baltimore conduct vacation schools and playgrounds —\nthis is only the beginning of the list. Some school buildings are being used for\nsocial centers; all should be. The John Hamlin School Extension is a noteworthy example,\nA comparatively recent fine of effort being prosecuted with vigor and great\nsuccess, usually by the school authorities themselves, is medical inspection\nof schools; to this the volunteer association should add nurses and welfare\ncommittees. One might suppose that these more personal matters of physical\nwell-being might be left to the homes. But there is a \"plague of homelessness among the poor,\" naturally accompanied by other plagues, which spread\n\n"}
{"page": 1246, "printed_page": null, "text": "J 2 ^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nto the best of homes if not systematically discovered and checked. Mrs.\nRichards has just proved at the Biennial, by a straight line of statistics, the\nrelation between health and clean hands. She pointed out that the mother of\nold saw that the children washed their hands before eating, which the rush of\nmodern life prevents the present mother from doing. Evidently, we shall\nhave to ''sociaHze\" even the washing of hands.\nThree additional lines of school improvement in which our women have the\nmost intense Interest are: special care of exceptional children, training in\nmorals, and the study of civics. The mother's heart has gone beyond her own\nfour walls and that heart is always most tender toward the feeble child; she\nalways wishes supremely that a boy shall \"be a good boy,\" and secretly hopes\nthat he will be President.\nThe prevalence and bad effects of truancy have caused much concern.\nLos Angeles has had a pecuHarly difficult truancy problem, the chmate aiding\nand abetting by enabling boys to sleep out all the year round comfortably and\nfind some sort of fruit or nuts always available in the country. It has been\nsolved, however, so successfully that the special schools made up of chronic\ntruants have attained the highest percentage for attendance — 99 per cent.\nWe are very proud to say that the principal of these schools attributes their\nestabhshment directly to the assistance and influence of the women.\nPassing of necessity various other undertakings, one comes finally to a\nform of endeavor which is probably prophetic. This is community interest in\nsecuring for teachers better equipment, appreciation, and pay, longer tenure\nof office, and classes of more reasonable size. A principal previously referred\nto as gaining remarkable results says, ''Fifteen is the ideal number for one\nteacher.\" Judge Lindsay, approached with today's problem and asked what\nwe could do to help most, said that the one thing which would do more good\nthan anything else would be to have enough teachers, so that each teacher\ncould be the real friend of every one of her pupils.\nFrom the kinds of work indicated above it seems plain that women's part\nin the socialization of schools is not capricious nor accidental but falls into\nsimple groups, bearing direct relations to age-old duties. The important thing\nto realize is that her share, her responsibiHty is not new; that it seems new\nonly because of changed methods ; and that it does not intrude in any way on\nthe distinctively academic work of the teacher. We may safely conclude that\nthe new forms are essential functions of the \"eternal feminine;\" this and\ntheir obvious place in social evolution are surely sufficient to give them standing and dignity and place them above the suspicion of being transient or\nintrusive.\nMiss Jane Addams has recently pointed out the fact that evolution is a\nmethod, not a force— that the force must be supplied. Fortunately for this\nevolutionary process the force is ready. After productive work left Mrs.\nBryant's home and those of her contemporaries, there followed for the privileged\nclass of women thus left at leisure a period of bewildered irresponsibility.\n\n"}
{"page": 1247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThen came the impulse for organization which has sped on unchecked by\nearly ridicule and unspoiled by recent praise. By it women have fashioned the\nweapon strong and flexible, at once national and local, adapted to large bodies\nor small working groups.\nIn this constructive period considerations of method are of serious concern.\nThe growth of our great organizations has been to a commendable extent\ntoward quiet work, carefully based on ascertained facts. We would beg your\nassociation, and particularly our esteemed commissioner of education, for\nsummarized statistics that will give important facts in portable, demonstrable\nform. We heartily wish you could bring about a uniform system of school\nreports; that these might have such arrangement and summaries as would\nenable one easily to determine the relation between expense per capita and any\none of the desired improvements in education; for instance, between industrial\nequipment and the prevention of truancy and crime; between ungraded\nclasses and continued attendance and progress; between medical inspection\nand rapidity of progress and successful completion of school-work. In the\nmeantime, we wish there could be arrangements for issuing a report intelligible to the uninitiated on some one school problem, whatever the association\nmight think most urgent or appropriate for our cooperation. Our education\ncommittees are now wishing to suggest lines of work for the next year in each\nstate; such guidance would help us decide wisely; such report would be all the\nammunition we should need.\nIt goes without saying that worthy volunteer officers must never criticize\nand never interfere. Studied avoidance of such grave blunders characterizes\nthe experienced woman. The aim should always be to find out in any locahty\nwhat the schools want and help them get it. The desire most commonly\nexpressed in the reports of school superintendents is \"to secure effective\npublicity as to the needs of their schools.\" There we can promise complete\nrelief. No more effective means of reaching the representative people in\nevery community could be devised than the clubs, their programs, and their\nreports. Another requisite of the successful cooperator is unobtrusiveness.\nTo help in educational or civic ways one must assist officials who are responsible to the public ; consequently self-effacement in the volunteer is indispensable. You may safely trust the National Organizations of Women to provide\nthis highest type of worker. There may be local misfits in any organization;\nin general, however, I have observed a remarkable development of the spirit\nof wisdom, tact, unobtrusiveness, and deference to constituted authorities.\nIt is of supreme importance that school managements should be entirely\nout of pohtics. If, however, in any community the school system is not out of*\npolitics, woman should not rest until it is. She does not desire to be in politics,\nbut still less does she desire to leave her children there alone. Our work\nshould always be for measures, and not for men. This is not because we are\nwomen, but because most experienced civic workers, both men and women,\nhave found it necessary for best results.\nIf an organization never has anything\n\n"}
{"page": 1248, "printed_page": null, "text": "1236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nto do with the selection of particular men, it is in a better position to hold the\nman elected, by whatever party, to his full public duty. The measure for\nwhich we should all strive is the selection of members of the school board by\nindependent nomination, probably \"at large,\" and preferably for an extended\nterm. The second measure should be the insistence that all educational\nduties be performed by educational experts, their selection only resting with\nthe board.\nTwo special organizations are desirable in most communities. A parentteacher association is invaluable in every school for direct personal contact.\nA public educational association is usually necessary to enlist public influence\nand opinion for generous support. In this the education committee of the\nlocal women's club could be the nucleus; it should be composed of women who\ncan quietly learn without ceasing, alertly watch, and give impetus to others,\nwithout being in evidence. Public officials or prominent citizens should\nprobably be the officers of such an association, and the women be content and\nhappy to work in the shadow, so long as results are attained. There should\nbe an advisory body of experts in each line consulted on occasion. There\nshould be a large sustaining membership, representative of all the interests\nof the community, including leaders of CatholiCj Protestant, and Jewish\nchurches; of Republican, Democratic, and other parties; of commercial and\nprofessional interests; of all organizations of a public character. They should\nmeet once a year, or not oftener than quarterly. The executive committee\nshould be able to act in emergencies. There should be a number of small\nworking committees quietly studying and investigating different problems.\nWe are learning that, even as a commercial asset, well-educated children are\nour most precious possession. Why may not other cities do as Cleveland is\ndoing, and utilize such chambers of commerce for educational advancement ?