{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1907natiuoft\n\n"} {"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n .\n.\n669\nOriginal Demonstrations in Geometry —\nI. Purpose, Nature, and Method of Presentation — Durell\n.\n.\n.671\nII. Time of Introduction and Limitations — McPherron ....\n675\nC. History—\nThe Notebook: Its Value and Its Limitations — Mrs. Atkinson\n.\n.\n.\n676\nPlace of Modern History in the High-School Curriculum — Miller .\n.\n678\nD. Science —\nValue and Limitations of Quantitative Work in Physics and Chemistry — Bush\n684\nThe Use of the Microscope in Biology Classes —\nI. Purpose of Work with the Microscope — W. M. Kern\n.\n.\n.\n688\nII. Purpose of the Microscope — Lillard\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.691\nIII. Kinds of Microscope Work for High-School Students — Wegener\n.\n693\nIV. Microscopic Projection in Biology — Wright\n.....\n697\nRelation of High Schools to Industrial Life — Lyttle ......\n698\nMeaning and Function of Manual Training — J. S. Brown\n.\n.\n.\n.701\nManual Training in Rural Schools of Indiana — Rohey\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.705\nReport of Committee on Equal Division of Twelve Years in PubUc Schools between\nDistrict and High Schools — Morrison\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n-705\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nPreparation of High-School Teachers —\nI. From Standpoint of the Normal School — Hill\nII. From Standpoint of the University — Lange\n.\nThe Care of Freshmen — Thompson .\n.\n.\nReligious Education in State Universities — Stearns\n.\nAppendix — University-College Afl&Uation Idea in Canada\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.711\n\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.....\n\n.\n.\n.\n.\n\n.712\n.718\n.723\n.729\n735\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n• .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nIssues Confronting Normal Schools of the United States — Kirk ....\nPedagogical Laboratory in Scientific Study of Education — Clark .\n.\nAgriculture in Normal Schools — Balcomb\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\n.\n.\n\n739\n740\n747\n752\n\nTRAINING\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nDevelopment of Course of Study in Manual Training —\nI. From Point of View of Teacher of Manual Arts — Ahrens\n\n759\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n760\n\n"} {"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nVll\n\nII. From Point of View of Child-Study — Dresslar\n....\nIII. From Point of View of School Superintendent — Keyes\n.\nRelation of Industrial Education to Public Instruction:\nIntroduction — Leavitt\n......\n\n804\n\nI. Manual Training versus Industrial Training in High School — Johnson\nII. Can School Life of Pupils Be Prolonged ?— Burks ....\nIndustrial Training as Viewed by a Manufacturer — Alexander\n.\nRational Art and Manual Training in Rural Schools — Eastmond\nManual Training in Indian Schools — Friedman .....\nRelation of Primitive Handicraft to Present-Day Educational Problems — Miss\nHodge\n............\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART\n\n81S\n787\n\n766\n771\n778\n780\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n821\nAims of Art Education in the Public Schools — Colhy\n822\nRelation of Art Education to Everyday Life — From the Culture Side — Miss Scohey 825\nRelation of Art Education to Everyday Life — From the Utilitarian Side — A. H.\nChamberlain\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.831\nUniversity Entrance Credits in Drawing — Clark\n......\nObject Drawing — Miss Lowd ..........\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\n.\n.\n\n894 899\n878\n\n890\n\nOF CHILD-STUDY\n\nTraining of the Child's Emotional Life — Suzzallo\n......\nContributions of Twenty-five Years of Child-Study — Dresslar\n.\n.\nDependent and Delinquent Children in the Home Environment — Stableton\nPlan for Health and Development Inspection — Leslie\nDEPARTMENT\n\n849 877\n851\n856, 862 8\n83\n865\n.872\n884\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n......\nCourses of Study and Preparation of Teachers — Rowe\nPresent Standards of Commercial Instruction — Ferguson\nPreparation of Commercial Teachers — H. B. Brown\nMethods of Improving Commercial Teachers — Weber\nCo-ordination of Individual and Class Instruction — Showers\nRelation Between General and Commercial Education — Green\nDEPARTMENT\n\n838\n843\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nThe Ideal Supervisor — Ripley\nVitalizing of the Child thru Song — I. Miss Carpenter; II. Mrs. Clark\nFree Musical Education a Necessity — Miss Thomas ......\nMusic Terminology Reform — Rice .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nDEPARTMENT\n\n796\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\n.\n.\n\n905\n.910\n.\n914\n922\n\nTRAINING\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.......\nPhysical Training and School Physiology — Hastings\nOrganization and Administration of Athletics — Hetherington\nRelation of Music to Physical Education — Miss Johnson\n.\nWhat Can Physical Training Do for the Teacher ?— Shafer\n\n925\n925\n\n"} {"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nVIU\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nPhysics in Secondary Sc\\ioo\\s—Almy\nDEPARTMENT\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n959\n\n.........\nLIBRARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.......\nPreparation of Librarians for Public-School Libraries — Johnson\nInstruction in Contents and Use of Libraries — Miss Sullivan\nThe Librarian as a Teacher — Wilkinson ....\nHow the Teacher Can Help the Librarian — Miss Jacobus .\nHow Can the Librarian Aid the Teacher ?— Edwards\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\n967\n\n974\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n'\n.\n.\nThe Aims of Special Education — Mclver\n.......\nWhy Wisconsin Believes in Public Day-Schools for the Deaf — Jack\n.\n.\nSelf-Support — Driggs\nTraining of the Incorrigible — Gates .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF INDIAN\n\nAddress — Chairman Leupp\n.\n.\n.\nAddress — E. E. Brown\n.\nCorrelating Arithmetic and Carpentry — Gates\nPrimary Lesson in Gardening — Miss Darnell\nDEPARTMENT\n\n.\n.\n.\n\n983\n984 972\n986\n990 978\n995\n\n.\n.\n.\n\n.1001\n. 1002\n.1002\n1003\n1005\n1007\nloio\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.......\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n\n.\n\n.1015\n1022\n10251\n037\n.1027\n\nCONFERENCE\n.\n\n.\n\nOF TECHNICAL\n\n.\n\n.\n\nTRAINING\n\n103 1\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nScope of the Department of Technical Education — Monin\nProper Articulation of Technical Education — Mrs. Young\nRelation of Agricultural College to National Education — Wickson\nTrade-Schools and Trade-Unions — Merrill\n....\nTechnical Education in High Schools and Colleges — A. H. Chamberlain\n\n1032\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n961\n962\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nPresident's Address\n.\n,\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nIndian Education — G. L. Brown\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nEssential Features in Education of the Child Race — Phenix\n....\nNative Indian Art — Miss De Cora .........\nTeaching Agriculture in the Classroom — Miss Proctor\n.....\nOrange Culture — Miss Naff\nROUND-TABLE\n\n951\n951\n\nOF NATIONAL COMMITTEE\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nThe Work of the National Government in Extending\nthru the Public Schools — Crosby\n\nON\n\n105s\n\n110044 1\n8\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.1063\nAgricultural Education\n1063\n\n"} {"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nix\n\nWhat Has Been Done by Normal Schools and Agricultural Colleges for Popular\nEducation in Agriculture — Balcomb .......\nAgriculture, Domestic Art, and Manual Training without Funds or Equipment —\nBishop\n............\n\nNecrology\n.............\nStatistical Tables of Membership\n........\nInventory and Price-List of Publications ........\nReprints from the Annual Volumes of Proceedings\n......\nGeneral Index\n............\n\n1069\n1076\n\n1085\n1086, 1087\n1088\n1089\n1091\n\n"} {"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n1857-1870\nThe National Teachers' Association\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nPurpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests oj the profession\nof teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates.\nThe name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August\n15, 1870, to the ''National Educational Association.\"\n1870-1907\nNational Educational Association\nIncorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name, ''National Education Association,\" which was\nchanged to \"National Educational Association,\" by certificate filed\nNovember 6, 1886.\nNational Education Association of the United States\n1907Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\" The charter was\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\nAN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nTION OF THE UNITED STATES\n\nASSOCIA-\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House 0} Representatives 0} the United States 0} America\nin Congress assembled:\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now the officers and directors\nand trustees of the National Educational Association a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz. : Nathan C. Schaeflfer, Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J.Matthews,\nof Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, Josiah\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of\nDelaware; J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of\nColumbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann,\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles L Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A.\nMott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V.\n* Deceased.\n\n"} {"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of Louisiana;\n*John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, *Mary\nH. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G.White, WilHam\nH. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood, William J.\nHawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska;\nJoseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green,\nJohn Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; James H. Canfield,\nNicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\nPitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs,\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas; '\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nL. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming, Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths,\nof Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by\nthe name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council\nof Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created\nby organization or consohdation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education;\nfifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education;\neighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education;\neleventh, of Child-Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science\nInstruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department;\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education\nmay be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in\nany court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws\nnot inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia,\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation;\n♦ Deceased.\n\n"} {"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nprovided, however, that this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation\nwhich shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational\npurposes of the corporation; and, provided further, that the corporation shall annually\nfile, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\nin detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\nmembers — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the ofiQcers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee,\nand a Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of a President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for Hfe. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as\nshall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\nas may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\nex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\none trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\nshall forfeit his membership.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safe-keeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nfunds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the\nprincipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a twothirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after[such recommendation has been approved\nby vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has\nbeen mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent\nFund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association\nand of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest,\nor devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall\nalso be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment\nof all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the\n\n"} {"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAssociation acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the\nBoard of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding\nfive hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and\nfor all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\noffice for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, provided that the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted,\nand an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the By-Laws.\nSec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew By-Laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of\nsaid Association s hall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such,\nuntil the expiration of the terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and\nuntil their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of\nthe National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept\nthe charter granted by this Act and adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Education Association of the United States;\" and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever; and\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\nperson having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees\nof the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the\npresiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the recorder of deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further^ That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter\ngranted by this act at said annual meeting, then the charter of the National Educational\nAssociation and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirtyfirst day of July, nineteen hundred and eiglit, and at any time before said date its charter\nmay be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the\nDistrict of Columbia.\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities,\nand contracts, of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no\naction or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been\ndiscontinued by reason of this act.\n\n"} {"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested\nor impaired.\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the Constitution of the National Education Association of\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual\nsession at Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Adopted at meeting of active members held in Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.)\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSection i. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\neducational institutions, including libraries and educational publications, may become\nactive members.\nSec. 2. Any eligible person may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual\ndues for the current year.\nSec. 3. Active members only shall have the right to vote and to hold office in the\nAssociation, in the National Council of Education, or in the several departments.\nSec. 4. All active members shall pay annual dues of two dollars, and shall be entitled\nto the volume of Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions.\nSec. 5. The annual membership fee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, orby remittance to the Secretary before September first of each year.\nSec. 6. Any active member many discontinue membership by giving written notice\nto the Secretary before September first in any year, and may restore the same only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. A\nwritten application for active membership shall constitute an agreement to continue such\nmembership and pay annual dues, unless written notice of discontinuance is sent to the\nSecretary before September first of the fiscal year for which such discontinuance shall apply.\nCORRESPONDING\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 7. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of\nDirectors to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall\nat no time exceed fifty.\nSec. 8. Corresponding members shall be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without\nthe payment of fees or other conditions.\nASSOCIATE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 9. Any person on paying an annual membership fee of two dollars may become\nan associate member.\nSec. id. Associate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance\nwith the usual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. II. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members and\nshall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual\ndues.\nROLL\n\nOF\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 12. The names of active, life, and corresponding members only shall be printed\nin the annual Yearbook, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses\nand the list shall be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association.\n\n"} {"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\nARTICLE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nII— OFFICERS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAND\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Directors, and Treasurer shall be chosen\nby the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third\nday of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. They\nshall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election and\nuntil their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nSec. 2. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nSec. 3. At the third session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be\nappointed by the President a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one member\nfrom each state and territory represented. Such a committee shall be appointed by the\nPresident on the nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present at the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination; provided,\nhowever, that such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination,\nwhen the active members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a\nnomination.\nSec. 4. The meetings of the active members of the several states to nominate members\nof the nominating committee shall be held at 5:30 p. m. on the first day of the annual\nmeeting of the Association, at such places as shall be announced in the general program.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— DUTIES\nTHE\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer.\nIn his absence the first Vice-President in order, who is present, shall preside; and in the\nabsence of all the Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nTHE\n\nSECRETARY\n\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the\ngeneral meetings of the Association and of all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall\nconduct such correspondence and transact such other business of the Association as the\ndirectors or Executive Committee may assign, and shall have his records present at all\nmeetings of the Association and the Board of Directors.\nTHE\n\nTREASURER\n\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\nhold in safekeeping, the current income of the Association; shall expend the same only\nupon order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures,\nwith vouchers for the latter; which accounts, ending the first day of July in each year, he\nshall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall report\nto the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge\nof his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office\nuntil the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the\nAssociation next succeeding that at which he is elected, and until his successor has been\nelected and hsis qualified.\nAUDITOR\n\nOF ACCOUNTS\n\nSec. 4. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the\nsaid fund, shall be attached to the annual report of the Board of Trustees.\n\n"} {"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\nCERTIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nBILLS\n\nSec. S- The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nSection i. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular annual meeting at the place\nof the annual convention, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or\nthe President shall determine.\nSec. 3. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nobjects and\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nDUTIES\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of public and professional interest;\nthe proposal to the Board of Directors, from time to time, of suitable subjects for investigation and research, and the recommendation of the amount of appropriations that should\nbe made for such purposes; the appointment and general supervision of such special\ncommittees of investigation and research as may be provided for and authorized by the\nBoard of Directors of the Association; the consideration, discussion, and recommendation\nto the Board of Directors for disposition of all reports by such special committees of\nresearch as may have been appointed on its recommendation or by its authority; the\nannual preparation and presentation to the Association at its annual convention of a\nreport on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year;\" and in other ways shall use its\nbest efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education\nin general.\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nSec. 2. The Council shall consist of sixty members, selected from the membership\nof the Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is\neligible to membership in the Council,\nSec. 3. The Board of Directors shall annually elect five members, and the Council\nshall elect five members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected.\nSec. 4. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection\nwith the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\nSec. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the\nCouncil shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council\nshall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nBY-LAWS\n\nOF the\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nSec. 6. The Council may establish by-laws for its government not inconsistent with\nthe Act of Incorporation or of the By-Laws of the Association, provided such by-laws shall\nbe submitted to and approved by the Board of Directors of the Association before they shal]\nbecome operative.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. A department shall consist of those members of the Association who are\nespecially interested in the consideration of a particular group of educational problems.\n\n"} {"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEach department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and\nsuch other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs.\nSec. 2. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time of the annual\nconvention of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold\nits annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined\nby the officers of said department.\nSec. 3. The objects of the annual department meetings shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of\nthese meetings shall be organized and conducted by the respective presidents, in conference\nwith, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, at the time of the annual\nconvention, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference\nmay be held at the discretion of the department officers.\nSec. 4, Upon the written request of twenty active members of the Association for\npermission to establish a new department, the Board of Directors may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges\nas the departments named in the Act of Incorporation.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five directors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of\nits departments, in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon the\napproval of the Executive Committee.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— AMENDMENTS\n\nSection i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by the\nunanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present,\nprovided that the substance of the alteration or amendment has been proposed in writing\nat a previous annual meeting.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNOW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nKNOWN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAS THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June\n30, 1906.\n\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard,\nthe secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an Act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate\nthe National Education Association of the United States;\"\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\nand accepted the Charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected\nofficers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions and\n\n"} {"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said Charter granted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is\nthe lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August,\n1907.\n\n(Signed)\n(Signed)\n\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nVERIFICATION\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nJULY\n\nlO,\n\nI907\n\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the Charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the Charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting\nof the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take eflFect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \" 1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect oflQcers, and to organize\nunder the Charter granted by the Act of Congress.\nFiled in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4,\n1907.\n\n"} {"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nTEACHERS\n\nASSOCIATION-\n\ni8s7— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\n1864— OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO;\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\n1865— HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richaiujs. Treasurer.\n\n1859— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\n1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. WiCKERSHAM, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\ni860— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasxirer.\n\n1867 — No session.\n1868— NASHVILLE,\n\nTENN.\n\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\n\n1861, 1862 — No session.\n\nJames Cruikshank,\n\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\n1869— TRENTON, N. J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\n\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n1871— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. PiCKARD, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1877— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer.\n1878 — No session.\n1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer.\n1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y.\n\n1873— ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer,\n\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappen, Treasurer.\n1881— ATLANTA, GA.\n\n1874— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappen, Treasurer.\n1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\n\n187s— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. T. Tappen, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n10\n\n"} {"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nII\n\n1884— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1895— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray\nButler, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1896— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1886— TOPEKA, KAN.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1887— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canfeeld, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1888— SAN\n\nFRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1889— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1890— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1891— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1893— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\niRwm Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1894— ASBURY PARK, N. J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1898— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1899— LOS\n\nANGELES, CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1900— CHARLESTON, S. C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n1901— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasurer.\n1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWiLLLAM M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n1903— BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n1904— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\n190S— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N. J.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n1906 — No session.\n1907— LOS\n\nANGELES, CAL.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer.\n\n"} {"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nOFFICERS\nALSO\nGENERAL\n\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nJASPER N. WILKINSON\n\nFOR\n\nFOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1905-1906\n\nI 906-1 907\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nWinona.^Minn.\nEmporia, Kan.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nD. B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C.\nJ. A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio.\nH. O. Wheeler, Burlington, Vt,\nJ. Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N. C.\nJohn W. SpmoLER, Winfield, Kan.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nMiss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJ. H. HiNEMON, Little Rock, Ark.\nEd. S. Vaught, Oklahoma City, Okla.\nJohn F. Riggs, Des Moines, Iowa.\nJoseph O'Connor,\n\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nNicholas\n\nButler, Chairman. ... New York, N. Y\n\nBOARD\nMurray\n\n♦Albert G. Lane\nJames M. Greenwood\nNathan C. Schaeffer\n\nOF\n\nChicago, 111\nKansas City, Mo\nHarrisburg, Pa\nEXECUTIVE\n\nNathan\n\nC. Schaeffer\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell\nJasper N. Wilkinson\n♦Albert G. Lane\nNicholas Murray Butler\nW. T. Harris\nIrwin Shepard.\n\nTRUSTEES\nTerm expires July, 1906\nTerm expires July, 1907\nTerm expires July, 1909\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\n\nFirst Vice-President\nNew York, N. Y.\nTreasurer\nEmporia, Kan.\nChairman of Board of Trustees\nChicago, lU.\nChairman of Trustees from Oct. 8, igo6. . . New York, N. Y.\nMember by Election\nWashington, D. C.\nSecretary\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nDirectors\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.\n\nWinona, Minn.\nDIRECTORS\nex officio\nJasper N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kan.\n♦Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nLife Directors\nBicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, E. H., Madison, Wis.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, lU.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\n♦♦ Died April 26, 1906.\n\nGreen, J. M., Trenton, N. J.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\n♦♦Hunt, Mrs. Mary H., Boston, Mass.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\n♦Lane, Albert G., Chicago, 111.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millarsville, Pa.\nfMARBLE, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N. Y.\n\nDied August 32, 1906.\n\nfDied March 25, 1906.\n\n"} {"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\nLife 'Directors— continued\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, III.\ntPHELPS, W. F., St. Paul, Minn.\nPiCKARD, JosiAH L., Cupertino, Cal.\n\nState Teachers' Association of Illinois.\nStratton, C. C, St. Johns, Oregon.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\n\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, lU.\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N. Y.\nSoLDAN, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nX Died August 15, 1907.\n\nTeacher's Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\n■~\n\nNorth Atlantic Division\nJohn S. Locke\nJames E. Klock\nIsaac Thomas\nHenry T. Bailey\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\nCharles H. Keyes\n\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\n'\n\nJames C. Byrnes\nJohn Enright\nJohn W. Lansinger\n\nSaco\nPlymouth\nBurhngton\nNorth Scituate\nProvidence\nHartford\nNew York\nFreehold\nMillersville\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\nFlorida\n\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nM. Bates Stephens\nAlexander T. Stuart\nJoseph L. Jarman\nLucy Robinson\nJ. I. Foust\nRobert P. Pell\nWilliam M. Slaton\nClem Hampton\n\nWihnington\nAnnapoUs\nWashington\nFarmviUe\nWheeling\nGreensboro\nSpartanburg\nAtlanta\nTallahassee\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky.\nTennessee\nAlabama\n\nW. H. Bartholomew\nEugene F. Turner\nIsaac W. Hill\n\nLou'.sville\nNashville\nMontgomery\n\nMississippi\n\nRobert B. Fulton (for 1905-6)\nE. E. Bass (for 1906-7)\nWarren Easton\nL. E. Wolfe\nGeorge B. Cook\n\nUniversity\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\nSan Antonio\nHot Springs\n\nAndrew R. Hickam (for 1905-6)\nRichard V. Temming (for 1906-7)\nJohn D. Benedict\n\nOklahoma City\nEdmond\nMuskogee\n\nLouisiana\nTexas\nArkansas\nOklahoma\nIndian Territory\n\nNorth Central Division\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\nWells L. Griswold\nT. A. Mott\nJ. A. Mercer\n\nYoimgstown\nRichmond\nPeoria\n\nMichigan\n\nWilliam H. Elson (for 1905-6)\nWales C. Martindale (for 1906-7)\nL. D. Harvey\nA. V. Storm\n\nGrand Rapids\nDetroit\nMenomonie\nIowa City\n\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nJohn A. Cranston (for 1905-6)\nA. W. Rankin (for 1906-7)\nW. J. Hawkins\nP. G. Knowlton\nM. A, Lange\nGeorge L. Towne\nL. D. Whittemore\n\nSt. Cloud\nMinneapolis\nWarrensburg\nFargo\nMillbank\nLincoln\nTopeka\n\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\n\nOscar J. Craig\nT. T. Tynan\nL. C. Greenlee\nC. M. Light\n\nWisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\n\nWestern Division\nMissoula\nCheyenne\nDenver\nSilver City\n\n"} {"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by 'E.lecXion— continued\nA. J. Matthews\nD. H. Christenson\nJ, E. Stubbs\nA. G. Sears\n\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\n\nTempe\nSalt Lake City\nReno\nIdaho Falls\n\nWashington\nOregon\nCaHfornia\n\nEdward T. Mathes\nE. D. Ressler\nArthur H. Chamberlain\n\nBellingham\nMonmouth\nPasadena\n\nAlaska\n\nDependencies\nCassia Patton\n\nSitka\n\nPorto Rico\nHawaii\n\nFrank H. Ball\nArthur F. Griffiths\n\nSan Juan\nHonolulu\n\nPhilippine Islands\n\nE. A, Coddington\n\nCapiz, Panay\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\nELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN\nAUGUSTUS S. DOWNING\nJ. W. CARR\nANNA TOLMAN SMITH\nHOWARD J. ROGERS\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\n*\n\nWashington, D. C.\nAlbany, N. Y.\nDayton, Ohio\nWashington, D. C.\nAlbany, N. Y.\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nKindergarten\nMARY\n\nC. MAY\n\nELMER E. BROWN\nMINNIE WOOD\n\nPresident\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWashrngton^ D. C.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nElementary\nMrs. ALICE\n\nWOODWORTH\n\nCOOLEY\n\nPresident\n\nGrand Forks, N. D\n\nCLARENCE F. CARROLL\nMrs. JOSEPHINE HEERMANS\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nRochester, N. Y.\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nEUGENE\n\nPresident\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nWILSON FARRAND\nEDWIN TWITMYER\nLEWIS B. AVERY\n\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nNewark, N. J.\nBeUingham, Wash.\nRedlands, Cal,\n\nWM. L. BRYAN\nGEORGE A. GATES\nOSCAR J. CRAIG\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJOHN R. KIRK\nD. B. JOHNSON\nMARY ALICE WHITNEY\n\nPresident. .:\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSecondary\nW. LYTTLE\n\nHigher\nBloomington, Ind.\nClaremont, Cal.\nMissoula, Mont.\n\nNormal\nKirksville, Mo.\nRock Hill, S. C.\nEmporia, Kan.\n\nSuperintendence\nW. W. STETSON\nH. H. SEERLEY\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\n\nAugusta, Maine\nCedar Falls, Iowa\n\nR. J. TIGHE\nJ. H. HARRIS\n\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nAsheville, N. C.\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nFRANK M. LEAVITT\nCHARLES R. BATES\nOSCAR L. McMURRY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nRoxbury, Mass.\nPort Deposit, Md.\nChicago, 111.\n\nEUGENE C. COLBY\nCLARA A. WILSON\nHELEN E. LUCAS\n\nArt\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nDavenport, Iowa.\nRochester, N. Y.\n\nManual\n\n"} {"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nMusic\n\n15\n\n•\n\nHAMLIN E. COGSWELL\nMrs. FRANCES E. CLARK\nPHILIP C. HAYDEN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nBusiness\n\nIndiana, Pa.\nMilwaukee, Wis,\nKeokuk, Iowa\n\nH. M. ROWE\nJAMES T. YOUNG\nF. F. SHOWERS\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nChild-Study\n\nBaltimore, Md.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nStevens Point, Wis.\n\nEDWIN G. DEXTER\nHENRY G. GODDARD..\nCHARLES W. WADDLE\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nScience\n\nUrbana, lU.\nVmeland, N. J.\nGreeley, Colo.\n\nH. A. SENTER\nIRVING O. PALMER\nFRANK F. ALMY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nOmaha, Neb.\nNewtonville, Mass.\nGrinnell, Iowa.\n\nE. HERMANN ARNOLD\nREBECCA STONEROAD\nMAY G. LONG\n\nPhysical\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nNew Haven, Conn.\nWashington, D. C.\nMason City, Iowa.\n\nSchool Administration\nJ. W. McCLYMONDS\nGRAFTON D. GUSHING\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nHARLAN P. FRENCH\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nChairman, Executive Committee\nLibrary\n\nOakland, Cal.\nBoston, Mass.\nMUwaukee, Wis.\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nJ. N. WILKINSON\nEDWIN WHITE GAILLARD\nEVA RULIN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nEmporia, Kan.\nNew York, N. Y.\nPeru, Neb.\n\nMATTHEW N. McIVER\nJAMES A. FOSHAY\nFRANK M. DRIGGS\n\nSpecial Education\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nOshkosh, Wis.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nOgden, Utah.\n\nIndian Education\nHARWOOD HALL\nH. F. LISTON\nESTELLE REEL\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nRiverside, Cal.\nTacoma, Wash.\nWashmgton, D. C.\n\n"} {"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\nGENERAL\n\nEDWIN G. COOLEY\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN\n\nFOR\n\nOF\n\n1907-1908\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nChicago, 111.\nWinona, Minn.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nW. A. Clark, Kearney, Neb.\nWalter M. Kern, Ellendale, N. D.\nW. F. GORDY, Springfield, Mass.\nJ. F. Kingsbury, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nEllsworth E. Robey, Kokomo, Ind.\nJabies H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\n\nNat&an C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nW. H. Elson, Cleveland, O.\nCharles H. Judd, New Haven, Conn.\nH. A. UsTRUD, Pierre, S. D.\nJ. F. Stillwell, Phoenix, Ariz.\nJoseph H. Hill, Emporia, Kan.\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nTRUSTEES\n\nCarroll G. Pearse\nMilwaukee, Wis\nJames M, Greenwood\nKansas City, Mo\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman.... New York, N. Y\nH. B. Brown\nValparaiso, Ind\nEdwin G. Cooley\nChicago, 111\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\nEdwin G. Cooley\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nNicholas Murray Butler\nW. T. Harris\nIrwin Shepard\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\n\nChicago, 111.\nHarrisbitrg, Pa.\nPasadena, Cal.\nNew York, N. Y.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors\nEdwin\nNathan\n\nTerm expires July, 1908\nTerm expires July, 1909\nTerm expires July, 1910\nTerm expires July, 1911\nEx officio\n\nG. Cooley, Chicago, 111.\n\nex officio\nArthur\n\nH. Chamberlain,\n\nC. Schaeffer, Harrisbiu-g, Pa.\nNicholas Murray\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nButler, New York, N. Y.\n\nLife Directors\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D. C.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, E. H., Madison, Wis.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, lU.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio.\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, J. M., Trenton, N. J.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene. Kan.\n\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N. Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nPiCKARD, JosiAH L., Los Angeles, Cal.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nSchaeffer, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa.\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N. Y.\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nState Teachers' Association, Illinois.\nStratton, C. C, St. Johns, Oregon.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\n"} {"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\n17\n\nDirectors by Election\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\nNorth Atlantic Division\nPayson Smith\nJames E. Klock\nMason S. Stone\nJohn T. Prince\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\nCharles H. Keyes\nJames C. Byrnes\nJohn Enright\nJohn Morrow\n\nAubum\nPlymouth\nMontpelier\nWest Newton\nProvidence\nHartford\nNew York\nFreehold\nAllegheny\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\nFlorida\n\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nM. Bates Stephens\nW. T. Harris\nJoseph L. Jarman\nThomas C. Miller\nJ. I. Foust\nD. B. Johnson\nWilliam M. Slaton\nMiss Clem Hampton\n\nWilmington\nAnnapolis\nWashington\nFarmville\nCharleston\nGreensboro\nRock Hill\nAtlanta\nTallahassee\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nArkansas\nOklahoma\nIndian Territory\n\nW. H. Bartholomew\nI. C. McNeill\nIsaac W. Hill\nE. E. Bass\nWarren Easton\nCree T. Work\nGeorge B. Cook\nE. E. Balcomb\n\nLouisville\nMemphis\nOpelika\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\nDenton\nHot Springs\nWeatherford\n\nJohn D. Benedict\n\nMuskogee\n\nNorth Central Division\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\nMissoiuri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\n\nHenry G. Willlams\nThomas A. Mott\nWalter R. Hatfield\nDavid MacKenzie\nCharles P. Cary\nP. C. Hayden\nS. L. Heeter\nJohn R. Kirk\nN. C. Macdonald\nM. A. Lange\nGeorge L. Towne\n\nAthens\nRichmond\nChicago\nDetroit\nMadison\nKeokuk\nSt. Paul\nKirksville\nLidgerwood\nPierre\nLincoln\n\nKansas\n\nJohn Macdonald\n\nTopeka\n\nWestern Division\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\n\nOscar J. Craig\nEstelle Reel\nCharles E. Chadsey\nW. H. Decker\nA. J. Matthews\nWilliam Allison\nJ. E. Stubbs\nS. Belle Chamberlain\n\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nEdward T. Mathes\nJ. H. Ackeman\nJames A. Barr\n\nMissoula\nWashington, D. C.\nDenver\nGallup\nTempe\nOgden\nReno\nBoise\n■'.\n\nBellingham\nSalem\nStockton\n\n"} {"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOFFICERS\nNational Council\nJOSEPH SWAIN\nPresident\nJAMES M. GREEN\nVice-President\nJOHN W. CARR\nSecretary\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD\nExecutive Committee\nELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN\nExecutive Committee\nW. T. HARRIS\nExecutive Committee\nKindergarten\nBERTHA PAYNE\nPresident\nBARBARA GREENWOOD\nVice-President\nHARRIET ROCKWELL\nSecretary\n\nElementary\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nTrenton, N. J.\nDayton, Ohio\nKansas City, Mo.\nWashington, D. C.\nWashington, D. C.\nChicago, lU.\nPomona, Cal.\nCleveland, O.\n\nJ. K. STABLETON\nADELAIDE S. BAYLOR\nS. BELLE CHAMBERLAIN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBloomington, 111.\nWabash, Ind.\nBoise, Idaho\n\nGILBERT B. MORRISON\nH. H. CULLY\nFLETCHER DURELL\nLEWIS B. AVERY\n\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nCleveland, Ohio\nLawrenceville, N. J.\nRedlands, Cal.\n\nOSCAR J. CRAIG\nW. O. THOMPSON\nLILLIAN G. BERRY\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\nHigher\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAUGUSTUS O. THOMAS\nMORRIS E. DAILEY\nHENRY\nG. WILLIAMS\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nKearney, Neb.\nSan Jos^, Cal.\nAthens, O.\n\nSecondary\n\nNormal\n\nSuperintendence\n\nFRANK B. COOPER\nSTRATTON D. BROOKS\nELLA C. SULLIVAN\nGEORGE B. COOK\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nSeattle, Wash.\nBoston, Mass.\n•\nChicago, 111.\nHot Springs, Ark.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nArt\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nMusic\nCLARK. . . . President\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nChicago, 111.\nDayton, Ohio\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nManual\n\nJESSE D. BURKS\nANNA C. HEDGES\nWILLIAM E, ROBERTS\nGEORGE W. EGGERS\nMARY A. WOODMANSEE.\nFLORENCE E. ELLIS\nMrs. FRANCES ELLIOTT\nGEORGE E. KRINBILL\nIDA M. FISHER\n\nMissoula, Mont.\nColumbus, Ohio\nBloomington, Ind.\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nBisbee, Ariz.\nSan Jos€, Cal.\n\nBusiness\nH. B. BROWN\nJAMES FERGUSON\nJAMES S. CURRY\n\nValparaiso, Ind.\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nWILLIAM H. BURNHAM\nWILLIAM L. BRYAN\nM. V. O'SHEA\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nChild-Study\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nIRVING O. PALMER\nFRANK F. ALMY\nHENRY KERR\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nNewtonville, Mass.\nGrinnell, la.\nNorwalk, Cal.\n\nWILLIAM W. HASTINGS\nCLARK W. HETHERINGTON\nMARTHA J. JOHNSON\n\nPhysical\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSpringfield, Mass.\nColumbia, Mo.\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nScience\n\nWorcester, Mass.\nBloomington, Ind.\nMadison, Wis.\n\n"} {"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nW. O. THOMPSON\nJ. W. McCLYMONDS\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nJOHN R. KIRK\nMARY EILEEN\nIDA J. DACUS\n\nAHERN\n\nE. R. JOHNSTONE\nO. H. BURRITT\nJENNIE SMITH\nHARWOOD HALL\nH. F. LISTON\nESTELLE REEL\nLOUIS C. MONIN\nA. B. STORMS\nGEORGE A. MERRILL\n\nOFFICERS\n\nSchool Administration\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nLibrary\nPresident..