\nIf, as Jacob Riis suggests, in some communities the women's clubs represent\nthe only conspicuous moral force, then there should be among them a sort of\nclearing-house association, with representatives from each, working as above\nindicated, not by large and frequent meetings, but by small working committees. We have both in Los Angeles, besides receiving hearty support of the\nChamber of Commerce, but find that there is enough to do.\nIn conclusion, let us say, with apologies to Browning, that the real club\nfunction is to furnish motive and injunction for practicing what we know\nalready. It is easy to furnish the motive. The universal mother-love never\nfails to kindle when a convincing appeal is made in the interest of the children\nand the home. Injunction also is easily suppHed. These organizations,\ncomprising 900,000 members, are compact, with national, state, district and\ncity sub-organizations. They have their standing committees and receive\nimpulse and instruction quickly and systematically from center to circumference. We have come to you for the third element — what you know already,\nwhat you have tested and found good and desire to put in practice. The\ncombination should be peculiarly strong and mark the beginning of untold\ngood for the schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1249, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nSOCIALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Edwin C. Grice, president of Parent-Teachers' Association, Philadelphia, Pa.—\nThe key word of all true democracy is \"co-operation\" — the working together of the\nforces that create institutions in the interest of the institutions created. Our public\nschools stand today the one great democratic institution in our land, yet for the past\ndecade and more the cry has gone up that their chiefest menace lies in their abandonment\nby they people; that those by whom the schools were created, and by whom they are\nsupported, have withdrawn very largely their intelligent interest and co-operative influence.\nWe concede without argument the home stands as the substructure of all national\nlife, that the school is but the broadening out of the home life, another stage in the preparation for citizenship. Yet steadily and without apparent let or hindrance these two\nformative forces in the lives of the coming citizens of our country have grown farther\nand farther apart.\nEspecially is this true in our large congested centers. This divorcement of the two\nmost potent factors in the development of the child is the greatest educational problem of\nthe city today.\nFirst, how to awaken an intelligent, sympathetic interest in the schools on the part\nof the members of the community not in direct touch with the workings of the schools;\nand second, when once aroused how to relate the entire educational interests of a city\nto the people of that city regardless of creed, race, or condition, is well termed \"the schoolmaster's new problem.\"\nWe feel in Philadelphia that we have taken a step toward the solution of that problem\nSeveral years ago the Congress of Mothers inaugurated a movement toward the formation\nof associations of parents and teachers. This was a distinct reaching-out on the part\nof the home to get into closer touch with the school. Some four or five such associations\nwere formed and did fine work each in its own district, but they in no way related the\ninterests of the different districts one to another.\nTwo years ago a joint committee composed of representatives from several organizations\ninterested in the educational welfare of the city took hold of the work. Thru its eflforts\na league was formed of all the associations of parents and patrons connected with the\nschools. As an evidence of the broader scope of its purpose the associations in this league\nwere called \"Home and School\" rather than \"Parent-Teacher\" associations. Within the\nfirst year of its existence the membership of the league reached over five thousand. Thru\nits Bureau of Entertainment and Bureau of Speakers it has served hundreds of people.\nIts Bureau of Speakers is composed of some of the most prominent educators in the city,\nrepresenting the University of Pennsylvania, the high schools, and schools of pedagogy.\nPhysicians, clergymen, and lawyers are on the list,, as well as men and women well known\nin other lines of special work. All this means an awakening of a personal interest on the\npart of many who have never before touched upon the city's school life. If nothing else\nhad been accomplished other than the arousing of a common interest in a common cause\namong so many people the effort would have been worth while. One of the district superintendents speaking lately of the movement said, \"It would be difiicult to tabulate the\ninfluence of this effort on the social life of our city. Allowing at the lowest estimate two\nhundred people to each meeting in the schools served gives a showing of twelve thousand\npeople reached by the league, and when the meetings are multiplied by the weeks and\nmonths of the season it is easy to understand why we hope to have the number reach nearly\none hundred thousand before the schools are closed.\"\nTo socialize the school still further and bring it into living vital touch with the conditions of the community life about it, five school buildings have been opened at night as\nsocial centers, gathering in the boys and girls, the young men and women, giving them evenings of bright, cheerful, clean recreation, under careful paid supervision. The report\ncomes alike from all these centers of a moral uplift to the neighborhood.\nThe same kind of work is being done in many of our large cities, but the strong point\n\n"}
{"page": 1250, "printed_page": null, "text": "1238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nof the home and school movement as developed in Philadelphia is the fact that it is effort\nthe people themselves are making; the people of each community assuming the responsibility for their own center of influence; manning their own organization, and conducting\ntheir own business. It is just at this point we would call attention to the difference in\ninterest and permanent result between work done by the people of a community for themselves, and the same thing forced upon them from without, whether it be by board of\neducation or private philanthrophy. We believe that this effort of the people toward the\nself-government of their local associations draws out from each community those forces\nthat should make for civic uplift, always provided they are guided and stimulated by\nthe influence and cooperation of the school and its faculty. This seems to us the truest\nform of adult education.\nIn the local associations each community expresses its interest in its school and the\nhomes related to that school in ways that seem best suited to its own needs. In the conference ofall the associations held once a year, each community touches upon the life and\ninterest of every other community represented, and in this real way relates itself to the\nwhole educational interest of the city. Once during the midyear a joint entertainment\nis given, the program being composed of numbers from the different associations. These\nentertainments are given as a means of demonstrating some of the many phases of home\nlife existent in a great modern complex city. No one could attend any such without a\ndeeper realization of the problems facing our educators day after day, nor without recognizing the unifying sense of the league's work. As the children, or adults, of one community\nafter another appear, one catches a glimpse of the American city's great problem, rather\nshould we say great privilege. And we find ourselves answering the old-time question,\n\"Am I my brother's keeper ?\" by the modern query: Is not this effort toward socializing\nthe public schools bringing us one step nearer the true interpretation of that \"brotherhood\"\nwhich makes us in the best sense the \"keepers\" one of another ?\n\n"}
{"page": 1251, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n[Names of authors of formal papers are set in' small capitals.\nAct to incorporate National Education Association, I\nActive members, Business meeting of, 33;\nTreasurer's report adopted, ;^y, Amendments to by-laws considered, 33; Report of Committee on National University\n34; Report of Nominating Committee,\n35\nAdams, Almeda. — ^The education of the\nblind child with the seeing child in the\npublic school, 1 137\nAdaptation of the schools to industry and\nefficiency (Andrew S. Draper), 65\nAddams, Jane. — The home and the special\nchild, 1 127; Discussion, 1228; The\npublic school and the immigrant child, 99\nAddicott, James E. — Discussion, 778\nAddress at White House Reception (President Theodore Roosevelt), 212\nAddresses of welcome (Samuel Mather),\n49; (Harris R. Cooley), 50; (Charles\nS. Howe), 52^- Response (William O.\nThompson), 54\nAddresses of welcome. Department of\nIndian Education (William H. Elson),\n(Edmund A. Jones), (R. H. West wood)\nII 54; Response, (L. M. Compton),\n(Estelle Reel), 1155\nAdministration of industrial education,\nstate and municipal (August S. Lindemann), 1060\nAdmission requirements to colleges of engineering (Fred W. Atkinson), 1178\nAgricultural colleges. Co-operation of, with\nstate normal schools, 297.\nAgricultural education, 11 99\nAgricultural education, Co-operation between United States Department and\nstate school authorities for promotion of,\n303\nAgricultural\neducation.\nPreparation\nof\nj;eachers for, 294\nAgriculture, industries, and home economics\nin our public schools (Willet M. Hays),\n177; Discussion, 191\nAgriculture in rural schools, 11 88\n\nA f indicates a memorial sketch.]\n\nAncient\nlanguages,\nTeaching of, by modern\nmethods,\n645\nAndrews, Benjamin R. — Discussion, 167\nApgar,\nGenevieve. — Practical problems\nin English, 660\nArchitecture, School, 1065\nwomen, Sarah\nArnold,\nLoxhse. — Reconcilement\n93\nof cross purposes in the education of\nas a fac803\nArtHughes),\ntor\n\nin\n\nculture\n\n(James\n\nL.\n\nArt education, A new basis of, 827\nArtefficiency,\neducation800\n— its place in training for\nArtman\nimpulse;\n), 515 its early forms and relation to\nmental development (Lillian S. Cush-\n\nArt — its bearing on industry, 808\nArt of the great periods, 813\nArt820\n, Place of, in a constructive education,\nArt work, Native, and method in primary,\nAssistance of pupils, 591\nAswell, James B. — Discussion, 259\nAthletics, School, 616\nAtkinson,\nFred W. — Admission require294\nments to colleges of engineering, 11 78\n531 The physical basis of, 932\nAttention,\nAvocation, Education for, 56\nBabbitt, Winfred Howard. — Discussion,\nBaillie, Herbert. — Discussion, 1085\nBaker, James H. — Preliminary report on\nneed of investigation of the culture\nelement and economy of time in education, 466\nBalcomb, E. E. — Discussion, 713; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Rural and\nAgricultural Education, 1188\nBalcomb, E. E. — Discussion, 713\nBall, Frank H. — Discussion, 785\nBarnes,\nW. — Moral training in\ntraining,Clifford\n453\npublic schools:\nrelation to religious\n\nBarnes, Earl. — Fundamental factors in\nthe making of a kindergarten curriculum,\nAikins, H. Austin — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Child Study, 908\n502; The public school and the special\nchild, II 18; What England is doing to\nAley,\nRobert\nJ.— Care of freshmen in\nsecure\nhealthy school children, 952\nlarge universities, 680; Mathematics in\nthe grades, 569\nBarney, Edgar S. — Intermediate industrial schools as a requirement of a proAlgebra, Teaching of, 628\ngram of industrial education, 793\nAmerican education. Desirable uniformity 1239\nand diversity in, 215\nBarnum, Mrs. O. Shepard. — Women's\n1231 in the socialization of the schools,\nwork\nAmerican Indians, The education of, 1161\nAmerican, Sadie, — Discussion, 211, 931\n\n"}
{"page": 1252, "printed_page": null, "text": "I240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nB'AYLiss, Alfred.— Co-operation of state\nagricultural colleges and state normal\nschools, 298\nBeardsley, Richard S.— Discussion, 638\nBearing of art on industry, The (Charles\nZueblin), 808\nBenson, Julia P.— What can we do for the\ntwo-year Latin pupil ? 649\nLillian Gay.— Secretary's Minutes,\nBerry,\nDepartment of Higher Education, 670\nBetz, William.— The teaching of geometry\nin its relation to the present educational\ntrend, 634\nBinzel, Alma L. — Discussion, 540\nBirge, Edward B.— Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Music Education, 836\nBishop, E. C. — Discussion, 307\nBishop, J. Remsen. — A shifting of ideals\nrespecting the efficiency of formal culture\nstudies for all pupils, 584\nBlack, N. Henry. — Discussion, 991; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Science\nInstruction, 966\nBlair, Francis G. — By whom shall teachers be elected, 264; Discussion, 260\nBlewett, Ben. — Address in memory of F.\nLouis Soldan, 492\nBlind child in the public schools, The, 1137\nBoard of Directors, 1907-08, minutes of\nmeeting of, 42\nBoard of Directors, 1908-09, minutes of\nmeeting of, 44\nBoggs, L. Pearl. — Discussion, 931\nBolton, Frederick E, — Discussion, 146\nBONSER, Frederick G. — Some educational\ndeductions from the art of the great\nperiods, 813\nBotany notebook; what it should contain\nand how it should be made (M. H.\nStuart), 665\nBowen, W. P. — Discussion, 1018\nBowerman, George. — Discussion, 1086\nBrereton, Cloudsley S. H. — The problem of vocational education in London,\nBrett, William H.— The library of today\n58\nas compared\nwith the library of thirty\nyears ago, 1080\nBrooks, Stratton D. — Discussion, 279\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth.— Distinctive\nfunctions of university, college and\nnormal schools in the preparation of\nteachers, 457; Notes on the training of\nteachers of agriculture, 295; Possible\nco-operation between the educational\nassociations of different countries, 482;\nSome notes on agricultural education,\n1 199; ^ The work of women's organizations in education, 1218\nBrown, George P.— The physiology and\npsychology of elementary education, 544\nBrown, H. B.— The genius of business,\n872\nBrownlee, Jane.— A plan of moral training. 251\nBruce, William George,Secretary's Minutes,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDepartment\n1048\n\nof School\n\nAdministration,\n\nBrumbaugh, Martin G.— -Moral training\nin public schools; the problem stated,\n448; The function of education in a\ndemocracy, 82\nBrundage, Howard D. — Discussion, 166\nBruere,\nRobert W. — Physiological age\nand child-labor, 924\nBurnham, William\nH. — The\nscientific\nstudy of children, 908\nBurnite,\nCaroline — Secretary's\nMinutes,\nDepartment of the Library, 1080; Discussion, 1081\n664\nBusiness, The genius of, 872\nButler, William M. — What should the\nscience laboratory notebook\ncontain ?\nButterfield, Kenyon L. — Co-operation\nof state agricultural colleges and state\nnormal schools, 297\nBy whom\nshall teachers be selected?\n(Francis G. Blair), 264\nBy-Laws, adopted July 10, 1908, 5; Art,\nI, Membership, 5; Art. 2, Officers and\nCommittees, 6; Art, 3, Duties of Officers,\n6: Art. 4, Board of Directors, 7; Art. 5,\nNational Council of Education, 7; Art.\n6, Departments, 8; Art. 7, Meetings, 8';\nArt. 8, Announcements, 8\nCadwallader, Starr. — Discussion, 770\nCalendar of meetings, 10\nCampbell, Marion. — Discussion, 115 1\nCanfield,\nJames H. — The methods of\nadministering\npublic libraries for the\nbenefit of public schools, 1095\nCare of freshmen\nin large universities\n(Robert J. Aley), 680\nCarr, John W.-»-Moral training in public\nschools, the treatment of pupils, 449;\nSecretary's Minutes, National Council,\n322; The extent to which uniformity\nshould apply in state laws, 280\nCarr, W. L. — The teaching of ancient\nlanguages by modern methods, 645\nCarroll, C. F. — Discussion, 279\nCentralization of rural schools in Ohio,\nThe (E. A. Jones), 1054\nCertificate of incorporation, 8\nChadsey, C. E. — Report of discussion, 278\nChamberlain, James F. — Discussion, 984\nChamberlain, S. Belle — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\nChancellor,\nWilliam\nEstabrook. —\nDemocracy\nin education, 740\n544\nCharacter-building,\ninstrument of, 246, The\n249 school as an\nChavez,\nSenor\nEzequiel. — Greetings\nfrom The Republic of Mexico, 132\nCheney, Francis J.— Discussion, 737\nChild-citizenship\nson L. Gill), and\n285 the school city (WilChild-labor, Physiological age and, 924\nGaynor), 857\nChild-song:\nits' music (Mrs. Jessie L.\n\n"}
{"page": 1253, "printed_page": null, "text": "1241\nINDEX\nChild-song: its verse (Mrs. Alice C. D.\nRiley), 854\nChildren, Study of growth in, 913\nChild-study on the playground (George\nE. Johnson), 917; Discussion, 923\nChild-study, Recent advances in, 948\nChurch, Emma M. — A new basis of art\neducation, 827\nClark, Mrs. Frances Elliott. — Our\nnational music, 836\nClifford, W. N. — Discussion, 977\nCobalt, Mr. — Discussion, 591\nCollege, Avenues of usefulness for the small,\n696\nCollege ethics (Charles Fordyce), 675\nColleges, Relation of work of, to the\nmedical school, 686\nColleges and universities, Pedagogical departments in,691\nCommercial and industrial training in\ngrammar school, 888\nCommercial course, The high-school, 876\nCommercial teachers, Preparation and\nimprovement of, 895\nCommercial teachers, Preparation of, 902\nCommission of teachers to inspect European\nschools, 139\nCommittee on Nominations, list of, 30; report of, 35\nCommittee on Resolutions, list of, 29;\nReport of, 36\nCommittee on Nominations, Department\nof Superintendence, 129; Report of,\n132\nCommittee on Resolutions, Department of\nSuperintendence, 129; Report of, 136\nCoMPTON, L, M., Response. 11 55\nCompulsory school attendance in the South\n(Mrs. Herbert W. Mengel), 1229\nConditions of mental growth of teachers in\nservice (James M. Greenwood), 271\nConduct, Function of school in training\nfor, 232\nConservative and progressive phases of\nkindergarten education (Patty S. Hill),\nConstructive activities as an essential factor\nin536the elementary-school course (EuPHROSYNE Langley), 1 69; Discussion,\n172.