\nVice-President\nSecretary\nSpecial Education\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nIndian ^Education\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nTechnical Education\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n19\n\nColumbus, O.\nOaWand, Cal.\nMUwaukee, Wis.\nKirksville, Mo.\nChicago, lU.\nRock Hill, S. C.\nVineland, N. J.\nBatavia, N. Y.\nEau Claire, Wis.\nRiverside, Cal.\nTacoma, Wash.\nWashington, D. C.\nChicago, 111.\nAmes, Iowa\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\n"} {"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nTO THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJuly i, 1906, to June 30, 1907\nJ. N. \"Wilkinson, Treasurer, in Account with the National Educational Association\nBALANCE\n\nON HAND\n\nJULY i,\n\n1906\n\nBalance brought forward from Treasurer's report for year ending June 30, 1906\nRECEIPTS\n\n$13,847 . 00\n\nFrom transportation lines (Asbury Park Meeting):\nNew York, New Haven & Hartford R. R. Co\nGrand Trunk Railway\nLehigh Valley Railroad\nErie Railroad\nPennsylvania Railroad Co\nOcean Steamship Co\nOld Dominion Steamship Co\nCentral Raibroad of New Jersey\nNew York Central & Hudson River Raibroad\nDelaware, Lackawanna & Western Raibroad\nNew York, Ontario & Western Railroad\n\n$ 30.00\n2 . 00\n90.00\n25.00\n62.00\n32 . 00\n276 . 00\n87.00\n242 .00\n31 .00\n38.00\n\nFrom Board of Trustees:\nIncome as per Report of Board of Trustees\nFrom Memberships, Chicago Meeting, Department of Superintendence\nFrom Secretary's office diuing the year:\n. Membership fees\nEnrollment fees\nExchange\nSale of back volumes\nSale of special reports\n\n$915.03\n$7,509.02\n$1,184.00\n\n$8,604 . 00\n580.00\n20.61\n605.32\n211 . 85 $10,021.78\n\nFrom royalty on sale of Reports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen\nFrom interest on deposits in First National Bank of Chicago\n\n53-15\n226 . 83\n\nTotal receipts for the year\n\n$33.7S6 . 78\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\nBoard of Trustees:\nFor investment\nFor expenses\n\n$5,000.00\n387 . 44\n\nExecutive Committee expenses:\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman Board of Trustees\nMember by election\n\n,\n\n\".\n\n^. . .\n\n$5,387-44\n\n$163 . 41\n25.00\n258 . 00\n36-75\n127 . 20\n$610.36\n\nGeneral Secretary's office:\nSalary of Secretary\nPostage\nTelegrams\nFreight and express\nClerical services\nExchange\n\n$4,000.00\n1, 183 . 80\n339-94\n40. 78\n1,724.94\n.90\n20\n\n"} {"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nStationery and oflSce supplies\nTraveling\nRent\n\n184. 74\n9S7iS\n600.00\n\nMiscellaneous\n\n76 . 57\n\nPrinting:\n\n21\n\n$9, 108. 8a\n\nVolumes of Proceedings (6,500 volumes), including 6,500 Index Volumes\nReprints from volumes\nSpecial reports\nExecutive Committee Bulletins\nMiscellaneous\n\n$6,808. 70\n47. 50\n817.44\n888.22\n563 . 30\n\nExpress and freight:\nDistribution of volumes and reports\nMiscellaneous\n\n$2,000.00\n172 . 4a\n\nSpecial appropriations:\nCommittee on Library Instruction\nCommittee on Industrial Education\n\n$293 . 04\n86.88\n\nAnnual Convention (in preparation for San Francisco Convention) :\nDepartment expenses\n\n$376 . 03\n\n$9,125.16\n\n$2,172.42\n\nState directors and managers for year 1905-6\nBadges for Department of Superintendence\nPrinting\nMiscellaneous (refund of expenses of A. H. Chamberlain and Jas. A. Barr for\nsecuring advance memberships, San Francisco Convention)\n\n$379.92\n\n36.30\n39-25\n34-5©\n599-32\n$1,085.40\n\nUnclassified expenses:\nBonds of Secretary and Treasurer\n\n$\n\nFiling cases\nJohn B. Pine, legal services, incorporation\n\n*\n\nSafe for Secretary's office\nAuditing books of Teasiu-er and Secretary\nTranslations for Anniversary Volume\nExamination of securities\nExchange of typewriter\nMultigraph (duplicating machine)\nReports Committees of Ten and Fifteen\nJ. S. Wyer, Jr., compiling Bibliography for Anniversary Volume\nMiss Martha Nelson, compiling General Index\nC. Alex Nelson, compiling Index to 1906 volume\n\n50.00\n\n11 . 20\n1,930. 12\n133-81\n30.00\n30.00\n23.35\n50.00\n250.00\n3 . 75\n30.00\n820.00\n44.60\n\nTotal disbursements for the year\n\n$3,406.83\n$31,276 . 35\n\nSUMMARY\nReceipts\nBalance brought forward from the Treasurer's report for year ending June 30, 1906. . $13,847.00\nReceipts for year July i, 1906, to Jime 30, 1907\n19,909. 78 $33,756.78\n\nDisbursements\nAmount transferred to Permanent Fund, as per voucher No. 104\nTotal expenses for year\nBalance in treasury, June 30, 1907\n\n$5,000.00\n26,276.35\n\n$31,276.35\n$2,480. 43\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer.\nWe, the undersigned Trustees of the National Educational Association, hereby approve the Report of\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer.\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman,\nJames M. Greenwood,\nNathan C. Schaeffer,\nBoard 0} Trustees.\n\n"} {"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nChicago, 111., September 28, 1907\n\nBoard of Trustees, National Education Association of the United States,\nGentlemen: —\nWe have audited the books and accoimts of the National Educationa 1 Association of the United States,\nas kept by the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, and the Treasurer, J. N. Wilkinson, for the year 1906-7, and compared them with the relative vouchers, checks, and other instructions, and find the books to be correct.\nWe annex, hereto, a copy of the Treasurer's Report for the year under review, which we have checked in\ndetail, and we certify it to be correct and in accordance with the books.\nYours respectfully.\nThe\n\nTWENTY-FIRST\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nInternational\n\nANNUAL REPORT\nOF TRUSTEES\nYEAR\n\nJULY i, 1906,\n\nTO\n\nAudit Company\n\nBy John McLaren,\n\nPresident.\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nJUNE\n\n30,\n\n1907\n\nLos Angeles, Cal., July 8, 1907\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nThe Board of Trustees of the National Educational Association presents the following report of the Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association and its income for the year ending June 30, 1907:\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nFUNDS\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\n■^JULY\n\nI, 1906, TO\n\nJULY\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPERMANENT\n\nFUND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFROM\n\nI, 1907\n\ncollections\nCash on hand July i, 1906\nReceived from Treasurer of Association.\nMortgages collected as follows:\n1919 Wabash Ave. (Thomas)\n1201 Irving Park Blvd. (Wadhams)\n\n$\n\n7,450\n5,000\n5,000\n3,000\n\n626-628 W. Adams St. (Barker)\n2268 Kenmore Ave. (Dodge)\nBonds collected as follows:\n\n9,000\n2,500\n\nNess County\nLemont School\n\n150\n500\n\n$32,600\n\n$19,000\n7,000\n6,600\n\n$32,600\n\ninvestments\nWest Chicago Park bonds (face value, $19,000)\nSt. Louis & San Francisco R. R. Co. bonds (face value, $7,000)\nBalance on hand (cash)\ncondition of fund JULY\n\nI, 1906\n\nMortgages on real estate\nKansas school bonds\nIllinois municipal and school bonds\nRaihroad bonds\n\n$50,500\n150\n56,500\n35,000\n\nMaster's certificate of sale\nCash on hand for investment\n\n5.500\n7.45o\ncondition of fund JULY\n\nMortgages on real estate\nIllinois municipal and school bonds\nRailroad bonds\nMaster's certificate of sale\nCash on hand for investment\n\n$155,100\n\nI, I907\n$31,000\n75,ooo\n42,000\nS.Soo\n6,600\n\n$160,100\n\n"} {"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nINCOME\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nFUND\n\nRECEIPTS\n\nInterest on real estate mortgages\nInterest on Kansas bonds\nInterest on Illinois school and municipal bonds\nInterest on railroad bonds\nInterest on bank balances\n\n$2,088. 18\n4. So\n3,055.00\n1,400.00\nno . 12\n\nDiscount on St. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co. bonds bought\n\n1,225 • 00\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\n$7,882.80\n\nExpress charges on Kansas bonds sold\n$\n.45\nPremium on West Chicago Park bonds bought\n120.00\nAccrued interest on West Chicago Park bonds bought\n253 . 33\nCredited account of National Educational Association in First National Bank of Chicago 7,509 . 02\nINTEREST\n\nRECEIPTS\n\nIN\n\nDETAIL\n\nTerminal R. R. Ass'n coupons\nVillage of Morgan Park coupons\nNess County accrued interest\nWest Chicago Park coupons\nBaltimore & Ohio R. R. Co. coupons\nChicago Drainage coupons\nLemont School District coupons\nFirst Mortgage, 1201 Irving Park Boulevard\nFirst Mortgage, 5603 Madison Avenue\nFirst Mortgage, 1919 Wabash Avenue\nFirst Mortgage, 5239 Cornell Avenue\nFirst Mortgage, 626 West Adams Street\nFirst Mortgage, 5526 Jefferson Avenue\nFirst Mortgage, 5136 Hibbard Avenue\nFirst Mortgage, 2268 Kenmore Avenue\nFirst Trust and Savings Bank\n\n$7,882.80\n$ 600.00\n157- 50\n4. 50\n760.00\n800.00\n2,000 . 00\n\n$6,657-80\n\nSTATEMENT\nOF SECURITIES\nBELONGING\nTO THE\nPERMANENT\nFUND\nOF\nTHE\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, JULY i, 1907, IN CUSTODY OF FIRST\nTRUST AND SAVINGS BANK, CHICAGO\nILLINOIS\n\nMUNICIPAL\n\nKind of Bond\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111\n•. .\nLemont, 111., School, Nos. 20, 22, 24, 30, 32\nChicago Drainage bonds, Nos. 24516 to\n. 24525\nChicago Drainage bonds, Nos. 24591 to\n24625, and 24636 to 24640\nWest Chicago Park bonds, Nos. iioi to\n1 109\nWest Chicago Park bonds, Nos. 615, 629,\n63O1 631, and 1243 to 1248\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBONDS\n\nAmount\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\n$ 2,500\n1,000\n\n4i%\n4i%\n5\n\nMay and Nov.\nJan. and July\n\n2,500\n10,000\n\n4%\n\nJune and Dec.\nDec. and June\n\n4 %\n\nDec. and June\n\n40,000\n\n4%\n\nApr. and Oct.\n\n10,000\n9,000\n\n4%\n\nApr. and Oct.\n\n$75, 000\nRAILROAD\n\nBONDS\n\nKind of Bond\n\nAmount\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\nTerminal R. R. Ass'n of St. Louis Nos.\n16311 to 16325\nPittsburg,\nLake\nErie & West Virginia\nbonds, Nos. 13496 to 13500 and 21236 to\n\n$15,000\n\n4%\n\nInterest Payable\n\nBond Due\nNov. I, 19H\n\nInterest Payable\nJan. and July\n\nJuly I, 1913\n500 yearly; Dec. i\nDec, 1916\nDec, 1917\n\nApr.,\nApr., 1918\n1919\n\nBond Due\nJan., 1953\n\n4%\nMay and Nov.\n\nSt. Louis & San Francisco R.R. Co., Nos.\n47457. 49012, 47537, 57514, 57373, 49670,\n\n4%\n\n7,000\n$42,000\n\nJan. and July\n\nJuly, 1951\n\n"} {"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFIRST MORTGAGES\n\nLocation of Real Estate\n\n5603 Madison \"Avenue (Lewis)\n5526-8 Jefferson Avenue (Wallace)\n5239-41 Cornell Avenue (Dickinson)\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nON CHICAGO\n\nREAL\n\nESTATE\n\nAmount\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\nInterest Payable\n\n$ 5>ooo\n10,000\n11,000\n5,000\n\n4i%\n\nMay and Nov. i\nJuly and Jan.\nApr. and Oct.\nJan. and July\n\nBond Due\n\nOct. I, 1909\n1907\nJuly\nJan. 1909\n\n$31,000\nCERTIFICATE\n\nOF MASTER'S\n\nAmount\n\nLocation of Property\n4762 Lake Avenue (Hord)\n\nSALE\nRate of Interest\n\nDate of Sale\nApr. 1907\n\n5%\n\n• .•\n$5,500\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman,\nJames M. Greenwood,\nNathan C. Schaeffer,\nBoard of Trustees.\nThe above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the National Educational\nAssociation from July i, 1906, to July i, 1907, as the same appears on the books of this bank.\nFIRST TRUST AND SAVINGS BANK OF CHICAGO, ILL. •\nBy Louis Boisot,\nTrust OifUer.\nCERTIFICATE\n\nOF EXAMINER\n\nOF SECURITIES\nChicago, III., June 17, 1907\n\nI have this day examined the securities named in the foregoing statement made by Nicholas Murra y Butler,\nchairman, James M. Greenwood, and Nathan C. Schaeffer, members of the Board of Trustees, and Louis\nBoisot, trust officer of the First Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago, and find all the bonds or securities in\ntheir possession.\nEdwin G. Cooley, Examiner.\n\n.jBi\n\n"} {"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nFORTY-FIFTH\n\nANNUAL\n\nOF THE\n\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCONVENTION\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nLOS ANGELES,\nSUNDAY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCAL., July 8-12, 1907\nSERVICES\n\nSpecial Sunday services, including sermons on educational topics, were held in several\nof the churches of Los Angeles in recognition of the educational convention to occur the\nfollowing week, as follows:\nIn the Temple Auditorium by Rev. Robert J. Burdette. Topic — \"The Divine\nDiploma;\" Text — \"Rabbi, we know that Thou art a teacher come from God.\"\nIn the Catholic Cathedral Rt. Rev. Thomas J. Conaty preached on \"The Catholic\nChurch in the Educational Movement.\"\nAt the First Congregational Church Rev. William Horace Day preached in the\nmorning on the topic, \" Christ's Call to the Scholar,\" and on \"The Pedagogy of Jesus\"\nin the evening.\nRev. Frank DeWitt Talmage, of the First Presbyterian Church, spoke on \"The\nTeacher's Throne.\"\nRev. Robert Mclntyre preached on \" The Model School Teacher,\" at the First Methodist Church.\nRev. J. J. Wilkins, at the Episcopal Pro-Cathedral, preached on the subject, \" The\nPrinciples of Education.\"\nRev. Benjamin Fay Mills, at Blanchard Hall, delivered a sermon on the topic,\n' 'The Reform of Education.\"\nRabbi S. Hecht, at the Synagogue, preached on the subject, \" Jewish Progress in\nEducational Methods.\"\nOPENING\n\nSESSION— Monday\n\nAfternoon, July 8\n\nThe forty-fifth annual convention, being the fiftieth anniversary of the organization of\nthe National Educational Association, was introduced by an organ concert of thirty\nminutes by Bruce Gordon Kingsley, which preceded the formal opening. The convention was called to order in the Temple Auditorium, Los Angeles, by President Nathan\nC. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, at 2 : 30 p. m.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. Frank DeWitt Talmage, of the First Presbyterian ChurchRev. Robert J. Burdette delivered an address of welcome, to which response was made\non behalf of the Association by Dr. W. T. Harris, of Washington, D. C.\n25 Miss Blanche Ruby.\nA vocal solo, \"Aria, from Mignon,\" was sung by\nDr. Nathan C. Schaefifer, of Harrisburg, Pa., president of the National Educational\nAssociation, delivered the presidential address on \"How Can the Schools Aid the Peace\nMovement ?\"\nMiss Blanche Ruby then sang a solo, \"Spring,\" by Henschel.\nDr. WiUiam O. Thompson, president of Ohio State University, offered the following\ndeclaration:\n\n"} {"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe teachers of the United States of America assembled in the National Educational\nAssociation, at Los Angeles, California, July 8, 1907, viewing with pleasure and satisfaction the conditions which have brought about the Second Hague Conference, adopt the\nfollowing minute as suggesting the principles to which they adhere:\nWe believe that the forces of this world should be organized and operated in the\ninterests of peace and not of war; we believe that the material, commercial, and social\ninterests of the people of the United States and of the whole world demand that the energies\nof the governments and of the people be devoted to the constructive and helpful pursuits\nof peace and that the people be relieved of the burdens of providing at enormous expense\nthe armaments suggested by the competitive desire for supremacy in war; we further\nbelieve that the fear of war and the possibility of war would alike decline if the governments were to rely more upon the sentiment of the people and less upon the strength of\ntheir armies and navies.\nWe recommend the following resolutions: —\n1. We indorse and commend the sentiments expressed in the annual address by the\nPresident of this Association.\n2. We urge upon our representatives at the Second Hague Conference to use their\ninfluence to widen the scope and increase the power of the Hague Tribunal.\n3. While disclaiming any desire to suggest a program or to urge specific action, we do\nurge our representatives to secure the most favorable action possible upon international\narbitration, the Hmitation of armaments, the protection of private property at sea, and the\ninvestigation of international disputes by an impartial commission before the declaration\nof hostilities.\n4. We recommend to the teachers that the work of the Hague Conference and of the\nPeace Associations be studied carefully and the results given proper consideration in the\nwork of instruction.\nOn motion the declaration was referred to the Committee on Resolutions to be reported\nback to the Association with recommendation at the closing meeting of the Convention.\nAn address on \"Education and Democracy\" was given by President A. B. Storms,\nof Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\nThe following Committee on Resolutions was appointed by President Schaeffer:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nCharles C. Van Liew, Chairman, president of State Normal School, Chico, Cal.\nWalter A. Edwards, president of Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal.\nFrancis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.\nGustavus R. Glenn, president of North Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical College,\nDahlonega, Ga.\n5. A. Underwood, principal of Westport High School, Kansas City, Mo.\nS. Belle Chamberlain, state superintendent of public instruction, Boise, Idaho.\nWilliam E. Hatch, superintendent of schools, New Bedford, Mass.\nMaude B. Hansche, Commercial High School for Girls, Philadelphia, Pa.\nThe convention adjourned to meet at eight o'clock p. m.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Monday\n\nEvening, July 8\n\nThe convention was called to order at eight o'clock p. M. by President N. C. Schaeffer,\nafter an organ prelude by Bruce Gordon Kingsley.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. J. P. McKnight, of Los Angeles.\nThe United German Male Choruses of Los Angeles, under the direction of Henry\nSchoenefeld, director, supplied the music for the evening and opened with (a) \"Der Tag des\nHerrn,\" by Kreutzer, and (b) \"In Einem kuehlen Grunde,\" by Glueck.\nHon. Francis E. Leupp, United States commissioner of Indian affairs, Washington^\nD. C, gave a brief address on \"Indians and Their Education.\"\nAt this point in the program, President Schaeffer introduced Dr. Elmer Ellsworth\nBrown, United States commissioner of education, and president of the National Council\nof Education, as presiding officer for the balance of the evening program, which was a\njoint session of the General Association and the National Council.\nPresident Brown introduced, as representing the National Council, Mrs. Ella Flagg\nYoung, principal of the Chicago Normal School, who read a \"Report on Educational\nProgress During the Past Two Years.\"\n\n"} {"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nThe session closed with music by the United German Male Choruses, who sang,\n(a) \"Sturm-Beschwoerung,\" by Duerner, and (6) \"Verlassen,\" by Koschat.\nThe Association then adjourned.\nTHIRD SESSION— Tuesday Evening, July 9, 1907\nAfter an organ prelude by Bruce Gordon Kingsley, the Association was called to order\nby President Schaeffer.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. A. W. Atkinson, of Los Angeles.\nMusic — \"Winter Song,\" by F. W. BuUard, sung by the Los Angeles Shrine Quartet,\nWilHam James Chick, director.\nHonorable M. Uribe y Trancoso of the Department of Education of the Republic\nof Mexico was introduced by President Schaeffer. In response, he extended to the convention \"Greetings from a Sister Republic.\"\nRt. Rev. Thomas J. Conaty, Bishop of Monterey and Los Angeles, delivered an\naddress on \"The Personality of the Teacher.\"\nMusic — \"When the Corn is Waving\" — Dudley Buck, by the Los Angeles Shrine\nQuartet.\n\"The Economic Relations of Education\" was the subject of the closing address of\nthe evening by Dr. William O. Thompson, president of Ohio State University, Columbus,\nOhio. T. A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind., led in a discussion of\nPresident Thompson's paper.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by President Schaeffer\nin accordance with By-Law No. i :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nJoseph Swain, Pennsylvania, Chairman\nAlabama\n(vacant)\nArizona\nArnoldas H. McClure\nArkansas\nGeorge B. Cook\nCalifornia\nRichard D. Faulkner\nColorado\nDaniel P. Taylor\nConnecticut\nCharles H. Keyes\nDelaware\n(vacant)\nD. of Columbia. W. T. Harris\nFlorida\nWilHam M. HoUoway\nGeorgia\n(vacant)\nIdaho\nS. Belle Chamberlain\nIlUnois\nJohn D. Shoop\nIndiana\nRobert J. Aley\nIndian Territoryjohn D. Benedict\nIowa\nF. F. Almy\nKansas\nEdward T. Fairchild\nKentucky\nWilliam H. Bartholomew\nLouisiana\n(vacant)\nMaine\n(vacant)\nMaryland\nJames H. Van Sickle\nMassachusetts.. .William E. Hatch\nMichigan\nE. E. Scribner\nMinnesota\nJohn W. Olsen\nMississippi\nB. L. Hatch\nMissouri\nJames M. Greenwood\n\nMontana\nR- J- Cunningham\nNebraska\nA. O. Thomas\nNevada\nJ. E. Stubbs\nNew Hampshire (vacant)\nNew Jersey\nJames M. Green\nNew Mexico\nWm. H. Decker\nNew York\nEugene W. Lyttle\nNorth Carolina, (vacant)\nNorth Dakota. .Mrs. K. B. Macdonald\nOhio\nWells L. Griswold\nOklahoma\nErnest E. Balcomb\nOregon\nReuben F. Robinson\nPennsylvania — Joseph Swain\nRhode Island. . .(vacant)\nSouth Carolina..!). B. Johnson\nSouth Dakota.. . George W. Nash\nTennessee\nI. C. McNeill\nTexas\nLloyd E. Wolfe\nUtah\nD. H. Christensen\nVirginia\n(vacant)\nWashington\nEdwin Twitmyer\nWest Virginia. . . (vacant)\nWisconsin\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nWyoming\nEstelle Reel\nVermont\n(vacant)\n\nAfter announcement that the Nominating Committee would meet in Children's Hall,\nAuditorium Building, at 9 o'clock A. m., Wednesday, the convention adjourned to\nThursday evening, July 11.\nFOURTH SESSION— Wednesday Evening, July 10\nThe Association was called to order by President Schaeffer at 8 p. m.\nFollowing an organ prelude by Bruce Gordon Kingsley, prayer was offered by Rabbi\nS. Hecht, of Los Angeles.\n\n"} {"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nA chorus, \"Morning Song,\" by J. Ruff, was sung by The Los Angeles Apollo Club\nunder, the directorship of Eugene E. Davis.\nE. G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., addressed the convention on\n\"The Basis for Grading Teachers' Salaries.\"\nCharles H. Keyes, supervisor of schools, South District, Hartford, Conn., spoke on\nthe subject of \"Teachers' Pensions.\"\nThe Los Angeles Apollo Club sang \"The Heavens are Telling,\" from the Creation.\n\" Other Forms of Compensation for Teachers\" was the subject of an address by George\nW. Nash, president of State Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S. Dak.\nThe topic was discussed by Alexander Hogg, Ft. Worth, Tex.\nThe convention then adjourned to Thursday Evening, July ii.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION— Thursday\n\nEvening, July ii\n\nFollowing an organ prelude by Bruce Gordon Kingsley, prayer was offered by Rev.\nWilliam Horace Day of the First Congregational Church of Los Angeles.\nA solo, \"Ah! fors e lui\" (La Traviata), Verdi, was then sung by Ellen Beach Yaw.\n\"Schools for Defectives in Connection with the PubHc Schools\" was the subject of\nthe first address, by Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of city schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nJ. W. Olsen, state superintendent of public instruction, St. Paul, Minn., presented a\npaper on \"The School and the Library.\"\nPresident Schaeffer then introduced Mrs. Catherine Pierce Wheat, representing the\nWoman's Christian Temperance Union of Los Angeles, who presented to President Schaeffer,\nwith appropriate remarks, a beautiful gavel for the use of the President of the Association\nat the Annual Conventions. This gavel, which is intended as a companion of the gift of\na silk United States flag by the same organization in 1899, is composed of the following\nnamed woods: eucalyptus, magnolia, oak, apricot, toon, lemon, gavilla, locust, live oak,\nblack locust, and (handle) manzanito.\nMusic: a vocal solo, \"Thou Brilliant Bird,\" David, by Ellen Beach Yaw, with flute\nobligato by Miss Mead.\n\"The Influence of Women's Organizations upon PubUc Education\" was the subject\nof a paper presented by Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell, high-school visitor. State Agricultural\nCollege, Denver, Colo. This paper was discussed by Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor,\nsuperintendent of schools. Wabash, Ind.\nThe Association then adjourned.\nSIXTH\n\nSESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 12\n\nThe closing session of the fiftieth anniversary convention was called to order by President Schaeffer at 2 : 30 p. m.\nAn organ prelude was rendered by Bruce Gordon Kingsley.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. J. J. Wilkins, of Los Angeles.\nThe Woman's Lyric Club of Los Angeles, under the direction of J. B. Poulin,\nsang Schubert's \"God in Nature,\" with organ accompaniment by Mrs. J. H. Chick.\nPresident Benjamin Ide Wheeler, of the University of California, delivered an address\nupon the subject, \" Call Nothing Common.\"\nThe closing address of the session and of the convention was deHvered by Professor\nJohn Adams, University College, London, England, on the subject \"A Significant Lack of\nEducational Terminology. ' '\nThe Woman's Lyric Club sang, with organ accompaniment, the following:\n(a) \"The Moths,\" Palicot; (b) \"The Fountain,\" Bartlett.\nPresident Schaeffer then introduced Charles C. Van Liew, president of the State\nNormal School, Chico, Cal., and chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, who presented\nthe report of the committee as follows:\n\n"} {"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nNATIONAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n29\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLos Angeles, Cal., July 12, 1907\nDECLARATION\n\nOF PRINCIPLES\n\nThe National Educational Association, now holding its forty-fifth annual convention\nin Los Angeles and representing teachers and friends of education in every state of this\nUnion, makes the following declaration of principles and aims:\n1. American teachers have been accustomed for years to look upon the bureau of\neducation of the Department of the Interior at Washington, D. C, as the nation's great\neducational exchange and clearing-house, not only for educational information and\nstatistics but also for the extensive investigation of special questions touching education\nand for the dissemination of the results of such work. Realizing that this work, to be effective must receive liberal financial aid, the Association wishes to declare the bureau of\neducation worthy of a much larger support than it has received in the past and to urge upon\nCongress the favorable consideration of this need.\n2. The National Educational Association notes with approval that the qualifications\ndemanded of teachers in the public schools, and especially in city schools, are increasing\nannually, and particularly that in many localities special preparation is demanded of\nteachers. Some of the large universities, recognizing their responsibility to their immediate\ncommunities, have organized courses suitable in scope and convenient as to hours for these\nteachers. The idea that anyone with a fair education can teach school is gradually giving\nway to the correct notion that teachers must make special preparation for the vocation of\nteaching. The higher standard demanded of teachers must lead logically to higher salaries\nfor teachers. We regret the attempt that is being made in some quarters to evade the\nconsequence of low salaries. The salaries and often the conditions under which the\nteachers in the public schools teach do not offer sufficient inducement to offset the more\npromising positions in the commercial life of a large city. Recourse is had, therefore, to\nselecting students with incomplete high-school or normal-school training to fill these yearly\nincreasing vacancies. Hence we believe that constant effort should be made by all persons\ninterested in education to secure for teachers such adequate compensation for their work\nthat both teacher and public will recognize teaching as a profession. We wish heartily\nto indorse the action of those legislatures that have fixed a minimum salary at a living wage.\n3. The rapid establishment of township or rural high schools is one of the most gratifying evidences of the progress of education. We believe that this movement should be\nencouraged until the children of rural communities enjoy the benefits of public education\nto an extent approximating as nearly as practicable the education furnished in urban communities.\n4. The Association heartily approves of the efforts now being made to determine the\nproper place of industrial education in the public schools. We believe that the time is\nrapidly approaching when both industrial and commercial education should be introduced\ninto all schools and made to harmonize with the occupations of the community. These\ncourses, when introduced should include instruction in agricultural as well as manual\nbranches. We believe that it is the duty of the state not only to qualify its children to be\ngood citizens but also as far as possible to be useful members of their community. Hence,\nwherever conditions justify their establishment, trade schools should be maintained at\npublic expense to fit children as far as possible for a chosen career.\n5. The National Educational Association indorses the increasing use of urban school\nbuildings for free vacation schools and for free evening schools and lecture courses for\nadults and for children who have been obliged to leave the day school prematurely. We\nalso approve of the use of school grounds for playgrounds and even of the buildings for\nthe relief of the poor in the crowded districts during summer.\n6. It is the duty of the state to provide for the education of every child within its\nborders, and to see that all children obtain the rudiments of an education. The constitutional provision that all taxpayers must contribute to the support of the public schools\nlogically carries with it the implied provision that no persons should be permitted to defeat\nthe purposes of the public-school law by forcing their children, at an early age to become\nbread winners. To this end the child labor and truancy laws should be so harmonized that\nthe education of the child, not its labor, be made the desideratum.\n7. The national government should provide schools for the children of all persons\nliving in territory under the immediate control of the government. The attention of\nCongress is specially directed to the need of adequate legislation to provide schools for the\nchildren of citizens of the United States living on naval reservations.\n8. The Association regrets the revival in some quarters of the idea that the common\nschool is a place for teaching nothing but reading, spelling, writing, and ciphering; and\ntakes this occasion to declare that the ultimate object of popular education is to teach children\n\n"} {"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nhow to live righteously, healthfully, and happily, and that to accomplish this object it is\nessential that every school inculcate the love of truth, justice, purity, and beauty thru the\nstudy also of biography, history, ethics, natural history, music, drawing, and the manual\narts.\ni 9. The National Educational Association wishes to record its approval of the increasing appreciation among educators of the fact that the building of character is the real aim\nof the schools and the ultimate reason for the expenditure of millions for their maintenance.\nThere are in the minds of the children and youth of today a tendency toward a disregard for\nconstituted authority, a lack of respect for age and superior wisdom, a weak appreciation\nof the demands of duty, a disposition to follow pleasure and interest rather than obligation\nand order. This condition demands the earliest thought and action of our leaders of\nopinion and places important obligations upon school authorities.\nID. The National Educational Association wishes to congratulate the secondary\nschools and colleges of the country that are making an effort to remove the taint of professionalism that has crept into students' sports. This taint can be removed only by leading\nstudents, alumni, and school faculties to recognize that inter-school games should be\nplayed for sportsmanship and not merely for victory.\n11. The National Educational Association observes with great satisfaction the\ntendency of cities and towns to replace large school committees or boards, which have\nexercised thru subcommittees executive functions, by small boards which determine\ngeneral policies, but intrust all executive functions to salaried experts.\n12. Local taxation, supplemented by state taxation, presents the best means for the\nsupport of the public schools, and for securing that deep interest in them which is necessary to their greatest efficiency. State aid should be granted only as supplementary to\nlocal taxation, and not as a substitute for it.\n13. We cannot too often repeat that close, intelligent, judicious supervision is necessary for all grades.\n14. The National Educational Association approves the efforts of the Simplified\nSpelling Board and other bodies to promote the simplification of English spelling by the\njudicious omission of useless silent letters, and the substitution of a more regular and\nintelligible spelling in place of forms that are grossly irregular or anomalous, such amendments to be made according to the existing rules and analogies of English spelling, with a\ndue regard to the standards accepted by scholars; and the Association hereby approves\nthe simpler forms contained in the list of three hundred words now spelled in two or more\nways, published by the SimpHfied Spelling Board, and containing the twelve simplified\nforms now used by this Association and directs that these simpler forms be used in the\npubHcations of the Association in accordance with the rule now in force, that if the writer\nof any paper published by this Association expressly so desires, his paper shall be printed\nin the old spelling.\n15. Without seeking to determine the merits of coeducation versus separation of the\nsexes in higher institutions the Association recognizes that at present the demand for\nseparate higher instruction for women is greater than existing colleges for women can supply.\nMoreover, the great colleges for women are almost all grouped in one section of the country.\nWe urge upon the attention of the friends of higher education for women the needs of the\nwestern and southern states for this kind of educational institution.\n16. The Association believes that secret societies, fraternities, and sororities are\ninimical to the best interests of schools and pupils, and we urge school authorities to\nabolish them in all secondary and elementary schools.\n17. In teaching, as in every other kind of work, the best service is secured by finding\nthe individual best fitted to the particular place as indicated by training, experience, and\nmeritorious service; the National Educational Association accordingly heartily approves\na merit system of promoting teachers and filhng vacancies. We assert, furthermore, that\nthe grounds upon which a teacher may apply for a position are preparatory training, experience, and meritorious service, in a word, professional fitness, alone; and that the use of\nother personal and political arguments is immoral in the teacher and a serious menace to a\nhigh professional standard.\n18. The Association regrets the purely theoretical work which still characterizes\nmuch of our so-called training of teachers, especially in colleges and universities, and urges\nthe estabhshment everywhere of training and practice facilities for the better preparation\nof teachers.\n19. The National Educational Association believes that the forces of this world should\nbe organized and operated in the interests of peace and not of war; we believe that the material, commercial, and social interests of the people of the United States and of the whole\nworld demand that the energies of the governments and of the people be devoted to the\nconstructive and helpful pursuits of peace and that the people be relieved of the burdens of\nproviding, at enormous expense, the armaments suggested by the competitive desire for\n\n"} {"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n31\n\nsupremacy in war. We further believe that the fear of war and the possibility of war would\nalike decline if governments were to rely more upon the sentiment of the people and less\nupon the strength of their armies and navies. We, accordingly, indorse and commend the\nsentiments expressed in the annual address by the president of this Association. We urge\nupon our representatives at the Second Hague Conference to use their influence to widen\nthe scope and increase the power of the Hague Tribunal. While disclaiming any desire to\nsuggest a program or to urge speciBc action we do urge our representatives to secure the\nmost favorable action possible upon international arbitration, the limitation of armaments, the protection of private property at sea, and the investigation of international\ndisputes by an impartial commission before the declaration of hostilities. We recommend\nto teachers that the work of the Hague Conference and of the peace associations be\nstudied carefully and their results given proper consideration in the work of instruction.\n20. The Association pledges itself anew to that time-honored conception of the\nteachers' office which makes it one of unselfish service in a great human cause, education;\nand it calls upon teachers everywhere to remember that this conception must be fundamental in the establishment and conduct of their professional associations.\nCharles C. Van Liew, of California, Chairman;\nWalter A. Edwards, of California;\nS. A. Underwood, of Missouri;\n1 S. Belle Chamberlain, of Idaho;\n2 Francis G. Blair, of IlHnois;\n2 GusTAVUS R. Glenn, of Georgia;\n3 William E. Hatch, of Massachusetts;\n4 Maude B. Hansche, of Pennsylvania.\nCommittee on Resolutions.\nAfter the reading of the declaration of principles, C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin, moved\nthe adoption of the report as read by Chairman Van Liew.\nThe motion was seconded.\nJ. M. Greenwood, of Missouri: There is one clause in section fourteen of the report\nof the Committee on Resolutions which is mandatory and should go to the Board of Directors. It directs that three hundred words, adopted by the Simplified Spelling Board, be\nused in all the publications of the Association. That part of section fourteen should go to\nthe Board of Directors, because it is administrative and not an appropriate matter for\nconsideration and action at this time. It is not in order for this body to give such a direction\nto the Secretary of the Association\nMr. Cary: I agree with the statements just made, and with consent of my second,\nI withdraw my motion.\nA rereading of section 14 was called for and it was read by Chairman Van Liew.\nMr. Greenwood: I move to strike out all that part of section 14 that begins\nwith the word \"direct.\"\nMr. Cary seconded the motion.\nE. O. Vaile, of Illinois: Mr. President, I regret exceedingly that my esteemed friend\nhas forced this question to an issue here and now The clause which he moves to strike\nout is the vital point in the resolution.\nCan we afford to strike it out ? If his motion\n'The official copy of the Declaration of Principles which was filed with the Secretary was not signed by\nany members of the Committee on Resolutions. Altho it bore the typewritten names of all members, it was\nknown that some members were not present at Los Angeles. It was therefore necessary for the Secretary to\nget authority, by correspondence, from each member of the Committee for attaching the respective signatures\nto the report. This correspondence led to the full authorization of the signatures of the four members first\nnamed, altho Miss Chamberlain states that she opposed the adoption of section 14 until such time as it\ncould receive full discussion and the approval of the active members, but finally agreed to it because she\nunderstood at the time that it was approved by a majority of the Committee.\n' Superintendent F. G. Blair and President G. R. Glenn were not present at Los Angeles and were therefore not parties to the report. They however, authorize attaching their signatures to the Declaration of\nPrinciples, with a proviso excepting section 14. They both express dissent from the mandatory feature of\nthat section as embodied in the .report.\n\n3 Superintendent W. E. Hatch authorizes his signature ^o be added as approving the report with the exception of Section 14, in which he did not concur so far as it \"directed\" the immediate adoption of all of the\nnew forms recommended by the Simplified Spelling Board.\n•» Mrs. Maude B. Hansche, authorizes her signature to be added with non-approval of section 14.\n\n"} {"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nprevails the whole spelling reform movement will be throttled in the house of its\nfriends and this great organization will stand .before the world self-stultified and\ndiscredited.\nWe all noted with surprise in the papers this morning the action of our new board of\ndirectors last evening instructing our secretary to use hereafter the old spellings of \"tho,\"\n\"thru,\" \"thoro\" and their compounds. That resolution was introduced at the close of a\nstrenuous session, after some directors had left the meeting and while others were engaged\nin the committee-room. No notice had been given that the subject would be brought up.\nBy twelve ayes and eight nays, and without any discussion whatever, the resolution was\npassed, and this, the largest and most influential educational organization in the world,\nwas made to appear in the dispatches this morning as trifling not only with its own record\nand dignity, but with a subject which by its own example and teaching for ten years the\npublic has begun to regard as worthy of serious consideration. This resolution was introduced and passed not only in defiance of fair play but in defiance of the well-known sentiment of a large majority of our membership.\nThis is the first instance in all the ten years of this spelling agitation among us, in which\nany important action has been proposed without giving opportunity for full discussion — •\nthe first instance of what was not conspicuously a square deal.\nThe real question before us is, shall we indorse this reactionary step taken by our board\nof directors, or shall we assert our supremacy and countermand its order ? You are the\nsupreme court to settle this question. I cannot think for one moment that you are going\nto strike out the vital clause from this resolution.\nTen years ago this organization thru its board of directors, instructed its secretary to\nadopt thereafter in all ofificial publications and correspondence such simplified spellings\nas have been recommended by a committee consisting of Dr. W. T. Harris, Superintendent\nSoldan of St. Louis, and Superintendent Balliet of Springfield, Mass.\nFrom that day to this these twelve so-called N. E. A. short spellings have been used in\nall matter put forth by this Association, and thru the influence of its authority and example\nthese short forms have grown gradually but constantly in public favor and use.\nFor four years, as you know, a proposition was pending before this Association, to\ngive a considerable sum annually to foster this movement. Altho our active membership\ndeclared itself overwhelmingly in favor of the proposition, our constituted authorities prevented action upon it until such action became needless thru the courage of one of our\nphilanthropic millionaires who stepped into the breech and offered the. necessary funds,\nif a satisfactory number of prominent business and educational men would positively identify\nthemselves with this cause and take personal charge of the expenditure of the money in\npromoting it.\nThis explains the origin of the Simplified Spelling Board, the creation of which is\ndirectly due to discussions and actions in this body or in the Department of Superintendence, aboard on which several of your prominent members have seats and an influential\nvoice. On this board there is not a man whose record and prominence in education,\nor science, or literature, or business, does not entitle his judgment to the confidence and\nindorsement of every man or woman in or out of this Association. There is not a single\nspelling reform zealot or fanatic on that board. They are level-headed, sensible, cautious*\nbut progressive men — not only President Roosevelt, United States judges, and university\npresidents and professors, but the editor-in chief of every English dictionary of any prominence either in this country or in England. Not a man among them who, for a moment,\nwould countenance any extreme or impracticable step.\nThis is the board whose first practical recommendation our committee advises us to\ninstruct our secretary to follow hereafter. Shall we stand by this board, for whose existence\n•we are so largely responsible, or shall we desert it at this critical period ?\nEverybody knows that the 300 shorter spellings which constitute this first step consist\nof the simpler of two different spellings, both of which are fully established by good usage\n\n"} {"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n33\n\nand dictionary authority. There is not a word in the hst which in any real sense can be\ncalled a new spelling.\nIt is stated by those who ought to know better that no publications have as yet adopted\nthe N. E. A. spellings; that these spellings have made no headway, I hold in my hand\na printed list of over 100 periodicals which now regularly use these twelve simpler forms\nor others of their own choosing. Here are the New York Independent, the Springfield\nRepublican, the Toronto Globe, the Minneapolis Journal, the Literary Digest, the Medical\nWorld, the New York School Journal, and a number of scientific and trade journals.\nOne of the leading dailies of this city (Los Angeles) has had under consideration the adoption of the N. E. A. spellings. Is there any truth or sense in saying that this does not\nindicate progress ? What more can reasonably be asked ? I am credibly informed that\nsome of our leading monthlies are considering the formation of a league looking to the\nsimultaneous adoption of the shorter spellings recommended by the Simplified Spelling\nBoard. So potent have been the authority and example of this Association that the twelve\nN. E. A. spellings are now generally regarded as fairly well authorized. Today you will\nscarcely find an educational institution, or a city or county school superintendent or examining board in this whole country outside of the most benighted and backwoods districts\nwho wishes or dares to discriminate against these short spellings when they appear in the\nmanuscripts of pupils and teachers. The educated public now clearly accepts them as\npermissive forms. Yet, in spite of all this, we are now compelled to combat here an\neffort to have this organization turn its face backward in this matter and bring upon itself\ndiscredit and ridicule.\nNothing has occurred to justify this backward step. The cause is progressing. A\nwell organized board, with funds in hand, almost the direct offspring of this Association,\nis now in the field to head this movement. It deserves, and it ought to have, and I believe\nit will have, our indorsement to the full extent indicated in the resolution reported by our\ncommittee.\nI move as a substitute for the motion now pending that section 14 be allowed to stand\nas it is.\nPresident Schaeffer: That motion would be out of order.