\nConstructive activities in education, 772\nCook, George B. — Discussion, 311; Secretary'stendence,\nMinutes,\n137 Department of SuperinCook, John W. — Discussion, 278, 551\nCook, Mr. (Ohio) — Discussion, 624\nCook, Mr. (Pa.) — Discussion, 591\nCooLEY, Harris R. — Address of welcome,\nCooley, President,\nE. G., Resolutions concerning, 29\nCo-operation between United States Department of Agriculture and state school\nauthorities in promoting agricultural\neducation (Dick J. Crosby), 303; Discussion. 307\n\nCo-operation of state agricultural colleges\nand state normal schools (Kenyon L.\nButterfield),\n297; (Alfred Bayliss), 298;\nDiscussion, 299\nCo-ordination of the kindergarten and the\nelementary school (Mrs. Alice H. Putnam), 537; Discussion, 539\nCornell, Walter S. — Discussion, 1150\nCoRNMAN, Oliver P. — School cities, 289\nCosmopolitan\nhigh -school curriculums from\n614 standpoint\nthe\nof colleges of engineering\n(William T. Magruder), 599\nCosmopolitan high-schools, Curriculums for\n(Spencer R. Smith), 606; Discussion\nCotton, Fassett A. — How can trained\ncounty\nsuperintendents\nbe provided, 254;\nDiscussion,\n567\nCouncil of Education, The National, 313\nCourse\nof study, Opportunities for economy\nin, 138\nCourse of Study, Report of the Committee\non Six- Year, 625\nCounty superintendent, His relation to the\nschool board, 266; To the state superintendent, 268\nCounty superintendent. What can he lead\nthe people to do, 263\nCounty\nWhat he should\nknow, superintendent,\n252\nCounty superintendent, What he should see\nand do when inspecting schools, 260\nCounty\nsuperintendents.\nHow they should\nbe selected,\n254\nCounty269supervision, I, (J. W. Olsen), 252;\nII (Fassett A. Cotton), 254; III (G.\nG. JoYNEs), 260; IV (Lawton B.\nEvans), 263; V (Francis G. Blair),\n264; VI (A. C. Nelson), 266; VII (W.\nW. Stetson), 268; VIII (J. Y. Joyner),\n863\nCourse of study. Five-year engineering,\n1181\nCrabtree, J. W.^ — Discussion, 733\nCraig, Oscar J.— Liberal education in the\ntwentieth century, 670\nCrane, Julia E. — Round Table: Music,\nCrawford, William H. — ^The relation of\nthe work of the colleges to the work of\nthe medical school, 686\nCriticisms of the teaching of physical education (Charles F. Thwing) 1018;\nDiscussion, 1018\nCropsey, Miss N. — Discussion,«456\nCrosby, Dick J.— Co-operation between\nUnited States Department of Agriculture\nand state school authorities in promoting\nagricultural education, 303; Report to\nCommittee on Industrial Education in\nthe\nSchools\n(a) Waterford, Pa.; (&)\nCalvert,\nMd.,at395\nCurriculum, The frosmopolitan high-school\n606\nCurriculums of high schools from standpoint of engineering colleges, 599\n\n"}
{"page": 1254, "printed_page": null, "text": "1242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nry's Minutes, DeCurry, James S.— Secreta\npartment ofBusiness Education, 872\nCurtiss, C. F.— Discussion, 1207\nCusHMAN, Lillian S.— The art impulse,\nits early forms and relation to mental\ndevelopment, 515\nCulture, Art as a factor in, 803\nCulture element and economy of time, Report on need of investigation of, 466\nCulture studies, A shifting of ideals respecting the efficiency of, 584\nDavis, Benjamin Marshall. — What reconstitutes successful work in agricultu in\n11 88\nrural schools?\nDavis, Emma C. — Discussion, 539\nDavis, George S.— The supply of teachers\nand their training after appointment, 274\nDay, Edna D. — Discussion, 785\nDeclaration of Principles, Report of\nCommittee on, 36\nDeGarmo, Charles — Method of preparing teachers for commercial schools in\nGermany, 902\nDemocracy and education (James E.\nRussell), 155\nDemocracy in education (William EstaBROOK Chancellor),\n\n740\n\nDemonstration lessons with classes of\nIndian pupils, 11 66\nDepartment of Art Education, 799; of\nBusiness Education, 871; of Child\nStudy, 907; of Elementary Education,\n543; of Higher Education, 669; of\nIndian Education, 1153; of Kindergarten\nEducation, 501; of Library, 1079; of\nManual Training, 739; of Music Education, S35; of National Organizations of\nWomen, 121 7; of Normal Schools, 703;\nof Physical Education, 999; of Rural and\nIndustrial Education, 1187; of School\nAdministration, 1047; of Science Instruction, 965; of Secondary Education, 577;\nof Special Education, 11 13; of Superintendence, 129; of Technical Education, 11 75\nDesign, The use and abuse of, 526\nDevelopment of school gardens at the\nnational capital (Susan B. Sipe), 12 13\nDifferences among varying groups of\nchildren should be recognized; and the\nperiod at which this recognition takes\nplace may rationally constitute the beginnings ofsecondary education (David\n_S. Snedden), 752\nDistinctive functions of university, college,\nand normal school in the preparation of\nteachers (Elmer Ellsworth Brown),\n457; Discussion, 461\nDodd, A. E. — Discussion, 792\nDopp, Katharine E,— Equality of opportunity can be secured only by a systematic\nrecognition of individual differences in\nnative capacity and in prospective career,\n\n746 Andrew S.— Desirable uniformity\nDraper,\nand diversity in American education, 215;\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe adaptation of the schools to industry\nand efficiency, 65\nDrawing\nin the 523\nkindergarten (Mrs. Alice\nH. Putnam),\nDurell, Fletcher. — Discussion, 639\nDyer, F. B. — Discussion, 143\nEastman, Linda. — Discussion, 1086\nEconomy of time and culture element,\nReport on need of investigation of, 466\nEducation, Democracy in, 740\nEducation\nfor 56avocation (Nathan C.\nSchaeffer),\nEducation, Function of, in a democracy, 82\nEducation of the blind child with the seeing\nchild in the public school. The (Almeda\nAdams), 1137; Discussion, 1142\nEducation, Progress of, for the year, 326\nEducational associations of different countries, Co-operation between, 482\nEducational Organizations in other Countion\nwith,Report\n479of Committee on Co-operatries,\nHART), 859rhythm-training (Anna GoedEducational\nEducational system, Provision for vocational training most urgent need of,\n161\nEggers, George W. — Has art education\na place in an education for efficiency ?\n800; Discussion, 535\nElementary education, Physiology and\npsychology of, 544\nElementary and secondary education, Home\neconomics in, 486\nin? 553 schools. Are reading, arithElementary\nmetic and writing receiving due attention\nElementary schools, Geography in, 971\nElementary-school course. Constructive\nactivities an essential factor in, 169\nElementary-school work. Moral training\nan essential factor in, 562\nElements of strength and weakness in\nphysical education as taught in: I,\nColleges (G. Stanley Hall), 1013; II,\nPreparatory schools (R. B. Nason),\n1 01 9; III, Public schools (George\nWittich), 1024; Discussion, 1031\nEllis, Florence E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Art Education, 799\nElliott, Edward C. — How equality of\nopportunity can be secured, 159\nElson, W. H. — Discussion, 154, 279\nEmerson, Henry P. — Discussion, 279\nEmmerich, C. E. — Discussion, 622\nEncouragement of college education beyond\nhigh-school commercial course, 891\nEngineering\nAdmission requirements to,'IIcolleges.\n78\nEngineering degrees (Louis C. Monin),\nEnglish,\nschool, Ideals\n653, 656versus realities in highEnglish, Practical problems in the teaching of, 658, 661\nEnvironment, The factor of, 507\n\n"}
{"page": 1255, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nElliott),of 159\nEquality\nopportunity, ' (Edward C.\nEquality of opportunity: how it can be\nsecured (Katharine E. Dopp), 746;\nDiscussion, 751.\nEssential elements in the training of the\ncollege physical director and the publicschool physical director, The (J. W.\nSeaver), 1033\nEssential elements in the training of teachers\nof gymnastics (Marion B. Newton),\n1039; Discussion, 1044\nEthics, Practice of school, 102\nEvans, Charles. — Discussion, 11 94\nEvans,\n263 _ Lawton B. — What can the county\nsuperintendent\nlead the people to do?\nExceptional children, Report of provision\nfor, in public schools, 345\nExceptional children, The study of, 957\nExtent to which commercial and industrial\ntraining may properly be included in the\ngrammar-school\ncourse (H. M. Rowe),\n888\nFactor of environment. The\nTemple), 507\n\n(Alice\n\nFairchild, E. T. — Discussion, 191\nFalkner, Roland P. Announcement appointment ofteachers to inspect European\nschools, 130\nFamily, The school and the, 251\nFarrell, Elizabeth E, — ^The problems\nof the special class, 1131; Discussion,\n1142\n\nGarbutt,\nIrving\nR. —its\n^The\nhigh-school\ncommercial\ncourse:\nsubjects,\ntheir\npractical and educational value, 876\nGass,\nA. — Discussion, 260\nmusic,H. 857\nGaynor, Mrs. Jessie L. — Child-song: its\nGebhart, David R. — Round table: Music, 866\nGenthe, Martha Krug. — Home geography, 966\nGeography in the elementary schools (R.