\nMr. Vaile: I move as a substitute for the motion now pending, that section 14\nbe allowed to stand as read: Seconded.\nPresident Schaeffer: That motion is in order and is now open for discussion.\nMr. Greenwood: Ten years ago I was one of eighteen directors who voted for the use\nof the list of twelve words, when seventeen directors voted against it. I state this to show\nthat this has been understood to be the business of the Board of Directors. Now, if this\nmass meeting is to pass on matters of this kind, we could include 1,200 words just as well as\n300. The point I make is, that it is the Board of Directors which should direct. This resolution proposes to direct the administrative policy of the Association when it has no authority todirect. I want my objection to go on record, because this is a legal question.\nWe can here in this meeting express our opinions, but we should not assume to direct in\nmatters that belong to the administrative body.\nMiss Shirley: I 4m in favor of progress, and opposed to taking any backward step.\nIf this reform spelling was good last year, it is good this year. I know of no higher tribunal\nthan the teachers themselves. If our directors do not do as we wish, we will depose them\nand not be run by a clique. Let us not stultify ourselves. I, as a teacher, have worked\non this old spelling many years; as a pupil, I learned it, but I am not proficient in it today.\nLet us have something that is sensible.\nMr. Vaile: I am sorry that my friend from Missouri has befogged this question.\nThe Board of Directors is supreme in financial and administrative questions, but this\nspelling question is not an administrative question.\nPresident Schaeffer: The question is on the substitute offered by Mr.\nVaile.\n\n"} {"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe President, in answer to a question, stated that only active members should vote\non Mr. Vaile's motion to leave section 14 as read by Chairman Van Liew.\nMr. Vaile: I call for a rising vote.\nA rising vote was ordered, which resulted in the motion being carried by 209 to 23.\nIt was, however, impossible to determine if all voting were active members of the Association.\nOn motion, the Declaration of Principles was then adopted by a general vote of the\nconvention, the vote not being confined to active members.\nChairman Van Liew then read the balance of the report of the Committee on Resolutions asfollows:\nResolved, That we recognize in the presence at our meeting of an official delegation\nof distinguished representatives of the Ministry of Public Instruction of the United States\nof Mexico, an event of the first importance in the future relations of the American republics.\nWe hail their coming as the auspicious beginning of educational interchange with neighboring nations, an interchange by which each country shall learn valuable lessons from the\nother, and which cannot fail to be of the utmost importance, therefore, to the future development of both. And we take this opportunity to transmit to the teachers of the Republic\nof Mexico the assurance of our very great interest and satisfaction in the work which they\nhave already accomplished, and are now striving to accomplish thru the agencies of public\ninstruction.\nResolved, That we express to Doctor WilHam T. Harris, who has retired since our last\nmeeting from his post as Commissioner of Education, sentiments of deep affection and high\nhonor. In so doing we would bear witness to our very high appreciation of the splendid\nleadership he has long given us, of the intellectual, moral, and professional stimulus we\nhave always felt from it, and of the tremendous value of his far-reaching labors.\nResolved, That the thanks of the National Educational Association are due, and are\nhereby most cordially tendered, to the residents of Los Angeles for their lavish and hearty\nhospitality; to the newspapers of Los Angeles, and to the associated press that have fully\nrecorded the proceedings of the Association; to those railroads and other transportation\ncompanies that have aided in bringing about a large membership and attendance; to the\nteachers of Los Angeles and of California for their splendid support and entertainment,\nespecially to those whose services upon local city and state committees have made the\norganization and conduct of the meeting a success, and to many of the citizens of California and Los Angeles, who are not teachers, but whose interest in the Association and\nefforts in behalf of this convention have been vital.\nOn motion the resolutions were adopted by the convention in a rising vote.\nChairman Van Liew: Mr. Secretary, in behalf of the Committee on Resolutions\nand of the entire Association, I move the adoption of the following resolution, and ask you\nto put the motion.\nResolved, That the thanks of the Association be tendered the retiring President, Superintendent Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, and J. N. Wilkinson, of Kansas,\nthe retiring Treasurer, for the faithful and efficient services which they have rendered the\nAssociation during the past two years.\nThe Secretary put the motion which was unanimously carried by a rising vote of the\nentire convention.\nChairman Van Liew then presented a resolution authorizing the President to appoint\na committee of two to attend a conference to be held at Middle Bass Island, Lake Erie,\nin the first week in August, by the National Tax Commission, the National Mercantile\nCommission, and the National Grange, for the purpose of considering child-labor and compulsory education, including school taxation and instruction in rural schools.\nOn motion of Chairman Van Liew the resolution was adopted. President Schaeffer\nappointed Superintendent W. H. Elson, of Cleveland, Ohio, and President-elect E. G.\nCooley, of Chicago, Illinois, as the committee representing the National Education Association.\nAlexander Hogg, of Texas, presented the following resolution and moved its adoption :\nWhereas, Our social equilibrium seems to be very unstable, as appears in strikes\nand other evidences of dissatisfaction upon the part of one class of our citizens in opposition\nto another class, and\n\n"} {"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n35\n\nWhereas, there is a wide and deep estrangement between those who labor with both\ntheir hands and brains, and those who labor with their brains alone, and\nWhereas, this estrangement has grown into open defiance of the right and security\nof property, and\nWhereas, peace at home, good feeling among our own citizens, should be first sought\nand first cultivated, and our youth should be instructed in this direction, therefore\nBe it resolved^ That it is the sense of this association, that it is the duty of the teachers,\nof this Republic, to enter at once upon a systematic source of instruction, which shall embrace\nnot only a broader patriotism, but a more extended course of moral instruction, especially\nin regard to the rights and duties of citizenship, the right of property, and the security\nand sacredness of human life.\nUpon motion the resolution was adopted by vote of the convention.\nThe president appointed E. O. Lyte of Pennsylvania and W. A. Edwards, of Californial\nto escort President-elect Edwin G. Cooley to the platform.\nPresident Schaeffer: President Cooley, the teachers of America have watched\nwith admiration the battles for good schools that you have for years been fighting, and\nthey have shown their appreciation by electing you President of this Association. I now\nhand to you this gavel as the symbol of authority, with the hope that you will receive\nfrom the members the same loyal support that has been given to your predecessor. I\nnow take pleasure in introducing to the convention President-elect Edwin G. Cooley of\nthe National Education Association of the United States.\nPresident Cooley: Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen: It is certainly an honor\nto be prized by any schoolmaster, to be selected as presiding ofl&cer by this great body.\nI am more than appreciative of the honor that has been conferred. I cannot expect to\nhave the opportunities, even if I had the power and ability, to push to a successful close,\nas many great enterprises as have fallen to my predecessor. I feel that we cannot express\ntoo highly our appreciation of what he has done.\nI hope that I shall see the teachers of the East as well as the West at the next meeting.\nI shall do all in my power to bring about a successful convention in 1908. I cannot say\nmore at this time.\nI thank you for the very kind reception you have given me.\nAfter the singing of \"America,\" under the leadership of James A. Foshay, of Los\nAngeles, the President declared the convention adjourned sine die.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nBUSINESS SESSION— 12 m., Wednesday, July 10, 1907\nminutes of the annual meeting of the active members of the national\neducational association\nThe meeting was called to order by President Nathan C. Schaeffer, at 12 m., in Choral\nHall of the Temple Auditorium,\nPresident Schaeffer: The first business on the docket is the twenty-first annual\nreport of the Board of Trustees which has been approved by the Board of Directors. This\nreport is in print, and will be distributed. It will not be read unless request is made. The\nusual action is to accept the report, and to order it printed in the volume of Proceedings.\n(Copies of the report were distributed to the members.)\nS. T. Black, of California: I move that the report be accepted and printed in the\nvolume of Proceedings,.\nMotion was carried, and it was so ordered.\nPresident Schaeffer: Next on the docket is the annual report of the /Treasurer,\nwhich has been approved by the Board of Trustees and the Board of Directors. The\nreport will now be distributed, and similar action is in order with reference to this report.\n(Copies of the report were distributed.)\nGeorge H. Stout, of Pennsylvania: I move that the report be accepted and printed\nin the volume of Proceedings.\nMotion carried and so ordered.\nPresident Schaeffer: Third is the report of the Secretary. This has been approved\nby the Board of Directors as printed, and will be distributed to the members. (Copies\nof the report were distributed.)\n\n"} {"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nE. E. ScRiBNER, of Michigan: I move that the report of the Secretary be received and\nprinted in the volume of Proceedings.\nMotion was carried, and it was so ordered.\nPresident Schaeffer: Next is unfinished business, and the first item under this\nheading is a report to the Board of Directors by the Board of Trustees on the act of incorporation, and the action of the Board of Directors on said report. The Board of Trustees\nwere instructed by the active members and the Board of Directors at the Asbury Park\nmeeting in 1905 to secure if possible the passage by Congress of a proposed bill granting\nthe Association a national charter of incorporation. As you have been officially informed\nby the Secretary the act incorporating the Association was passed by Congress and approved\nby the president of the United States, June 30, 1906. We will hear the report of the Board\nof Trustees to the Board of Directors concerning this matter.\nSecretary Shepard read the report and the recommendations of the Board of Directors\nas follows:\nTo the Board of Directors 0} the National Educational Association:\nGentlemen: The Board of Trustees respectfully report that pursuant to a resolution\nadopted at the annual business meeting of the Association, held on July 6, 1905, the Board\nmade application to Congress for a special act in the form approved' by the Association\nat said meeting, to incorporate an association to be known as the \"National Education\nAssociation of the United States\" to succeed and continue the National Educational\nAssociation.\nThe Board further report that said act was passed by both houses of Congress with\nsome technical amendments, not affecting the substance, and was approved by the President and became a law on June 30, 1906. The act provides that it shall take effect when\nthe charter thereby granted is accepted and when by-laws are adopted by the members\nof the present Association.\nThe Board is of the opinion that the new charter, a copy of which is attached, offers\nthe Association great advantages in assuring to it perpetuity of existence and a national\ncharacter, in safeguarding its funds, and generally by increasing its powers and influence,\nand therefore unanimously recommends that the charter be accepted and that by-laws be\nadopted in accordance with the provisions of this act.\nRespectfully submitted,\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman,\nJ. M. Greenwood,\nNathan C. Schaeffer,\nTrustees.\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nADOPTED\n\nAT\n\nA\n\nMEETING\n\nANGELES,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBOARD\n\nCAL.,\n\nJULY\n\n8, 1907\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nHELD\n\nAT\n\nLOS\n\nResolved, That the Board of Directors accept the report of the Board of Trustees and\nunanimously approve the recommendations therein contained;\nResolved, That the Board of Directors recommend the adoption by the Association\nof the following resolutions:\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary\nof this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the recorder of deeds of\nthe District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association\nof the charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws, of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said\nmeeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \" 1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize\nunder the charter granted by the act of Congress.\n(Copies of the Report, of the Act of Incorporation and of other papers relating thereto\nwere distributed to the members.)\nO. J. Craig, of Montana: I move that this report of the Board of Trustees and the\nrecommendations of the Board of Directors be received. The motion was carried without\nan opposing vote.\n\n"} {"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n37\n\nCharles H. Keyes, of Connecticut: I move the adoption of the report of the Board\nof Trustees and of the resolutions thereon, passed by the Board of Directors. The motion\nwas seconded.\nMr. Black, of CaHfornia: I propose that we consider these resolutions separately\nand, with Mr. Keyes's permission, I move the adoption of resolution No. i. The division\nof the question was agreed to by Mr. Keyes.\nPresident Schaeffer: It has been moved and seconded that resolution No. i be\nadopted.\nAre you ready for the question ?\nMiss Elizabeth Shirley, of California: Mr. President, I rise to take exceptions\nto section seven of the Act of Incorporation so far as it refers to the finances of the Association. Isee that the permanent funds of the Association are by this section placed in\nthe hands of the trustees. Now, of course, the money belongs to us; it is the teachers'\nmoney. I see that the trustees alone can make recommendations for the expenditure\nof these funds; that such recommendation can be referred to the active members for\napproval and if it is carried by a three-fourths vote of active members it is to be returned\nto the directors and they have the power to strike out and nullify the action erf the members.\nThat is, we leave the initiative and the referendum in the hands of committees.\nNow, I stand for democracy. I stand for this National Educational Association as\nan association of the teachers, and for the teachers, and by the teachers, and I think that\nthe provision referred to in section seven would be unsafe. I think that it would be unbusiness-hke, and I think it would be undemocratic. We call the United States a democratic\ngovernment, yet we would put our finances into the hands of a committee who will dictate\nto us what we shall do with them. Now, men, they say, are masters of their fortunes.\nYou pass this motion accepting the act of Congress and the members of the National\nEducational Association of the United States will not be masters of their fortunes, so far\nas their finances are concerned. We shall have erected an oligarchy from under whose\ndominion we may peer about and find ourselves dishonored. It is unsafe, because it puts\nthe power all in the hands of a few trustees and we, the people, have nothing whatevei to\nsay about what shall be done with our own money.\nIt is true, and \"pity 'tis, 'tis true\" that graft, as you know, is stalking through the\nAmerican cities. Not in California alone; California is a kindergarten to what some of\nthe cities in the east are. Go into the great cities; go into Chicago, Milwaukee,\nOmaha, New York, and Philadelphia, Mr. President, and you will find the grafter there\nwith his money bags debauching the trustees and the school boards; buying special\nprivileges. You will see the great American concern, with its thirty pieces of silver, buying\nthe superintendents and forcing them up into high places.\nNow, are we safe in running the risk of putting our property, our money, into the\nhands of people who may be bought and sold ?\nVoice from the audience: You elect your committees, trust them.\nPresident Schaeffer:\nThe lady has the floor.\nMiss Shirley: I say that it is undemocratic, and even if we were assured that every\ndollar of our money would be righteously administered, it is unbusiness-like. We profess\nto teach the pupils of America business principles. When they pick up this constitution\nthey will see that the teachers are not capable of directing their own business, but have to\nput it into the hands of committees who will do the work for them. Now, if you can find\nin the confines of this great American country, any business man who will conduct his\nbusiness on the principles of that section, I shall be surprised. Shall the teachers tie their\nhands and give their money into the hands of a committee ? Shall they have no voice\nwhatever in the administration of their money, or say what shall be done with it ?\nNow, we are to go out and teach business principles. If we are unable to take care\nof our own business, how can we stand up before the youth of America and talk to them\nabout business principles? How can we face these pupils and talk of democracy when\nwe put the initiative and the referendum into the hands of a committee ? Let us vote down\n\n"} {"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthis resolution, so that we can look the youth of America in the face when we talk of democracy. It is a fact that we need to guard the teachers of America in every way, and we\nshould never, in our own business, adopt a measure that is so undemocratic. Mr. President,\nI thank you.\nThe \"question\" was called for by many members.\nPresident Schaeffer: Are there further remarks? All in favor of the adoption\nof the first resolution read in your hearing say \" aye;\" (An apparently unanimous response\nof ayes). Opposed, \"no.\"\n(No opposing vote was heard.)\nPresident Schaeffer: The ayes have it. The resolution is adopted and the charter\ngranted by act of Congress has been accepted and adopted by a unanimous vote of the\nactive members of the National Educational Association.\nIt was moved and seconded that the second resolution be adopted. The motion was\ncarried without opposing vote and the president declared the proposed by-laws adopted\nwithout amendment by unanimous vote.\nOn motion the third and fourth resolutions were successively carried by unanimous vote.\nOn motion of Mr. Greenwood, of Missouri, seconded by Mr. Carr, of Ohio, the four\nresolutions recommended by the Board of Directors were then adopted as a whole.\nJoseph Swain, of Pennsylvania, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, being\ncalled upon by the chair, presented the report of that Committee as follows:\nTo the Active Members of the National Education Association:\nYour Committee on Nominations begs leave to report the following nominations for\nofl&cers of the National Education Association for the ensuing year, viz:\nPresident\nEdwin G. Cooley\nIllinois\nFirst Vice-President\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nPennsylvania\nSecond Vice-President\nW. H. Elson\nOhio\nThird Vice-President\nCharles H. Judd\nConnecticut\nFourth Vice-President\nH. A. Ustrud\nSouth Dakota\nFifth Vice-President\nJ. F. Stilwell\nArizona\nSixth Vice-President\nJoseph H, Hill\nKansas\nSeventh Vice-President\nW. A. Clark\nNebraska\nEighth Vice-President\nWalter M. Kern\nNorth Dakota\nNinth Vice-President\nWilbur F. Gordy\nMassachusetts\nTenth Vice-President\nJ. F. Kingsbury\nUtah\nEleventh Vice-President. . . . Ellsworth Robey\nIndiana\nTwelfth Vice-President\nJames H. Baker\nColorado\nTreasurer\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nCalifornia\nDIRECTORS\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIndiana Territory\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\n\nIsaac W. Hill\nA. J. Matthews\nGeorge B. Cook\nJames A. Barr\nCharles E. Chadsey\nCharles H. Keyes\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nW. T. Harris\nMiss Clem Hampton\nWilliam M. Slaton\nS. Belle Chamberlain\nWalter R. Hatfield\nThomas A. Mott\nJohn D. Benedict\nP. C. Hayden\nJohn MacDonald\nW. H. Bartholomew\nWarren Easton\nPayson Smith\nM. Bates Stephens\nJohn T. Prince\nDavid Mackenzie\n\nOpelika\nTempe\nHot Springs\nStockton\nDenver\nHartford\nWilmington\nWashington\nTallahassee\nAtlanta\nBoise\nChicago\nRichmond\nMuskogee\nKeokuk\nTopeka\nLouisville\nNew Orleans\nAuburn\nAnnapoUs\nWest Newton\nDetroit\n\n"} {"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\n■ North CaroHna\nNorth Dakota.\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth CaroHna\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nVermont\nE. T. Fairchild\nSecretary.\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n39\n\nS. L. Heeter\nSt. Paul\nE. E. Bass\nGreenville\nJohn R. Kirk\nKirksville\nOscar J, Craig\nMissoula\nGeorge L. Towne\nLincoln\nJ. E. Stubbs\nReno\nJames E. Klock\nPlymouth\nJohn Enright\nFreehold\nWilliam H. Decker\nGallup\nJames C. Byrnes\nNew York\nJ. I. Foust\nGreensboro\nNeil C. Macdonald\nLidgerwood\nHenry G. Williams\nAthens\nErnest E. Balcomb\nWeatherford\nJ. H. Ackerman\nSalem\nJohn Morrow\nAllegheny\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\nProvidence\nDavid B. Johnson\nRock Hill\nM. A. Lange\nPierre\nI. C. McNeill\nMemphis\nCree T. Work.\nDenton\nWilliam Allison\nOgden\nJ. L. Jarman\nFarmville\nEdward T. Mathes\nBellingham\nThomas C. Miller\nCharleston\nCharles P. Cary\nMadison\nEstelle Reel\nWashington, D. C.\nMason S. Stone\nMontpelier\nRespectfully submitted,\nJoseph Swain, Chairman.\n\nOn motion of Mr. Carr, of Ohio, the report of the Committee on Nominations was\nreceived, and the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the members present for\nthe nominations as made. The Secretary reported the ballot cast as directed and the\nchairman announced the nominees elected as officers for the ensuing year.\nPresident-elect Edwin G. Cooley, being called for, was invited to the rostrum and introduced byPresident Schaeffer. Mr. Cooley spoke briefly, expressing his high appreciation\nof the honor conferred by election to the oflfice of president of the newly organized National\nEducation Association of the United States and giving assurances that his best efforts would\nbe directed, with the co-operation of the members, to bring about a successful convention\nin 1908.\n\nC. G. Pearse, of Wisconsin: Mr. Chairman, I move that section two of article five\nof the by-laws of the National Education Association, adopted this date, be so amended\nas to read as follows:\nSection 2. The Council shall consist of 120 members, selected from the membership\nojf the Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is\neligible to membership in the Council.\nThat section three of article five be amended so as to read as follows:\nSection 3. The Board of Directors shall annually elect ten members, and the Council\nshall elect ten members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected.\nMr. Keyes, of Connecticut: I rise to a point of order. I think article eight of the\nby-laws just adopted provides for their amendment. This article reads that these bylaws may be amended at any annual meeting by the unaminous vote of the members present\nor by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that the alteration, or amendment, has been proposed in writing at a previous annual meeting. The motion is evidently\nnot in order since the amendment has not been proposed in advance. I should like to\nhave the opinion of the Counsel of the Board of Trustees on this point.\n\n"} {"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident Schaefeer: I think the active members will be pleased to hear the opinion\nof our Counsel, Mr. Pine, of New York, as to whether we should, or can, amend the bylaws before the Certificate of Incorporation has been filed, according to the requirements\nof the act of Incorporation.\nMr. Pine, of New York: Mr. President; it is my opinion that under the by-laws,\nit is possible to adopt the amendment proposed by Mr. Pearse only by unanimous consent.\nI should think it would be more regular that notice be given at this meeting in order that\nthe proposed amendment might come before the next annual meeting.\nMr. Pearse: Mr. Chairman, in view of the opinion of Mr. Pine, I will give the\nnotice, as suggested, and let the matter lie over until the next annual meeting.\nPresident Schaeffer: Notice is given by Mr. Pearse of the proposed amendment\nwhich will come up for action at the next year's meeting.\nMr. Baker, of Colorado: I rise to speak, representing the National Association of\nState Universities, preliminary to the introduction of a resolution. As it is important that\na preHminary explanation be made, I trust that the Chair will be willing to waive the formality ofreading the resolution first.\nAt the meeting of the National Association of State Universities held in Baton Rouge,\nlast November, a report on the question of a national university was made, and the recommendations ofthe committee on that subject were unanimously adopted. A standing\ncommittee was appointed to further the cause, consisting of President Edmund J. James,\nof the State University of Illinois, President W. O. Thompson, of the State University of\nOhio, and President Brown Ayres, of the University of Tennessee. This committee was\ninstructed to ask the National Educational Association to appoint a committee to further\nthe cause of a national university, or of some kind of organization which would enable the\nstudents of this country to use the many facilities in Washington which are extremely\nvaluable in original research.\nWe understand that the Association has for a long time been committed to the idea\nof some kind of an organization at Washington that would facilitate the use of the valuable\nand extensive government collections. We are not asking that a committee of investigation be appointed, but a committee to appeal to Congress to take up the matter and investigate it, and in doing so, to co-operate with the movement that has been organized by the\nAssociation of State Universities. The last investigation shows two things: first, that\nthe facilities there available for the scholars of this country, and of the world, can be enumerated under some seventy distinct heads, with many subdivisions under some of these\nheads, and that here is an opportunity to promote one of America's greatest educational\ninterests.\nWith this explanation, I will give way to President W. O. Thompson, the only member\nof that standing committee present, who will ofifer the resolution.\nPresident Schaeffer: President Thompson has the floor.\nMr. Thompson, of Ohio: Mr. Chairman, the explanation which has been made by\nPresident Baker is a suflicient introduction of the resolution which I shall now ofiFer and\nwhich has been drawn Up in accordance with the instructions of the Association of State\nUniversities as follows:\nWhereas, The National Association of State Universities in session November,\n1906, took action looking toward the establishment of a graduate university owned and\ncontrolled by the federal government, and appointed a permanent committee to aid the cause\nand to present the matter to the National Educational Association, and to urge the naming of a committee instructed to co-operate in securing a national university; therefore be it\nResolved, That we, the active members of the National Educational Association\nreafiirm the previous declarations of this Association concerning the establishment of a\ngraduate university at Washington, D. C, and express our behef in the wisdom of such\na university, or some form of organization that shall utihze for research the facilities\nassembled in Washington, to be owned and controlled by the federal government; that a\ncommittee of three be appointed to promote the cause; and that an appropriation not to\n\n"} {"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n41\n\nexceed $500 be recommended to the directors to provide for the necessary expenses of the\ncommittee.\nI move the adoption of the resolutions as read.\nIt was seconded and carried.\nOn motion, the resolution was then referred to the new Board of Directors with\nrequest that the desired appropriation of $500 be granted for the expenses of the\nCommittee.\nPresident Schaeffer: The Board of Directors, whose term expires tomorrow,\nadjourned on Monday last to meet at the call of the chairman should a meeting be necessary. The chair finds that no such meeting is necessary, therefore no meeting will be held.\nThe new Board of Directors will hold its first business meeting at 4:30 p. m., Thursday,\nJuly II, in the Children's Hall of the Temple Building.\nMr. Harvey, of Wisconsin: At the last meeting of active members at Asbury Park,\nin July, 1905, amendments were proposed to the by-laws as they then existed, which have\nnot yet been acted upon. I believe this is a proper matter for consideration at this time\nand therefore move that these proposed amendments be laid on the table. The motion\nwas carried and it was so ordered.\nThere being no other business, a motion to adjourn was made and carried and the\nchairman declared the annual meeting of active members adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"} {"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\nFOR\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n1906-1907\n\nThe annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order in Children's Hall\nof the Auditorium Building, Los Angeles, California, at 11:00 a.m., July 8, 1907, by\nPresident Nathan C. Schaeffer.\nThe following Directors responded to roll-call:\nJasper N. Wilkinson, Kansas; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri;\nW. T. Harris, District of Columbia; Eliphalet Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; Charles H. Keyes,\nConnecticut; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky; L. E. Wolfe, Texas; George B. Cook, Arkansas; John D. Benedict,\nIndian Territory; Wells L. Griswold, Ohio; T. A. Mott, Indiana; George L. Towne,\nNebraska; Oscar J. Craig, Montana; J. E. Stubbs, Nevada; Edward T. Mathes, Washington; A. H. Chamberlain, California; Nathan C. Schaefifer, Pennsylvania.\nPresent, twenty directors.\nThe reading of the minutes of the last meeting, held July 6, 1905, was, on motion,\ndispensed with, and the minutes were approved as printed in the volume of Proceedings\nof the Asbury Park meeting.\nThe Secretary announced the formal resignation of certain directors. On motion,\nthe following directors were elected to fill the vacancies:\nE. E. Balcomb, of Oklahoma, to succeed Richard V. Temming, resigned.\nW. M. Kern, of North Dakota, to succeed P. G. Knowlton, resigned.\nJohn MacDonald, of Kansas, to succeed L. D. Whittemore, resigned.\nS. Belle Chamberlain, of Idaho, to succeed A. G. Sears, resigned.\nHenry D. Sheldon, of Oregon, to succeed E. D. Ressler, resigned.\nCharles H. Ames, of Massachusetts, to succeed Henry T. Bailey, resigned.\nJoseph Swain, of Pennsylvania, to succeed John W. Lansinger, resigned.\nW. R. Hatfield, of Illinois, to succeed C. M. Bard well, resigned.\nI. C. McNeill, of Tennessee, to succeed Eugene F. Turner, resigned.\nMrs. Helen L. Grenfell, of Colorado, to succeed L. C. Greenlee, resigned.\nS. L. Heeter, of Minnesota, to succeed A. W. Rankin, resigned.\nJohn R. Kirk, of Missouri, to succeed W. J. Hawkins, resigned.\nTotal number of directors present at this meeting, thirty-two.\nThe Twenty-first Annual Report of the Board of Trustees for the year July i, 1906,\nto June 30, 1907, was presented and printed copies of the same were distributed to the\ndirectors. On motion of Director J. M. Greenwood, the reading of the report was dispensed with and the report was approved and ordered printed in the annual volume of\nProceedings.\nThe reports of the Treasurer, J. N.Wilkinson, of Emporia, Kan., for the years 1905-06\nand 1906-07 were presented. The report for the first of the two years was adopted as\nprinted in the anniversary volume. The report for 1906-07 was read in full and on motion\nwas referred to the Board of Trustees for audit and approval.\nThe report of Secretary, Irwin Shepard, embodying a review of the reports of the\nSecretary from 1893 to 1907 was next presented and printed copies of the same were passed\nto the directors. On motion, the reading of the report was dispensed with and the report\nwas approved as printed in the anniversary volume.\nSecretary Shepard then made a brief statement with regard to railroad rates to the\nefifect that certain questions remained unsettled between the Association and the railroads\nof the Trans-Continental Association regarding the expense of validation of the tickets\nor return of National Educational Association members at Los Angeles. Since the question was a complicated one the Secretary advised that it be referred to a committee for\n\nJ\n\n"} {"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n43\n\nnegotiation and settlement. On motion of Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, the\nentire question of validation and other expenses was referred to the Executive Committee\nand Board of Trustees with power to act.\nThe Secretary then called attention to the action of the Board of Directors at its\nmeeting July 4, 1905, receiving the petition of Louis C. Monin, dean of the Armour Institute\nof Technology, and others, for the organization of a new department of the National\nEducational Association to be known as the Department of Technical Education. This\npetition was referred to the Executive Committee of the Association with power to act.\nThe Secretary reported that the Executive Committee at its meeting in Louisville, Ky.,\nFeb. 28, 1906, voted to approve the petition and to authorize the establishment of the\nDepartment of Technical Education. On motion the action of the Executive Committee\nwas approved by the Board of Directors.\nIn the absence of the chairman of the Board of Trustees, Nicholas Murray Butler,\nof New York, J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri, secretary of the Board, read the following\nspecial report of the Trustees:\nTo the Board of Directors 0} the National Educational Association.\nGentlemen: The Board of Trustees respectfully report that pursuant to a resolution\nadopted at the annual business meeting of the Association, held on July 6, 1905, the Board\nmade application to Congress for a special act in the form approved by the Association\nat said meeting, to incorporate an association to be known as the \"National Education\nAssociation of the United States\" to succeed and continue the National Educational\nAssociation.\nThe Board further report that said act was passed by both houses of Congress with\nsome technical amendments, not affecting the substance, and was approved by the President\nand became a law on June 30, 1906. The act provides that it shall take effect when the\ncharter thereby granted is accepted and when by-laws are adopted by the members of the\npresent Association.\nThe Board is of the opinion that the new charter, a copy of which is attached, offers\nthe Association great advantages in assuring to it perpetuity of existence and a national\ncharacter, in safeguarding its funds and generally by increasing its powers and influence,\nand therefore unanimously recommends that the charter be accepted and that by-laws be\nadopted in accordance with the provisions of this act.\nRespectfully submitted,\nNicholas\nMurray Butler,\nChairman^\nJ. M. Greenwood,\nNathan C. Schaeffer,\nTrustees.\nOn motion of Director John R. Kirk, of Missouri, the report was accepted and the\nfollowing resolutions were unanimously adopted.\nResolved^ That the Board of Directors accept the report of the Board of Trustees and\nunanimously approve the recommendations therein contained;\nResolved, That the Board of Directors recommend the adoption by the Association\nof the following resolutions:\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter\ngranted by an act of Congresss entitled \"An Act to incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the recorder\nof deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual\nmeeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal\nof said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \" 1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize\nunder the Charter granted by the Act of Congress.\nThe Chairman stated as the next order of business the election of three trustees to\nfill vacancies as follows:\n\n"} {"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOne Trustee to succeed Nicholas Murray Butler, for the term to expire 1910.\nOne Trustee to succeed N. C. Dougherty, resigned, for the term to expire 1908.\nOne Trustee to succeed Albert G. Lane, deceased, for the term of three days to expire\nJuly II, 1907.\nOn motion, Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, was unanimously elected to succeed himself for the term to expire July, 19 10.\nThe names of C. G. Pearse, of Wisconsin, and E. G. Cooley, of Illinois, were put in\nnomination to succeed N. C. Dougherty, resigned. An election by ballot was ordered.\nCharles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, and A. H. Chamberlain, of California, acted as tellers.\nThe ballot resulted in C. G. Pearse receiving fifteen votes and E. G. Cooley fourteen.\nThe Chairman announced the election of C. G. Pearse as trustee to succeed N. C.\nDougherty, resigned, for the term to expire 1908.\nH. B. Brown, of Indiana, was on motion elected to succeed Albert G. Lane, deceased,\nfor a term of three days to expire Thursday, July ii, 1907.\nThe following communication was read by the secretary:\nLos Angeles, Cal., July 8, 1907\nTo Irwin Shepard, Secretary^ National Educational Association,\nDear Sir: I have the honor to submit, herewith, a petition signed by twenty-eight\nprominent educators, who are active members of the National Educational Association,\nasking the privilege of organizing a department of the National Educational Association\nto be known as the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education, and to request that\nyou will present this petition to the Board of Trustees of the National Educational Association for action during the present convention of the Association.\nVery respectfully,\nDick J. Crosby,\nDepartment of Agriculture,\nWashington, D. C.\nAPPLICATION\n\nTo the Board of Trustees of the National Educational Association:\nIn view of the widespread and active interest in the improvement of rural schools\nand in the development and extension of instruction in agriculture and the allied subjects\nof nature-study and school-gardening in the colleges and public schools of this country,\nand in view of the fact that there is now no national organization of teachers for the discussion ofrational methods of instruction in these subjects, the undersigned active members\nof the National Educational Association respectfully request permission to form a Department of Rural and Agricultural Education co-ordinate with the other regularly constituted\ndepartments of this Association.\nVery respectfully,\nJohn L. Alger, principal, Vermont Academy, Saxtons River, Vt.\nE. Ben J. Andrews, chancellor. State University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.\nBrown Ayres, president. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.\nL. H. Bailey, director, College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\nW. A. Baldwin, principal, Hyannis State Normal School, Hyannis, Mass,\nCharles E. Bessey, professor of botany, university of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.\nE. C. Bishop, deputy state superintendent of pubhc instruction, Lincoln, Neb.\nErnest Burnham, director, rural school department. Western State Normal School,\nKalamazoo, Mich.\nKenyon L. Butterfield, president, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst,\nMass.\nW. T. Carrington, state superintendent of public schools, Jefferson City, Mo.\nP. P. Claxton, professor of education. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.\nFassett O. Cotton, state superintendent of public instruction, IndianapoHs, Ind.\nDick J. Crosby, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.\nDelos Fall, professor of chemistry, Albion College, Albion, Mich. ^\nH. B. Frissell, principal of Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton,\nVa.\nFrank H. Hall, secretary, Illinois Farmers Institute, Aurora, 111.\nL. D. Harvey, superintendent of schools, Menomonie, Wis.\nW. M. Hays, assistant secretary of agriculture, Washington, D. C.\nR. H. Jesse, president, State University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\nJ. Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N. C.\n\n"} {"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n45\n\nO. J. Kern, superintendent of schools, Winnebago Co., Rockford, 111.\nJohn R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\nWilliam R. Lazenby,\nprofessor of horticultural forestry, Ohio State University,\nColumbus, O.\nThos. C. Miller, state superintendent of schools, Charleston, West Va.\nJ. L. Snyder, president. State Agricultural College, Lansing, Mich.\nW. J. Stevens, principal, Eugene Field School, St. Louis, Mo.\nA. B. Storms, president, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\nGeo. H. Whitcher, superintendent of schools, BerHn, N. H.\nOn motion, the petition was received and authority was granted to the petitioners\nto organize a new department of the National Educational Association to be known as\nThe Department of Rural and Agricultural Education.\nThe Secretary presented a communication from Reuben Post Halleck, chairman of\nthe Committee of Seventeen on Professional Preparation of High-School Teachers. This\ncommunication transmitted to the Board of Directors the report of the Committee with\nthe request that it be printed and that appropriation be made for certain expenses which\nhad already been incurred by the Committee. On motion, the communication and accompanying report was referred to the Department of Secondary Education for recommendation to the new Board of Directors.\nA communication was received from Director James H. Canfield, of New York,\nsubmitting a petition for the appointment of a committee of investigation of the relations\nof the home to the school and of home economics. On motion of A. H. Chamberlain the\npetition was referred to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the\nNational Council.\nThere being no further business the Board of Directors adjourned subject to the call\nof the President if it should be found necessary to hold another meeting of the Board.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"} {"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nFOR\n\n1907-1908\n\nOF\n\nThe meeting of the new Board of Directors of the National Education Association\nfor the year 1907-8 was called to order by President E. G. Cooley, at 4:30 p. m., July 12,\n1907, in Children's Hall, Temple Auditorium, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe following Directors responded to the call of the roll:\nE. G. Cooley, Illinois; Nathan C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania; Arthur H. Chamberlain, California; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; J. M. Green, New Jersey; J. M. Greenwood,\nMissouri; EHphalet Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; George B. Cook, Arkansas; James A.\nBarr, California; Charles E. Chadsey, Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; Miss\nClem Hampton, Florida; S. Belle Chamberlain, Idaho; Thomas A. Mott, Indiana;\nJohn D. Benedict, Indian Territory; John MacDonald, Kansas; W. H. Bartholomew,\nKentucky; David MacKenzie, Michigan; S. L. Heeter, Minnesota; John R. Kirk,\nMissouri; Oscar J. Craig, Montana; George L. Towne, Nebraska; W. H. Decker,\nNew Mexico; N. C. MacDonald, North Dakota; Henry G. Williams, Ohio; E. E. Balcomb,\nOklahoma; John Morrow, Pennsylvania; D. B. Johnson, South CaroHna; I. C. McNeill,\nTennessee; Cree T. Work, Texas; William Allison, Utah; Charles P. Gary, Wisconsin,\nEstelle Reel, Wyoming.\nDirectors present, thirty-three.\nPresident Cooley: The first order of business is a communication from the Department of Secondary Education, concerning the report of the Committee on the Professional\nPreparation of Teachers which was referred to that department by the Board of Directors\nat its meeting July 8, with request that it be reported back to this Board at this time with\nrecommendations.\nThe secretary read the communication as follows:\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Editcational Association:\nThe Departments of Secondary Education of Normal Schools, and of Higher Education have had under consideration the report of the committee appointed by the Secondary\nDepartment at its meeting in Asbury Park, July, 1905, on the Preparation of Teachers for\nSecondary Schools and said departments jointly recommend that the report be approved\nand ordered printed by the Board of Directors, both in the volume of Proceedings of this\nmeeting, and also in pamphlet form convenient for distribution. Also that an appropriation\nof $30 be made to reimburse the committee for clerical expenses in preparing the report.\n(Signed)\nEugene W. Lyttle,\nPresident, Department of Secondary Education.\nDirector Bartholomew, of Kentucky: I move that the recommendation be concurred in, that the report be printed as recommended. The motion was carried, and\nit was so ordered.\nSecretary Shepard reported that the following resolutions and request for an appropriation had been referred to this Board by the Active Members of the Association as\nfollows:\nExtract from minutes of meeting of active members held July 10, inst.\nW. O. Thompson, of Ohio, offered the following resolution and moved its adoption:\nWhereas, The National Association of State Universities in session November,\n1906, took action looking toward the estabUshment of a graduate university owned and\ncontrolled by the federal government, and appointed a permanent committee to aid the\ncause and to present the rfiatter to the National Educational Association, and to urge the\nnaming of a committee instructed to co-operate in securing a national university, therefore\nbe it\nResolved, That we, the active members of the National Educational Association,\n\n"} {"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n47\n\nreaffirm the previous declarations of this Association concerning the estabhshment of a\ngraduate university at Washington, D. C, and express our belief in the wisdom of such a\nuniversity, or some form of organization that shall utilize for research the facilities assembled\nin Washington, to be owned and controlled by the federal government; that a committee\nof three be appointed by the President of the Association to promote the cause; and that\nan appropriation not to exceed $500 be recommended to the directors to provide the necessary expenses of the committee.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried. On motion, the resolution was referred\nto the new Board of Directors with the request that the desired appropriation of $500 be\ngranted for the expenses of the committee.