\nH. Whitbeck), 971; Discussion, 977\nGeography in the secondary schools\n(George D, Hubbard), 978; Discussion\nGeometry,\nTeaching of, 634\n984\nGibson, Carleton B. — ^The extent to\nwhich uniformity in state laws should\napply, 282; The industrial aspect of\nsocial life affords a varied and significant\nbody of subject-matter which is an\nessential element in a system of education controlled by social standards, 765\nGiles, Mr. — Discussion, 624\nGill,\nWilson\n— Child-citizenship and\nthe school\ncity,L.285\nGlenn,\nMrs. 251\nJohn M. — ^The school and\nthe family,\nGoddard, H. H. — Discussion, 11 26\ntraining, 859\nGoEDHART,\nAnna. — Educational rhythmGoodfellow, Maud A. — Discussion, 1094\nGordon, Malcolm Kenneth. — School\nathletics: what they are; what they\nshould be, 616\ntion, 644Position of, in language instrucGrammar,\n\nFarrington, Frederic E. — Report on provisions for abnormal children in various\nEuropean cities, 375\nFelmley, David. — How far should courses\nin normal schools and teachers' colleges\nseek to acquaint all teachers with the\nways of organizing and using school\nlibraries, 1087; Discussion, 735\nFive-year engineering course of study\n(A. Marston), 1181\nFoRDYCE, Charles. — College ethics, 675\nFoster, Clyde E. — Discussion, 867\nFrench, W. L. — Discussion, 11 96\nFreshmen, Care of, in large universities,\n680\nFrye, Milton. — Discussion, 1093\nFuLLERTON, C. A. — Round-table topic:\nMusic, 862\nFunction of education in a democracy (M.\nG. Brumbaugh), 82\nFunctions of the lecture demonstration in\nsecondary-school physics, The (Robert\nA. Millikan), 985; Discussion, 991\nFunction of the school in training for right\nconduct (Margaret E. Schallenberger), 232\nFunctions of the special class, The (E. R.\nJohnstone), 1114\nFundamental factors in the making of a\nkindergarten curriculum (Earl Barnes),\n\nHailmann, W. N. — Discussion, 535\nHall, G. Stanley. — Elements of strength\nand weakness in physical education as\ntaught in colleges, 1013; How far are the\nprinciples of education along indigenous\nlines applicable to American Indians ?\n1 161; Recent advances in child-study,\n948; The psychology of music and the\nlight it throws upon musical education,\n848; Discussion, 931\nKeith, 498\nHalsey,\nRufus Henry. — fjohn A. H.\n\nGaillard, Edwin White. — Discussion, 1097\n\nHarbold, P. M. — Discussion, 560\n\n502\n\nGrammar-school course, Commercial and\nindustrial training in, 888\nGreenwood, James M. — Conditions of\nmental growth of teachers in service, 271;\nMoral training in public schools: the\nhome\n1127 and school life, 452\nGrice, Mrs. Edwin C. — Discussion, 1237\nGriswold, Wells L. — Discussion, 591, 614\nGroszmann, M. P. E. — Discussion, 930,\nGuinn,\n1039 J. M. — Discussion, 259\nGuLiCK, Luther H. — How can the school\nmake contribution of permanent value\nto physical development? 195\nGymnastics,\nTraining\nof teachers of,\n\n"}
{"page": 1256, "printed_page": null, "text": "1244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nHarrington, Thomas F. — Medical inspection in public schools, 200\nHarris, W. T.— Report of Committee on\nCo-operation with Educational Organizations in other Countries, 479\nHarrison, Elizabeth.— Discussion, 535, 539,\nHarvey,\nLorenzo D, — President-elect,\n552\nclosing remarks, 31; Report of the Committee on Industrial Education in Schools\nfor Rural Communities, 385 ; Discussion,\n192\n\nHas art education a place in an education\nfor efficiency? (George W. Eggers),\n800\n\nHastings, William W. — Systematic training for the teaching of physical education, 1000\nHays, Willet M. — Industrial subjects in\nour public schools, 177\nHealthy school children, What England is\ndoing to secure, 952\nHeeter, S, L, — What opportunities are\noffered for economy in treating the course\nof study?\n138\nHerrick,\nCheesman a. — Preparation and\n8improvement\n95\nof commercial\nteachers,\nHewins, Caroline M. — Discussion, 1084\nHiGGONS, Mae B.— The use and abuse of\ndesign, 526\nHigh-school commercial course, Encouragement of college education beyond,\n891\nHigh -school commercial course: its subjects; their practical and educational\nvalue (Irmng R. Garbutt), 876\nHigh school, Music in the, 844\nHigh-school\nThe (Gilbert B.\nMorrison),situation.\n579\nHill, Joseph H. — Discussion, 726\nHill, Patty S.— Conservative and progressive phases of kindergarten education,\n536\nHitchcock,\nAlfred M.— Some practical\nproblems in the teaching of English,\n658\nHoffmann, R. H.— Horticulture and landscape gardening, 1164\nHolmes, Jr., W. H.— Discussion, 598\nHome and the special child, The (Jane\nAddams), 1 127\n\nHome economics in elementary and secondary education (Ellen H. Richards),\n486\nHome environment. Utilization of experience in, 1 156\nHome geography (Martha Krug Genthe)\n966, S. R.— Discussion,\nHoover\n894\nHorticulture and landscape gardening\n(R. H. Hoffmann), 1164\nHosic, James F.— Discussion, 732\nHow can the school make contribution of\npermanent value to phvsical developnt? (Luther H. Gulick), 195\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHow can trained county superintendents be\nDiscussion, (P'assett\n259\nprovided\nA. Cotton),\n254;\nHow far are the principles of education\nalong^ indigenous\nlines applicable to\nAmerican Indians ? (G. Stanley Hall)\n1161\n\nHow far should courses in normal schools\nand teachers' colleges seek to acquaint\nall teachers with the ways of organizing\nand using school libraries (David Felmley), 1087; Discussion, 1093\nHow shall w^e assist our pupils when and\nonly when they need it ? (H. E. Kratz),\n591; Discussion, 598\nHow to make the library more serviceable\nto students of school age from the superWolfe), 1099 intendent's view-point (Lloyd E.\nHowe, Charles S. — Address of welcome,\nHubbard, George D. — Geography in the\nsecondary schools, 978\nHughes,\nL. — Art as a factor in\nculture, James\n803\nIdeals versus realities in high-school English\n(Ernest 656\nC. Noyes), 653; (Sara Van\nMetre),\nImmigrant child. Public school and, 99\n52\nImportant function\nof constructive activities\nin education is to reveal the social significance of industrial activities (William\nNoyes), 772; Discussion, 778\nIndian, Progress of the, 11 59\nIndustrial art3 in normal schools (Homer\nH. Seerley), 710; Discussion, 713\nIndustrial and commercial training in grammar school, 888\nIndustrial aspect of social life affords subject-matter essential in our system of\neducation\nB. Gibson), 765;\nDiscussion, (Carleton\n770\nIndustrial development has exerted a preeminent influence in social progress (S.\nChester Parker), 757; Discussion, 763\nIndustrial\neducation, Administration of,\n1060\nIndustrial Education for Rural Schools,\nfor, 793 of Committee on, 385\nReport\nIndustrial education. Intermediate schools\nIndustrial training. Urgency of provision\nfor, 780\nInfluence\nindustrial development in social\nprogress,of 757\nInnovations in school architecture (Wilbur T. Mills) 1071\nIntermediate industrial schools as a requirement of a program of industrial education (Edgar S. Barney), 793\nIntermediate industrial school beginning\nMorse),\n173 school year (Charles H.\nat\nthe sixth\nIrons, Foster H. — Discussion, 751\nIs the technique of reading, arithmetic, and\nwriting receiving due attention in the\n\n"}
{"page": 1257, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nelementary schools to-day ? (J. H. Van\nSickle), 553; Discussion, 559\n1065 William B. — School architecture,\nIttner,\nJastrow, Joseph. — Discussion, 923\nJocelyn, Louis P. — Discussion, 590, 624\nJohnson, Alexander. — Discussion, 11 23\nJohnson, D. B. — Discussion, 714\nJOHNSON; George E. — Child-study on the\nplayground, 917\nJohnson, Martha J.— Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Physical Education, 1000\nJohnstone, E. R. — The functions of the\nspecial class, 11 14; Discussion, 384\nJones, E. A. — The centralization of rural\nschools in Ohio, 1054;\nAddress of welcome, II 54\nJones, Franklin T. — Discussion, 991\nJones, L. H. — Relation of observation to\npractice-teaching in the preparation of\nthe young teacher, 728\nJournal of proceedings, general sessions, 27\nJOYNER, J. Y. — ^The relation of the state\nsuperintendent\nto the county superintendent, 269\nJOYNES, G. G. — When inspecting schools,\nwhat\nshould\na county\nsuperintendent\nsee and do ? 260\nKeith, John A. H. — Address in memory\nof Rufus\nHenry\nHalsey,\n498;\nWhat\nrelation should the .head of theoretical\nand scientific education sustain to the\npractice school ? 723; Discussion,\n1044\nKelley, Mrs. Florence. — Laws for the\nchildren's\nwelfare:\noutline\nof ideal\nattainable\nin 1920, 1222;\nDiscussion,\nons\nicati\nn\nll,\nN. — Modif\nCalvi\nKenda 1\n93\nnecessary\nfor pupils of varying ability,\n147; Discussion, 278\nKern,\nO. J.— Report to Committee of\nIndustrial Education in: (a) The John\nSwaney School, Putnam County 111., 420;\n(&) The congressional district schools of\nGeorgia 431; Discussion, 447\nKindergarten\ncurriculum,\nFundamental\nfactors in the making of, 502\nKindergarten, Drawing in the, 523\nKindergarten\neducation.\nAn\noutline\nof\nconservative and progressive phases of,\nen\nm.\nrgart\nion etween\nb\nRelat\nprogra\nKinde 6\n3\n5\nideal\nand practical in, 511\nKirk, John R. — Discussion, 465\nKratz, H. E. — How shall we assist our\npupils when and only when they need it ?\nKrehbiel, Dr. — Discussion, 931\n591\nKreuzpointner, Paul. — Discussion, 61:;, 786\nKromer, Adolph. — The position of grammar in language-instruction, 644\nLandscape\ngardening. Horticulture and,\n1164\n\nLangley, Euphrosyne. — Constructive activities as an essential factor in the elementary-school course, 169\n\nLatin\nyear pupils.\n? 469 What can we do for the twoLaws for state uniformity: extent to which\nthey should apply, 280\nLaws for the children's welfare (Mrs.