\nDirector J. M. Green, of New Jersey: I move that this matter be laid over until\nthe next meeting and that when presented again it be accompanied by a review of what\nthe Association has already done in the direction of the resolution presented. I know that\nthere was for many years a standing committee on this subject and that much work was\ndone. Doubtless a review of the work of this committee would be a valuable guide.\n(Seconded.)\nDirector O. J. Craig, of Montana: This movement comes from the National\nAssociation of State Universities and was adopted by that Association at its session in\nBaton Rouge, La., in November last. The purpose of this resolution is to secure the\nindorsement and co-operation of the National Education Association as stated by\nPresident Baker, of Colorado, yesterday in the meeting of Active Members.\nDirector J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri: I hope that the motion to postpone will\nnot prevail, but that action may be deferred until the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations be received since the matter will be included in that report.\nThe motion to postpone until the next meeting was withdrawn by Director Green\nwith consent of the one who seconded the motion. It was then moved and carried that\naction on the matter be delayed until the report of the Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations of the National Council had been presented.\nDirector N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania: Section eight of the newly adopted\ncharter of the Association provides that the principal office of the corporation shall be in\nthe city of Washington, D. C. This is in accordance with the usual requirements for all\nassociations or corporations organized by special act of Congress. This does not, however,\nprevent the Association from maintaining an office or offices elsewhere within the United\nStates for the transaction of business as may be determined by the Board of Directors or\notherwise in accordance with the by-laws. I therefore offer the following resolution and\nam authorized to state that Dr. W. T. Harris has kindly tendered the use of his residence\non Fairmont Street in the city of Washington as the principal office of the Association:\nResolved, That pursuant to section eight of the charter, 1360 Fairmont Street, N.\nW., in the city of Washington, D. C, be, and the same is hereby designated as, the principal\noffice of the National Education Association of the United States, and that the Honorable\nW. T. Harris be requested and authorized to act as the representative of the Association\nhaving charge of such office.\nI move the adoption of the resolution. The motion was seconded and carried and it\nwas so ordered.\nDirector Chas. H. Keyes, of Connecticut: I move that the office of the Secretary\nof the National Education Association of the United States be continued in the city of\nWinona, in the state of Minnesota as heretofore, and that this office shall be the executive\noffice of the Association.\nThe motion was seconded and carried.\nDirector Schaeffer: The following resolution should be acted upon at this time\nin order to carry out the provisions of the new charter adopted at the meeting of active\nmembers yesterday.\n\n"} {"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nResolved, That the Board of Trustees be requested to have prepared a suitable design\nfor the corporate seal of the National Education Association of the United States, and to\nsubmit the same at the meeting of the Board of Directors to be held in July, 1908.\nI move the adoption of the resolution.\nThe motion was seconded and carried, and it was so ordered.\nPresident Cooley:\nThe Secretary will read a communication from the National\nCouncil of Education.\nThe Secretary read the following communication:\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary National Educational Association, Los Angeles, California:\nDear Sir: I am directed by the National Council of Education to submit through you\nto the Board of Directors the following report of the Committee on Investigation and\nAppropriations of said Council.\nThis report has been duly accepted and unanimously adopted by the Council.\n(Signed)\nJ. W. Carr,\nSecretary, National Council of Education.\nreport of the committee on investigations and appropriations to the\nnational council of education\nThe Committee on investigations and appropriations submits the following report\non such matters as have been regularly brought before it and recommends that investigations be made on each subject mentioned below. The Committee also recommends\nthat the Board of Directors be requested to appropriate the amount of money asked for in\norder to defray the necessary expenses of each of the several committees suggested.\n(i) That the sum of five hundred dollars ($500), or so much thereof as may be necessary, be appropriated to make a preliminary inquiry into the contemporary judgment as\nto the culture element in education, and the time that should be devoted to the combined\nschool and college course and that the president of the Council appoint a committee of\nfive to make a report at some future time to the National Council of Education on this\nsubject.\n(2) That the sum of five hundred dollars ($500), or so much thereof as may be necessary, be appropriated to defray the expenses of a committee to be appointed by the president of the Council to investigate and submit a tentative report on a system of teaching\nmorals in the public schools of the United States.\n(3) That the sum of five hundred dollars ($500) or so much thereof as may be necessary, be appropriated for the use of the Committee on Industrial Education for Rural\nSchools and that the present committee of five be reduced to three to be appointed by\nthe president of the Council.\n(4) That a committee be appointed by the president of the Council to consider and\nmake a preliminary report on the shortage in the supply of teachers, conditions, causes\nand remedies, and that the sum of five hundred dollars ($500), or so much thereof as may\nbe necessary, be appropriated to defray the expenses of this committee.\n(5) That a committee be appointed by the president of the Council to consider and\nmake a preliminary report on provisions for exceptional children in the public schools\nand that the sum of five hundred dollars ($500), or so much thereof as may be necessary,\nbe appropriated to defray the expenses of this committee.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman,\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick,\nElmer E. Brown,\nLorenzo D. Harvey,\nCommittee.\nDirector John R. Kirk, of Missouri: I move that the report of the Committee\non Investigations and Appropriations of the Council be received, and that the several\ncommittees recommended be authorized and the corresponding appropriations granted.\nThe motion was seconded by Director George B. Cook, of Arkansas.\nSecretary Shepard: I desire to ask if the first resolution does not have reference\nto the same subject as is under consideration by a committee now in existence of which\nPresident Charles W. Eliot is chairman. This committee made a report of progress at\nthe Asbury Park meeting, but has never been discharged. Will there not be confusion if\na new committee is created while the former one is in existence ?\nDirector Greenwood: I am one of the five members of the committee of which\nPresident Eliot is chairman.\nThis committee was appointed in 1903 to report on the\n\n"} {"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n49\n\nadvisability of an investigation proposed by President Baker of the University of Colorado\nconcerning the contemporary judgment as to the culture element and economy of time in\neducation. The committee was unable to determine just what President Baker had in\nmind as the field for the proposed investigation. The committee made what it considered\nas a final, but not unanimous, report at the Asbury Park meeting. It was therefore thought\nadvisable by the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations to appoint a new\ncommittee of which President Baker ought to be chairman.\nOn motion, it was ordered that each recommendation of the report should be voted\nupon separately.\nAfter some discussion it was ordered that the recommendation for the appointment\nof a Committee of Investigation into the \"Contemporary Judgment as to the Culture\nElement in Education and the Time That Should Be Devoted to Combined School and\nCollege Courses\" be approved and that $500 be appropriated for the expenses of the\ncommittee.\nOn motion of Director Estelle Reel, of Wyoming, recommendation No. 2 was approved\nand $500 appropriated to defray the expenses of a committee to investigate and report on\na \"System of Teaching Morals in the Public Schools of the United States.\"\nOn motion of Director W. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky, recommendation No. 3\nwas adopted and the sum of $500 appropriated for the use of the committee on \"Industrial\nEducation for Rural Schools.\" It was also ordered that the present committee of five\nshould be reduced to a committee of three to be appointed by the president of the Council.\nOn motion, recommendation No. 4 was adopted and it was ordered that a committee\nbe appointed by the president of the Council to report on the \"Shortage in the Supply\nof Teachers, Conditions, Causes, and Remedies,\" and that the sum of $500 be appropriated for the expenses of the committee.\nOn motion, recommendation No. 5, providing for a committee to report on \" Provisions\nfor Exceptional Children in PubUc Schools,\" and an appropriation of $500 for the expenses\nof the committee was approved.\nOn motion of Director Greenwood the Committee on the Investigation, proposed by\nPresident Baker, as to the culture element in education of which President Eliot was chairman was discharged.\nOn motion of Director Greenwood the resolution concerning an appropriation for\nthe expenses of a committee on a national university was again taken up for consideration.\nPresident James H. Baker, of the University of Colorado, being present, was recognized\nby the chair and made a brief explanation of the purposes of the proposed investigation\nand urged favorable action upon the recommendation of the active members that the proposed committee be appointed and the sum of $500 be appropriated for their expenses.\nFollowing a discussion by Directors Prince, of Massachusetts; Greenwood, of Missouri; Towne, of Nebraska, and Craig, of Montana, the motion of Director Green of\nNew Jersey was renewed that action on the question be deferred for one year. This\nmotion being put to vote was lost.\nOn motion of Director O. J. Craig, of Montana, the resolution adopted by the active\nmembers was approved and $500 appropriated for the expenses of a Committee on a\nNational University to be appointed by the President of the Association.\nThe chairman announced that the next order of business was the election of a trustee\nto serve four years to succeed H. B. Brown, of Indiana, whose term expires at this meeting.\nDirector T. A. Mott, of Indiana, nominated H. B. Brown to succeed himself as trustee\nfor the term to expire 191 1. Director Craig, of Montana, seconded the nomination and\nmoved that the secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the Board of Directors for H.\nB. Brown to succeed himself. This motion was seconded and carried. The ballot was\nso cast, and Mr. Brown was declared duly elected.\nThe chairman announced the next order of business to be the election of a member of\nthe Executive Committee for the term of one year to succeed W. T. Harris, term expired.\n\n"} {"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nL. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, and W. T. Harris, of Washington, D. C, were nominated for\nthis ofl5ce.\nOn motion, it was ordered that the directors ballot for the election of the member of\nthe Executive Committee. Directors C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin, and E. O. L)rte, of\nPennsylvania, were appointed to act as tellers. The ballot resulted in W. T. Harris\nreceiving nineteen, and L. D. Harvey fifteen, votes.\nOn motion, of Director Green of New Jersey, W. T. Harris was declared unanimously\nelected as a member of the Executive Gommittee to succeed himself.\nPresident Gooley named as a committee on nominations of members of the National\nCouncil to fill vacancies: Directors J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri; Charles H. Keyes,\nof Connecticut; O. J. Craig, of Montana; William Allison, of Utah, and T. A. Mott, of\nIndiana.\nThe Committee on request of its chairman were excused to prepare their report.\nPresident Gooley announced the next order of business to be the consideration of\ninvitations for the next convention.\nOn motion, the usual roll call of states was dispensed with and the chairman was\ndirected to recognize a representative from the city of Cleveland, Ohio.\nPresident F. H. Haserot, of the Cleveland Board of Education was introduced by\nPresident Gooley and addressed the convention at some length extending to the Board of\nDirectors a cordial invitation from the city of Cleveland and various organizations of that\ncity and of the state of Ohio to hold the next annual convention in that city.\nAfter brief discussion on motion of Director Henry G. Williams, of Ohio, the following resolution was adopted :\nResolved, That this Board of Directors favors holding the next convention of the\nNational Education Association in the city of Cleveland, Ohio, provided railway, hotel,\nand other arrangements are made satisfactory to the Executive Committee, and also provided\nthat if the Executive Committee find it impossible to secure satisfactory railway rates\nand other arrangements for a meeting in the city of Cleveland, they are hereby authorized\nto select some other place.\nFollowing this action Director C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin, announced that the city\nof Milwaukee desired to extend an invitation to the Board of Directors to hold the convention\nfor 1909 in that city.\nDirector Charles E. Chadsey, of Colorado, announced that Denver invited the Directors to select that city for the convention in 1909.\nDirector John R. Kirk, of Missouri, announced' that Kansas City would invite the\nAssociation to hold its meeting in that city in 19 10.\nDirector W. R. Hatfield, of Illinois, announced that Chicago would like to have the\nconvention for 19 13.\nPresident Gooley announced communications as the next order of business.\nThe Secretary read the following communication from the Department of Manual\nTraining:\nN. E. A. Headquarters, Los Angeles, Gal., July 11, 1907.\nMr. Irwin Shepard, Secretary National Education Association, City:\nDear Sir:\nI would\nrespectfully\ninform for\nyou'the\nthatpurpose\nit is theofintention\nof thetheDepartment\nof Manual\nTraining\nto create\na committee\ninvestigating\nsubject of\ncourses of study for elementary schools and to make request of the Board of Directors for\nan appropriation of $300 to $500 to defray necessary expenses.\nThis action will be accomplished by means of the following resolutions adopted at\nthe meeting of the department this Thursday morning. It is probable that a committee\nwill present the matter in person to the Board of Directors at its meeting Thursday afternoon. Frank M. Leavitt\nPresident, Department of Manual Training.\nREPORT\nOF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nOF THE MANUAL-TRAINING\nDEPARTMENT\nTHE NATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nNOW IN SESSION, JULY\nII, I907\n\nOF\n\nWhereas, The accumulative work of the department during the last two years\nseeking a more rational statement of courses of manual training, seems now to indicate a\nnecessity for some definite work by a special committee.\n\n"} {"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n^\n\nBe it therefore resolved, That the manual-training department of the National Educational Association, now in session, recommend the appointment of a committee for the\npurpose of collecting data of the manual-training work done thruout this country, that\nsuggestive courses adaptable to various conditions found therein, may be formulated by\nthem.\nFurther he it resolved, That this committee consist of three persons now actively engaged\nin manual training, with power to add to their number, a superintendent of schools, a\nteacher of art, a child's study specialist, a grade teacher, and a representative from such\nother departments as may be deemed advisable to increase the efficiency of their work.\nBe it further resolved, That the aforesaid committee of three be appointed by the president of this department.\nBe it further resolved, That this committee be appointed for a term of two years, being\nrequested to make a preliminary report at the next meeting of this association.\nResolved, That a committee of one be appointed by the president of this department to\nmake formal application to the Board of Directors of the Association for an appropriation\nto defray the expenses of the committee.\nRespectfully submitted,\nChas. M. Miller, Los Angeles, Cal., Chairman,\nAugust Ahrens, Warrensburg, Mo.\nAda F. Blanchard, Los Angeles, Cal.\nCommittee on Resolutions.\nDirector Cree T. Work, of Texas: I have been appointed by the Committee\nof the Manual Training Department to urge favorable action on the report which you have\njust received from that department.\nOn motion, the application of the Department of Manual Training was received and\napproved and it was ordered that the desired committee be appointed by the president\nof the Department of Manual Training and that $500, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be appropriated for the expenses of that committee.\nDirector E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, presented the following petition and\nurged its adoption by the Board of Directors:\nWhereas, At a conference held February 25, 1907, between the officers of the National\nEducational Association and representatives of six national organizations of women —\nthe General Federation of Women's Clubs, the National Congress of Mothers, the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, the Women's Christian Temperance Union, the National Council of Jewish Women,\nand the Southern Association of College Women — the desirability of co-operation was\nrecognized and certain \"suggestions of principles of united work for the organizations\nrepresented\" adopted; and.\nWhereas, At said conference a committee consisting of W. W. Stetson, J. W. Olsen,\nE. H. Mark, Miss M. M. Abbott, Mrs. F. J. Scott, Mrs. Susanna Fry, Mrs. George C.\nSikes, Mrs. Henry Solomon, and Miss E. A. Sharp was appointed to formulate the following petition:\n\"We petition the National Educational Association to provide for the organization\nof a department, to be known as the Educational Department of National Organizations\nof Women, in order that, by meeting each year with the National Educational Association,\nthese national societies of women may co-operate more successfully with each other and with\nthe educators of the country in bringing the home and the school into more helpful relation;\"\nTherefore, we the undersigned members of the National Educational Association\nrespectfully urge that the said petition be granted and that provision be made for the\norganization of the department.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nJ. D. Burks\nC. G. Pearse\nJ. F. Millspaugh\nJames H. Baker\nJ. A. Shawan\nO. S. Westcott\nElla C. Sullivan\nW. H. Elson\nMary G. Barnum\nHelen L. Grenfell\n\nNathan C. Schaefifer\nJ. W. Olsen\nA. W. Clancy\nE. O. Vaile\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nE. G. Cooley\nJ. M. Green\nJames H. Van Sickle\nJ. A. Wood\nG. E. Maxwell\n\nL. E. Wolfe\nE. C. Moore\nElla Flagg Young\nCharles H. Keyes\nE. O, Lyte\nR. G. Boone\nA. O. Thomas\nHenry SuzzaUo\nAlexis F. Lange\nH. W. Baker\n\n"} {"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOn motion, the Board of Directors voted to approve the petition and to authorize\nthe petitioners to organize a department to be known as the Educational Department\nof National Organizations of Women.\nDirector John MacDonald, of Kansas: At a meeting of the Board of Directors\nin Washington in 1898, they adopted certain forms of spelling for twelve words. This\naction was carried by a vote of eighteen to seventeen. I think there are three members\npresent in this Board of Directors who were present at that meeting. The change in\nspelling at that time affected twelve words. I now propose that action be rescinded so far\nas it applies to three of the twelve words. Nine years is sufficiently long to find out whether\nthe American press and American people are going to follow the lead of the Board of\nDirectors at its Washington meeting. During these nine years the American press has\nrefused to have anything to do with these words. I therefore offer the following resolution\nand move its adoption:\nResolved: That the Secretary of the National Education Association be hereby\ninstructed to use the standard spelling in the printing of the following words wherever\nthey may occur in the Proceedings or in any other publications of the Association: Through\nin all its compounds and variations; Thorough in all its compounds and variations;\nThough in all its compounds and variations.\nThe resolution of Director MacDonald was adopted by a vote of twelve to eight,\nthirteen directors not voting.\nThe committee on the nomination of members of the National Council of Education\nreported through its chairman, Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, as follows:\nTo the Board 0} Directors 0} the National Education Association:\nYour Committee on nominations of members of the National Council of Education\nrecommends the following:\nJ. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Alabama, to succeed himself, term expires 191 2.\nLivingston C. Lord, Charleston,- Illinois, to succeed himself, term expires 191 2.\nJames H. Baker, Boulder, Colorado, to succeed himself, term expires 191 2.\nC. C. Van Liew, Chico, CaHfornia, to succeed himself, term expires 191 2.\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J., to succeed himself, term expires 1913.\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, New York, to succeed himself, term expires 1913.\nE. H. Mark, Louisville, Kentucky, to succeed himself, term expires 1913.\nT. A. Mott, Richmond, Indiana, to succeed Calvin N. Kendall, term expires 191 2.\nGeorge B. Cook, Hot Srings, Arkansas, to succeed A. R. Taylor, Decatur, Illinois,\nterm expires 1913.\nStratton D. Brooks, Boston, Mass., to succeed Charles D. Mclver, Greensboro,\nN. C., deceased, term expires 19 13.\nO. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont., to succeed Charles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio, term\nexpires 1908.\nDavid C. Felmley, Normal, IlUnois, to succeed Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.,\ndeceased, term expires 1908.\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C, to succeed Wm. L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.,\nterm expires 1908.\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, Berkeley, California, to succeed Wm. R. Harper, Chicago,\n111., deceased, term expires 1909.\nOn motion, the report of the Committee on Nominations of members of the Council\nwas accepted and adopted and the nominees were declared elected to the several terms\nindicated in the report.\nThere being no further business, the Board of Directors adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nThe following committees were appointed subsequent to the close of the convention in accordance with the authorization of the Board of Directors, as noted in foregoing minutes.\nCOMMITTEE ON A NATIONAL UNIVERSITY\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, president of the University of California.\nJames B. Angell, president of the University of Michigan.\nCharles Van Hise, president of the University of Wisconsin.\n\n\\\n\n"} {"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nOF THE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF DIRECTORS\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\n53\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nLorenzo D. Harvey, superintendent of public schools and Stout training schools,\nMenominee, Wis., chairman.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, United States commissioner of education, Washington,\nD. C.\n0. J. Kern, superintendent of schools, Winnebago Co., Rockford, 111.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nTEACHING\n\nMORALS\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nJames M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo., chairman.\nClifford W. Barnes, International Committee on Moral Training, Lake Forest,\n111., chairman.\nMartin G. Brumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam L. Bryan, president University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.\nJ. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SHORTAGE\n\nIN SUPPLY OF TEACHERS\n\n1. C. McNeill, superintendent of Schools, Memphis, Tenn., chairman.\nDavid Felmley, president State Normal School, Normal, 111.\nJames M. Green, principal State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.\nChas. H. Keyes, superintendent of schools, Hartford, Conn.\nJames E. Russell, dean of Teachers College, New York City.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON PROVISIONS\n\nIN PUBLIC\nCHILDREN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nJames H. Van Sickle, superintendent of city schools, Baltimore, Md., chairman.\nAndrew W. Edson, associate superintendent of city schools, New York City.\nFrank Fitzpatrick, 93 Sumner St., Boston, Mass.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent city schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nLloyd E. Wolf, superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Tex.\nA committee on the culture element in education and also a committee on manual\ntraining (to be appointed by the Department of Manual Training) were also authorized\nbut the names of the appointees had not been received at the time of going to press.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"} {"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nSESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\nADDRESS\nREV.\n\nROBERT\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nJ. BURDETTE,\n\nPASADENA,\n\nCAL.\n\nMr. President, and Members oj the National Educational Association:\nIn the name of all the people of the City of Our Lady of the Angels, I\nextend you a welcome as romantic as our past, as warm as our present, and\nas big as our future. Now don't get our present and future transposed.\nWe have been homesick for you, ever since you came and went away, leaving\nmemories of your visit, sweet as the perfume of pressed flowers in the pages\nof a cherished book. We have made ready for your coming. ''Wisdom\nhath builded her house; she hath also furnished her table; she crieth upon\nthe highest places of the city, Whoso is simple, let him turn in hither.\" And\nyou have heard, and understood, and come. \"As for him that is void of\nunderstanding,\" she saith to him, \"Come eat of my bread.\" And I am here\nto partake of her feast of good things. Some of you, who came early, made\nthe mistake of bringing your own climate along with you. You should not\nhave done that. We have a much better one for you — one of our own invention. At least, it has been charged that we invent a great deal of it. We\nacknowledge that we do manufacture it. The formula is very simple. You\ntake all the best climates of all the rest of the world, take out the best of them\nat the best season of the best year, blend them; refine them a little, and you\nhave a fair imitation of California climate at its worst. It is not protected by\npatent, but it is forbidden to manufacture it outside of the State. I would\ntell you more about our climate, but being a minister of the gospel, I am hampered byrigid limitations, and cannot speak freely and broadly as I should.\nIt is a joy, spiced with a thrill of adventure, to meet a school teacher in\nvacation. It is like meeting a lion in the jungle, whom you used to tease in\nhis cage. You are genuinely glad to see him, but you wonder about two\nthings — if he remembers, and if he harbors resentment. My school days\nwere ended, happily for you, before any of you were born. If you will promise\nto say nothing about it outside this auditorium, that the schools may not\nsuffer thereby, I will confess that I am a product of the public schools. They\nwere not so remarkable for their productions in those days as they have since\nbecome. I must have been one of the by-products. The high school of\nPeoria, Illinois, was my college. I knew so much when I was graduated\nfrom that institution, that I could not bring it all away with me. Consequently,\n55\n\n"} {"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nI have been going back to the public schools for the rest of it ever since. I\nwent from school straight into the army. War seemed so calm and tranquil\nand peaceful after my stormy school days. It was such a relief to go from\nCorporal Punishment to Corporal Atkins. Every teacher who had a part in\ndirecting my education ought to have a war pension from the government.\nI think a dollar a minute would be about right. My first teacher, Ephraim\nHinman, is now living here in Los Angeles. He is a Methodist, and that\ngreat church ought to make a bishop of him, for his grandly successful work\namong the heathen. I don't see why they haven't done so. Perhaps they\nfound out that I was one of his converts. I was a maverick when I started\nto school, all right, but successive dynasties of instructors put the proper brand\nall over me, before I was finally broken to the yoke and plow. I wasn't profes edly abeliever in corporal punishment. But I was better than most\nprofessors and nominal believers. I practiced the doctrine right along. At\nleast, I lived up to it. It did me good and does me good unto this day. It\nmakes a great many things beautifully clear to me. ''Now no chastening\nfor the present seemeth to be joyous,\" says the great Apostle, **but grievous.\"\nI don't need any commentary on that passage. I am a seminary exegete\non that part of the epistle. But I can truly say that all my chastisements at\nschool are at this day among my most joyous memories. I laugh every time\nI think of one. Not so much about the whipping, as over the recollection of\nthe jolly good old time I had earning it. I was recklessly happy as a man\nwho is acquiring the gout for his grandsons. But all that went in the curriculum. My school days were happy, seriously speaking. I was a happy\nboy. All the year round I was happy. And in the loyal, tender, loving\nniches of my heart I have builded the fairest shrines my affection can fashion,\nwherein I have placed the images of the saints who were my school teachers.\nSome of them are living; some are dead; the living are all old and gray.\nBut there, where I alone can see them, they are all living; they are all\nyoung, with the morning light of love and enthusiasm shining in their\nfaces. Memory makes them beautiful, and the years cluster about their\nbrows like stars. For their sakes you are all young and fair and good, and\nwith my own dear teachers standing in my thought for every one of you, I bid\nyou welcome — welcome — welcome.\nRESPONSE\nW.\n\nT. HARRIS,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.\n\nC.\n\nMr. BurdeUe, Ladies and Gentlemen of Los Angeles:\nI am requested by the President of the National Educational Association\nto return thanks for the words of cordial welcome to which we have\njust now listened. I desire to tell you how glad we are to come to California\nand to Los Angeles. We teachers of the East and the North and the South and\nof the Mountain States see a very great career for education in California.\n\n"} {"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRESPONSE\n\n57\n\nWe see that it is the destiny of CaHfornia to solve great problems in agriculture\nand in manufactures. You will solve the problem that deals with irregularities in water supply. The arid regions to the east of you, stretching for 1,500\nmiles, furnish one part of this problem, while your most immediate problem\nlies in the sequence of wet and dry seasons, each separated in such a way that\nthe one does not aid the other except by the device of storing up the water of\nthe rainy season for irrigation of the crops that are to grow in the dry season.\nYou are collecting a body of knowledge as to the proper amounts of water to\nuse in producing the various crops; and you are using the new discoveries as\nto the introduction of nitric acid into the soil by means of the microbe that\nfeeds on the roots of leguminous plants.\nI am proud of our national Department of Agriculture and of the laboratories connected with its several bureaus. Its policy re-enforces the men who\nhave genius for this line of research and helps to organize their individual\nresearches into a united endeavor. Such men as your Burbank and his\ndisciples — magic workers in biology — are thus multiplied and made more\ninfluential thruout wide circles of agricultural experiment.\nOne may predict that you will soon have the cactus bearing a new sort of\npeach, cherry, pear, or plum fruit with something of the fig in its nature, and\nafter that even the sagebrush will have its turn of developing into garden\nvegetables of surprising excellence and abundance.\nWhen I first began to know of maps of the United States, in the period\nbefore the Mexican War of 1844-48, we used to see the words \"Great American\nDesert\" covering the western mountain division of the United States and\nextending to the Pacific Ocean. It was not realized then that the prophecy\nof Holy Writ \"The desert shall blossom as the rose\" would be in prospect\nof applying to the entire Great American Desert within the century.\nThere is a perpetual degeneracy going on in agricultural plants when\nmoved beyond their line of best climate. The garden vegetables prized for\ntheir sweet juices, their sugar and starch, lose one of these elements and grow,\nin their stead, woody fiber when carried into warmer climates. There is a\ngreater development of the husks and hulls and shells and stringy fibers in\nplace of succulent and highly flavored vegetable tissues. Your California\nbiologists are in a way of discovering how all this happens and, what is better,\nthey will discover how to restore and how to preserve the most excellent\nqualities of vegetables and fruits. The effects of your specializing in the\nbiology of fruits and vegetables will then reach far beyond your borders, and\ntendencies to degeneracy will be checked in the South and the East, as well\nas the opposite kinds of degeneracy which develop in the cold of the extreme\nnorthern sections.\nCalifornia will also solve the problem of manufacturing by transfer of\npower from your mountain streams for long distances. It will add new industrial devices in the arts as well as in agriculture. Just as California has\ndeveloped into an important art the preservation of the most delicate and\n\n"} {"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nperishable of fruits, all of which is managed so efficiently that cherries go in\nboxes for four thousand miles, into moist climates, and do not decay, but\nonly dry up after weeks of storage; so these other important arts will arise here\nand be perfected by men and women who are now boys and girls attending\nyour schools.\nThe education of the directive power for this great work in the world is\nprogressing in your schools in its first beginnings. It will prevail more and\nmore. We are glad to know the teachers who are to do the training. We\nthank you for your cordial welcome.\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nWHAT\nNATHAN\n\nC.\n\nCAN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHAEFFER,\n\nADDRESS\n\nSCHOOLS DO TO AID THE\nMOVEMENT?\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nPENNSYLVANIA\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nPEACE\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThe greatest problem of the twentieth century is the boy — with one exception— the girl. As soon as the girl takes up the study of history, she begins\nto wish that she had been born a boy. Her textbook magnifies the achievements of men and devotes very little space to the deeds of women. Gradually\nshe reaches the conviction that everything great and heroic belongs to the\nother sex, that life is not worth living unless one can attain military glory,\nand that her greatest misfortune is to have been born a girl.\nThe boy is apt to form similar ideals from the textbooks on history and\nthe methods of teaching the subject. The names of admirals and generals,\nthe battles they fought and the victories they won, the causes and the effects\nof the wars in which they were engaged, constitute a very large part of the\nmaterial of instruction. The examination questions which are supposed to\nemphasize the most important portions of the school curriculum, bristle with\nwars and the things of war. The boy loves power and admires every exhibition of personal and national strength; he admires the heroes whose names\nare immortalized upon the pages of history; he gradually conceives the notion\nthat the wearing of a uniform, the carrying of a sword or a gun, the shedding\nof blood, and the acquisition of military renown, are essential to a life worth\nliving.\nIt seems to me that our textbooks, our examination?, and our instruction\nshould glorify the arts of peace above the art of war. In other words, history\nshould be taught from a more rational point of view. Whilst it would be\nwrong to minimize the sacrifices and services of the army and the navy, it will\nnevertheless be wise to emphasize the victories of peace above the victories\nof war, and to teach history in such a way that the pupil will write, the name\nof the poet, the orator, the artist, the inventor, the educator, the jurist, the\nstatesman, the philanthropist in a place at least as conspicuous in the temple\n\n"} {"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPEACE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n59\n\nof fame as that occupied by the name of the victorious general or the successful admiral.\nHow can this be accomplished ? In the first place, let us instill proper\nideals of life and of heroism. The pupil can be led to see that Pasteur, the\nscientist, has done more for humanity than Napoleon, the destroyer of thousands; that Carnegie, the philanthropist, has done more for civilization than\nthe admiral who sinks a hostile fleet; that the men who by experiments upon\ntheir own bodies showed how yellow fever is transmitted and can be prevented\nwere as great heroes as any soldiers that ever faced a cannon's mouth; that the\nwoman who serves in the hospital as a nurse displays as much heroism as\nthe officer who serves his country in time of war; and that in the sight of God\nthe drying of a tear is more than shedding seas of gore. As soon as the girl\nrealizes that a life worth living does not turn upon fame or fortune or official\nposition, nor even upon science and literature, but upon the personal relations\nwhich human beings sustain to one another and to their Creator — as soon as\nshe grasps the truth that it is in the domain of personal relations where woman\ntruly reigns as queen, she grows proud of her sex and no longer wishes that she\nhad been born a boy.\nIn the next place, patriotism should never be taught so as to make it the\nmeanest of all the virtues. It is possible to emphasize the maxim, \"My\nCountry, Right or Wrong,\" to such an extent that the citizen will resort to\nanything base and contemptible for the sake of furthering the material interests\nof his country. Rulers and governments hesitate to begin an unpopular war.\nOur teaching of history should create the kind of public sentiment that will\nmake it unpopular, if not impossible, for a ruler or a government to wage war\nexcept for the maintenance of justice, law, and order among the nations,\nespecially among the partially civilized tribes in distant portions of the globe.\nWhilst the teacher is inculcating proper ideals of patriotism, heroism, and\npublic service, the pupil can be taught to despise not only the bully who is\never anxious to pick a quarrel with weaker companions, but also the nation\nthat is ever ready to go to war at the expense of weaker nations. Both teacher\nand pupil should distinguish between the different kinds of war. First, there\nis the war for tribute. No nation can now afford to carry on war for blood\nmoney under the guise of exacting a war indemnity. The second is the war\nfor booty and plunder, such as the wars carried on by the robber barons during\nthe Middle Ages. Third, there is the war for the gratification of personal\nambition, such as the wars which the first Napoleon was continually waging.\nThe fourth is the war for territorial aggrandizement. Of this kind of war\nour country has not always been guiltless. No teacher in the classroom and\nno orator on memorial day or the Fourth of July hits the mark if he glorifies\nor in any way excuses any one of these four kinds of war.\nThere are two kinds of war for which more can be said. One of these is\nthe war for principle, of which the American Revolution was a type. The\nother is a war in behalf of the oppressed, the downtrodden, the defenceless,\n\n"} {"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlike the Spanish-American war. In deaHng with these two kinds of war it\nis well to point out both sides of the dispute and to show how war can be\navoided by the peaceful method of arbitration. How well-posted we all are\nupon every war that our people have waged; how little we know of the two\nhundred and fifty international disputes which have been settled by the\npeaceful method of arbitration; and of the fourty-four treaties, some between\nleading nations, like England and France, for the settlement of their disputes\nin whole or in part by the use of arbitration. How frequently we discuss the\nMonroe Doctrine which has brought us again and again to the brink of war;\nhow seldom we speak of the arrangement made during Monroe's administration for the limitation of armaments along our Canadian boundary — an\narrangement that has secured peace between the United States and Great\nBritain in spite of all the acute disputes which have arisen since the War of\n1812. How few people know the significance of The Hague Court, for whose\nsittings Andrew Carnegie is building a palace to cost a million and a half of\ndollars.\nThe teaching of history can be made to culminate in the proper observance\nof the eighteenth of May and of Washington's birthday. The teachers of\nFrance have resolved to observe these days by appropriate exercises, and the\nschools of America will do well to follow the example of the Third Republic.\nThe publications of the American Peace Society furnish abundant material\nat small expense for the proper observance of the eighteenth of May — the day\non which the delegates to the first Hague Conference assembled — a day which\ncertainly marked an epoch in the world's history. In the not distant future\nthis day will be as universally observed as Arbor Day and the festival days of\nthe church year. Some of the colleges now observe Washington's birthday\nin such a way as to strengthen the sentiment for peace and justice in dealing\nwith other nations. Several years ago at the Mohonk Lake Conference\nChancellor McCracken pointed out that the most popular textbook on international law devotes more space to the conduct of nations in time of war than\nto the conduct of international affairs in time of peace, whilst not one page is\ndevoted to the ways in which nations may avoid war. Since that meeting a\nmovement for the study of international arbitration has been inaugurated in\nmost of our colleges. Just as the light which first illumines the mountain\ntops gradually reaches the valleys, so the light which the higher institutions\nare now beginning to disseminate will gradually illumine the teaching of\nhistory in the lower grades of schools.\nWe hear much of the emancipation of the high school from the dominating\ninfluence of the college. In the direction of fraternities, festivities, athletics,\nand courses of study, there may be room for change, but I hope that at no\ndistant day the kind of history which our colleges now teach and which emphasizes the movements for the uplifting of the masses will replace the drum and\ntrumpet sort of history which eventuates in hatred of redcoats, distrust of\nother nations, and a species of patriotism that is the meanest of all the virtues.\n\nJ\n\n"} {"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPEACE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n6l\n\nPeace has become so great a Shibboleth that the introduction of rifle practice into the pubHc schools is now advocated as a peace measure.\nThe experience of our recent wars [it is held] has pointed out that, while there is no\ndifficulty in case of war in getting all the volunteers that the country requires, and they\ncan be given a reasonable amount of drill in a few weeks, it takes them a long time to\nlearn to shoot, and that unless they can shoot accurately, they are of little value as soldiers.\nIf, however, the young men who are graduating from our high schools in the different states\nshould be skilled riflemen, the country can rest content with a small standing-army,\nknowing that in case of war it can put into the field at short notice a force of volunteers\nwhose skill in rifle shooting will make them to be fully the equal of any army which may be\nbrought against them.\nThe system is, therefore, a great factor for national peace.\n\nAs a teacher from the state which William Penn founded, I must put\na big interrogation point after this theory. Whenever anything goes\nwrong in the life of the nation, people look to the school for a remedy. If the reports in the daily papers are correct, there were 6,258\ndesertions from the army last year, and out of a total of 24,083 enlistments not more than 8,848 were re-enhstments. The invention of\nsmokeless powder, machine guns, and modern explosives, and service in\ntropical countries have robbed the occupation of the soldier of its former\nattractiveness. The fact that boys at the age of thirteen can learn to\nshoot with marvelous accuracy should be correlated with the fact that at\nthe same age, and even earlier, boys can be taught all sorts of breakneck acrobatics; no one would, on account of the skill which may thus be\nacquired, be justified in advocating the introduction of either acrobatics or\nrifle practice into the curriculum of our public schools. There is a limitation\nto the kinds of skill which a human being may acquire, and the development\nof skill in these directions interferes seriously with the development of skill\nin other and more useful lines. The development of skill in shooting is\ndesirable on the part of those who join the army or the state constabulary; but\nif during a strike every striker were a skilled rifleman, the difficulties in maintaining order would be infinitely multiplied. It was, therefore, a source of\ngratification to learn from the secretary of war that no scheme for the inauguration of a policy to establish a system of rifle practice thruout the schools of\nthe country is at present under consideration by the War Department.\nAt this time three great meetings are in progress. Delegates from every\ncivilized nation- are in session at The Hague for the purpose of lessening the\nevils and the frequency of war and of promoting the use of arbitration as a\nmeans for the settlement of international disputes. On the shores of the\nAtlantic the Jamestown Exposition advertises the greatest military and naval\ndisplay the world has ever seen in time of peace. On the shores of the Pacific,\nin the city of \"the angels,\" the association which represents the largest body\nof educators in the world has met to discuss the latest problems in education.\nShall we plant ourselves on the side of peace or of war ? Will the advocacy\nof peace raise a generation of weaklings? Has any one ever dared to call\nWilliam Penn a weakling ? He was as brave and courageous as his father,\n\n"} {"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe admiral. Self-restraint is often more difficult than combat. Perhaps\nfor police purposes, if not for national protection, we shall need a small army\nand a navy during coming centuries, but as soon as the three and a half millions\nof teachers in the schools of the civilized world shall begin in earnest and\nwith skill to inculcate sentiments of peace and the principles of justice and fair\ndealing in the treatment of weaker nations, we may hope for the limitation of\narmaments and the dawn of an era of peace that is worthy of the disciples of\nthe Prince of Peace.\nDEMOCRACY\nSTORMS,\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF IOWA\n\nSTATE\n\nCOLI\n\nDemocracy is more than a political experiment. It is the latest spiritual\nenterprise of the ages. Tho not yet complete, nor yet permanent, democracy\nis the crowning achievement of history. Democracy is an ideal, a leaven.\nIt is not to be identified absolutely with any particular political or social\norganization. It is a spirit. Democracy means \"life and more abundant\nlife.\" Destructively, it means the tearing down of artificial distinctions and\nclass privileges. Democracy is the instinctive foe of hereditary and caste\nprerogatives. It recognizes no oligarchy but that of individual worth. The\nFrench Revolution has been styled the French Madness. But there was a\nphilosophy in the custom of democrats in addressing one another as \"citizens,\"\ndiscarding all other title. Democracy has the watchword of the age for its\nown — Freedom and Opportunity.\nConstructively, democracy has meau. carrying to the people as a whole\nthe prerogatives of power and of privilege heretofore reserved for favored\nclasses of individuals. It has meant extension of elective franchise, the\nprotection of the natural rights of all men to liberty of person save under\nrestraint by process of law, the right of trial by their peers, the freedom of\nreligion, and security of property. Democracy has meant the right of any\npolitical society to depose its existing rulers and to raise others in their places,\nto freely elect their legislative and representative bodies and to hold the power\nof taxation in their own hands. It has meant freedom of industrial opportunity and the largest possible extension of educational privileges\nDemocracy is pervasive. It illuminates. It challenges. The extension\nof power and privilege to the people is after all but the more superficial aspect\nof Democracy. Its great meaning is duty. But the great and deep and\nsolemn meaning was not at first the most obvious. Democracy's first appeal\nhas seemed to be to the selfishness of the people. To the American no less\nthan to the French revolutionists democracy appeared to spell privilege,\nexemption from burdensome taxes and oppressive legislation by an authority\noutside of themselves or of their election. It meant the breaking of yokes,\nemancipation from real or imagined grievances. The first attempt at a\nnation in the confederation of states was a ludicrous failure — tho a necessary\n\n"} {"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n63\n\nstep in the process of educating a people to self-government. The appreciation of the necessity of a central and efl&cient authority was slow. The\nsense of duty follows tardily upon the heels of privilege. But democracy's\ngreat and deep and solemn meaning is not privilege alone, but privilege thru\nduty and duty beyond privilege.\n.Prophets of evil have not been wanting. The irresistible political and\nsocial tendencies of the age, the underlying gulf streams, are towards democracy. But men whose political optimism is sound concerning the past political\nhistory of the race are pessimistic in the presence of the democratic tendency\nof this age and look upon democracy with undisguised apprehension and\nsuspicion. Lecky, in his Democracy and Liberty, sees in democracy itself the\ndoom of liberty, except democracy be curbed and limited. He looks upon\ndemocracy much as Alexander Hamilton did upon the type of democracy\nprevalent in America in the period immediately succeeding the Revolution —\nas a \"disease.\" Lecky regards the democratic theory of government as\nreversing all the past experiences of mankind, that superiority and competence\nlie with the few, not the many; that the extension of the franchise is but to\nplace government more and more under the control of the least enlightened\nclasses; in short, that democracy means government by the mob, by the least\nfit, and that it seeks increased capacity for good government in the representative body by the foolish expedient of increasing the amount of ignorance\nin the elective body. Lecky points out the tendency of democracy to produce\ninequitable taxation bv placing the power of voting taxes in the hands of one\nclass which another class must almost exclusively pay; the chief taxpayers,\n\"being completely swamped,\" are for \"all practical purposes completely\ndisfranchised.\"^ He also adverts to the instability of democratic governments.\nFrederick the Great of Prussia told the English embassador in 1872 that the\nUnited States could not endure, \" since a republican government had never\nbeen known to exist for any length of time where the territory was not limited\nand concentered.\"^ It was one of Lincoln's grave and statesmanlike utterances,\nthat \"it has long been a grave question whether any government, not too\nstrong for the liberties of its people, can be strong enough to maintain its own\nexistence in great emergencies. \"^\nThese critics of democracy are not to be laughed out of court nor their\nwarnings disregarded. It still remains to be demonstrated that governments\n\"of the people, by the people, and for the people\" can \"long endure.\"\nTHE\n\nETHICS\n\nOF\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nCritics like Lecky, however, overlook the fundamental ethical principles\nof democracy. Enlightened democracies are not governed by the least fit,\nthe ignorant, the incompetent. They are governed by majorities, and majori' Democracy and Liberty, I, p. 33.\n' Hart, Formation of the Union, pp. 100, loi.\n3 Morse, Life of Lincoln, U, pp. 293' 294*\n\n"} {"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nties are secured by ideas and by policies crystallized into political party platforms. There is no school of political science so important and so puissant\nas the actual discussion of living issues by the people under a sense of responsibility for political action. The ballot in the hands of the voter is sobering\nand educative. In the end, and with a serious and earnest people, governing\nmajorities must meet the approval of the sound judgment and enlightened\nconscience of the people or lose supremacy. \"All such questions,\" said\nLincoln, referring to temperance, slavery, etc., ''must find lodgment v^ith\nthe most enlightened souls who stamp them with their approval. In God's\nown time they will be organized into law and then woven into the fabric of\nour institutions.\"^\nThere is a finality about the ultimate decree of a free people upon great\nmoral and economic questions, like that of slavery, that is like unto the decrees\nof the Eternal. In democratic forms of government, while the demagogue\nmay flourish for a season, the leadership of the fit, the commanding influence\nof men who are kings by divine right of character, the power of personality,\nare at least as marked and as enduring as in any other political organization.\nLet us call to witness Gladstone, Washington, Lincoln.\nThe boldest political experiment of history is now in progress in these\nUnited States. That it is of vast interest is evidenced by the fact that over\na million immigrants are coming every twelve months to cast their fortunes\nwith us. And there are not wanting prophets of evil in the face of this tremendous fact. Our great cities are half alien. We are drawing apparently\nthe largest number of immigrants not from the most, but the least, desirable\nof European and Asiatic peoples.\nBut in the midst of evil prophecies let us recall another principle in the\nethics of democracy, namely, that it is the more virile and aggressive of any\npeople that are attracted by the freedom, the industrial and political and\nsocial opportunities of the democratic West. The Bethlehem star that guides\nsearchers for larger and better life is the star of liberty. It is freedom's\nchallenge that appeals to the people that sit in darkness. They have seen a\ngreat light. We may not despise these seekers after a ''better kingdom.\"\nThey compare very favorably with our own forebears.\nTHE\n\nPERIL\n\nOF\n\nREPUBLICS\n\nBut the peril of republics is ever before us, the peril that springs from\nignorance and from a lack of intelligent patriotism. Other forms of government may survive indefinitely over a stolid and non-progressive people.\nRepublics cannot live without virtue. The instinct of self-preservation has\ninspired democratic governments to foster universal education. Enlightenment and virtue are the sine qua non of existence. Jefferson stated the problem\nof democracy when he said it was the province of the school\n* Hemdon, Life of Lincoln, I, p. 158.\n\n"} {"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n65\n\nto form the statesmen, legislators, and judges, on whom public property and individual\nhappiness are so much to depend; to expound the principles and structure of government,\nthe laws which regulate the intercourse of nations, those formed principally for our own\ngovernment in a sound spirit of legislation; .... to harmonize and promote the interests\nof agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and by well-informed views of political\neconomy to give free scope to the public industry, i\n\nThere is no duty more imperative than the fostering of all educational\nfacilities. The public school stands first and should so stand. It is the\ngreatest unifying agency of the age. But the parochial and the private\nschools also have honorable place. There are not schools enough. Parts of\nour country are fairly destitute. The president of the school board of New\nOrleans, a public-spirited and very intelligent man, told me recently that he\nfavored a compulsory school law for that city; not because it would be possible\nto school all the children of the city, or half of them, with present facilities,\nbut because a compulsory school law would overwhelm the schools, compel\nattention to the need, and the sooner secure adequate provision.\nThere doubtless is much to criticise in present schools and school methods.\nLet wholesome criticism proceed. But let us not forget that our great duty is\nto encourage the extension and the influence of the schools existing. We may\nnot quarrel overtime about doctors and pathies and poultices. The doctor at\nhand is quite efficient in emergencies. There is no need so great nor any\nduty so imperative as the strengthening of our primary and country schools\nto greater efficiency. It is still true and should be increasingly true that the\nlittle red schoolhouse on the hill is the temple of liberty. There is no severer\ntest of the abihty of democratic society to preserve itself from decay than this.\nCan and will democracy maintain at a high level of efficiency its common\nschools ?\nThere is no civic duty of an educated and patriotic citizen that should\nstand superior to this of assisting to foster the common school. There needs\nto be a civic conscience about adequate taxation for this purpose and the\nencouragement of a high order of character and ability to enter the teaching\nprofession, especially in the common schools.\nENLARGED\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDemocracy has felt the inadequacy of the older educational methods and\nideals. Education must not be for the few but the many. It is the duty of\nthe state not only to provide educational facilities, but to require that they\nbe generally utilized. The scope of educational interest must be broadened.\nClassical culture and the humanities alone are inadequate. The school must\nteach the real interests of life for a working people. A few may sit aloof still\nin haughty isolation and declare with Lowell that a university should be a\nplace \"where nothing useful is taught.\" But democracy has small patience\nwith such educational fastidiousness. The sturdy youths in laboratories and\nshops, drafting rooms and field, with life's real business before them have\n^Hai^r, The Trend of Higher Education, p. 33.\n\n"} {"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbrushed aside intellectual dilettantism.\nScience and art have meaning for\nlife's earnest work as well as for its leisure pastimes.\nAnd with the extension of educational interests has come the extension of\neducational privileges. State and private munificence have alike conspired\nto bring to the common people the blessings of higher education, technical as\nwell as classical and professional. Educational ideals have been conservatively aristocratic. Thos. Barclay, in the report of the English (Mosely)\nCommission, says:\nThe British mind must at once disabuse itself of the idea that Harvard and Yale\nare educational centers for the seventy or eighty millions forming the population of the\nUnited States. They are only two universities which have more or less resisted the democratic tendencies of the New World, i\n\nAnd farther along he says:\nWhen we get closer to Americans, we see that, in spite of all their apparent superficiality, their schools are turning out more active, business-like, hard-working, enterprising yoimg men than either English or German schools — young men with greater\nambition, and self-reliance, and a greater capacity for development, equally courageous\nin work, and more sober in their lives, with a higher sense of industrial integrity, and\nall-round greater pleasure in effort, and better humor in adversity. ^\n\nI have found no better expression of the democratic ideal of education\nthan in the address of Dr. Barrows, general superintendent of education for\nthe Philippines, in which he says that the ideals of the educational commission\ninclude ''a large, general purpose to raise the spiritual character, industrial\neflEciency, and the political capacity of the entire people.\" To this end\nhigher education in its wider and more inclusive scope of technical and professional training has its place, and a most important place.\nThe value of higher education has always been evident to minds of a\nnobler order, and always in progressive civilized society there have been\nfound men and women of means and talents ready to devote themselves with\nenthusiasm to the interests of higher education. Thus the older universities\nand some of the newer technical schools have been established and endowed\nby private munificence.\nHigher education, however, in a democracy cannot be adequately based\nnor adequately provided except by the people themselves. A democratic\npeople do not thrive best in any of their interests by being paternally and\npatronizingly endowed by benevolence. It is only by self-assertion and by\ninstitutions that are organized and equipped and maintained by the people's\nown will and at their cost that a democratic society can adequately provide\nfor its higher educational needs as well as for its other social and political\nrequirements. Useful as the privately endowed institutions of higher education have been and are — and I would not like any to excel me in admiration\nand respect for their higher service — they are, nevertheless, inadequate and\nmust be so, however much of wealth may be devoted to them, to meet fully\n« Mosely Commission Report, p. 397.\n• Mosely Commission Report, p. 397.\n\n"} {"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n'\n\n67\n\nthe higher educational needs of a democratic people. They must provide\ntheir own. Institutions of higher learning that are utterly democratic must\nspring from the people themselves, must rest upon their support, must be at\nonce the expression of and the stimulus to a higher civic consciousness of\nprivilege and of duty. Democratic society owes it to itself to find thus an\nadequate expression for its educational ideals.\nPresident Pritchett, in his report on the Carnegie Foundation for the\nAdvancement of Teaching, places upon the state institutions of higher learning\na very high value.\nHe says:\nThe older American colleges in the days of their weakness sought and obtained a\nmeasure of state aid. All these institutions, however, as the difficulties of political connection became evident, chose the alternative of private control and support, a form of\ndistrust of democracy not common in a republic. The state university deserves the credit\nof launching its bark upon this sea. It has endured the storms of political interference\nand the dangers of party politics and has come safely into smoother waters. Today it is\nthe most encouraging feature of popular government which the states of our Union have\nto show. It is true that the state institution is indebted in large measure for this development to the example of the private independent university and college. None the less\nit stands today the best evidence we have to offer of the outcome of an enlightened appeal\nto the intelligence and patriotism of our various commonwealths. For this great service,\nnot alone to education, but to practical democracy, all citizens of our country owe a debt\nto the statesmanship of those who planned these universities, and most of all is recognition due to the army of teachers who have given their lives in them to the cause of democratic education.\n\nThe states have responded to the rapidly growing demands for higher\neducation by increased appropriations for buildings and equipment and\nannual support. In ten of the states of the Middle West and the West the\nannual income of their state universities has increased in the last ten years\nfrom the total $1,689,200 to $4,577,700. Instead of drawing the conclusion\nwhich President Pritchett does, that all private beneficence should be withheld\nfrom state institutions of learning, it would seem to me to be much the sounder\nconclusion and policy that state institutions, thus resting upon the people\nand being utterly democratic and receiving increasingly large appropriations,\nshould be supplemented by private beneficence. There is no better guardian\nof trust funds for higher educational purposes than the state itself, and no\nmore fruitful soil and no freer atmosphere for growth of scientific and cultural\ninfluences, such as private munificence can foster, than the state institutions\nof higher learning. There are some things the state will be very slow to do,\nif indeed it ever does them, and one of these is anything like an adequate\nprovision, if indeed any provision, for retiring allowances of teachers. The\nerection and endowment of halls of art, libraries, guild halls, gymnasiums,\nathletics, provision for scholarships for worthy young men and women without\nmeans, the building of dormitories or student homes, the erection and endowment of Christian Association buildings, student club houses, the erection of\npermanent and worthy memorials, the endowment of chairs for scientific\nresearch, the pensioning of teachers who have devoted their lives to one of the\n\n"} {"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnoblest services of the age; these are some of the ways in which private munificence may most fittingly supplement and complement the higher educational\nwork of the state, and such expressions of confidence and enthusiasm can but\nhave stimulating and helpful influence upon the state support of its own\neducational work.\nBut let us beware of an extreme secularizing of higher education. It is\ncommonly accepted as an established principle in our political organization\nthat state schools, maintained at public expense, shall not be under any\ndistinctive denominational or sectarian influence or control. So well established isthis policy that the warmest adherents to it are those who themselves\nare loyal, staunch members of some body of the Christian church. And the\nlast to show treachery or distrust of this principle of the separation of the\nchurch and the state would be churchmen themselves. But to draw the\nconclusion of an extreme secularism would be both unsound and suicidal.\nThere are certain fundamental principles of religion that may not be ignored\nin any organized expression of civic activity. Even the courts must recognize\nthis in the form of oath which they administer. And if it were possible for a\ncommunity of teachers and of students, of trustees and of cfiicers, in any\ninstitution of higher education in a democracy utterly to forget Gcd, that\ninstitution would certainly atrophy and wither away as the branch that is\nseparated from the root. The possibility of freedom in matters of religious\nopinion and practice, of strength and unity of conviction as to fundamental\nreligious conceptions, is one of the noblest ideas issuing into clear conviction\nin this democratic era.\nHigher education springing from a democratic people and resting upon\nthem is comparatively a new thing. There is perhaps no finer illustration of\nthe first principle of the ethics of democracy than is the existence of institutions of higher learning in a democracy. It may be doubted whether at\nany time the actual majority of a people would voluntarily and intelligently\nimpose upon themselves a suflScient burden of taxation and of care to found\nand maintain such institutions. There have always been, and probably\nmay always be, many who demur, who declare from a narrow and selfish\nstandpoint that it is unjust that they should te taxed for the gocd of others,\nwho question whether the state has any obligation to provide the facilities\nfor higher education at least, and it is probably true that the sheer intellectual\ninertia of a large majority of citizens would leave forever undeveloped the\npossibilities of higher education but for the masterly leadership of men of ideas\nand of ideals. Ideas and ideals must create policies and command majorities even at times almost against their wills. And there is no finer tribute\nto the ethical power of democracy than the actual existence of great universities and colleges in this democratic West.\nIt must also be recognized that stimulating and upbuilding influences in\neducation, as elsewhere, come down from above. The high schools and\nsecondary schools have had no such organizing, stimulating and upbuilding\n\n"} {"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n69\n\ninfluence as that of the universities and the colleges in establishing, as the\nlatter have, standards and ideals to which the secondary schools might aspire.\nThe secondary schools in turn have had their beneficent influence upon the\nprimary schools, and so from the higher institutions of learning to the primary\ngrade and the kindergarten radiating influences have been wholesome and\nuplifting and organizing. From the laboratory of research and from the\nlibrary of the student have come the organizing influences that have given\ncoherence and purpose and energy to the entire people.\nRESEARCH\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEST\n\nAt once the stimulus and the peril of modern scientific research has been\nthe fact that the results of research have often proved commercially advantageous. Itmust be confessed that one of the strong incentives for the support\nof science at the hands of the state has been the belief that the results would\nbe profitable. One of the arguments that always has weight with a legislative committee is the argument that education and research pay. And this\nsuggests one of the extremely interesting phases of higher educational interests\nin a democracy. Science and culture may no longer withdraw in monkish\nseclusion from the world of affairs. Industrial efficiency is one of the important\nresults of higher education. It is the business of science to help men in the\nstruggle for existence, to teach them the potencies of the soil and of the air,\nand to teach them to conserve fertility of the land and to have a conscientious\ncare concerning the exhaustion of the soil. Men never have, and probably\nnever will, come to a high state of civilization, of moral and intellectual life,\nwhere the pastures are scant, the soil thin, and the people hungry. They\nwho make two blades of grass grow where but one grew before, and who teach\nhow to coin from the sunshine and the dew an extra ton of butter-fat for a\nten-acre field, are blessing the world with the material possibilities of advancement and progress. And they who make industry interesting and lift toil\nabove drudgery are among the world's great benefactors.\nBut wherever and whenever a money value attaches to the process and\nresults of research there is also peril. Will a democracy keenly alive to commercial values be patient with its servants of research, leave peaceable the\natmosphere of scientific and academic freedom? Will the search for truth\nbe still the guiding star of those rare minds capable of intellectual exploration\nand discovery ? This is an inquiry not yet fully answered, nor can it be until\nmaturer results have been reached in the development of higher education.\nThere is as yet lacking both patience of spirit and thoroness of method.\nOur growth has been too rapid and there is, as yet, too much of the eager\nalacrity and impatience of a young republic for us to know what can be done\nor what shall be for the fostering of research. Here, as elsewhere, in all\nhigher ranges of service there is scope and need for commanding leadership.\nClosely akin to this inquiry is another, namely: Is democracy favorable\nto the enthusiasm of the scholar ? In all ages that history pronounces great,\n\n"} {"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe scholar has stood forth with torch in hand to guide men to the fountains\nof Hving waters and to the serene heights of intellectual and spiritual outlook\nand inspiration. The scholar's place is always in the van and his home is in\nthe rugged heights. Other men may lie down to sleep in the furrows which\nthey have plowed and by the heaps of metal which they have dug from the\nmine, but the scholar, like the Christ, seeks the mountainside and the night\nand the silence, and when he comes to mingle with the people and to put his\nhands to his daily task, it is with a touch of power. His soul grips the commonplace and transfuses it with the light of the spirit. It is of the scholar that\nBrowning sings in \"A Grammarian's Funeral\":\nThat low man seeks a little thing to do,\nSees it and does it:\nThis high man, with a great thing to pursue,\nDies ere he knows it.\nThat low man goes on adding one to one,\nHis hundreds soon hit:\nThis high man, aiming at a miUion,\nMisses an unit.\nHere's — here's his place, where meteors shoot, clouds form,\nLightnings are loosened,\nStars come and go! Let joy break with the storm,\nPeace let the dew send!\nLofty designs\nLoftily must\nlying, close in like effects:\nLeave him — still loftier than the world suspects.\nLiving and dying.\n\nWill democracy banish the scholar and the scholarly spirit or will it foster\nand honor both ? This question, too, is not yet fully answered, nor is the\nanswer certain. But to men of faith and of optimism it seems certain that\nspiritual values will not be ignored, but rather that in a democracy princely\nspirits will come more truly to their own than in any other form of society,\nand that as kings and princes and priests in the old Hebrew economy were\nselected from the people and anointed for their tasks, so shall the scholar\nin a democracy be anointed for his task. Democracy must have its scholars,\nits intellectual leaders, its spiritual guides, and as the Hebrew nation based its\nideas of social service and efficiency in its consciousness of God, so must\ndemocracy rest its spiritual and intellectual life back upon the granite of the\nspiritual and intellectual Eternal. Democracy must not only be intelligent\nand ethical, but it must be fundamentally religious. To build upon any\nother foundation is to build upon the sand.\n\nFRANCIS\n\nE.\n\nINDIANS\n\nAND\n\nLEUPP,\n\nSTATES\nCOMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nUNITED\n\nTHEIR\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Stenographic Report]\n\nOF\n\nINDIAN\n\nAFFAIRS,\n\nLadies and Gentlemen:\nWhen I was asked the other day to take part in this meeting of the National\nEducational Association, it was with the understanding that I should give\n\n"} {"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINDIANS\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nEDUCATION\n\n71\n\nyou only ten minutes of informal talk, and that is all I could hope to do. The\nsubject which has engrossed so much of my life is so large, and embraces so\nmuch, that it would take weeks to lay it before you in anything like detail.\nYou have millions of children to educate; I have only some three hundred\nthousand, but a good many of these are grown up, which makes the task\nrather difficult. The Indian is an adult child. He has the physical attributes\nof the adult with the mentality of about our fourteen-year-old boy. One of\nthe great difi&culties that we have met in dealing with the problem presented\nin his case has been the failure of the two races to understand each other.\nOur race has been misled to a very large extent by the two extreme views\nthat we get on the opposite sides of the continent. The eastern view, usually\ntermed the philanthropic view, is that the Indian is a perfect being, and that\nit is the business of the white race to keep him alive by giving him everything\nin sight. At the other extreme stand the group of persons who insist that the\nIndian is a poor creature, a mere cumberer of the earth; and the white men\nwho hold this view, when they get to the last degree of generosity and benevolence, treat him as they treat a dog to whom they throw a bone to keep him\nfrom starving.\nAnd so, between the philanthropist on the one hand and the eminently\n''practical\" citizen on the other, with a little interlarding of the old school\ngeographies, we obtain a very extraordinary view of the Indian. One of the\nthings we are taught in our school books, for instance, is that the Indian has\nno sense of humor — that he is a grim and morbid soul. My friends, there\nnever was a greater mistake in the world. No people have a keener sense of\nhumor than the Indians. Around their camp-fires at night I have heard them\ntell funny story after story, and the laughter has kept up as long as there was\nanyone awake to respond.\nA year or two ago I was visiting the Klamath reservation in Oregon and\nhad the Indians at a council. I had only recently appointed a new superin-'\ntendent there with the duties of an agent, and I said to them:\nMy friends, while I have seen a great many things here which I like — the way you\nbuild your houses, the way you cultivate your fields, the way you care for your cattle,\nthe self-dependent spirit you show — still, there are certain things I should like you to\nimprove in. I have given you a first-rate agent, who takes the greatest interest in your\naffairs. I selected him because he had done so well everywhere else, and I know that he\nis doing well for you, too. But since I have been here and living in his house, I have\nobserved that at any and all times, waking or sleeping, he is subject to your demands.\nWhen we are at the table at meals, you call him out; when he is just ready to go to bed,\nyou call him down stairs; and all for business which could have been transacted earlier\nin the same day, or could just as well go over until the morrow. Now, my friends, an\nagent, like everyone else in this world, must have some time to rest/\n\nThen I paused a little, to let the idea sink in; when an old man over in\nthe corner, who spoke a little English, piped out: \"The last agent rested all\nthe time!\"\nWe also hear that the Indian is dishonest.\nPeople tell you that you must\n\n"} {"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nnot leave a thing around loose or the Indians will steal it. You may remember\nthe story of the good bishop who was crossing a reservation, and, when night\ncame, began looking around him. \"What are you looking for ?\" inquired\nhis Indian guide. \"A place to hide my watch, my purse, and other valuables,\"\nhe answered. \"Oh, never mind that,\" said the Indian, \"there isn't a white\nman within a hundred miles of here.\"\nA delegation of Osage Indians visited me at Washington about three\nyears ago. After we had had a long council, a subchief put his hand under\nhis blanket and drew forth a scroll, which he handed me, saying: \"I wish\nmy father would look at what is in this scroll, and tell me whether it is like\nwhat we have been talking about here today.\" I opened it, and found that\nit was a parchment writing signed by Thomas Jefferson's secretary of war\nsetting forth the friendly relations between the government and the Indians,\nand closing substantially as follows: \"Attached to this parchment is a chain\nof pure gold. Until that gold shall tarnish, the friendship between the white\nman and his red brother shall remain undimmed.\" I looked in the upper\nleft-hand corner, and there, sure enough, was the chain — a very good one,\nabout eighteen inches long, and heavy. It was intact, just as when in 1804\nPresident Jefferson's secretary of war had fastened it to the parchment. One\nhundred years had elapsed. In the interval, these Indians had gone thru many\nvicissitudes of fortune; they had lived in tents, in holes in the ground, in brush\nhouses, in log houses; they had not had a bank or a safety vault in which to\ndeposit this parchment; and yet in all those hundred years, that chain had\nnot found its way to the pawn shop ! I think on honesty those Indians could\ngive points to San Francisco!\nWe hear that the Indian is naturally a dependent creature, and that he\nenjoys the pauperized condition to which an ill-judged philanthropy has\ndegraded so many of his people. Why, my friends, in 1895, the Navajo\n'Indians had had a particularly hard winter. They had lost multitudes of\ntheir sheep, their crops had failed, and they were reduced to eating their\nponies, which is about the last thing to which Indians will resort. Someone\nin Congress introduced a paragraph into the annual Indian appropriation\nbill, granting $20,000 to furnish rations to the tribe. No sooner had the news\nfound its way to Arizona, than I received letters from two old Navajo head\nmen, imploring me to use all the influence I possessed to prevent Congress\nfrom passing that appropriation. Why? \"Because we do not want our\nyoung men to learn to eat the bread of the government!\" If that had happened among white people, you would call it a pretty fine exhibition of character; Ido not know why it is not equally fine among red people.\nAgain, we are told that we can never do anything toward really civilizing\nthe Indian, beacuse he is not \"adaptable.\"\nMy old friend Quanah Parker, chief of the Comanches, used to do a great\nmany favors for the cattle men who were down in his country, looking after\ntheir affairs, seeing that his Indians did not kill their stock, and so on. By\n\n"} {"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINDIANS\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nEDUCATION\n\n73\n\nand by the cattle men thought they would give him a present in token of\ntheir appreciation. They first gave him money to build a house, as he had\nsaid that he would prefer a nice house to anything else. The next year they\ncame around but found no house there, and asked Quanah the reason. \"Oh,\"\nanswered Quanah, \"I had some debts to pay and some poor people to feed,\nand the money is all gone.\" So the cattle men concluded to build the house\nthemselves. One who was to have contributed to the fund was abroad at\nthe time the hat was passed, and when he returned he said: ''Quanah, I\ndidn't get a chance to help build your house, but I would like to give you\nsomething to put into it— a nice piece of furniture or something like that.\nNow, what shall it be?\" \"Well,\" responded Quanah, \"I would like a\nroller-top desk, and a chair that goes round like this\" — indicating the motion\nof a revolving chair. \"Why, my friend,\" protested the cattle man, \"what\nwould you do with a roller-top desk ? You don't know how to write.\" \"Oh,\"\nresponded Quanah, \"I can sit in the chair and put my feet on the desk, and\nput a big cigar in my mouth, and hold a newspaper up before me, so, and when\na white man comes and knocks at my door, I can say: 'Go 'way, I'm\nnow.'\"\nbusyNow,\nof course, these things deal with externals, but with the large part\nof the white people who criticise, externals count for everything. There is a\nwidespread idea that if you can strip an Indian of his buckskin and his beads,\nand put him into a broadcloth coat, and give him a high hat and polished boots,\nyou have civilized him. In the annual report of the commissioner of Indian\naffairs there used to be a column in which was given the number of Indians\nwho had adopted, either wholly or in part, \"civilized dress.\" That column\nwas about the first thing I ran my blue pencil thru when I came into office.\nI struck it out because I did not believe that it told anybody anything worth\ntelling. What I cared for was the man under the clothing — not the clothing\nitself. After I had stricken out the table, many good people among the audiences Iaddressed used to ask me why I had done so. I answered, because\nit had kept me solving so many puzzles; and then I explained:\nFor example, one old Indian in the Southwest, who always comes to see me whenever\nI am in this neighborhood, even if he has to walk fourteen or fifteen miles to shake my\nhand, feels impelled to dress himself in ceremonial costume when he is about to come\ninto my presence. This costume consists of a nightgown. Now, we all know that a nightgown constitutes a part of civilized costimie for the white man, at least through a certain\npart of the twenty-four hours, and why not for the Indian in the other part ? And so\nI was puzzled and distressed by trying to decide into which column to put my old Indian\nfriend — whether among those who had adopted civilized dress wholly, or those who had\nadopted it only in part.\n\nThat is a fair illustration of the sort of logic which appeals to a great\nnumber of people who have undertaken the civilization and education of the\nIndian.\nTheir idea seems to be that we should put something on the outside\n\n"} {"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof him and drive it down into him by force, instead of stirring up something\non the inside of him and developing it until it comes out of itself.\nOne of the very worst mistakes we have made is trying to do everything\nfor him with too much uniformity. There is no race of people, I venture to\nsay, who have more native individuality than the Indians, and I believe\nmost heartily in drawing it out and cultivating it. The poorest thing we\ncan do with the Indians is to put them into a machine at one end and turn\na crank and grind them out at the other end, carefully molded citizens,\nall after one pattern. The Indians have race characteristics which differ\nfrom ours, but which are very good of their kind. They have their own\nart ideals, and you will find in nearly every Indian the instinct of the artist.\nThe old way of handling this matter in the schools was to put before the\nchildren designs of our own preparing and telling them to copy these. We\nhave got away from that. If you want to see how far, go up to the Normal\nBuilding tomorrow and look at the exhibit — a small one and very hastily\ngathered — which Miss De Cora, our Indian teacher of native art at Carlisle,\nhas brought here to show what her little people are doing. She is drawing out\nwhat is already in them, instead of cramming them with something from\noutside. There, again, is Indian music. Plenty of people will tell you that\nIndian music consists of only a guttural whine, punctuated with beats on a\ntom-tom. They have ignored all that is best in Indian music and taken the\nlowest types of it as types of all. European composers have not been so foolish.\nThey have seen how much in Indian music is worthy of preservation, and\nhave exclaimed at our negligence in letting this resource die out thru our\nfailure to recognize its value. I am trying to bring our service back into the\nright track in this regard also. I want the children in our Indian schools to\nbe able to sing the songs of their people, just as Germans, tho living among\nus, sing the songs of their fatherland — you have heard some of these tonight.\nI want our schools to encourage the children to sing their own songs, and in\ntheir own language. At Oraibi, one of our most successful teachers. Miss\nStanley, has her children bring the songs sung to them by their mot!n rs in the\nnursery and sing them in the classroom. When she opens the day with tliese\nlittle songs, the children attack the rest of their work with a spirit and\na snap unknown to children who have to start the day in the ordinary\nway.\nI see, my friends, that I have exhausted my time. I thank you very much\nfor your kind attention and indulgence. I am already due at a gathering of\nmy fellows in the Indian service in another place, but I could not resist the\ninvitation to come here and say these few words of greeting — the greeting of\none laborer to other laborers in a similar field; and to remind you that, altho\nyour task seems discouraging at times, it is a great work in which you are\nengaged, and that one day you will realize that there is more real joy\nin the heat of struggle than can be found in the fulfilled accomplishment.\n\n"} {"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nGREETINGS\n\nGREETINGS\nM. URIBE\n\nFROM\n\nA SISTER\n\nFROM\n\nA SISTER\n\nREPUBLIC\n\n75\n\nREPUBLIC\n\nY TRANCOSO, REPRESENTING THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC\nTION AND PINE ARTS OF THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO\n\nINSTRUC-\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nIt is certainly a glorious event which this Association commemorates today.\nA life of fifty years so fruitful in useful results, intellectual and moral, is the\nbest proof that the high ideals in which its foundation was laid, germinating\nin a soil very well adapted to them, after half a century of continued growth,\nas under one of those gigantic trees of California, have gathered and united\nunder its shade the teachers of all the states of the Union.\nFor the first time in the history of the Association, the educators of another\ncountry have been invited to take part in its labors, and with extreme gallantry\nit has called on the sister republic, with which this country maintains common\nideals and interests. Honored by this eloquent proof of distinction, the\nsecretary of public instruction and fine arts of Mexico appointed a delegation\nto bring to this Association an expression of gratitude on the part of the\ngovernment and, at the same time, of the teachers of Mexico for this proof of\ninternational fraternity; and charged them with the agreeable task of telling\nyou how profoundly it is devoted to the work of teaching and education, convinced that when education has been founded upon really scientific bases,\nit constitutes the most secure foundation of greatness and prosperity of the\nnations.\nCertainly, one of the most powerful causes of the enormous development\nand prosperity of your great country has been the education, philosophically\ndirected and vastly extended to all social classes from the laborer to the\nprofessional man; but the result is more especially due to the spreading\namong the people of the scientific notions in which must be built all work\nintended to put aside the routine, and enable them to think out the necessities\nalways growing out of modern industrial competition.\nThe intellectual and physical education has received in the United States\nfor a long time specialized attention, and the results have shown themselves\nin the form of a well-balanced generation which expresses the old mens\nSana in corpora sano, and which with a reserve of mental energy, accumulated\nby a good preparation of both brains and muscles, has permitted to undertake\nthe gigantic works which have transformed the deserts into emporiums of\ncivilization, uniting with the steel nerves of the railroads the most distant\nregions of this very extensive country and originating at the end a peculiar\ncivilization admired and studied attentively in Europe and America.\nIt is enough to read the programs of the different sections of this Association to comprehend the very important part which your works have had in\nthe formation and development of national culture. To bring together and\nto put in contact the teachers of the most distant places; to procure the exchange\nof ideas in regard to the benefit of the different methods now in use; to unify\n\n"} {"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nscientifically the opinions; to form a body of doctrines, which in a definite\nmoment the teacher can consult, even in the most distant town, is a task\ncertainly worthy of all praise and encouragement.\nIt is a pleasure to Mexico to associate herself with this great educational\nmovement, being, as she is, extremely interested in the solution of the same\nproblems — that is, in the diffusion of instruction to all the classes of society,\nand in perfecting and transforming its educational methods.\nIn a recent speech, our illustrious educator, Mr. Justo Sierra, minister of\npublic instruction and fine arts, said that the most important problem of\nmodern Mexico is the formation and unification of the national spirit. We\nstumble really over an obstacle which the United States has scarcely encountered. More than half of the population of Mexico is formed of Indians,\nwhom we have to assimilate in the movement of active progress, which takes\nplace in all parts of the Republic. This task is not easy. Our progress we\nhave realized almost without the co-operation of this important portion of our\nnationality, and it is already time that the new generation of Indians should\nenter actively into the now open way.\nTo accomplish this we depend upon a powerful — an almost unique factor —\neducation. After the unfortunate vicissitudes thru which Mexico has passed,\nand the long period of social instability which the civil wars brought, has come\nan era of peace, based upon firm foundations, and one of its principal fruits\nis already the reorganization of national education.\nThe government of Mexico is firmly persuaded that in order to carry\nforward its program, it is necessary to base instruction on methods and principles essentially scientific, and it has sent, and sends continually, to this country\nand to Europe its teachers, in order that they may study the different methods,\nselecting those that may be most adapted to our medium and to our race.\nKnowing perfectly how the improvement of the scholar is affected by\nphysical health, and how the task of the teacher is facilitated when the children\nhave sound bodies, large amounts have lately been dedicated to the construction of new schoolhouses, with all the modern conveniences, and in the most\nhygienic manner, for the purpose of avoiding physical deformities in the\npupils, such as myopia and all the other evil consequences which the school\nlife imposes upon children.\nAlready five new* school buildings have been completed in the city of\nMexico, the cost of which has varied from one hundred and fifty thousand to\ntwo hundred thousand dollars each, and the government is now planning to\nconstruct all that may be necessary, with every hygienic requisite.