\nFlorence\nKelley), 1222; Discussion,\n1228\nLeavitt, Frank M. — Discussion, 172\nLeiter, Mrs. Frances W. — Questions\nsubmitted to Board of Directors, 48;\nDiscussion, 1031\nLe Seur, Bert M. — Discussion, 786\nLiberal education in the twentieth century\n(Oscar J. Craig), 670\nLibrary Department, 1079\nLibrary of to-day as compared with the\n, library of thirty years ago (William H.\nBrett), 1080; Discussion, 1081\nLiNDEMANN, AuGUST S. — Administration of\nindustrial education, state and municipal,\n1060\nLong, John A. — Discussion, 152\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram. — What is an ideal\ncourse for a normal school ? 715\nLyttle, Eugene W. — Report of the Committee on Six-Year Course of Study, 625;\nDiscussion, 615\nMacMurchy, Helen. — The visiting nurse\ntion, 936children requiring special attenand the\nMagruder, William T. — ^The cosmopolitan high-school curriculums from the\nstand-point\nof colleges of engineering,\n599\nManny, Frank A. — The place of art in a\nconstructive education, 820\nManual training. Relation of, to industrial\neducation, 786\nMarston, a. — Five-year engineering course\n\nof study, 1181\n\nMartin,\nGeorge\nschool, 176\n\nH. — A technical high\n\nMartindale, W. C. — Discussion, 279, 559\nMathematics in the grades (Robert J.\nAley), 569; Discussion, 575\n49\nMather, Samuel. — Address of welcome,\nMaxwell,\nWilliam\nH. — ^The personal\npower of the teacher in public-school\nwork, 116; Discussion, 280\nMcClure, Arnoldas H. — Discussion, loii\nMcCoNATHY,\nOsBOURNE. — Music in the\nhigh school, 844\nMcCowen, Mary. — Discussion, 11 25, 1142\nMcElroy,\nJames\nF. — Urgency\nof provision for vocational needs of children,\n161\nMcGilvrey, John E. — Discussion, 727\nMcKinney, Thomas\nK — The\nteaching\nof algebra in its relation to the present\neducational trend, 628\nMcNeill, I. C. — Report of Committee of\nInvestigation on' the Scarcity of Teachers\n333; Discussion 278, 575\nMedical inspection in the public schools\n\n"}
{"page": 1258, "printed_page": null, "text": "1246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nF. Harrington), 200; Discussion, 210\nMembers of National Council, Report of\nCommittee on, 45\nMemorial addresses, 492\n(Thomas\n\nMengel, Mrs. Herbert W.— Compulsory\nschool attendance in the South, 1229\nMental development, Relation of art impulse to, 515\nMental and moral deficiency, What the\nregular-class teacher should know of, 943\nMentally defective children, 1143\nMessage of greeting from Santiago, Chile,\nS. A, 39\nMethod of preparing teachers form comercial schools in Germany (Charles\nDe Garmo), 902\nMethods of administering public libraries\nfor the benefit of public schools (James\nH. Canfield), 1095; Discussion, 1097\nMiller, Charles A. A. J.— ^The study of\n■ exceptional children, 957\nMillikan, Robert I. — ^The function of the\nlecture demonstration in secondaryschool physics, 985\nMills, Wilbur T. — Innovations in school\narchitecture, 1071\nMinutes of meeting of Board of Directors,\n1907-08, 42\nMinutes of meeting of the new Board of\nDirectors, 1908-09, 44\nModern languages, Objective aids in\nteaching, 640\nModifications necessary for pupils of varying abihty (Calvin N. Kendall), 147;\nDiscussion, 152\n1175\nMonin,\nLouis C. — Engineering degrees,\nMoore, E. C. — Discussion, 210\nMoore, Mrs. PhiHp N. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of National Organizations of Women, 1 2 18\nMoral training, A plan of, 251\nMoral training an essential factor in elementary school work (R. R. Reeder),\n562; Discussion, 567\nMoral Training in Public Schools, Report\nof Committee on, 448\nMoran, Selby a.— The teaching of shorthand, 881\nMorrison, Gilbert B.— The high-school\nsituation, 579; Discussion, 615\nMorse, Charles H.— An industrial school\nbeginning at sixth school year, 173; The\nmost urgent educational need of today\nis provision for industrial training in\npublic schools, 780\nMotive and method in primary art work\n(Beatrice Weller), 531; Discussion,\n535\nMurray, M. W.— The relation of manual\ntraining to industrial education, 786\nMusic in the high school (Osbourne McConathy), 844\nMusic in the schools from the viewpoint\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof the superintendent\n(William McKendree Vance), 840\nMusic, Our national, 836\nMusic, Psychology of, 848\nNash, G. W. — Discussion, 720\nNason, R. B. — Elements of strength and\nweakness in physical education as taught\nin preparatory schools, 1019\nNation, Negro education and the, 87\nNational Civic Federation, appointment of\nteachers to inspect European schools, 139\nNational Council of Education, Constitution, 313; Officers for 1908-9, 315; Members, 316; Secretarys Minutes, 318\nNational Council, Report of Committee to\nNominate New Members, 45\nNational resources. Proposed work of commission for conservation of, 78\nNatural resources. Preservation of, 992\nNegro education and the nation (Booker\nT. Washington), 87\nNelson, A. C. — The relation of the county\nsuperintendent to the school board, 266\nNew 1039\nbasis of art education, A (Emma M.\nChurch), 827\nNewton, Marion B. — Essential elements\nin the training of teachers of gymnastics,\nNominating Committee, 30\nNormal school in education, Status of the,\nfor?\n715\nNormal school, W^hat is an ideal course\n704\nNormal schools, Industrial arts in, 710\nNoYES, Ernest C. — Ideals versus realities\nin high-school English, 653\nNoYES, William. — ^The important function of constructive activities in education is to reveal the social significance of\nindustrial activities, 772\nNurse, The visiting, 936\nNurture and protection of physical wellbeing of public-school pupils, I (Luther\nH. GuLicK,),\nrington), 200195; II (Thomas F. HarObjective aids in teaching modern languages\n(Ernst L. Wole), 640\nObservation, Relation of, to practiceteaching in preparation of the young\nteacher, 728\nOfficers for 1907-08, 12\nOfficers for 1908-09, 16\nOlsen, J. W. — What a county superintendent should know, 252\nO'Neil, CordeHa L. — Discussion, 1083\nOpportunities for economy in treating the\ncourse of study (S. L. Heeter), 138;\nDiscussion,\n143\nOpportunity, equality of, 746\nOpportunity,\nsecured, 159 How equality of, may\n\nbe\n\nOrganization, Modifications in, for pupils of\nvarying ability, 147\nOrr, Charles. — School gardening as\nconducted in Cleveland schools, 1209\nOviatt, Grace. — Discussion, 1082\n\n"}
{"page": 1259, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nPalmer,\n\nLuella A. — The relation between the ideal and the practical in the\nkindergarten program, 511\n\nParker, S. Chester. — Industrial development lias exerted a pre-eminent influence\nin social progress, 757\nParsons, H. N. — Discussion, 1098\nPearse, Carroll G. — Discussion, 280, 785\nPedagogical departments in colleges and\nuniversities (David S. Snedden), 691\nPersonal power of the teacher in public\nschool work (William H. Maxwell),\n116\nPersonal touch in teaching (Andrew\nWest), 108\n\nF.\n\nPhillips, J. H. — Discussion, 294\nPhysical basis of attention, The (Winthrop\nT. Talbot), 932\nPhysical\ndevelopment.\nHow\ncan school\ncontribute to?\n195\nPhysical\ndirector. Training\nfor, of (a)\ncollege; (6) public school, 1033\nPhysical\neducation,\nCriticisms\nof\nthe\nteaching of, 1018\nPhysical education. Elements of strength\nand weakness in, 1013\nPhysical education in preparatory schools,\n1 01 9; In public schools, 1024\nPhysical\neducation.\nSystematic\ntraining\nfor, 1000\nPhysical education. Training for teacher\nof, 1006\nPhysics in secondary schools, 985\nPhysiological age and child-labor (Robert\nW. Bruere), 924; Discussion, 930\nPhysiology and psychology of elementary\neducation\n(George\nP. Brown),\n544;\nDiscussion, 551\n' Place of art in a constructive education\n(Frank A. Manny), 820\nPlace of industries in public education, I\n(James E. Russell), 155; II (Edward\nC. Elliott), 159; III (James F. Mc\nElROY),\n161;\nIV (EUPHROSYNE\nLANGley), 168; V (Charles H. Morse),\n173; VI (George H. Martin), 176\nPlan of moral training (Jane Brownlee),\n251\nPlayground, Child-study on the, 917\nPoland, Addison. — IDiscussion, 278\nPosition of grammar in language-instruction (Adolph Kromer), 644\nPossible co-operation between the educational associations of different countries\n(Elmer Ellsworth Brown), 482;\nDiscussion, 484\nPower, Effie L. — How to make the library\nmore serviceable to students of school\nage, 1 1 04\nPractical problems in the teaching of\nE^nglish (Alfred M. Hitchcock), 658;\n(Genevieve Apgar), 661\nPreparation and improvement of commercial teachers (Cheesman A. Herrick), 895; Discussion, 901\n\nPreparation\nschools, 902of teachers for commercial\nPreparation of teachers. Functions of\n457\nuniversity, college, and normal school in,\nPresident's address. Department of Art\nEducation (George W. Eggers), 800;\nDepartment of Business Education (H.\nB. Brown), 872; Department of Child\nStudy, (William H. Burnham), 908;\nDepartment of Music Education (Mrs.\nFrances Elliott Clark), 836; Department of Normal Schools (A. O.\nThomas), 704; Department of School\nAdministration (William O. Thompson)\n1048; Department of Special Education,\n1 1 14; Department of Technical Education (Louis C. Monin), 1175\nPresident's address. National Council of\nEducation (Joseph Swain), 323\nPreservation of the natural resources of the\nUnited States (Herbert A. Smith),\nPrimary art work, Motive and method in,\nPrinciples and methods of pupil-government, I (Wilson L. Gill), 285; II\n(Oliver\nP. Cornman), 289\n992\nProblem of vocational education in London\n(Cloudsley S. H. Brereton), 58\n531 of the special class. The (ElizaProblem\nbeth E. Farrell), 113 1\nProgress of education for the year. The\n(Charles F. Thwing), 326\nProgress the Indian is making toward citiSeger), zenship\nII 59and self-support (John H.\nProposed work of commission for conservaof national\nVan tion\nHise),\n78 resources (Charles R.\nProvision for industrial training in public\nschools is the most urgent educational\nneed of today (Charles H. Morse),\n780; Discussion, 785\nPsychology of music and the light it throws\nupon musical education (G. Stanley\nHall), 848\nPublic libraries. Administering, for benefit\nof public schools, 1095\nPublic library, How to make, more serviceable to students of school age from (a)\nsuperintendent's view-point, 1099; {h)\nLibrary worker's view-point, 1104; Discussion, mo\nPublic school and the immigrant child\n(Jane Addams), 99\nPublic school and the special child. The\n(Earl Barnes), 1118; Discussion, 11 23\nPublic schools. Agriculture and home\neconomics in, 177\nPublic schools. Medical inspection in, 200\nPupils of varying ability, Modifications\nnecessary for, 147\nPutnam, Mrs. Alice H. — Drawing in the\nkindergarten,\n523;\nThe\nco-ordination\n\n"}
{"page": 1260, "printed_page": null, "text": "1248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDV CATION\n\nof the kindergarten and the elementary\nschool, 537; Discussion, 515\nQuestions presented to Board of Directors\n(Mrs. Frances W. Leiter), 48\nRau, Ernest E.— Secretary's Minutes, Department ofSecondary Education, 579\nRecard, Mr. — Discussion, 024\nRecent advances in child-study (G. Stanley\nHall), 948\nReception, Address at White House, 212\nReconcilement\nof cross-purposes\nin the\neducation\nof women\n(Sarah\nLouise\nArnold), 93\nReeder, R. R. — Moral training an essential\nfactor in elementary-school work, 562\nReel,\nEstelle — Response, 1155;\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of Indian\nEducation, 1154\nRelation between the ideal and the practical\nin the kindergarten program\n(Luella\nA. Palmer), 511; Discussion, 515\nRelation of the county superintendent to\nthe school\nboard\n(A. C. Nelson),\n266\nRelation of the county superintendent to\nthe state superintendent (W. W. Stetson), 268\nRelation of manual training to industrial\neducation (M. W. Murray), 786; Discussion, 792\nRelation of observation to practice-teaching in the preparation\nof the young\nteacher (L. H. Jones), 728; Discussion,\nRelation\n732 of the state superintendent to the\n269\ncounty superintendent (J. Y. Joyner),\nRelation of the work of the colleges to the\nwork of the medical school (William\nH. Crawford), 686\nReport of Committee on Co-operation with\nEducational\nOrganizations\nin\notherCountries (W. T. Harris, chairman),\n479\nReport of Committee on Declaration of\nPrinciples, 36\nReport of the Committee on Industrial\nEducation in Schools for Rural Communities (Lorenzo D. Harvey), 385\nReport on need of investigation of the\nculture element and economy of time in\neducation (James H. Baker), 466\nReport of Board of Trustees, 2 2\nReport of Committee of Investigation on\nthe Scarcity of Teachers (I. C. McNeill,\nchairman), 333; Discussion, 344\nReport of Committee on Juvenile Educational Conference, 39\nReport of Committee on Moral Training in\nPublic Schools:\nI, The problem stated\n(Martin G. Brumbaugh), 448; II, The\ntreatment of pupils (J. W. Carr), 440;\nIII, The home and school life (J. M.\nGreenwood),\n452;\nIV, Relation\nof\nmoral and religious training (Clifford\nW. Barnes), 453; Discussion, 456\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nsity, 34\nReport of Committee\n\non National Univer-\n\nReport of Committee on Nominations, 35\nReport of Committee on Preparation and\nQuaHfication of Teachers of Elementary\nand High Schools (C. C. Van Liew,\nchairman), 735; Discussion, 735\nReport\nof Committee\non Provision\nfor\nExceptional\nChildren\nin the\nPublic\nSchools (James H. Van Sickle, chairman), 345; Discussion,\n384;\nList of\navailable\narticles on the subject, 359;\nSpecial classes in: St. Louis, 360; New\nYork, 361; Extract from report of 1904,\n369; 1906, 372; 1907, 373; Berlin openair school, 374;\nAbnormal children —\nhow dealt with in: France, 375; Belgium,\n378; Holland, 380\nReport of Committee of Seven to the Department ofTechnical Education (Fred\nW. Atkinson, chairman), 1158\nReport of Committee on Six- Year Course\nof Study (Eugene W. Lyttle), 625\nReport of Treasurer, 21\nRepublic of Mexico, Greetings from (Senor\nE. Chavez), 132\nResolutions\nCooley, 29concerning absence of President\nResolution for use of simplified spelling, 39\nResolutions of thanks, etc., 38\nResponses to address of welcome Department of Indian Education (L. M. Compton), (Estelle Reed), 1155\nReview of certain features of the year in\nschool\nadministration\n(William\nO.\nThompson), 1048\nRhythm-training. 859\nRichards,\nEllen H. — Home economics\nin elementary and secondary education,\nits verse,\nRiley,\nMrs.854 Alice\n\nC.\n\nD.— Child-song:\n\nRoark, R. N. — Discussion, 719\n486\nRoberts,\nWilliam E. — Discussion, 165\nRockwell, Harriet D. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education,\nRoosevelt,\nPresident\nTheodore. —\nAddress at the reception at the White\nHouse, 212\nRose, C. E. — Discussion, 624\nRound-table conferences, 628\n502\nRound-table:\nEnglish, 653; Foreign\n\nlanguages, 640; Library, 1080; Mathematics, 628; Music, 862; Public libraries\n1095; Science, 664\nRound tables: State and county superintendents, 252; Superintendents of larger\ncities, 271; Superintendents of smaller\ncities, 280; Agricultural education, 294\nRowe,\nH. M.— To\nwhat extent may a\ncommercial\nand industrial\ntraining be\nproperly\nincluded\nin the\ngrammarschool course ? 888\nRudolph, Adelaide. — Discussion, 1151\nRural schools. Centralization of, 1054\n\n"}
{"page": 1261, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nRural Schools, Report of Committee on\nIndustrial Education for, 385\nRussell, James E. — Democracy and education, 155; Discussion, 463\nRynearson, Edward. — Discussion, 901\nSargent, Dudley Allen. — Training necessary for teachers of physical education in public schools, 1006\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C. — Acting president,\nclosing remarks, 31; Education for avocation, 56; Discussion, 259\nSCHALLENBERGER,\nMARGARET\nE. — The\nfunction of the school in training for\nright conduct, 232\nSchool administration, 1048\nSchool and the family (Mrs. John M.\nGlenn), 251\nSchool and the practice of ethics (Ella\nFlagg Young), 102\nSchool, An intermediate industrial, 173\nSchool architecture, Innovations in, 107 1\n1065 architecture (William B. Ittner),\nSchool\nSchool as an instrument of characterbuilding. The: I (Reed B. Teitrick),\n246; II (Henry G. Williams), 249\nSchool, A technical high, 176\nSchool athletics: what they are what they\nshould be (Malcolm Kenneth Gordon), 616; Discussion, 622\nSchool attendance in the South, 1228\nSchool cities (Oliver P. Cornman), 289;\nDiscussion, 294\nSchool city. Child-citizenship and the, 285\nSchool gardening as conducted in Cleveland schools (Charles Orr), 1209\nSchool gardens at Washington, 12 13\nSchool libraries, Extent to which teachers\nshould be trained in use of, 1087\nSchools, Adaptation of, to industry and\nefficiency, 65\nSchools, Music in, from superintendent's\nview-point, 840\nScience laboratory notebook: what it should\ncontain, 664\nScientific education. Its relation to the\npractice school, 723\nScientific study of children. The (William\nH. BURNHAM), 908\nSeaton, Geo. A. — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofManual Training, 740\nSeaver, J. W. — The essential elements in\nthe training of the college physical\ndirector and the public-school physical\ndirector, 1033\nSeerley, Homer H. — Industrial arts in\nnormal schools, 710; Discussion,\n11 10\nSecondary education, Period at which,\nmay rationally begin, 752\nSecondary schools. Geography in, 978\nSecretary's minutes, Department of Art Education, 799; of Business Education, 87 1 ;\nof Child Study, 907; of Elementary Education, 543; of Higher Education, 669;\nof Indian Education, 1153; of Kindergarten Education, 501; of Library Ad-\n\nministration, 1079; of Manual Training,\n739; of Music Education, 835; of\nNational Council, 318; of National\nOrganizations of Women, 1217; of\nNormal Schools, 703; of Physical\nEducation, 999; of Rural and Indus1175trial Education, 1187; of School Administration, 1047; of Science Instruction,\n965; of Secondary Education, 577; of\nSpecial Education, 11 13; of Superintendence, 129; of Technical Education,\nthe Indian is\nSeger, John H. — Progre\ns\nselfand\ncitizen s\ntowa\nmaki\nship\nsupponrgt 1 159,rd\n,\n279\nJ. A. — Discus\nShawan\nsio\n,\n1\n— Discusn,\nR\nShepar\nsion, 085\nd, hoda.\nE. B. — What the regula class\nSherm\nof mentalr and\nknow\ntmeoachaenr,d should\nral eficien\ncy, 943\nthe efficie\nof ideals respec\nShifti\nn\nt\nn\nof fogrmal culture studiesingfor all pupils, cyA\n584; Discus\nBishop\n(J. Remso\nsion,\nn\n),\n\nShorthand, The teaching of, 881\nShould the teacher of physical education in\npublic schools have the training of a\nphysical director or that of a physician ?