\nThere has existed in the city of Mexico for some years past an oflScial body\nof medical inspectors of schools, which has given excellent results, and the\ncreation of an anthropometric department is projected, that may bring about\nthe best means to avoid the harmful influence of school confinement on the\nhealth of the children.\nAlcoholism being one of the greatest factors of physical degeneration, and\n\n"} {"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n77\n\nthe principal one that is to be combated in elevating the intellectual and\nmoral level of our people, the Mexican government has inaugurated in the\nschools an anti-alcoholic campaign, which, making known to the child the\nperils of intemperance, must protect it to a certain extent against the\ninevitable suggestions of the surroundings in which it has to enter.\nOur native race would be regenerated, undoubtedly, if we could succeed\nin inculcating in the children the hatred of alcohol which has degraded this\nrace for centuries. We have eloquent examples of the great qualities of intelUgence, heart, and courage that characterize the Indians. When properlyeducated, they become useful citizens. Our great president, Benito Juarez,\nwas an Indian of pure race.\nThis high aim can only be realized by the school neutralizing in part the\nbad influence of the homes in which vice reigns. With the improvement of\nthe economical conditions and the diffusion of education by means of learned\nand self-abnegating teachers, we confidently hope for a better future, and we\nwill have the satisfaction of having prepared it for the new generations who\nwill be called to fulfill high destinies. Consequently, you can see that we are\neven more interested than you in the solution of the problems which you come\nto study here, from such distant places of this country, and at the cost of such\ngreat fatigue.\nAllow me, in conclusion, to express to you the high esteem and gratitude\nof the teachers of Mexico for the distinction of which they have been the\nobject ; and their wishes that this half -century old Association may reach even\na longer life and realize completely the high and noble end for which it was\nfounded.\nTHE\nRT.\n\nREV.\n\nTHOMAS\n\nPERSONALITY\nJ. CONATY,\n\nD.D.,\n\nOF THE\n\nBISHOP\n\nOF\n\nTEACHER\n\nMONTEREY\n\nAND\n\nLOS ANGELES\n\nIn discussing the personality of the teacher one finds difficulty in clearly\ndefining what personality really means. It is felt to be one's character, one's\nindividuality, yet it is neither eccentricity nor singularity. The personality\nof a teacher is a presence, an attractiveness, a magnet leading and urging to\nthe best and highest endeavor; it is a power which awakens dormant energy.\nClothed with the knowledge, it is gifted with aptness in imparting it. The\nteaching personality vivifies and energizes the entire being of the teacher; it\nis, indeed, the very soul of the teacher. It expresses itself not only thru the\nknowledge imparted but more particularly thru the character of the teacher\nwhose power is more in what he is than in what he has or does. It makes\nhim a living, intelligent being, an apostle of the truth with a message to mind\nand heart, a helper in the things which should be known and done, drawing\nout of us the best we have and urging us to the best we can do. The personality which educates to the best is adorned with truthfulness, manliness,\ngenerosity, and sympathy.\n\n"} {"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nTeaching has earned its right to be considered one of the learned professions and should feel something of the divine calling. The question of the\npersonality of the teacher is a question of the teaching office itself and a proper\nappreciation can only be had in a careful estimate of the teacher's duty to\neducation. No one will question the importance of the life work of the\nteacher or fail to be impressed with the truth that the vocation to the teachers'\noffice is a most honorable one. Education aims to form men and women, to\ndevelop soul as well as body, heart as well as mind — in a word, to train all the\nfaculties of man under the influence of the knowledge of God's intention in\ncreation. The purpose of all education is the apprehending and understanding of truth and its application to life. Until man has seen truth in its beauty\nand possessed it in its entirety, his complete development is not reached.\nOne of the world's masters of culture, the great schoolmaster of Italy, the\nimmortal Dante, following the thought of his teacher, St. Thomas Aquinas,\nheld that the soul was made to know the truth, to love and possess the good,\nand to enjoy the beautiful. Dante believed in God and in the immortality of\nthe soul, and his constant axiom was, ''God is truth and God is love.\" He\nbelieved that the union of the human with the divine will was the source of\nthe perfection of all character. According to his theory, man's intelligence\ngrasps the truth, his will follows the good, and his heart rests in the love of the\nbeautiful. Dante was a believer in a revealed religion and found the fullness of\ntruth in God's revelation, and the perfect good in the following of God's commandments, and the beautiful in the love of God. No man ever thought,\nspoke, or wrote nobler words, or reached to higher flights of fancy, or impressed\nhimself more effectively upon the world's thought, than Dante, who, while\ncharming us with the song of the poet in his immortal poems, is still the\nteacher.\nThe direction of education varies according to the ideas formed of life and\nis dominated by them. One would hardly concede to an atheist the education of a theist and it is hard to see how a purely philosophical education would\nsatisfy the Christian. In a rationalistic education the absolute magistracy\nof the human reason is conceded; in the Christian education the sovereignty\nof God is the underlying principle. The teacher entering into the field of\neducation as one of its masters should have clearly defined ideas of life and its\nrelationship to God, for no one can fully fit to the end of life who has not\nrealized its source, the purpose of which it has been given and the means by\nwhich it may reach its end. Thring says, \"The teacher is one who has liberty\nand time and heart enough and head enough to be a master in the kingdom\nof life.\" No truer principle was ever advocated than that which maintains\nthat it is not sufficient to develop merely the natural faculties and dispositions\nof children but that care should be taken to ennoble and perfect them. To\nbe the instrument in the perfecting of the faculties of mankind, in the upbuilding of the character of men and women, is indeed an important and honorable vocation. To lead the child and youth to the full and proper develop-\n\n"} {"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n79\n\nment of all the faculties of his nature is a noble and responsible calling. The\nSacred Scripture reminds us of God's promise, ''Those that instruct the youth\nunto life shall shine like the stars in God's firmament.\" The old pagans\nunderstood this, for Cicero said, \"What better, what greater service can we\nof today render to the Republic than to instruct and train the young.\" All\nmankind has recognized the sacredness of the calling to mold human minds\nand lives in truth, to inspire men to the higher and better things. There is\nsomething God-like in a teacher. He draws from the heart of childhood love\nfor the beautiful, the pure, and the true. He awakens latent energies, discovers\nunknown forces, opens up avenues of thought, directs the pupil to the treasure\nhouses of the world's thought, helps self-development, reaches toward the\nfullness of manhood, in a word, the teacher makes men. Like the farmer\nwho plows his land that light and moisture may enter the soil before he plants\nthe seed, so the teacher prepares the way and opens up the ground that the\nseed of thought may act upon mind and life. The teacher stands before the\nworld greater than the noblest heroes of military science and conquest. All\nnations, all peoples, at all times have loved and respected the teacher. There\nis no stain on his garment, there is no blood on his crown. He has been the\nphilosopher and the benefactor of the people and has won the love of the\npeople by his self-sacrifices and devotion to higher things. At certain times,\nthe teacher has been the object of special favors and dignities. After the\npastor of a parish in many places he was the chief man, freed from taxation\nand military service. According to the laws of the General Assembly of\nFrance in 1685 he was clothed in a surplice, incensed in the church, holding\na place above the laity, even above the aristocracy of the parish. What a\nchapter might be written on the teachers who have influenced mankind!\nFrom Nineveh to Jerusalem, from Athens to Rome, from lona to St. Gall, from\nParis to Oxford, from Leipzic to Louvain, from Vienna to Harvard, a royal\nline of men and women who as teachers in the various grades of school have\neducated mankind.\nThere is no more interesting page in history than that which tells the\nstory of the great teachers. Coming, as they did in the olden days, from\ndistant countries to the centers of learning, creating, indeed, by their teaching,\nthose very centers, they depended not on kings and nobles for their support\nbut on the truth they taught and the enthusiasm they aroused. Those\nteachers had minds trained in knowledge, they had drunk deep of the fountains\nof knowledge and of faith, their lives had been spent in the acquisition of truth\nand in the mighty mission of the teacher they consecrated their lives to instruction. It was not mere knowledge or method that made the great teachers, it\nwas their ability and personality by which they made knowledge lovable and\nimparted it to those whom they had taught to love them. As the Apostles at\nEmmaus felt their hearts bum within them as Christ spoke, so the student\nfeels the personality of the true teacher. The master who really lives is the\none teacher we never cease to love.\n\n"} {"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWhat made the great teachers? What gave the power with which they\nimpressed the world? It was, first of all, the consciousness that they had a\nmission to intellect and heart and felt a divine vocation to tell the message of\ntruth in the varied knowledge to be acquired. They possessed truth, they\nloved it, and they loved to spread it into the lives of others. A prominent\nGerman teacher in the thirteenth century calls the schoolmaster ''a spiritual\nfather.\" ''Gold and silver,\" he says, \"cannot repay him, for the things of\nthe spirit are higher and nobler than the things of the body. What he taught\nyou remains a possession forever.\" St. John Chrysostom asked the question,\n\"What is more noble than to form the minds of the youth ?\" and he adds,\n\"He who fashions the morals of children performs, in my judgment, a task\nmore sublime than that of any painter or sculptor.\" As Newman says of the\nteacher, \"He is a professor, eloquent, a missionary and a preacher, displaying\nhis science in its most complete and winning form, pouring it forth with the\nsoul of enthusiasm and lighting up his own love of it in the breasts of his\nhearers.\" Personality weighs far more than method. The good teacher\nmakes his own method and changes his method according to the varying\nchanges of his pupils. Consecration to work, consecration to one's idea of how\nbest to impart the knowledge he possesses is a key to successful teaching.\nPsychological insight into personal traits, untiring patience with personal\ndefects, persevering kindness in all circumstances, are characteristic of the\ngood teacher and they spring from sympathy which is fundamental to the\nteachers' personality. Every teacher should have faith that even in the least\npromising and least interesting scholar there is a power for good which should\nbe exercised and which it is the business of the teacher to develop. Oftentimes\nwhen teachers grow weary of the dull child at school does it ever occur to them\nto ask how much of the child's inability to learn is due to the lack of personaUty in the teacher who has become unattractive to the dull child ? All men\nrecognize that the teacher, in final analysis, is the school. The best methods\nare but accessories, the most elegant buildings mere assembly rooms, the most\nfinely equipped laboratories are machines, the skill, the strength, the light,\nthe life, and the use of all these are crystallized in the teacher.\nThe teacher's office is endowed with sanctity, inasmuch as it is the ministry\nof God exercised in the interests of truth in the schoolroom. Justinian calls\nthe legal profession \"a priesthood of truth,\" inasmuch as laws rest on justice\nand equity and inculcate the same. • The teaching profession is equally a\npriesthood of truth for it aims to teach the truth of life and to search after and\nfind the knowledge which satifies the human intelligence, and nothing but the\ntruth of God can give that satisfaction. Of all men the guide in the realm of\ntruth and the agent in the development of it in the minds and lives of others\nshould be a man of faith, a believer in the truth and practical in a virtuous\nlife. He should live to fit himself the more certainly to lead where truth\nabounds.\nThe teacher's incentive to conscientious action is in the inspiration which\n\n"} {"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n8i\n\ncomes from the duty of education to develop manhood in the fullness of\nindividual good character. How strong the impulse which comes from his\nfeeling that his place is in what has been called, \"the beloved ministr}^ of\nchildhood.\" As the \" undershepherd of God's little ones,\" his life is called\nto be spent in not merely instructing but in shaping and forming the character,\ndeveloping toward the light and making life more intelligible and more worth\nliving. A human life is entrusted to him, to be rightly developed by him in\norder to obtain life's best values. No one who assumes this sacred trust\nshould fail to recognize the tremendous responsibility with follows. It comes\nto him freighted with the sweetest loves and deepest anxieties of the parents\nof the children and of the commonwealth to which they are bound by social\nties. No more honorable position in life awaits him than that which calls him\nto the duties of instruction, warning him to be alive not only to the truth to be\ntaught but also to the duty which commands him to be what he would strive\nto have others become. Gregory the Great rays, \"No man undertakes to\nteach art unless he has himself first acquired it by diligent effort.\" One of\nthe old master teachers of the thirteenth century said, \"The master who is\nlacking in sound learning is preparing to live dishonestly.\" There is a world\nof truth in this for unless the child be properly trained for the duties of life,\nthe teacher is not giving value for value and inasmuch as on his part value is\nlacking, he is more or less dishonest. The teacher needs to be versed in the\nknowledge of nature and nature's God in order to show the way, to explain\nthe sights, to answer the questions, in a word, to mold character. How can he\ndo this unless he knows with accuracy and shows with clearness ? Like the\neunuch before Philip, the child may say, \"How can I understand unless some\none show me ? \" How can the teacher honestly and sincerely develop in\nanother what has been undeveloped in himself? No man can teach truth\nwho has not apprehended it himself, no man can develop character who has\nnot the fullness of character in himself, no man is accepted as a safe guide to\nmorality who is not himself a follower of the moral precepts. Personal integrity, a character without stain, an upright and moral life, are the soul of\nthe teaching personality and should mark the teacher's life. He should have\nconscience and morality himself to thoroly develop good morals in others.\nChildren are quick to perceive the difference between precept and practice.\nThe development of morality is the very essence of all educational systems.\nMen differ as to what constitutes morality, but it seems to me that the majority\nof men will accept the principle that the morality that makes for life is built\nupon the po itive law of God and is developed and maintained by obedience\nto that law. Unfortunately, there is an ever-increasing tendency to divorce\nreligion from school instruction because of the many and varied differences\nin religious thought. Serious-minded men and women are noting with fear\nthe results of this divorce, which, among people regarded as educated, are\nalready manifesting themselves in a growing disregard for the very commonest\nlaws of morality.\nFifty years ago general education was hailed as the panacea\n\n"} {"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor all the ills of the social body, but, owing to the omission of positive religion,\nthe general development of education has not fulfilled its promise and among\nthe more cultivated and intellectual, crime has so developed that anyone who\nstudies the social conditions is appalled at the results. Instruction divorced\nfrom religion can neither make nor keep men moral. It is this conscientious\nbelief alone which forces the Catholic church to build its educational system\nupon the principle that the positive religious doctrine which it possesses should\nbe taught its children in the schoolroom and hence, independent of all other\nsystems and not in conflict with them, she builds her schools, her one desire\nbeing, that, as the teacher of her people, she will form their character upon\nthe Christian lines and in accordance with the aims and purposes of life as\nthey have been made known to her in the doctrines which she professes.\nWith her, religion in education is not a mere sentiment or a vague responsibility, but a vital force, instructing intelligence by positive doctrine, and\ndemanding the active obedience of the human will to divine law. It is to us\nthe living of the life of Christ as He taught it and the school is an agent in the\nknowledge of this life. One loves to find that the great teachers have always\nbeen reverent, moral, religious, at all times an inspiration to those who would\nassume the role of teacher. They bid us to reverent and religious lives. The\ndevout faith of a man expresses and measures the intensity of his moral nature.\nThe teacher who educates and the system of which he is a part should never\nlose sight of the fact that faith has its foundation in an ever-living and perfect\nmind, and instruction should lead to the good and the true as made known to\nus by God. The teacher or system which weakens the religious beliefs of\nyouth, unfastens life from the mooring to which it clings, draws even one bolt\nand thus endangers the structure, that teacher or that system is woefully out\nof variance with the vocation of education. The loss of faith in God is the\ngreatest loss that can come to man, and if that loss comes thru the teacher the\ninjury is greatest. The irreligious, the irrevelant teacher who sneers at\nreligion or belittles it can have only an evil influence upon the character\nwhich builds itself upon faith and recognizes duty to a revealed religion.\nThe teacher should have not only an intimate and intelligent acquaintance\nwith his work in all its parts but he should be familiar with the methods best\nadapted toward the proper instruction of others in that knowledge. He\nshould be familiar with methods, yet never become a slave to a method. Trained\nin the methods of others, a teacher is apt to become a mere machine, a simple\nautomaton at the teacher's desk, a wooden teacher with someone else's unassimilated methods, and is not worthy even of being called a poor apology for a\nteacher. The teacher should aim to be himself ; no one can ever successfully\nbe anyone else. Imitators are on the stage ; they are out of place behind the\nteacher's chair. The teacher needs to guard himself from fads and hobbies\nand avoid the folly of adopting untested theories. Our ready-made methods\nhave ruined many a good teacher who felt that he had to follow them because\na school board so decreed.\nA student, a lover of books, with constant aim\n\n"} {"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n83\n\ntoward the culture which tends so much to embeUish his work and make it\nmore productive, the teacher should never cease to improve himself that he\nmay become a cultured gentleman. The Rt. Hon. James Bryce, speaking\nrecently on the \"Teaching Profession,\" said:\nThe educational profession is work wliich marks out the person who does it as an\neducated and cultivated person, and therefore when you meet a teacher you are entitled\nto assume that he or she possesses a superior measure of cultivation and eiducation.\n\nLiberal education broadens his views, widens his horizon, makes him more\ntolerant of the opinions of others, familiarizes him with the different viewpoints\nof historical discussion, makes him a student in the world's school, and removes\nhim from the provincialism which is oftentimes responsible for the narrowness\nand prejudice which creep into men's lives. Like the mechanic, the teacher\nshould be familiar with every part of the machinery with which he works, the\nmodel he has to copy, and the use of the tools necessary, so that the work may\nbe a finished product from the hands of a master. Such should be the teacher's\nambition — to excel, to aim at the finished product in the thinking man, who,\nunder the influence of the teacher, realizes what he has within him and begins\nto articulate, to advance, and to add to the world^s store of knowledge. It is\nnot enough for the teacher to possess facts which he teaches but he should\nstrive to reach the spirit of the fact which would give him the very perfection\nof his knowledge. He should journey along the same road by which the facts\ncame, striving to share the experience of the master as he worked out the\nproblems, one with him in joy and sorrow, experiencing his rewards and punishments. One can never fully know Dante until he has entered into the\nspirit of Dante's soul in his joys and sorrows. Tennyson never could have\nwritten \"In Memoriam\" were it not for the bitterness of the loss of Arthur\nHallam.\nWe need the right kind of teachers [says Miinsterberg]; teachers whose interest in\nthe subject would banish drudgery. We need teachers with inspiring enthusiasm for\ntheir science which springs from a profound scholarly knowledge.\n\nThe call is for teachers with a teacher's personality, full of life, the living\nteacher; full of value, giving of the wealth of knowledge; full of certainty;\nstable and sure of what he knows. Such become great teachers and their\nschools are successful. The teacher seeking for the personality that will\neducate keeps before him the high ideals of teaching and strives to master the\nproblem of good teaching. He never becomes a mercenary or a hireling\nbut is always a lover of the work to which he has consecrated his life. Personality like that begets enthusiasm. Bulwer-Lytton in his Last Days oj Pompeii,\nsays :\nNothing is so contagious as enthusiasm. It points the real allegory of the tale to\nOrpheus; it moves stones, it charms brutes. Enthusiasm is the genius of sincerity and\ntruth accomplishes no victory without it.\n\nIn Winthrop's Cecil Dreeme, the professor was one about whom a few students\nsometimes were said\n\n"} {"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto buzz as hungry bees in a sheep pasture in late fall about a dried-up mullen stalk on the\none hand and the fennel stick by which Prometheus brought down the divine fire, on the\nother.\n\nThe teacher with the music of truth calms the human passions, develops\ncharacter and leads to victory. When enthusiasm dies out in the teacher,\nlife goes with it, usefulness is at an end, the teacher's sun has set. Magnetism should be a characteristic of a teacher's personality. He should be an\ninfluence, an inspiration, a help to all who come in contact with him. He\nshould attract all toward him because of the truth which he stands ready\nto dispense. The true teacher can never part from a pupil without feeling that\nsome of his life has gone from himself and entered into the pupil's life. It was\nthis that made Plato the worthy disciple of Socrates and gave St. John the\ninsight into his Divine Master and made Suarez the expo itor of St. Thomas\nAquinas. It is personality rather than system that in the ages has made the\nmaster live in his pupil. As Newman so well says,\nThe academical system without the personal influence of teachers upon pupils, is\nan Arctic winter, it will create an ice-bound, petrified, cast-iron university and nothing\nelse. Influence precedes law,, personality precedes system. With influence there is\nlife, without it there is none.\n\nBenson, in his recent book. From a College Window, says,\nI have lately come to perceive that the one thing which gives value to any piece of\nart, whether it be a book, or picture, or music, is that subtle and evasive thing which is\ncalled personality.\n\nThe fact is all we remember of a good teacher is what he taught us. We\nseldom, if ever, think of how he taught it. Dean Stanley, speaking of Rugby\nand Arnold, said:\nThe one image that we have before us is not Rugby but Arnold. It was not the\nmaster who was beloved or disliked for the sake of the school, but the school which was\nbeloved or disliked for the sake of the teacher.\n\nGreat teachers never die, their influence lasts forever, their very names are\nan inspiration. The annals of the universities which stand for the scholarship\nof the world are fragrant with the characters of teachers whose influence made\nstudents flock to them from all quarters. They went to hear Aquinas and\nBonaventure and Erasmus and Arnold. They were men who knew men's\nnature as well as they knew their lexicons. They were not those pedants of\nwhom Carlyle writes, ''who can give no kindling because in their inward man\nthere is no live coal but aU is burned out to a dead grammatical cinder.\"\nSocrates, Plato, Aristotle, stand even now on the streets of Athens to teach\nmankind their ideas of philosophy; Galen, Archimedes, Euclid, still give\nluster to the Alexandrian museum; Pantaenus, Clement, Origen, still appear\nin the school of St. Mark in Alexandria. Hilda is at Whitby, Gertrude at\nNeville, and Hortsvita at Gandersheim; Albert the Great, St. Thomas Aquinas\nand St. Bonaventure yet illumine the University of Paris; Augustine, Columbanus, Benedict, Alcuin, Bernard, Loyola, Pestalozzi, De La Salle, Newton,\nAgassiz, Arnold, Barnard, Kepler, and Laplace still teach us. The story of\n\n"} {"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n85\n\nthe university, college, and school is generally the story of an individual teacher\nfounding the institution, and a corps of teachers taking up with enthusiasm\nthe work begun by one in faith and hope and charity. They have burned\ntheir lessons deep into the daily life of all portions of mankind. Like Socrates\nthey would rather write upon the hearts of living men than upon the skins of\ndead sheep. These form the nobility of the teacher's world. Into such ranks\nyou have entered. The ideals set by them are high ideals and all teachers\nshould aim to realize them. Not all succeed to greatness, at least to the\ngreatness of fame. Yet a large number in their own way, and known perhaps\nonly to their pupils, are quietly doing God's work in education by their personality as good teachers. There are thousands of honest, simple teachers hidden\nin the obscurity of the schoolroom who will never figure in the history of education, but who are doing in their own way marvelous work in education.\nTeachers fail, are inefl&cient, unsuccessful because they are oftentimes out of\nplace, without enthusiasm of their vocation, lacking in personality and sometimes in fitness. They have lost heart in their work and thus become\nstumbling-blocks rather than helps to education. The teacher never had\ngreater scope and honor than in our day. Every incentive is given to him. The\nfamily, society, the state and the church invest him with honor and responsibility and this should develop the best that is in him.\nIt is well for us to remember, however, that the public exacts character and\nequipment and devotion on the part of the teacher. It is well for the public\nto remember that life's service can best be given when free from the worries\nof life. Educational work ought never to be allowed to become drudgery, and\neducational service ought to receive a proper remuneration. A teacher ought\nnot to be expected to live on faith alone or be made to feel that ideals will\nsupply the necessities of life. While it is true that no class gives better service,\nand from no class is more expected, yet it is also true that no class equaling in\nany way its requirements is so poorly paid. If education demands that men\nand women of the world make a life-work of teaching there must be more\nconsideration given to proper remuneration for service, otherwise the best\nminds will not seek for such employment and education will realize tremendous loss.\nIt is the glory of our manhood and womanhood that noble men and women\nin all ages have consecrated themselves as the teachers of mankind. A\nmighty army of self-sacrificing and devoted teachers is in the schools today,\nrecognized as the \"salt of the earth and the light of the world,\" the benefactors of mankind. Their names are a benediction and ''men rise up and\ncall them blessed.\" The important factor in a teacher's life is himself. \"What\none is,\" as the old saying has it, \"goes before what one does or has.\" The\nteacher's personal character is one of his prime assets. The high-minded,\npure-minded, fair-minded, noble of instinct, gentle of manner, rich in sympathy,\nloving the good, loving the school, loving the children — that teacher is among\nthe benefactors.\nThe lives of great teachers of the world are sources of\n\n"} {"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstrength to the teachers of every age. The systems created by their experience\nenter into the history of education which should not narrow itself to the modern\ndevelopment of scientific pedagogy, but should be broad enough to give credit\nto all the systems by which the world has been taught and civilized.\nMy word today is an appeal for personality, the living characteristic of the\ngood teacher. Give us men and women with a vocation to the teacher's desk,\nwith fitness for their work, with a sacred anointing of the teacher's mission\nupon them, and it matters not where you place them. Education will crown\nthem as apostles and the world will honor them as benefactors. The greatest\nteacher the world ever knew, the Divine Saviour, taught from a ship and along\nthe banks of a river and by the sea, and His teaching revolutionized the world\nof thought and life. Socrates of old, among the pagans, taught in the groves\nof Academe ; the monks sold their wisdom in the market places to all who\nwould listen ; schoolmasters who were the foremost scholars of Europe taught\nthe youth of Ireland in the centuries of persecution under the white-thorn\nhedges and in the bogs ; Magill made his school in the loft of his father's\nwagon house. The pioneer country school teacher knew little of scientific\npedagogy, but he had knowledge and common-sense and he laid the foundation of character and scholarship in his many grades of scholars. All\nthese were types of the men who have educated the world. It mattered not\nwhere they held school, it only mattered that they gave the lessons. With\npersonality the teacher may enter into the treasure houses of the world's best\nthought with the consciousness that he will be able to transmit it to others\nconfided to his care. With personality the teacher may hope to lead mind\nand heart to truth and virtue, to teach children the lessons of nature and\nthe truths of nature's God and thus to mold character in goodness of Hfe. A\nman or woman with the personality of the true teacher on him has God's\nmission and God's blessing will accompany him. Never was there a time\nwhen more was demanded of the teacher than in our age and woe betide us if\nwe fail in conscientious obedience to the demand laid upon us.\nTo the noble teaching body of our Republic in this Association, I bring\ncordial greeting and a heartfelt welcome to this City of the Angels. I bring\nalso a kindly message of greeting from that great body of consecrated men\nand women who in the world-wide system of Catholic schools, are doing the\nwork of education in the very best spirit of self-sacrifice and noble endeavor\nthat the blessing of the highest possible knowledge which religion and nature\noffer may come to the children confided to their care under the benign influence\nof that religion which they profess, and directed by the church to which they\nconscientiously profess allegiance. The aim and purpose of that great body\nof devoted teachers is the development of men and women fitted to take their\nplace in life and ready for all the sacrifices which may be demanded by God\nand country. In their name I bring you greeting and assure you that in their\nenture system of education, from kindergarten to university, maintained at\nemendous sacrifices, they are actuated by that great principle which under-\n\n"} {"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nECONOMIC\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n87\n\nlies all true education, to develop a cultured manhood and womanhood true to\nGod and country and worthy with their fellow citizens to be intrusted with\nthe interests of our great Republic.\nTHE\nW.\n\nECONOMIC\n\nO. THOMPSON,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nRELATIONS\nOF\n\nOHIO\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCOLUMBUS\n\nThe purpose of this paper is to offer a few remarks that may suggest the\nfundamental importance of education from the standpoint of the economic\nrelations involved. A study and interpretation of the physical forces of the\nuniverse naturally followed with the growing intelligence of primitive man.\nWe can understand why with limited intelligence he should stand in awe\nbefore these forces and that the study of them would increase as his intelligence widened. From the superstitious worship of primitive man we may\ntrace a steady progress to the reverent mind of modem science and philosophy.\nIn the ultimate analysis of these forces recognizing the universal reign of law\nand the equally manifest fact of personality, a rational explanation led up to\nthe conception of a supreme personality we call God. Modem thought, reverent in the presence of this great First Cause, recognizes man as the crowning\nmasterpiece of the universe, combining the highest expression of the physical\nwith the inspiring ideals of the spiritual. In the study of the development of\nthe world we recognize man with the motives and forces that move him as\nthe determining factor in the evolution of what we call civilization. It is not\nphysical force or physical resources, but intellectual, moral, and spiritual\nforces represented in man that determine and fashion civilization. These\nphysical forces and resources are the responsive servants that a masterful\npersonality may direct for the comfort, convenience, and further progress of\nthe individual and the race.\nIn the increasing mastery over physical forces, which to a large degree\nmeasures the progress of man, two important elements are present — that of\nreligion and that of education. These two elements, to a considerable extent,\nmay be interpreted each in terms of the other, for by no distinct cleavage\nmay we separate the area of religion from that of education. This paper,\nhowever, presents the place of education as one of the fundamental forces\ndetermining civilization.\nI It is a common conception current even among educators that education\nis a burden that civilization must carry as a means of perpetuity and progress.\nWe must educate or we must perish is a familiar war cry. With this has\nbeen associated the teaching that education must be supported as a gratuity or\ncharity and as a kind of guarantee of the perpetuity of civilization. There\nis a truth here, but associated with it has been a notion that civilization or\nmore specifically the taxpayer, with commendable generosity has been supporting education as a burden placed upon him because the law so provided.\nThe purpose of this paper will be to suggest that this is a fallacy, and that\n\n"} {"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe truth is that civilization itself is the burden, if we may use such a term,\nwhich education does carry. That is to say, civilization is not the cause but\nthe result of education. To be sure there are relations of mutual helpfulness,\nbut ultimately in our analysis I maintain that education lies fundamentally\nat the basis. If this be true our conception of its importance and, therefore,\nof its support should be modified.\nPolitical economy has for a long time directed our attention to land, labor,\nand capital as the three elements and forces that determine the production\nand consumption of wealth. Wealth has been regarded as the necessary\ncondition of progress for the individual and society. In our economics we\nhave placed undue emphasis upon wealth as influencing man and too little\nemphasis upon man as influencing wealth. This fallacy will be found to lie\nin the Malthusian theories. Back of all these forces treated in political\neconomy, however, is the personal force of the individual with which education has to do. In the analysis of society and the forces of civilization we\nshall discover the character of the individual as the final explanation of all\nprogress. The progress of civilization is measured in terms of the progress\nof man. Here is where education finds its field and wins its triumphs. The\nindividual is at once the cause, the interpretation, and the justification of\ncivilization. In seeking, therefore, to develop the possibilities of the individual\nwe are seeking to develop and make possible literally a new heaven and a\nnew earth — a new civilization. In the study of the economic relations of education let us first state a few of the commonly accepted results of education.\nThese are that, (i) education develops the initiative; (2) education develops\npower, skill, and efficiency; (3) education develops variety of talent, of taste,\nand of capacity for enjoyment and service; (4) in the development of this\nvariety education awakens desires, ambitions, and ideals that are the evidences of culture widely separating the educated man from his primitive\nancestor; (5) education arouses and sustains the higher life expressed in\nbetter physical conditions, in wider intellectual sympathies, in a clearer conception of ethical relations, in a profounder spiritual unity, and in a practically unlimited diversity as expressed both in the individual and his achievements; (6) education does modify and change the character of both the\nindividual and the race.\nWith these results of education even imperfectly realized, what shall we\nsay of their economic importance ? First of all the educated man is the man\nof awakened desires. Desire is the basis of economic demand. He is the\nman not of a few and simple wants but of many wants. This sense of want,\nthis increased desire, is the result of an intellectual and social awakening.\nThe more education the more numerous are the wants and the more imperious\nthe demand. Education initiates, organizes, and emphasizes a person's\ndesires. It opens the vision of better things and develops the capacity\nfor enjoying them. It cultivates the desire until it arouses action to meet\nit. Here are the essentials of a market.\nIn fact, the educated man is the\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nECONOMIC\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n89\n\nmarket and creates the market. He makes the demand and furnishes the\nsupply. Moreover, the more the educational process is encouraged the\nmore numerous and wider the reach of these desires. In a very real sense\nthe perception and enjoyment of the best turns us away from the less worthy.\nThe mastery developed thru education makes the satisfaction of the elementary\nand necessary desires easier and of the higher and newer wants possible. It is\nnot so much, therefore, the increase of goods that raises the standard of living\nas the mental state of the man who has come to taste the higher life. Thus\nthe luxuries of one day become the necessities of another, which is but another\nway of saying that education has so changed and widened the horizon of the\nindividual that he makes a larger demand upon the supply of the world for\nthe things with which to sustain h^s life. The economic importance of the\neducated man as the world's best and most stable market will steadily gain in\nappreciation.\nMoreover, the fact of variety developed thru education is fundamental\nin the question of a varied industry concerning which we hear so much.\nVariety of desire calls for a division of labor making demand for every possible\ntalent. It is the highly diversified society, itself the product of education,\nand not primitive society, that can make profitable use of a variety of talent.\nThe limit of this law of diversity of talent is foreshadowed only by the suggestion of the limit of education and the human mind. As has been well\nstated,^\nThe progress of society consists in the differentiation of man's relations, and that\nevery differentiation in the social polity is simply an effort to better adapt his social\nenvironment to the more complete gratification of his wants.\n\nThe wonderful diversity and variety in the products of modern industry with\nthe manifest tendency toward a better grade of finished product, has come\nabout thru an education of the ordinary purchaser. He has improved the\ncharacter of the demand by insisting upon better products and thus led the\nway to better wages, firmer markets, and a clearer margin of profit. This\nvariety of taste has not only affected the variety of product but has by specializing industry opened up an opportunity for talent hitherto unusable and\ndirectly checked the fierceness of competition while encouraging the development of initiative. By this process every man with a new idea, a new invention, a new efficiency, a new service, has practically the whole world for his\nmarket. Beecher with his pulpit had no competition and the world for an\naudience. The modern telephone and other inventions have created business,\nincreased the efficiency and comfort of society, and made a world of new\nrelationships. Now education is not the source or cause of monotony. God\nhas made this world a place of infinite variety and beauty. To man he has\ngiven a diversity of gifts. Education develops this diversity and thus enlarges\nthe world of ideas, of men, and of markets. Into this larger world the teacher\nis constantly introducing the student.\nHe is leading him away from the nar» Gunton, Principles of Social Economics, p. 80.\n\n"} {"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nrowness and provincialism of ignorance. The primitive men all look alike,\nfeel alike, act alike, and live in the same narrow world. Here the struggle\nfor existence and the survival of the fittest have free play. The economic\nconditions are the simplest if indeed they exist at all. Education promptly\nchanges all this. The awakened individual becomes the producer, the frequenter ofthe market place, the larger consumer, society, emerges, and civilization develops. This contrast is sharper where we recognize that education\ndevelops individuality and initiative while protesting against any and all\nattempts to produce uniformity of result and against all school methods that\nhamper the free expression and development of the individual. That is to\nsay, the development of man's intellectual and social horizon makes a demand\nfor capital, for human labor, and for all that goes to make up the sum total of\nhuman industry. The practically unlimited variety of modern human industry\nis due to the widespread influence of education. So long as education was\nfor the few and confined to the study of a few subjects the latent talent of the\nmillions was of no service. With the dawn of universal education there has\ncome an awakening among us that has stirred the multitudes and affected every\nline of human industry. The technical term \"division of labor\" has a new\nand richer meaning than Adam Smith ever dreamed of. In the matters of food\nand clothing we have passed from the simple and unattractive to the beautiful\nand the useful. The modern merchant, manufacturer, and carpenter are in\nleague with the artist and the engineer, to make the matters of commerce\nmeet the critical taste of the educated man. So true is this that everyone\nenters protest against the lack of taste in architecture, of beauty in our- cities,\nof comfort in our homes, and, indeed, of the unlovely everywhere. The\neconomic importance of all this striving for better things due to the inspiration of education has not been clearly appreciated or fully acknowledged.\nThe school, the scholar and the influences they have set at work are making\nfortunes possible and employment a fact to millions of people. It is the man\nthat makes wealth possible; not wealth that makes man possible. The\neducated man is constantly engaged in a world-building process in which he\nmust provide both the labor and the capital.\nMoreover, it may be well to call attention to the persistency of the demand\nmade by education. The educated portion of the world has come to know\nand appreciate the best things. It will persist in its demands for these things.\nThis persistency of demand is the star of hope in our democracy. Economically speaking, it is the key to stability of markets, of values, and of prices.\nThe educated man persists in his demand for the things he appreciates, and\nthis persistence of demand has more to do with the stability of markets and\nwith perpetual prosperity than any one other element. I should go farther\nand say it was more important even than tariff legislation. We have been\nslow to see that men and not laws make markets. In a broad way we need\nto look only to the fact that in the four great nations where education is most\ndeveloped the markets are best and famines are fewest. The political econo-\n\n"} {"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nECONOMIC\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n91\n\nmist of the future will see more than a mere coincidence in the fact that the\nmore broadly educated nations have the most stable conditions financially,\ncommercially, industrially, and socially. The progress of civilization is due\nto the happy co-operation of the conservative and progressive elements in\nsociety. Modern education, while sweeping away the conservatism of superstition and tradition and checking the tendency to forget reason on the part\nof the radical, has given intelligence and direction to both, thus insuring a\nhealthful progress. It is not a question of mere population nor of natural\nresources that makes the contrast in permanency of markets, of prices, of\nvalues, and of commerce between the United States, Great Britain, France,\nand Germany on the one hand, and China \"and India on the other. The\nPhilippine problem is one of better roads, better houses, better clothing —\nin a word, the things that result from a better education. The first man in\ndemand after the treaty of peace was the teacher. He was fundamental in the\neconomic development. The government wanted markets. It was not a\nmistaken policy that said the teacher would produce them. His method of\nwork is to hold up the ideal and then urge the pupil to pursue it persistently\nat any cost. No true teacher ever lowers that flag. This elevation of the\nindividual which is constantly going on in every quarter of the land is preparing a persistent demand, to which only a persistent supply is adequate.