\n(Dudley\nAllen Sargent), 1006; Dis590 cus ion,on\nI\nSignificance of industrial aspect of social\nlife in present system of education, 765\nSiPE, Susan B. — Development of school\ngardens\n1143 at the national capital, 12 13\nSmall, Walter H. — Discussion, 278\nSmart, Isabelle Thompson. — Some\nurgent needs for advancement in the education of mentally\ndefective children,\nSmith, Anna Tolman. — Discussion, 484\nSmith Jennie C. — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofSpecial Education, 11 14\nSmith, Herbert A. — Preservation of the\nnatural\nresources of the United States,\n624\nSmith, Spencer R. — The cosmopolitan\nhigh-school curriculum, 606; Discussion,\nSnedden, David S. — DifTerences among\nvarying groups of children should be\n992\nrecognized, 752; Pedagogical departments in colleges and universities, 691;\nDiscussion, 590, 615\nSocialization of the schools. The, 1231\nSoldan,\nF. Louis. — tBen Blewett, 492\nSome avenues of usefulness for the small\ncollege (Wallace N. Stearns), 696\nSome educational deductions from the art\nof\nthe great\nBonser),\n813 periods (Frederick G.\nSome notes on agricultural education\n(Elmer Ellsworth Brown), 1199\nSome urgent needs for advancement in the\neducation of mentally defective children\n(Isabelle Thompson Smart), 1143;\nDiscussion, 1148\n\n"}
{"page": 1262, "printed_page": null, "text": "12 so\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\ncertain features of the year in school\nadministration, 1048;\nResponse to address of welcome, 54\n\nSpecial child, The home and the, 1127\nSpecial child. The public school and the,\n1118\nSpecial class, Functions of the, 11 14\nSpecial class, Problems of the, 1131\nState schools, Co-operation of normal and\nagricultural, 297\nState superintendent, Relation of, to\ncounty superintendent, 269\nStearns, Wallace N. — Some avenues of\nusefulness for the small college, 696\nStetson, W. W. — The relation of the\ncounty superintendent to the state superintendent, 268\nStewart, William M. — Discussion, 299\nStockwell, Walter L.— Discussion, 259\nStone, John C. — Discussion, 632\nStraus, Esther. — Discussion, 1099\nStuart, M. H. — What the botany notebook should contain and how it should be\nmade, 665\nStudy of exceptional children. The\n(Charles A. A. J. Miller), 957\nStudy of growth in children. The (John M.\nTyler), 913\nSunday services, list of topics, 27\nSuperintendence, Department of, 129\nSupply of teachers and their training after\nappointment (George S. Davis), 274;\nDiscussion, 278\nSwain, Joseph. — President's address, National Council of Education, 323\nSystematic training for the teaching of\nphysical education (William W. Hastings)), 1000\nTalbot, Winthrop T.— The physical\nof attention, 932; Discussion, 923\nTeacher, Personal power of, in publicschool work, 116\nTeaching of algebra in its relation to the\npresent educational trend, The (Thomas\nK. McKinney), 628; Discussion, 632\nTeaching of ancient languages by modern\nmethods (W. L. Carr), 645\nTeaching of geometry in its relation to the\npresent educational trend (William\nBetz), 634; Discussion, 638\nTeaching of shorthand. The (Selby A.\nMoran), 881\nTeaching, Personal touch in, 108\n264\nTeachers\nshall be selected, By whom?\n\nTeachers, Conditions of mental growth of,\n271\nTeachers of agriculture. Training of, 295\nTeachers, Supply of, and training after\nappointment, 274\nTechnical high school (George H. Martin), 176\nTeitrick, Reed B.— The school as an\nmstrument of character-building, 246\nTemple, Alice.— The factor of environment, 507\nThomas, A. O.— The status of the normal\nschool in education, 704\nThompson,\nWilliam\nO. — A review\nof\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThwing,\nCharles\nF.— Criticisms\nof\nthe teaching of physical education, 1018;\nThe progress of education for the year,\nTo\n\nwhat extent should state uniformity\nlaws apply to cities in respect to courses\nof study, textbooks, and methods in (a)\nelementary schools;\n(&) high schools?\nI (John W. Carr), 280; II (Carleton\nB. Gibson),\n282\n326\nTraining necessary for teacher of physical\neducation in public. schools, 1006\nTraining\nof teachers of agriculture (Elmer\nEllsworth\nBrown), 295\n\nTreasurer's report, 21\nTrue,\nA.\nC. — What\nis agricultureelementary,\nsecondary,\nand collegiate ?\n1202; Remarks on topic: Preparation of\nteachers for agricultural education, 294\nTrustee's annual report, 22\nTwenti\nLiberal education in\nthe, eth\n670 century.\nTwiggs, Pemberton J.— What shall be\ndone\nto encourage\ncollege education\nbeyond the commercial course in high\nschools ? 891\nin childJohn\nren, 913\nTyler,\nM.— The\n\nstudy of growth\n\nin\ndesirable\ndiversity\nand\nUniformity\nAmerican\nper), 215 education (Andrew S. DraUrgency of adequate provision for vocational needs of children (James F. McElroy)\n161; Discussion, 165\nand abus526\nUseHiGGONS),\ne of design. The (Mae B.\n\nUtilization of experience in home environment (Ella Flagg Young), 1156\nVan Adestine, Gertrude. — Discussion, 1148\nVance,\nWilliam\nMcKendree. — Music\nin the schools from the view-point of the\nsuperintendent, 840\nVan Hise, Charles R. — Proposed work\nfor conservation of national resources, 78\nVan Liew, C. C— Report of Committee\non Preparation\nand\nQualification\nof\nElementary and High-School Teachers,\n735\nVan Metre, Sara. — Ideals versus realities\nin high-school English, 656\nVan Sickle, J. H. — Is the technique of\nreading, arithmetic, and writing receiving due attention\nin the elementary\nschools today ? 553; Preliminary report\nof Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools, 345\nVisiting nurse and the children requiring\nMurchy),\n936\nspecial attention.\nThe\n(Helen\nMacVocational\nin London,education.\n58\n\nThe\n\nproblem\n\nof,\n\nWashington, Booker T. — Negro education and the nation, 87\n\n"}
{"page": 1263, "printed_page": null, "text": "1251\nINDEX 664\nWeller, Beatrice. — ^Motive and method\nin primary art work, 531\nWest, Andrew F. — ^The personal touch\nin teaching, 108\nWest, Henry S. — Discussion, 280\nWestwood,\nR. H., Address of welcome,\n1154\n\nshould\na county superint\nWhat\nknow (J. W. Olsen), 252endent\nWhat a county superintendent should see\nand do when inspecting schools (G. G.\nJOYNES), 260\n\nWhat\n263 can the county superintendent lead\nthe people to do ? (Lawton B. Evans)\nWhat can we do for the two-year Latin\npupil? (Julia P. Benson) 649\nWhat constitutes successful work in\nagriculture in rural schools? (Benjamin Marshall Davis) 1188; Discus ion, 1 94\nWhat England is doing to secure healthy\nschool children (Earl Barnes), 952\nWhat is agriculture — elementary, secondary\nand collegiate? (A. C. True), 1202;\nDiscussion, 1207\nWhat is an ideal course for a normal school ?\n(Eliphalet Oram Lyte), 715; Discussion, 719\nWhat relation should the head of theoretical\nand scientific education sustain to the\npractice school? (John A. H. Keith),\n723; Discussion, 726\nWhat should be done to encourage college\neducation beyond the commercial course\nin high schools ? (Pemberton J. Twiggs),\n891; Discussion, 894\nWhat should be expected from the normal\nschool in the preparation of the grade\nteacher for teaching music, and also\nof the supervisor ? I (C. A. Fullerton),\n862;\n867 II (Julia E. Crane), 863; III\n(David R. Gebhart), 866; Discussion,\n\nWhat\nthe science\nlaboratory\nnote-'\nbook should\ncontain?\n(William\nM. Butler)\nWhat the regular class teacher should\nknow of mental and moral deficiency\n(E. B. Sherman), 943\nWhitbeck, R. H. — Geography in the\nelementary schools, 971\nWhiteford, J. A. — Discussion, 279\nWillard, E. C. — Discussion, 294\nWilliams, Henry G. — ^The school as\nan instrument of character-building, 249;\nSecretary's\nMinutes,\nDepartment of\nNormal\nSchools,\n704\nWilliston, Arthur S. — Discussion, 763\nWittich, George. — Elements of strength\nand weakness in physical education as\ntaught in public schools, 1024\nWolf, Ernst L. — Objective aids in teaching modern languages, 640\nWolfe,\nLloyd\nE. — How to make the\nlibrary more serviceable to students of\nschool\nage 1099\nfrom the superintendent's\nview-point,\nWomen,\nReconcilement\nof cross-purposes\nIn education\nof, 93\nWomen's organizations in education, 12 18\nWomen's work in the socialization of the\nschools (Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum),\n1 231; Discussion, 1237\nWood, Herbert C. — Discussion, 591\nWork of the normal school in preparing\nteachers to teach agriculture: I (Charles\n1198\nEvans), 1194; II (W. L. French),\nWork of women's organizations in education: suggestions for effective co-operation (Elmer Ellsworth Brown), 12 18\nYoung, Ella Flagg. — ^The school and the\npractice of ethics, 102; Utilization of\nexperience in home environment, 11 56\nZuEBLiN,\nCharles.\non industry,\n808 — ^The bearing of art\n\n"}
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{"page": 1265, "printed_page": null, "text": "13\nL\nN3A13\n1908\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and procedings., .\n\nPLEASE DO\nCARDS\n\nNOT\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"}
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