\nWith the increase of education not only the quality of this demand persists\nbut the quantity of it is enlarged. The essential element of material prosperity isprovided every time a well-educated person appears.\nAgain, it is usual to observe that education develops power, mastery, and\nefficiency in living. These are the qualities that enable a man to support\nhimself and to maintain the highest standard of living toward which education\nconstantly tends. The economic importance of this may well be emphasized.\nThe primitive man knows little of wealth or a leisure rich with pleasure. He\nis dependent upon the gratuity of nature for a considerable portion of his\ncomfort and pleasure. The educated man is also dependent, but upon gratuitous nature plus the initiative of an awakened individual. Now the most\ncharacteristic features of modern progress lie in the area of the mastery and\ndominion of the educated man. The whole wide field of applied science and\nof modern inventions has been opened thru the operation of education. This\nhas changed the standard of life and human comfort and brought new life\nand outlook to commerce and trade. Speaking broadly, it is manifest that the\nmost widely educated nations of the earth have been most influenced by this\nnew standard of life and are also the best markets of the world. The lesseducated nations are the markets for only the surplus of commerce, and no\nspecial vision is needed to see that as education makes its progress in these\ncountries the markets will widen and develop. There is an eco'nomic importance in the fact that the sultan of Turkey is riding in an automobile, especially\nwhen we consider that a short while ago the same authority opposed the introduction ofthe sewing machine and the telephone.\nEducation even in Turkey\n\n"} {"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nSteadily raises the standard of living and develops a new market. It has been\nsaid that the obstacles to progress are in men and not outside of them. With\nequal or greater truth it may be said that the cause of progress is in men and\nnot outside of them. Because education reaches the man first and awakens\nto a new world of power and possibility it becomes the source of all progress.\nThe awakened man means a new world — a new market, and new conditions\nof life. Education is thus steadily bringing man to his own. Thru increasing\nintelligence, a better interpretation of the universe, a better knowledge of its\nlaws and forces, a better control of his own powers, man is steadily achieving\nmastery and dominion and realizing his own freedom. The economic importance of this freedom realized in men merits an attention and appreciation to\nwhich the future will give more adequate recognition and expression.\nOne other feature may be mentioned — the relation of education to industry.\nWe have revised our conclusions on this point. The time was when many\nbelieved education would relieve from work. The truth is now recognized\nthat education leads into work. It is no mere coincidence that the educated\npeople of the world are the busiest people. The most active people of the\nglobe today are found in the governments where education has a free opportunity. Education if true leads to service — a service that shall not end in any\nprivate ambition, but in a genuine contribution to public efl&ciency. Education not only fits for service by developing power, skill, and efficiency, but by\npresenting the ideals that lead men on to duty and achievement. An educated\nidler is^ absurd if not unthinkable. Men are coming to distinguish between\n\"working for a living,\" and \"working as a calling,\" and living as the crowning\nglory of service. Education makes a man larger than his greatest deed, puts\ninto him the ideals that lead to the glory of achievement. The atmosphere\nof every schoolroom is charged with the currents of industry; every scholar\nlives in a world of action. The idleness, indifference, and the vices that go with\nignorance are cast out by education as so many devils, and the individual\nredeemed to industry, thrift, service, and character. This attitude of the\neducated man is of profound significance in determining the character of the\nworld in which men may live. Educated men will not contemplate with\nsatisfaction a world of idleness, indifference, or stagnation. The best families\nwhere education and wealth have flourished for generations manifest this\nhigh spirit and refuse to consider the possession of wealth a call to idleness,\nbut regard the possession of talent as a call to service. This is the legitimate\noutcome and may be accepted as the first fruits of the better harvest to which\neducation is bringing us.\nIn summing up the economic relations of education we return to the\nteacher. He is the masterful personality in the presence of all these forces,\nwho organizes, directs, and stimulates the uprising generation to achievement,\nmastery, and freedom. So the teacher, whether he be teacher of religion or of\neducation, of philosophy or of science, of agriculture or of mechanic arts, of\nmanual training or of domestic science, of language or of morals — in any or\n\n"} {"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nECONOMIC\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n- 93\n\nall of these places the teacher is, indeed, the master who trains the men who\nmake markets, commerce, and even civilization a possibility. What we do\nfor education is not then a burden; it is rather an opportunity. The money\nwe give is neither charity nor the payment of a debt; it is an investment to\nguarantee the perpetuity of man and of markets, of history and of literature,\nof our own achievements already made and of those of our children yet to be\nmade; in a word, the money invested in education is an expression of both\nfaith and desire that a progressive civilization shall not perish from the face\nof the earth.\nDISCUSSION\nT. A. MoTT, Superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind. — The lateness of the\nhour, Mr. President, prevents an adequate discussion of this excellent paper. No one\nhas dealt with the relation of education to wealth in a more masterly way.\nReal education is, and must be, the foundation of civilization. Civilization, man's\nspiritual environment, is made up of man's art, his science, his literature, and his religious\nbeliefs, together with his institutional life. Into one of these divisions we can put each\nof the results of human aspiration and human achievement. The education of any normal\nchild destined to life in a free society must include a knowledge of, and a development in,\neach of these elements of social activity, as well as an insight into them all and a sympathy\nwith them all.\nLife in its fullness means much. It means youth and old age. It means one day\nand all days. It means the windows of the soul shall have been opened to the beautiful,\nthe true, and the strong. It means that the body, mind, and heart shall be manly and\nstrong.\nEducation is a unitary process. We cannot think of the end of the school being either\nart, literature, science, or religion. Neither can we think of the end being parenthood,\neconomics, industrialism, or trade. But we must look on man in the full roundness\nof character, in all the beauty of body, of intellect, of heart and will, beneficent and\nstrong as a worker, as the ideal product of the American common school. However, in\nthis discussion we are dealing with the school as affecting economic conditions. These\nconditions include questions relating to capital and labor, production and distribution,\nsupply and demand. In the military world it is recognized that the training of the man\nbehind the gun, or the mind behind the gun, is the most effective element in military\norganization. The army of educated soldiers is the most powerful military force the world\nhas known. The education of the mind and hand that guides the plow or directs the\nplane, the education of those who work in the mill, in the factory, or in the mine, determines to a large extent the amount and character of the output of these institutions.\nFor hundreds of years uneducated men have passed by unnoticed vast veins of precious\nmetals and valuable ores hidden but slightly in the earth, while the educated man of\ntoday is opening mines in every part of the world whose products are to bless and enrich\ncivilization. It is clearly recognized that the output of mineral wealth depends ultimately\nupon the man trained in mineralogy and engineering.\nIn agriculture the influence of the educated worker is no less apparent. The product\nof the field and garden can be increased many fold by the educated farmer. The millions\nof acres supposed to be worn-out lands in New England and Atlantic states are today\nlying idle because of the lack of knowledge on the part of the agriculture workers in those\nstates. Millions of acres of supposed arid and desert lands between the Mississippi and\nthe Pacific are today being developed into rich and valuable farms by the hand of skilled\nand intelligent labor.\n\n"} {"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe agricultural colleges thruout America are increasing the product of the land\ncoming under their immediate influence to an extent that seems a little less than a miracle.\nThe growth in production of the American farm and garden resulting from the work of\nthe agricultural colleges will annually pay a hundred fold the cost of such education.\nIn every field of human activity, we will find it true that the education of the worker\nwill largely increase the production of material in both quality and amount.\nAgain, as has been fully shown in the paper to which we have just listened, the demand\nfor the best products coming from the hand of skilled labor is greatly increased by the\neducation of the people, and the markets of a cultivated community tend always to be\nsteady, and demands to be strong.\nA few thousand dollars spent each year in any city in art education will result in an\nincreased demand for those necessities of life which are beautiful and of a high grade.\nTechnical education in domestic science, in any city, will result quickly in a demand\nby the homes coming under the influence of the school for better food-stuff's and a higher\nquality of the necessities of life.\nThis line of thought can be followed out into all the departments of modern life.\nThe learning most needed by the community to develop its highest needs must find\nits basis in the courses of study of the common school. Childhood is always the gateway\nof the race, and the doorway of civilization. Those forces in civilized life desired by\nthe state must find their foundations in the school. The highest element of national\nprosperity and growth as well as of life and character must always find their beginning in\nthe common schools of the people.\n\nTHE\nEDWIN\n\nBASIS OF GRADING\nG.\n\nCOOLEY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTEACHERS'\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSALARIES\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nMy topic is likely to be an unpopular one. It is associated in the minds\nof some with low salaries and increased demands upon the teacher. There\nis no such association in my mind. On the contrary, I believe the profession\nand the schools are suffering, financially and otherwise, from the competition\nof the incompetent teacher.\nEveryone who has thought about the salary question, recognizes that the\ncompetent teacher is underpaid, whether we consider the value of her services\nto the community, or whether we compare the demands made upon her with\nthose made upon other members of society. The teacher has not fairly\nshared in the prosperity which has seemed to overwhelm the country. She\nhas been compelled to pay 20 per cent, more for what she buys, while receiving\nperhaps a 10 per cent, advance in salary. In some large and flourishing communities, itcannot be said that her salary has really advanced at all during\nthe last ten years.\nNo relief — complete relief — can come to her without increased revenues.\nIt is unwise, as well as unfair, to dispute or ignore this. We can, however,\nask the question a-s to whether it is not possible so to distribute the sum\navailable for teachers as to reward the faithful and efl&cient, as well as to arouse\nor drive out the incompetent. Their competition degrades and demoralizes\nthe profession.\nThere is some confusion in the minds of civilized men today as to what\nis the proper basis on which to estimate the remuneration granted for services\n\n"} {"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nGRADING\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nSALARIES\n\n95\n\nrendered. There have been attempts made to justify the giving of an equal\nshare to each man, regardless of the value of the services rendered. This\nmethod has little to recommend it except its simplicity. Sometimes it has been\nproposed to reward each man according to his wants, altho no one has ever\nbeen able to describe a common measure which we might safely use in comparing the wants of different members of society. Sometimes it has been proposed\nto reward each man according to his labor. This requires some common\nmeasure by means of which we may estimate and compare the exertions made\nby the workers, but universal commensurability of exertion is only a dream\nof the communist. If we follow the suggestions of some economic writers\nand use time spent in labor as our common measure, we fall into absurdities.\nIt is difficult to estimate exertion, pleasure, or pain by the clock. ''The\nProcrustean bed of time would distend and mutilate labor, and all liberty and\nequality would breathe its last upon it.\" Under a scheme of this sort, idleness\nwould grow apace and productively disappear. If twice the reward were\ngiven for taking double the time for doing a piece of work the main motive\nfor efficiency would die. Mankind seems on the whole compelled to act on\nthe principle of distribution that each member of society shall be remunerated\nin proportion to the value of his services.\nIt seems fair to consider the question of teachers' salaries and promotion\nfrom the standpoint of services rendered the community, from the standpoint\nof the efficiency of the teacher. If the schools are to be carried on in the interest\nof the rising generation, if the welfare of the children in them is the fundamental consideration, we must be governed in fixing teachers' salaries by\nestimates of the value of the services rendered by them. Any consideration\nis invalid, except in so far as it affects efficiency. An increase of salary, based\nupon the length of service only, can be defended successfully, so far as it can be\nshown that length of service conduces to greater efficiency in the work of the\nschoobroom. Differences of salary, based on sex, can be defended only by\nshowing that sex is a factor that of itself makes a man or woman more or less\nefficient as a teacher. Increases of salary, based upon zeal, scholarship, and\nstudent-like habits, must alike be tested by this criterion of efficiency.\nIt is believed that a teacher in a good school will increase in efficiency for\nfour or five years even if she relies on her schoolroom experience for information and inspiration, but it is doubtful whether this increase will continue over\na longer period unless the teacher is induced in some manner to study and\nprepare herself for better work. Unless she does this, the chances are that\nbefore the end of the decade a decline in efficiency will set in which will proceed\nsteadily as the years go by. A schedule of salaries, then, may include a lower\ngroup making provision for yearly advances covering a period of four or five\nyears. At the end of this time, if the teacher does not give evidences of continuous increase in efficiency, in professional zeal, and in student-like habits,\nshe should be stopped. No teacher should be allowed to advance in salary\nafter she ceases to advance in efficiency.\n\n"} {"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe efficiency of the teacher, as shown in her daily schoolroom work, is\nthe first consideration to be taken into account. The second element, her\nintellectual and professional growth, as shown by her outside study and interest\nin her profession, is subsidiary to her schoolroom efficiency. They are, however, so closely related to each other that it is proper to consider both in estimating the fairness of the demands of the teacher for promotion. If she\ncannot and will not meet these demands, there is no valid reason, considering\nthe question from the standpoint of the interests of the children, for promoting\nher and paying her a better salary. Teachers should not be encouraged to\nget into our school systems and then let the clock work.\nScholarship and habits of study are factors that must be considered in\nestimating the efficiency of a teacher. No teacher who is not a student can\nlong remain really efficient. If a teacher wishes to impart a piece of knowledge\nshe must, as Fitch says, not only have appropriated it herself, but she must\nhave gone beyond it and around it. She must see it in relation to other facts\nand truths. She must know from what it originated and to what it is intended\nto lead. She must have an ample margin in reserve for dealing with unexpected questions and unexpected difficulties. The teacher must study educational processes and educational philosophy and methods; her study\ncannot cease with her preparation for entering her profession, but must be\nlife-long. She must not lose her sympathy with the learner — a sympathy that\nshe can retain only by continuing to be a learner herself. It is only in this way\nthat she can avoid the depressing effect of constant association with immature\nminds and ideas. It is true that many good students of books are poor teachers\nand something more is required of a teacher than ability to absorb book knowledge. Still, the chances are extremely large that one who is a student and\nwho has learned to use her mind in a systematic way will be a better guide for\nother students than the mere empiric.\nIt is, however, very important to estimate the relative value of schoolroom\nefficiency and advance in scholarship and professional zeal in such a way\nthat they may not counteract each other. The teacher should not become so\ninterested in academic study that she will forget her main business, which is\nthe work of the schoolroom. The teacher may use up too much energy in\ncarrying on outside study to the detriment of health, as well as schoolroom work. We must, therefore, in presenting any scheme for promotion, be careful not to emphasize mere academic scholarship too\nmuch.\nIn making up an estimate of a. teacher's fitness for promotion, schoolroom\nefficiency should count for more than her academic study. We must arrange\nto put a constant premium on keeping up the work of the schoolroom for which\nthe teacher is employed. Experience has shown that this is no imaginary\ndifficulty. At the same time, we ought to offer some inducement to keep the\nteacher from mistaking purely mechanical efficiency in handling a schoolroom, mere control of pedagogic devices, for real pedagogical power and\n\n"} {"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nGRADING\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nSALARIES\n\n97\n\nspiritual growth. An estimate based upon schoolroom work only tends to\noveremphasize this element in teaching efficiency.\nThe problems of estimating schoolroom efficiency, intellectual growth,\nand scholarly zeal present serious difficulites to the superv'isor. In making\nthe estimate of schoolroom efficiency, we must endeavor to provide a system\nof recording efficiency- that will be fair to the teacher, fair to the children, and\nnot a perfect nightmare to the principal or other administrative officers responsible for making it. Sometimes this estimate has been made in percentages\nby the principal, supervisor, and district superintendent. It is difficult to\nprotect the schools under this arrangement on account of the inclination of\nsupervising officers to escape trouble by boosting the marks. According to\nthe Brooklyn Eagle a few years ago, the marks of over 90 per cent, of the\nteachers in Brooklyn were over 90 per cent. In Chicago, at the end of five\nyears, in marking for promotion, it was found that 96 and a fraction per cent.\nof the teachers were marked so high as to entitle them to promotion. It is\nevident that these estimates had ceased to properly discriminate between the\ndegrees of efficiency of the teachers. In 1906 the Board of Education passed\na rule requiring principals to mark all teachers as either \"efficient\" or \"inefficient,\" thinking that this simpler estimate would result in greater fairness\nto all concerned. Under this arrangement, after two trials, it appears that\nover 98 per cent, were marked efficient and entitled to promotion. We found\nourselves back where we began, with a flat rate for everybody, or with the clock\ndoing the work. The rule has been abandoned and some modification of the\npercentage marking will again be employed.\nThere have been many propositions for organizing supervisory boards\nto make this estimate of efficiency. It has been proposed to have a commission\ncomposed of educational-experts who were not directly concerned in the supervision ofschools who should visit the schoolrooms and pass upon the efficiency\nof the teachers. This would relieve the principal of responsibility, but the\nestimates of the work of teachers made under such conditions would be worth\nlittle. Such commissions could not appreciate the conditions under which\nthe work was done, and no teacher, under such inspection, would be at her\nbest. Then, too, it would separate the administrative work of the school into\nparts, would set up divergent standards, and reduce the principal to a mere\nclerk. In my opinion, the only person who can safely be intrusted with this\nestimate is the principal of the school, who is on the ground and knows the\nfacts. Even he must be placed under restrictions, and it must always be possible to appeal from his decision. It must always be possible to protect the\nteacher against favoritism and inefficient supervision. The problem is difficult, and many of our superintendents will prefer to permit teachers to advance\non length of service only, rather than attempt to estimate their schoolroom\nefficiency.\nOn the other hand, the problem of passing on academic advance or intellectual growth is not a simple one. You may use an examination.\nIf you\n\n"} {"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndo, you will quickly discover the limitations of such a test in estimating efficiency or growth. Every teacher recognizes that many things cannot be\ndetermined by an examination. Everyone recognizes that it is not an entirely\nsatisfactory agent for selecting or promoting teachers. We may use them,\nhowever, as an auxiliary, and there seems to be no special reason why they\nare less effective in aiding in the work of selecting or promoting teachers than\nin selecting or promoting other public servants.\nAs Latham has pointed out, an examination will test one's accuracy, the\nfullness of one's memory, and one's power of concentration. We can see\nthat knowledge has been got, and we know that brainwork has been done, to\nget it, in addition to indications of strength or feebleness of will, and we can\nfind out pretty well from a set of papers whether a man knows his own mind or\nnot. Then, too, it seems fair to assume that there is some relation between\nknowledge and power. We work consciously or unconsciously on the theory\nthat the man who knows is the man who can do, and we believe that the only\nreason why people should know is that they may be able to do. It seems\nnatural, then, when it is impossible to submit the applicant to a complete\ntest of his power to do, to ask him to submit to a test of his knowledge.\nIt has often been urged that an examination will not determine so much\nthe applicant's ability to do the thing desired as his ability to say how it should\nbe done. Sometimes this can be learned from books, but the skillful examiner\nwill usually be able to tell the difference between experience in doing the thing\nand knowledge about it. Then, too, it is fair to assume that the person who\nhas the knowledge is interested in doing the thing — that there is relation\nbetween knowledge and interest — knowledge of a particular kind of work\nand interest in doing it. The man who has the best sort of knowledge about\nsome particular piece of work is, other things being equal, the most interested\nin it and the best prepared to do it.\nThen, again, teaching calls for ability to state clearly what one knows. It\nis part of the equipment of a teacher to be able to talk, to explain, to interpret.\nThe teacher who is dumb in the presence of a problem demanding solution,\nwho lacks the power of expressing herself definitely and accurately must, in\nsome degree, be unfitted for the work she is attempting to do. An examination will test this.\nWhile providing for the moderate and rational use of the examination to\ndetermine efficiency, it will be advisable to encourage in its stead the taking\nof courses of instruction at colleges or other higher institutions of learning.\nSuck systematic work done under the right conditions will do much to keep the\nteacher alive and interested in her work. Such work, however, must be\ncarefully looked after; only good work must be recognized and even that must\nbe carefully inspected if the school system is protected against fraud, as well\nas against the waste of the teacher's time and strength. Much of this outside\nwork should be done under the advice of the principal or district superintendent\nwith a view to its direct bearing upon the work of the school.\nIt is, however,\n\n"} {"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nGRADING\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nSALARIES\n\n99\n\nimportant that the work should not be so thoroly supervised by others that the\nteacher's interest or the teacher's hobby will be crowded out. If the teacher's\nhobby is carefully excluded, much of the joy of the work will disappear. It is\nunreasonable to expect apyone to have an equal and impartial interest in all\nsubjects and the recognition of the teacher's hobby is a perfectly legitimate\nconsideration.\nIt has often been proposed that teachers be permitted to advance from the\nminimum salary paid to the highest limit fixed by the Board of Education,\nwithout any let, hindrance, or interruption, except that they continue efficient\nenough to avoid dismissal. Fear of dismissal has been relied upon to keep\nthem up to the mark. Such an arrangement it seems to me, however, absolutely ignores the real purpose for which the schools exist, and looks at the\nschool system from the standpoint of a \"job.\" Such an arrangement suggests\nmaking the necessary effort to get into the system and then letting the clock\nwork. Such an arrangement does not keep in mind the absurdity of relying\non fear of dismissal for keeping teachers up to the mark.\nEveryone who has had experience in school administration realizes how\nextremely difficult it is to get rid of inefficient teachers in the public-school\nsystem, or inefficient public employees of any sort. The attempt to conduct\nour school system upon the basis of length of service, tempered by fear of\ndismissal, will produce the old fossil that we often find holding a good position\nin our cities. These fossils have sought the haven of a position in a city school\nsystem after being tossed about by the storms of village school politics. They\nsettle down in some comfortable berth and make little effort toward increasing\ntheir efficiency. I think many of you know some of these sleepers; you have\nheard their snores, and have, perhaps, tried to waken them. You may\nhave witnessed their surprise and indignation at the outrageous proposal that\nthey wake up and go to work or get out. The suggestion that we can keep\nteachers of this sort up to the mark in our great cities by mere fear of dismissal is made by the persons who are not familiar with current history.\nWhen the old teacher who is a good fellow and is simply looking for a comfortable position, gets into one of our school systems, the chances of removal\nuntil death or physical disability are exceedingly small. We shall have to\nwait for death, and we shall probably feel, as Charles II. said about himself,\nthat they are an unconscionably long time in dying.\nA better thing to do than permitting advance, tempered by fear of dismissal, when teachers go to sleep, is to keep the younger men and women\nfrom going to sleep. Let us soon frame up our recommendations for increase\nin salaries and promotions in such a way as to encourage growth and work.\nLet us arrange in every way possible for the encouragement of work and growth\non the part of the teacher.\n\nTaking up again the question of schoolroom efficiency, it is vitally important for the supervisor to discriminate between mere skill in the use of schoolIt is easy for the supervisor of school\nroom devices and real teaching power.\n\n"} {"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwork to place too high a value on the skill in the use of these devices, and\nunderestimate the teacher whose work is based on sound educational principles and who carries them out in a natural, systematic way. Our normal\nschools are, to some extent, to blame for this reliance on devices. On account\nof their short courses and Hmited opportunities, they have spent too much\ntime in perfecting mere devices rather than in searching for fundamental\nprinciples. It is now proposed that our city normal schools finish their job;\nthat they assist us in completing the preparation of the teachers by continuing\nit after entering the work of the schoolroom.\nIf this contention is right that the teachers must continue to be students,\nour great cities must make provisions for enabling teachers to continue their\nstudy after entering upon their life-work. If my contention is right it will\nin the future become as large a part of the work of the normal schools to carry\nforward the training of the teacher after her entrance into the service, as it was\nto take her from the high school and prepare her for entering the profession.\nThe normal school, or some other educational agency, must assist her in\nadvancing along the various lines of culture. The normal school, or some\nother agency, must assist her in gaining professional skill as well as breadth\nof scholarship and culture. We shall always find our teachers with interest\nin things of one sort or another that are sometimes not directly connected with\ntheir professional life. It may be music, it may be the mechanical arts, it\nmay be literature, science, or mathematics. Whatever it is, it should be the\nwork of the normal school and other auxiliary educational institutions to seize\nupon these interests and develop them, with a view to making the teacher a\nmore efficient worker.\nThis attempt to state what may be legitimately expected of a professional\nteacher will seem exacting and exorbitant to some. It represents, in a general\nway, however, the ideals of earnest workers in the fields of education. It\nrepresents the views and ideals of teachers who believe that teaching is a profession and not a job. It describes the situation yet to be realized; one that\nis now being looked forward to by our best teachers. Our best teachers are\nthinking of the time when by one or two years' work beyond that given in the\nnormal schools of the past they shall be entitled to a degree recognizing their\nattainment of professional standing.\nWhile freely criticizing the schemes which have yet been presented for\nconnecting advancement in salaries with greater efficiency among teachers,\nthe great army of teachers are not anywhere objecting to higher standards,\nas well as higher salaries. The great army of teachers appreciate the fact that\nthe schools are for the children, and that it is only by accident that any person\nhappens to be called to serve the public in teaching. They realize that the\nprimary function of the school is to protect the public against the dangers of an\niUiterate and ignorant citizenship; that by increasing the quality of the teaching done they increase the efficiency of these schools for the people, while at\nthe same time they increase the remuneration, social and pecuniary, for the\n\n"} {"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nGRADING\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nSALARIES\n\nloi\n\nteachers who are able to meet the requirements. My hope is that they will\nalso recognize the danger to the schools as well as the danger to themselves\nof the competition of the incompetent teacher.\nDISCUSSION\nAlexander\n\nHogg, Fort Worth, Tex. — If Cicero in his times, when only for one law,\n\nand that for the benefit of one man, should introduce his subject with, H'ujus autem oraHonis facillius est exitem quam principium invenire, to find out how to end rather than to\nbegin — not what to say, but what to leave unsaid, so rich in arguments was his cause,\nmay I not then be pardoned when I tell you I represent tonight a half-million of teachers\nand twenty millions of children, the youth of our common country — our rich heritage ?\nI represent a body in numbers more than the three learned professions, law, medicine,\nand theology, and a body of men and women who have the making of the first impressions\nupon the plastic minds of our childhood, who really shape their future for good, not for\nbad — for the teacher's work is always in the direction of good.\nPassing over the historical periods, the evolution of teaching, I come at once to the\nmain question, The better remuneration of our teachers of today.\nThe reason why teaching has not, up to this time, received its commerical value, is\ndue to the fact that teaching has not for its end the same result that the professions and\nother vocations have,\nThe joy is in the doing.\nNot in the deed that is done.\nOr perhaps this is better expressed in Lucile:\nThat the deed in the doing it, reaches its aim,\nThat the fact has a value apart from its fame.\nOr, I mean to say, that teaching is different from the work of the doctor, the lawyer, the\nclergyman, for in all of these, to the pleasure of doing is added the result, in the two former,\nlarge fees.\nThe clergyman's work being so closely allied to that of the teacher, his compensation, while greatly increased lately, is measured by the same standard as that of the teacher,\nviz., \"The joy in the doing.\" When we come to the commercial world, the result is the\nmost important part of all; it can be measured either with the yard-stick or the balances.\nIt is not so with the teaching; the result cannot be measured, weighed, or even estimated— the whole is subjective, so far as the teacher is interested.\nIt is easy to see why the civil engineer can command more, receive more, than the\ncollege president; his work is the construction of a great bridge, like that at Niagara, or\nthat across North River — it has a commercial value, which can be measured by the dollar.\nIt is easy to see why the locomotive engineer receives more for his work than the\nhigh-school principal; why the stenographer — the typewriter — gets more than the primary\nteacher — often more than the principal. Minute, accurate tabulations have been printed\nand are accessible, in which the compensations of all classes of wage workers have been\nmade, with the salaries of our teachers of all grades, and the result is that these tables show\nthe teacher to a great disadvantage.\nSo far we have shown why not. Let us come to the why the teacher should receive\nmore for his or her services. And of the arguments, first of all, the work of the teacher\nis upon the human mind and the human soul, and, in our country, upon twenty million\nof children today that must be the citizens, voters, and rulers tomorrow.\nSecond, the proposition of expenses, of time and money, is equal and in many cases\nmore than any of the other vocations, or even professions. Happily, another has made\nthis out in detail, and I give only the aggregate. It will cost an average of $5,600 to\nprepare one for teaching.\n\n"} {"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nShow the patrons — the school board — that in addition to teaching you have to govern,\nto keep order, to interest fifty or sixty Httle immortals for six hours; that every day you\ndecide cases of discipline that General Grant, when he was president, would call a cabinet\nmeeting on. Put into our schools books of interest to the young; let the Last oj the Mohicans, Lallah Rookh, and even Hiawatha give place to books of interest about the progress\nof our country, what commerce, agriculture, and the mechanic arts are doing, what science\nand skill have done for the world. Teach in every recitation morals and manners, better\ncitizenship, broader patriotism, greater love for home and school.\nHere is a good place to bring in the relative number of men and women teachers:\nIn the United States in 1882, men 40 per cent.; in 1890, 35 per cent.; in 1900, 25 per cent.;\nand now it is stated that nearly 80 per cent, of our teachers are females. Says one: \" There\nhas been no incentive for men to prepare for this calling, and they have left the field,\"\nand now it is difficult to keep their places filled with competent women teachers. Possibly the situation would be better if the schools would adopt the plan Fort Worth did\nin 1882. Upon the inauguration of her public schools, for the remuneration of her teachers,\nthe general rule was laid down that: in the same grade of work, the same salary should\nbe given to the women as to the men. Fort Worth went still farther, and gave the colored\nteachers doing the same work in the same grades the same pay as the white teachers.\nThe salaries there depend upon two elements — the grade of certificate and the number\nof years in the schools. Five dollars is added to each month's salary for each following year. This is what may be called a sliding scale; it works well.\nIn the employment of teachers, Professor Miinsterberg says: \"There was never\nbefore a nation that gave the education of the young into the hands of the lowest bidder.\"\nHe might go farther. I'll do so for him and say, that in all the trades, in all the\ncommercial transactions, the employment of teachers is the only one in which the employer\nselects the goods and sets the price.\n\" Mr.\n, we have this day selected you as a teacher\nin our schools, and you will receive $\nas your salary.\"\nShould it not read thus ?\n\"We have this day selected you as a teacher in our schools; what compensation do you\nexpect us to give ?\"\nAgain, there is much in the times — much in the spirit of the times. We are in an\nage of unprecedented prosperity all along the line. The salaries of our tjeachers have\nbeen improving — here a little and there a little. Now is the time to make an effort to\nbring about what would seem to be a fairer compensation for our teachers; the facts and\nreason seem to point that way. With the increase in all values, the expenses of the teachers,\nlike the expenses of other people, have greatly increased.\nThe university and college men have been insisting for years that our teachers should\nbe better paid; this comes from the top downward. Let us begin at the bottom and\nwork up; let us begin with the mothers, and they with the fathers, the tax payers; let\nus show by our qualifications, our equipment, that we are entitled to more consideration,\nbetter remuneration. Let every teacher take in hand this matter, and the day will not\nbe far distant when the calling — the profession then — of the teacher will rank so high that\nthe best men and the best women of our land will again come into the fold.\nTheir calling, not their profession, as yet has nothing of insignia. Article i, section 9\nof the Constitution of the United States, forbids in this calling, as in all professions, all\ntitles of honor, viz.: \"No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States.\"\nBut there is a joy \"in the deed that is done.\" With great pride and greater pleasure,\non one occasion I heard Mrs. Granville Boyd, a Christian teacher of Virginia, say, speaking of that great scholar, president of three different universities, and an eminent astronomer,\nDr. L. C. Garland: \"Langdon may measure the distance between the stars, may weigh\nthe earth, but I taught him his letters.\"\nStill another case, even broader and more comprehensive: Said that sweet-spirited\nand splendidjpulpit and platform orator, the general agent of the Peabody Fund, Dr.\n\nJ. L. M. Curry:\n\n"} {"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n, TEACHERS'\n\nPENSIONS\n\nAnd when the Confederate soldier furled his flag at Appomattox there was not a\nsouthern state that had a system of public schools; but now in organic law and in\nstatutes, universal education is recognized as a paramount duty. Newspaper press\ngives intelligent and effective support; party platforms incorporate public schools in the\npoHtical creeds; state revenues are appropriated; local communities levy taxes, and\nscarcely a murmur of dissent is heard in opposition to the doctrine that \"free government\nmust stand or fall with free schools.\" Let me affirm with emphasis, as an educator, as\na patriot, as an American, that on universal education, on free schools, depends the prosperity of the country and the safety and perpetuity of the Republic.\ndone.\n\nThe full fruition of the teacher's labors, \"joy in the doing,\" brings joy in the deed\n\nTEACHERS'\nCHARLES\n\nH.\n\nKEYES,\n\nPENSIONS\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF SCHOOLS,\nHARTFORD,\nCONN.\n\nSOUTH\n\nDISTRICT,\n\nAll that we call progress in civilization is but obedience to the deepest and\ndivinest instinct of the race. Its command to society is to repeat and improve\nitself. Since man first lifted his face from sod to sky, this instinct has impelled\nhis footsteps. Modern society has organized no agency to insure fidelity to\nthis law of growth toward manliness and godliness that is at all comparable\nin its opportunity with the school. The home, the church, the whole social\nbody has turned over to the school the largest and most important share of\nthe work of training to meet the command, obedience to which spells social\nuplift, and disobedience to which means degeneracy. The character of our\nschools then must determine the fate of society. They should be what the\ntrue training of childhood and youth demand. They should be organized\nand administered for this, for the service, and not primarily for the convenience\nof the teacher or the comfort of the taxpayer. Under this view of the function\nof the school, I submit that economic prudence and social wisdom demand\nthat provision shall be made for adequate and honorable pensions for teachers.\nFrom this point of view it will be no argument to urge pensions because teachers want them, or because teachers need them, or because teachers deserve\nthem. I desire to justify my thesis on the ground that such a policy is\ndemanded by the schools themselves. Parents, and taxpayers, and patrons\nof our schools, and not school teachers, have the prime interest in enacting\npensions for worthy teachers. It may be, therefore, true that 1 have brought\nmy argument to the wrong forum, and that this audience, composed in a\nmajority possibly of teachers, is not the jury whose verdict we desire\nto influence. But, teachers of America's youth, you will pardon me and\nhear me, if I forgot you, and address myself to the distinguished citizens of\nthis marvelous city and state, and to the other lovers of education, who now\nhonor this association with their presence.\nThere are five cogent reasons why pensions should be provided for the\nteachers of the schools to which you are intrusting the education of your\nchildren.\n\nI. That is the best teaching which emanates from a soul that devotes itself\n\n"} {"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\" [General\n\nwith a singleness of purpose to the guidance, the training, and the inspiration\nof the youth. No teacher can do the best work for our children while at the\nsame time compelled to be busy with plans for securing a livelihood when the\ndays of service in the schoolroom are over. No teacher can fitly train\nchildren by day and worry by night over the question of raiment and food\nand shelter for the days that come too soon. Children deserve a happy\nchildhood of hard work and healthful play. Give them a cheerful,\njoy-inspiring teacher, who can give all the best that is in her to her\nschool.\nThere can be no teaching worth while for children from a worried\nwoman or a care-burdened man. Working, planning, and worrying to make\nprovisions for old age take too much of the time and thought that belongs\nto the children. I submit, therefore, that it is to our interest to secure the\nenactment of laws that will provide for the teacher in her old age.\n2. Teachers of the largest ability are every year being drawn away from\nthe school service, in which they have proved their high capacity, to enter on\nmore remunerative fields of endeavor. To continue serving our children is\nto accept an old age of dependence or privation. To enter upon the new\nfield of work is to receive rewards large enough to enable them to make provisions for their declining years. The teacher does not receive, nor is she\never likely to receive, compensation ample enough to permit such provisions.\nUnless we would see the education of our children turned over to second-rate\nwomen and to third-rate men, we must provide the rewards that would permit\nour ablest teachers to consecrate their lives to the service of our schools. I\nsubmit that for this reason alone it is the duty and interest of every parent and\nevery patriot to aid in securing honorable and adequate pensions for teachers.\nNote the attractiveness of the pension — the able lawyer earning $10,000 to\n$15,000 annually, attracted to the $3,000 or $4,000 judgeship, which has the\nretirement at age limit.\n3. The efficiency of an army always depends upon the character of the\nrecruiting department. The great army of teachers should always attract\nmany of the brightest and ablest young men and women who, year by year,\ngraduate from our leading educational institutions. Nay, the service should\nbe so treated as to attract young men and women of character and brains to\nprepare for it as an honored and honorable profession. The current rewards\nof the teachers are so grossly inadequate that the very material we most need\nin our schools is being diverted to other callings.\nEven if salaries should be increased to the highest point for which we have\nany reason to hope, they would still be too small to permit the laying by of a\ncompetence for old age. Young men and women of high attainments see\nthis, and carefully avoid the teaching profession. A guaranty that faithful\nservice of our schools for a term of years would insure in age the modest\nindependence, and leisure for study that many an inspiring scholar most\ndesires, would win rich recruits for our educational army.\nCan there be any\n\n"} {"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nPENSIONS\n\n105\n\ndoubt of the wisdom and the expediency of instituting honorable pensions as\na means to this needed re-enforcement of our school ?\n4. There are in many of our schools men and women with the largest\ncapacity for growth who are earning unusually good salaries, from which they\nare laying by a fund to take care of themselves in old age. To do this they are\ncompelled to deny themselves the opportunity to travel, the time to study,\nthe ownership of ^books, and the change of scene for bodily rest, which are\nessential to the life and growth of an inspiring teacher. How a retirement\npension would change all this and enable such men and women to multiply\ntheir own powers, stimulate and refine their associates to the blessing of the\nboys and girls! Every worthy parent finds his richest rewards not so much\nin the material situations he has conquered, the honors he has won, the wealth\nhe has amassed, as in the contemplation of the rich opportunity those furnish\nfor his boys and girls who share with him and after him their enjoyment.\nSociety, like the individual, will find its richest life in making wise provision\nfor its successors. Are not your boys and girls worth your making for them\nthe small sacrifice needed to give them more teachers who can afford from\ntime to time to renew their youth, their scholarship, their inspiration. Is there\nany escape from the conclusion that it is folly to unduly delay the coming of\nthe day when the teachers in our schools shall enjoy these opportunities because\nwe have provided for their old age adequate and honorable pensions ?\n5. In thousands of the older cities and towns of our Union, there are\nteachers who have practically worn themselves out in the service of our schools.\nFrom periods of from twenty-five to forty-five years they have spared no power\nof heart and brain in loving and consecrated devotion of their lives to the lives\nof boys and girls. They are body-tired, heart-sore, and brain-weary, with a\nfrequency that is agonizing to witness. They have been able to save little or\nnothing. They cannot see that it is their duty to retire to privation or to\ncharity. No official has the criminal courage and hardness of heart to turn\nthem out to alms or starvation. As a result they are spoiling the tempers and\nabusing the intellects of whole schoolhouses full of children in return for their\nconfinement by the community at hard labor in the schookoom. But this\ncruel and inhuman punishment of faithful old teachers who ought long ago to\nhave honorably retired on pay, goes on in a thousand American towns. The\nsplendid teaching that they did for twenty-five and thirty-five years is no excuse\nfor continuing to sacrifice to each of their broken years forty or fifty of your\nboys and girls. Forget these devoted broken men and women if you will.\nIf in the hardness of your heart you shall conclude to work them to death, I\nsay nothing of the shame. But I do ask, can common business intelligence\njustify you in paying for something that you are not getting? Can decent\nregard for your own boys and girls justify their continued sacrifice ? There\nis a patriotism whose ebullition takes the form of a rush of blood to the head\nand words to the lips that might with hand on heart stand in the presence of\nteachers and schools thus sacrificed and talk of love of country; but you, my\n\n"} {"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfriends, know that no country is worth loving that, with eyes open to such an\nabuse, long permits it to continue. As honest men and women, are we not\ndriven to the conclusion that honorable and adequate pensions for teachers\nmust be provided in defense of the home and its children ?\nThere is no escape from the conclusion that, no matter what the teachers\nmay want or need or deserve, the interests of the child, the parent, and society,\ndemand this pension establishment. We must now consider how it is to be\nsecured.\nThree general plans have been advocated and put in operation :\n1. Bodies of teachers bent on providing for disabled veterans of the\nschoolroom have formed teachers' retirement associations, teachers' guilds,\nand teachers' annuity associations. They have provided small annuities\nfor aged and worthy teachers by assessments of their own membership, increased bydonations of philanthropic individuals, and in some instances by\nsmall legislative appropriations. The Retirement Fund Department of the\nNew Jersey State Teachers' Association, the Connecticut Teachers' Annuity\nGuild, and the Boston Teachers' Retirement Fund Association, are good\nexamples of these movements of which there have been many thruout the\nUnion. They have not furnished, nor can they ever hope to furnish, complete\nand satisfactory disposal of the problem. Looked at as final agencies, they\nare subject to all the vicissitudes attaching to voluntary fraternal insurance\nsocieties with amateur managements. Some teachers support them as wellmeaning philanthropies, but even the school teacher seeking old-age protection\nthat is really insurance knows enough to send her money to Hartford for the\npurchase of the real article. But these associations have done their greatest\nwork in securing the adoption of other plans for more adequately solving the\nproblem. In fact, all the rational teachers' pension legislation on the statute\nbooks of American commonwealths has been secured largely, if not entirely,\nthru the influence of these teachers' organization.\n2. Progressive cities in various quarters of our country have established,\nunder legislative sanction, retirement funds for their own teachers. New\nYork, Philadelphia, Detroit, and San Francisco, furnish the best example for\nthis second scheme. Percentages of teachers' salaries, deductions on account\nof teachers' absences, and donations, form the major portion of the fund in\nall these plans except in the city of New York, where the foregoing sources\nare largely increased by the addition of 5 per cent, of all the excise money and\nfees for liquor licenses received by the city. Under these different city plans\nmaximum annuities vary from $150 a year up to $2,000 a year, this latter sum\nbeing provided by the city of New York, where the lowest annuity is equal to\nhalf the salary paid at the time of retirement.\n3. A few states have enacted general pension laws for the benefit of all\nthese teachers. Of these Rhode Island and New Jersey have formulated the\nmost generous and most equitable statutes. New Jersey provides the bulk of\nher fund by deduction of from 2 to 3 per cent, of the salaries of all teachers.\n\n"} {"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nPENSIONS\n\n107\n\nThe annual pension amounts to three-fifths of the average annual salary for\nthe last 5 years of teaching, but it cannot be less than $250 or more than $650.\nThe\" Rhode Island law, enacted in April of the present year, is so simple\nand concise that I beg leave to state it. It runs as follows:\nSection i. Any person of either sex who on the passage of this act or thereafter\nshall have reached the age of sixty years and who for thirty-five years shall have been\nengaged in teaching as his principal occupation, and have been regularly employed as a\nteacher in the public schools or in such other schools within this state as are supported\nwholly or in part by state appropriations, and are entirely managed or controlled by the\nstate, twenty-five years of which employment, including the fifteen years immediately\npreceding retirement, shall have been in this state, may at the expiration of the school year,\nunless his private contract with his employer shall otherwise provide, be retired by his\nemployer or voluntarily retire from active service, and on his formal application shall\nreceive from the state for the remainder of his life an annual pension equal to one-half\nof his average contractual salary during the last five years before retiring, but in no case\nshall such annual pension be more than $500; Provided, however, that no such employment as teacher within this state after this act shall be included within its provisions, unless\nthe teacher, shall hold a certificate of qualification issued by or under the authority of the\nState Board of Education.\nSec. 2. The State Board of Education shall make all needful regulations for issuing certificates of qualification and carrying into effect the other provisions of this act not\ninconsistent with the act itself and shall examine into and determine the eligibility of\neach and every applicant to receive a pension under the provision of this act.\nSec. 3. For the purpose of carrying this act into effect the sum of ten thousand\ndollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropriated out of any money\nin the treasury not otherwise appropriated, and the state auditor is hereby directed to\ndraw this sum as shall be certified to him by the State Board of Education, according\nto the provisions of this act.\nSec. 4. This act shall take effect on the first day of January, 1908.\n\nThis statute is the most generous and, in its principle, the soundest yet\nenacted. It squarely accepts the whole responsibility for the state whose schools\nare to be benefited, and does not require the teachers to furnish any part\nof the fund. The defect of this law consists in the smallness of the sum\nappropriated and the absence of any provision for making the appropriation\ncontinuous. It is hoped and believed, however, that the next session of the\nRhode Island legislature will remedy these defects, and place the smallest\nstate in the Union in the position of leader and exemplar for all the others.\nAnd now, ladies and gentlemen, is not the time and place auspicious for\nthis great National Educational Association to inaugurate a campaign for the\ndissemination of such information and the creation of such popular sentiment\nas will insure the enactment in every remaining state of the Union of laws\nproviding for adequate and honorable pensions for all worthy teachers ? California has established some conditions that fit her to fead the way in such a\nmovement. You have demonstrated the wisdom of provision by the state as\na whole of the great body of the funds for the support of elementary schools.\nUnder your scheme of state taxation you have built up a system of common\ndistrict schools which, whether in mountain, hamlet, desert settlement, farming\nYou have proven the\ncountry, or prosperous city, are the envy of the Union.\n\n"} {"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwisdom of state responsibility, especially when coupled with a wise measure\nof state control of the qualifications of teachers. In the campaign for the\nprotection and improvement of the schools thru the establishment of teachers'\npensions, we have a right to look for a leading of the way, in sections where this\nidea of state responsibility has been accepted and approved. Will California\nhear the call?\nBack in the old Constitution state we honor the memory of a gallant\nsoldier of whom we are fond of saying, ''He dared to lead where they dared\nto follow.\" All over this Union are principals, superintendents, and school\nofficers who with other influential citizens say of the National Educational\nAssociation, \"Where this great body deems it wise to lead you may count on\nus to follow.\" Let us take advantage of the time, the place, and the conditions to make this great association leader in a campaign of popular education\non this subject of teachers' pensions. Success in such a campaign and under\nsuch leadership will bring relief and inspiration to many thousands of teachers;\nbut it will do more. It will bring richness into the lives of hundreds of thousands of school children everywhere. It will give them assurance of the better\ntraining that comes from the peaceful heart and undivided mind of the teacher\nwho may live and strive for the single purpose of making your boys and girls\nworthy inheritors of the marvelous estate of the American fathers. Carry on\nyour high duties and ours in a way more effective and glorious than our\nfondest dreams have dared to promise.\nOTHER\nGEORGE\n\nFORMS\nW. NASH,\n\nOF\n\nCOMPENSATION\n\nFOR\n\nPRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL\nSCHOOL,\nABERDEEN,\nS. D.\n\nAND\n\nTEACHERS\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nThe lucid and entertaining papers just read from this platform have commanded the thoughtful attention of this great educational body and have\nemphasized the importance of teachers' salaries and teachers' pensions. You\nare now asked to consider for a brief period some of the compensations other\nthan financial which are the rewards of every faithful teacher.\nWe are doubtless agreed that the mere wages one receives are not to be\nregarded as the entire or as the highest portion of the compensation for an\nhonorable engagement. The best recompense for effort is the joy, the satisfaction one gets from performing the labor to which his inclination prompts\nhim. The artist's pay is in the work itself. He labors from a love of it. So\nthe highest compensation of the teacher is the joy of working, the pleasure of\ncontributing to an ideal humanity.\nWhatever may be our views of personal immortality, the hope of it has\nbeen the very best compensation, inspiring the exalted labor of many of the\nworld's greatest teachers. \"To live in hearts we've left behind is not to die.\"\nIs not Plato immortal? Does not Pestalozzi live? Is not Horace Mann\nreincarnated daily in the lives of American boys and girls? Adopting the\n\n"} {"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOTHER\n\nCOMPENSATION\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHERS\n\n109\n\nthought of Preston W. Search, once active and honored in the educational\nHfe of this fair city, I unhesitatingly declare that, ''There is no death to the\nfaithful teacher who has passed something of personal spirit to children in the\nschools; such a life never ends; in geometric ratio it forever increases.\" And\nmany a teacher, living, has seen his own likeness in a pupil who owes the world's\nplaudits to that teacher's faithful tutelage, and, dying, has left an ever-expanding heritage to the generations of posterity. In this prophecy of immortality\nthere is recompense above the purse's gauge.\nBut immortality can come only thru effort. If the product of the school\nteacher is to be worthy, great care must be exercised in its making. Seneca\ntruckled and Rome was scourged by the heartless Nero. Fenalon prevailed,\nand the Duke of Burgundy was prepared for wise leadership. Today, as\never, lije is the greatest problem that confronts the world. Disease affects the\npublic mind and human existence is held in light esteem. To teach the youth\nhow to meet responsibility is the heaviest burden that rests upon the teacher.\nThere is a property of human character called ''soul.\" When the handful\nof heroes at Thermopylae died to save their country from the Persian conqueror, men said those heroes had great \"souls.\" When any man bursts the\nchains of birth, outfaces poverty, outgenerals misfortune, falls back but never\nyields, we say that man has a mighty \"soul.\" When any woman made childless by the hand of death, made beggar by a husband's vice, made weary by\nthe galling of disease, still toils to fill her place on earth — still clings to life,\nyet smiles at the terrors of death — ^we honor that woman's \"soul.\"\nThis is the name we give to that quality which tides man over the wrecked\nplaces of his life. It is the adamant. It is uncorrupted by triumphs; it\nlaughs reverses to scorn. It can face dishonor, remorse, disgrace. It inspires\nthe savage to bear the fire of torture without a cry for mercy. It supports the\nruined merchant. It smooths the ruffled brow of the defeated statesman.\nIt dulls the fangs of unpopularity, of slander, of libel. It ever murmers thru\nthe mind in the voice of the divine Holland\nThe Devil gets never a man on his back,\nWhom he scares not first or last.\n\nIt is this faculty, this embodiment of faith, patience, endurance, this\nquality that makes a barbarian a hero, that gives us our martyrs and our\nreformers; it is this which has not kept pace with the intellect in its growth.\nIt is the cultivation of this that can remove the awful plague which threatens to\nundermine our social organism. How sacred, then, I repeat, are the obligations of the teacher ! How dear the price of immortality !\n\"To give subtlety to the simple; to the young man, knowledge and discretion,\" isthe divine commission, and he who sincerely sets his heart to the\ndeveloping and uplifting task imposed cannot fail to reap a rich return in\nsatisfaction as he beholds the magical fruiting of his honest planting. The\ncomplacency due to the development of the intelligent and moral citizen, the\n\n"} {"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nexhilaration wrought by the expressed gratitude of pupils, the joy in the\nsuccess of those whose lives have, in a sense, been molded by his hands, are\ndelectable commodities in the school master's store not purchasable in the\ncoin of the realm. Bacon put it well when he said, ''The pleasures of the\nintellect are greater than the pleasures of the senses.\" The teacher's best\nfortune is of that invisible sort that makes the possessor happy, content, and\nunenvied.\nThan this, life has no higher reward for any man.\nSatisfaction and contentment are the chief ends of human activity. It\nis for these that every rational human exertion is expended; for these men\nlabor incessantly; for these they make war and conclude peace; for these\nthey explore the uttermost parts of the earth and follow the intangible spirit\nof the mighty ocean to its mysterious haunts; for these men sacrifice comfort,\nhealth, friends, and family to engage in a ceaseless struggle for wealth and\npower; only to learn at last that the satisfaction and contentment they hoped\nto purchase are far beyond the power of buying. Everywhere satisfaction, like\nthe pronunciation of Demosthenes, is the first, the second, and the third thing,\nand happy indeed is he who so orders his life that satisfaction comes at his\nbidding to sit at his table and to share his bedchamber.\nSordid gold is the lowest and meanest measure of success. If gold be the\nstandard, then the teacher's profession is meaner than the ditch digger's. But\ngold never was the standard of the measure of compensation in any exalted\nvocation for longer than a brief period. Who would ask how much money\nSocrates earned or what were the wages of Plutarch, Caesar, Cromwell, Washington, Grant, or Lincoln ? No one has ever been so worldly as to think of\nthese great characters in connection with money-making. No one associates\nthe success of any teacher with the sum of money he has earned. The most\nexalted, the most highly respected name in history is that of the Great Teacher\nwho had \"not where to lay his head.\" Yet, who would exchange the undying\nfame of the Nazarene for the gold of a Rockefeller ?\nDionysius the Younger, deposed from a throne of grandeur, wealth, and\nabsolute power, became a poor but happy schoolmaster. The scepter gave\nhim only disappointment; the birch brought infinite satisfaction. The\ntyrant of Syracuse learned in his declining years that the teacher enjoys compensations not weighed in the steelyards nor balanced in the ledger of the\nmerchant.\nThere is an inherent elegance about the teacher's profession that\nappeals to the man or woman of fastidious tastes. Long vacations afford\nopportunities for rest, recreation, travel, observation, and study, not enjoyed\nby other professions, and these must compensate the teacher in some degree\nfor the lessened material reward.\nThe profession has its gifts to offer to the ambitious. To him who is\nspurred to his work only by a desire for preference, for leadership, for high\nplaces in the sanctuary, schoolmastering presents chances equal to those\nfound in other professions and vocations.\nThe successes of ambition are\n\n"} {"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nDEFECTIVES\n\nill\n\nmerely relative at best, and to excel in method, to secure the notoriety of fame,\nto win the preferments the profession offers, and to sit in its chief seats are as\nsweet to the pedagogue as to the politician. These may not be the worthiest\ncompensations but they are tangible ones which have brought joy to many\na teacher and induced many others to do better work in the schoolroom.\nMen may live for money but they will die for fame.\nFinally, *'he who teaches is best taught,\" and the opportunity afforded\nthe teacher to perfect himself in scholarship is no small element in the extrafinancial compensations of his position. The effort to teach develops the\npower of self-expression, the power to convince, and the ability to think. The\nteacher who does not daily find his life richer in intellectual attainments while\nwith pride and joy he watches the unfolding of his pupils has wretchedly\nmissed his calling.\nIn this brief paper I have not attempted to enumerate all of the other\ncompensations of the teacher, but I trust that I have at least indicated that the\nsalary, important as is that feature to all of us, is not the full measure of the\nschoolmaster's earnings and rewards.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR DEFECTIVES IN CONNECTION\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nC. G. PEARSE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWITH\nWIS.\n\nThe generations that have succeeded since the days of our Aryan ancestors\nhave taught us much as to our duty toward the less fortunate members of our\nsociety. We have learned, in particular, much as to our duty toward those\nchildren — members of our society — w^ho are born without, or who after birth\nlose, certain of the powers of body or mind by which normal children learn\nthe things which other people know in the same manner that other people\nlearn them.\nThere is much reason to suppose that in the earHer stages of our history\nthose unfortunates who were born, or in infancy became, blind or deaf or\ngreatly deformed, were got rid of in the easiest way — were exposed upon the\nmountain or in the forest, or in some other way eliminated from membership\nin the family and the community to which they promised to be a burden.\nLater these unfortunate children were allowed to live and to inhabit the\nhome. They were given scant care and received no suitable teaching. In the\nhomes of the more barbarous peoples they were not infrequently treated with\nscorn, suffered indignities and cruelties, and led lives of wretchedness. Without thoughtful or kindly teaching, they developed, if at all, only in those lines\nwhich they were able to pursue without aid. If the tormented current of\ntheir lives, hemmed in and beaten back from the usual channels of development, did in occasional instances show depth or power, such instances were\nexceptions, and the result of accident.\nThe conditions of these children improved with our growi rg civilization.\n\n"} {"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand our sense of responsibility toward them grew. From running neglected\nabout the homes, they came to be cared for in physical comfort. Then som^e\neffort at teaching them began. Men and women with better vision and a\nfiner spirit of helpfulness came to believe and to teach that for these, too,\neducation might do much; that proper education might help them to overcome in a considerable degree nature's handicap and to develop in large\nmeasure those powers and abilities possessed by their normal fellow-men.\nThe first stage of this special education has been in progress for many\nyears. It has been carried on almost exclusively in state and private institutions. In some of these the purpose of the institution was chiefly educational;\nin other cases the institution, while giving some attention to education,\npartook more of the nature of an asylum, where the inmates were more likely\nto stay permanently.\nThese institutions — schools at once, and asylums — have done great good.\nIn them have been developed a knowledge of these children, an understanding\nof their needs and limitations, their desires, their aspirations and their possibilities. In these institutions, too, through intelligent application of educational principles to the various conditions of facts supplied by these children?\nhas grown up the body of educational theory and practice for these various\nlines of special work. This body of special educational theory and practice\nis today not only making it possible for these children to receive the benefits\nof education in a degree far beyond what was possible in the past, but has,\nI believe, already made it possible to take generally the next forward step in\nthe education of several classes of them, namely, to educate them, at least\nthru the years of childhood and the earlier years of youth, in day schools connected with the public schools, where they may remain a part of the home\ncircle, members of the community, meeting and growing familiar with normal\npeople and their ways, instead of being segregated in special institutional\nschools, where they form a class apart, growing each year less familiar with\nand less able to meet, and be comfortable in the society of, normal people.\nMost of the states provide generously in institutions for the children of the\nstate who are blind, deaf, feeble-minded. It is not seen how at present these\ninstitutions can be dispensed with. We may never be able to do i\\dthout\nthem. Probably three out of four classes of mental defectives should, and\nmust always, be cared for in institutions partaking more or less of the nature\nof asylums. Some blind or deaf children are defective in other ways. Schools\nfor these special classes require special appliances and equipment and specially\ntrained teachers. Some times the number of children of this class is too small\nto make it practicable to keep up the special school in the home community.\nFor all these, the institution seems at present the alternative.\nParents cling to their children. Normal parents hesitate to send them\nout from the home circle. Children in possession of all their senses, able to\ncare for and protect themselves in the usual way, are best at home, and parents\nrightly wish to keep them there. But to children who are unfortunate, who\n\n"} {"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nDEFECTIVES\n\nare in greater or less degree helpless, unable to protect themselves from neglect\nor cruelty, parents cling with especial tenderness, and such children they are\nespecially unwilling to see taken from the home beyond the reach of mother's\nministrations and father's watchful care. For this reason many children are\nnot sent to the state institutions, and grow up without proper education, to\nbecome abnormal, unhappy members of society, too often a burden of expense\nto the home or to the state. The day school, where the child might attend\nand at the same time remain a member of the home would frequently prevent\nthis.\nBut where these children, defective in some of the senses, or in some powers\nof the mind, go from home and become members of an institution, they lose\nthe influence of the family, that fundamental unit of our society. They are\nseparated from the love of father and mother; they do not know the companionship of brothers and sisters. All the sweet experiences of the home are\nunknown to them. They are deprived of its responsibilities and cares and\nof its sorrows, which do so much to humanize the soul and develop wholesome\ncharacter. They become part of a special community with special environment, to which is given special care and protection, and whose members are\nexempted to a considerable degree from the duties and responsibilities that\nfall to the lot of the average member of society. In some cases special methods\nof communication between the members of these institutions exist. All\nthese things tend to shape these children into a class apart.\nYear by year while becoming proficient in certain accomplishments and\ndeveloping in certain directions, they are becoming more and more habituated\nto life in an institution, more dependent upon it and upon the special conditions,\nspecial privileges, special care, and special relief from responsibilities which\ninstitutional life begets. This is a condition into which they would not fall\nif they might remain in their homes, receiving in day schools such special\ninstruction as they require.\nUnless we are to develop special varieties of the human species, for whom\nwe must provide special communities of refuge, children of these special classes\nmust be so taught as to reduce or minimize the effect of their abnormality,\nand draw them toward the normal ij^e of social citizenship. To do this,\nthey must remain in and a part of the community instead of being segregated\nand kept from contact with it through all their most formative years. After\ncompleting their formal education and taking up the work of life, these children\nwill not seek the society of their normal fellows unless they can be comfortable\nwith them — unless they understand them and their ways and their means of\ncommunication. If they are to mingle with the society which surrounds them\nand are to remain a part of it, their abnormal or atypical characteristics growing less and less marked and noticeable, they must grow up in the community,\neach of them as one of its units; they must not grow up separated from their\nnormal fellow-men, in a special community under special conditions, which\nevery month render them less in touch with their normal fellows, less able to\n\n"} {"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmeet and mingle with, to understand and be understood by them, and more\nand more dependent for happiness and well being upon the special conditions\nto which they have grown accustomed. Every year of institutional life is\nlikely to leave them with less knowledge of the natural world and less ability\nand less desire to mingle with and be happy in it.\nAmong the earliest schools for defectives in connection with the public\nschools were the day schools for the deaf. These children can move about\nwith little difficulty and comparative safety; it is easy to gather in almost any\ngood-sized town enough such pupils to form a class. If this class is in connection with a public school, the pupils may at recess and at other times, mix\nwith the other children at their play and on the street, receiving this education,\nas well as that of the home and the schoolroom.\nThese day schools use the oral method of instruction with their pupils,\nthe purpose being to teach them the things that other children learn, and at\nthe same time teach them to speak and to understand what is said to them by\ntheir teachers and schoolmates as well as by hearing persons, thru reading\nthe lips of those who speak and without the aid of signs. This ability most of\nthem acquire in a good degree by the time they have finished the work laid\ndown for the grades below the high school. They are able to finish this work,\ntoo, at an age not very different from the age at which hearing children finish.\nBy the time these pupils have completed the common school work they usually\nhave enough command of language, and of the knowledge conventional among\nus so that they can either enter upon some business or employment from which\ndeafness does not bar them ; or they can go on into the high school or to some\nother higher school, entering classes and maintaining their places with hearing\npupils.\nThe sign language usually taught in the institutions, either alone or in\ncombination with the oral method is not taught in the day schools. The\nwhole system is directed toward giving the child, while acquiring the elements\nof knowledge, the power of speech and the power to understand the speech\nof the hearing people about him.\nRecently there has been a strong plea by many teachers in institutional\nschools for the deaf, for the use of a combined method — a method of instruction that shall give both the sign language and the power of lip reading and\nspeech. They have been joined in this request by many of the educated\ndeaf who maintain that the sign language is easier and quicker for them, and\nthat they prefer it.\nPerhaps if these educated deaf had not been taught the sign language\nand used it. for many years in institutions it would not have been easier or\nquicker. But even if it were, I do not believe it should be used in our day\nschools; probably not in our institutions. The primary purpose in educating\nthe deaf, as in the case of other atypical classes, ought to be to enable them\nto live in the community with its normal members, and themselves as nearly\nnormal as may be.\n\n"} {"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nDEFECTIVES\n\n115\n\nThe tendency in the past has been for deaf persons, educated in institutions\nand taught in the sign language, to return to the institution or to its vicinity,\nthere to form colonies of deaf, living in the neighborhood and intermarrying.\nAnything which tends to this result is a danger and ought to be counteracted.\nDr. Alexander Graham Bell, to whom the deaf and their education owe so\nmuch, discussed this danger in a paper on ''The Formation of a Deaf Variety\nof the Human Race,\" read more than twenty years ago before the American\nAcademy of Sciences. In this paper he showed by voluminous statistics that\ndeafness has a tendency to follow in families; that the number of children\nborn deaf is increasing in proportion faster than the total number of children\nborn ; that the number of deaf children born to deaf parents is increasing\nfaster than the number of deaf children born to the people at large. Everything, then, which can be done to merge the deaf into the body of society at\nlarge; to discourage and break up so far as is possible the habit acquired in\ninstitutions, of using and thinking in the sign language instead of in English ;\nthe habit of, and desire for association with other deaf persons rather than\nwith hearing people ; and the practice of intermarriage among the deaf, is a\npositive gain to the members of this atypical class, and to society at large.\nDr. Bell says: \"The grand central principle that should guldens then, in\nour search for preventive measures, should be the retention of the normal\nenvironment during the period of education. The natural tendency toward\nadaptation would then co-operate with instruction to produce accommodation\nto the permanent conditions of life.\" He concludes by saying, assuming\nthe necessary skilled instruction for the child, \"The school which would\nmost perfectly fulfill the conditions required, would contain only one deaf\nchild.\"\nA great hindrance in the teaching of deaf children has been the fact that\nthey began to learn language and speech when they came to school, several\nyears after normal children acquire these accomplishments. For this reason\nthey are likely to master these arts less perfectly and to be later in getting an\nelementary education than our normal children. For a few years a departure in\nPennsylvania, the School for Training Deaf Children in Speech before they are\nof School Age, has attracted marked attention. Into this school deaf children\nare taken for instruction at the age when normal children are learning language\nand speech at home. Experience here has shown that deaf children may in\neffect be almost as well grounded in language and speech by the time they\nreach the usual school age, as are their more fortunate mates who have all their\nsenses. The children may be taken to the school to live, or better, they may\nattend as day pupils, remaining members of the home. The lessons taught\nby this school are not unlikely to prove the greatest step forward in the teaching\nof deaf children that has been taken since oral teaching was established.\nFor children of defective vision or entirely blind, the day school in connection with the public schools provides the same opportunity to give these\nchildren the skilled instruction, and the special facilities which are necessary\n\n"} {"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor them and at the same time allow them to remain ifi the home, sharers in\nits influences and benefits. In the day schools, as in the case of deaf children,\nthey may mingle to a certain extent on the streets and at their play, with normal\nchildren, with whom they thus remain in touch and sympathy. They may,\nby degrees, enter the classes with children who see, and while always at some\ndisadvantage, may, in most cases, maintain with credit their positions in the\nclass. Blind children seem to appeal more readily to the kindliness and\nunderstanding of their normal fellows, and to find it less difiicult to meet and\nmingle with them; so the problem of the blind is in some respects more simple\nthan of the deaf.\nFor most classes of children of deficient mentality, the public school offers\nno suitable place. A considerable majority of them belong to those classes\nfor whom perpetual care, or at least lifelong guidance, is essential.\nThere is, however, a section of them, made up of two classes, for whom\nthe public school can be of real benefit. One of these classes is made up of\nchildren whose minds are normal but who for various reasons — infantile illness\nor injury, neglect, unwholesome surroundings, bad food — are backward, undeveloped. These children, put in separate classes, in charge of skilled and\nsympathetic teachers, and taught by methods tending to awaken and stimulate\ntheir dormant powers, will in most cases, assume a normal condition and a\nnormal capacity, and be fitted for transfer to regular classes.\nThe second class is composed of children not feeble-minded, not lacking in\nwhat might be called good sense and the power of self-direction, but with\nsome of the intellectual facets clouded or lacking so that they cannot quite\nsee, or understand, or do things, as normal children do. Kept in the regular\nclasses these boys and girls fall behind, become discouraged, often troublesome and perverse. Segregated from the mass, into classes not too large, with\nteachers sympathetic and skilful, the whole attitude of the child will frequently\nchange. In a schoolroom, where he may have facilities and freedom the\nregular classroom cannot give, the boy becomes an interested and successful\nworker; and, more important, an attitude of good will toward the school and\ntoward the classmates and teacher is likely to be re-established. This attitude\ntoward the school is likely to go with the boy and become his attitude toward\nthe society of which he later becomes a part. Lacking this opportunity and\nthis teaching fitted to their needs, such children have too often gone out from\nthe school too early, unfitted for the work of life, unhappy, discouraged, antagonistic, desperate. We should save these children from themselves; we should\nsave the state from the harm they may do, if their hearts are wrong.\nI have touched only a few classes of atypical children for whom the public\nschools may profitably care. These have been taken by way of illustration,\nto point the moral and adorn the tale. But I have been asked by those who\nare doing this special work and who have a vision of its possibilities, to bring\nto you, the members of the National Educational Association, a message.\nAnd if I understand the message it is this:\n\n"} {"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRABY\n\n117\n\nThe public schools should stand anxious to increase the scope of their\nusefulness, and become so far as they may, to all the children of the state, the\ndoor of opportunity, as they now are to all the normal children of the state.\nThat we should so order our system of public education that we may care not\nonly for the normal, but for the great majority of those who depart from the\nnormal type, either through lack of some bodily power or sense, such as sight\nor hearing, or through some intellectual lack, where that lack is not such as to\nrender them incapable of leading self-directed lives. That our search in this\ndirection should not ease until we have brought within the magic circle of\nour people's schools all the classes of defective or atypical children, except those\nunfitted by their misfortune to lead self-controlled, self-directed and selfsupporting lives ; and have made it possible, in these schools, for them to receive\nthe special care and special educational facilities which they require, while at\nthe same time remaining in their homes, in the care of father and mother\nin the companionship of brothers and sisters, approaching more and more\nnearly, as their educational years pass by, to the normal type of the society\nin which they must take their places, tending less and less to become members\nof a class apart, unseeking and unsought by their normal fellow men.\nTHE\nJ. W.\n\nOLSEN,\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF\nMINN.\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nST.\n\nPAUL,\n\nTo be a true teacher, he who would instruct must have the power of seeing\neducation in all its varied, finished entirety. The part must never appear to\nhim greater than the whole. He must ever have before him a definite ideal\nof the manhood and womanhood into which he would have boyhood and\ngirlhood develop, and must levy upon every means of help within the range\nof his personal experience, supplemented by the best from universal pedagogics.\nHis endeavor must be to train girls and boys to bear \"without abuse\" the\nnames of gentlemen and gentlewomen, to wear the names men and women\nworthily as befits the sons and daughters of God. He must recognize the\nvalue of that education which is the outgrowth of communion with nature —\nappreciation of the charms of sea and sky and land; of that which comes\nfrom sympathy with one's fellow -men, from keen competition with active\nrivals; of that which comes from actual contact with things in workshop or\nlaboratory, from plowing straight furrows — ^from the solving of life's problems\nnot found in books. Since there is a whole realm of nature and beauty and art\naround us, he must spur to individual observation, to individual reasoning, to\nindividual reflection. And out of the fulness of his own mental life, the duty\nis peculiarly his, not to pour book knowledge, as into a sieve or a tank, but\nto create by well-timed relation, to foster by wise suggestion, the love for the\nbest in literature, the ability to seek and find the best. \"Observation and meditation are more valuable than mere absorption,\" yet Carlyle is right (when\n\n"} {"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfully understood) in saying, \"The true university of these days is a collection\nof books. All education is to teach how to read.\" A chest of tools and its\nbestowal upon a man who has neither knowledge of their use nor interest in\ntheir possibilities will not make a carpenter.\nSome thirty years ago a poor, fatherless boy of fourteen, come upon by a\ntownsman reading a novel of the yellow-back, yellow-page variety, was told\nrather brusquely that he was putting his time and brains to poor uses, and\nwas asked why he did not read the good books of the circulating library of\nthe place. On his reluctant admission that he could not afford to pay the\nannual fee of three dollars, his interlocutor offered to pay it for him on condition that the boy's first reading should be four books that he would name.\nThe lad happily agreed, and tho he never afterwards was able to attend school,\nhe is today a useful, educated man, conversant with the best in English literature, a ready writer, an eloquent public speaker of national reputation;\nand his success in life he attributes to this timely interest in his boyhood life,\nby which his attention was directed toward and his admission secured in\nCarlyle's ''university.\" And if this one man's future could be so molded\nby the chance kindness of a friendly layman, what may not be accomplished\nby the concentrated, well-directed effort of those whose chosen profession is\nthe education of the race ?\nTime was when the public school was concerned chiefly with the mechanics\nof reading; today the teacher may pass from the irksomeness of the how to the\nenjoyment of the what. The work of the school should project itself into\nthat of the library. Hitherto school and public Hbrary have each, with show\nof justice, taxed the other with indifference and coldness. Since, however,\nthe necessity for com.bination of forces in the interests of the child has made\nitself more and more apparent, the need of mutual understanding becomes\ndaily more obvious. In working for the welfare of the children, all personal\nconsiderations and prejudices must be lost. The librarian must strive to\nput herself in the place of the teacher, to familiarize herself with her aids and\npurposes, that the library may intensify, expand, and strengthen the influence\nof the school. The teacher must, without trace of narrowness or professional\njealousy, introduce her children to the library, and exert herself to see that\nthe acquaintance be satisfying and permanent. We need teachers who are\nbook-lovers, and librarians who are child-lovers. We cannot expect teachers\nto be technically expert librarians but, besides a good general knowledge of\nbooks, they should have some general knowledge of library methods — sufflcient,\nat least, to make the catalog less an unknown quantity to both themselves\nand the children. And connected with every public library should be a wellpaid librarian who understands child nature and its needs. In rural communities, where conditions are so different from those in cities, it is especially\nnecessary that the teacher, who is also the librarian, should know how and\nwhen to order books, as well as what books to order. Recognizing the need\nof some technical knowledge in this regard on the part of our teachers, some\n\n"} {"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nnormal schools already are giving general library courses; and the time has\ncome for making this a feature of the pedagogical work in our teachers' training-schools and institutes, that teachers may thoroly acquaint themselves\nwith the library laws of their state, may know how to select a well-balanced\nlibrary for school and village, how to catalog it, and how to keep a simple system\nof records. A brief public document course should also be given them,\nthat they may know how to get, at slight or no cost, the valuable material which\nthe state and federal governments have for distribution with a view to promoting better methods in agriculture, forestry, and horticulture. A general knowledge of the subject in its various phases should be made one of the requirements for the receiving of a teacher's certificate.\nOut of the opulence of thought made visible, audible, tangible, the difficulty is to make the best possible selection. Whether the average reader\nrecognizes his responsibility in this is a question for the individual. That\nthe school should see and should live up to its opportunities of implanting,\nfostering, pruning, and training is vitally incumbent upon it. And in no\nless measure does the duty of supporting and co-operating with the school,\nby aiding to a judicious, helpful choice, devolve upon the library. It is in\nthis way that not only will the mass as a whole be elevated through selfendeavor, but individual character will be developed to its highest, individual\ntalent. Even genius will receive its meed of encouragement. Mediocrity cannot be forced into genius by increasing the rigor of its surrounding conditions,\nneither will genius under happier auspices deteriorate into mediocrity. School\nand library, in their oneness of interest, must ever have in view the greatest\ngood of the many — and what is that, after all, but the greatest good of the\nindividual as well ?\nOn that eventful day when the average, normal boy, the child of the common\npeople makes his first journey toward the schoolhouse, he closes forever behind\nhim the doors of his babyhood and, willingly or unwillingly, trustfully or\nsuspiciously, enters a charmed square whose sides — the home, the school, the\nlibrary, the state — ^will ever be about him, expanding with his growth, or contracting to a prison-house if he, too, narrows. His acquaintance with literature\nso far has been confined to the classics of the nursery; his intimates outside\nof his home and of his back-yard associates have been the gullible gentleman\nwho hobnobbed with the pieman, the distressed damsel who had lost her flock,\nthat terrible prototype of Henry VIII whose mildest weakness was dyeing his\nbeard, and that no less terrible personage who had such a penchant for Englishmen for tea.\nNow comes on his little stage the kindergartner who, after a prolog he\ndimly comprehends, raises the curtain on sweet, pastoral scenes where every\nprospect pleases and vileness is unknown. For gore he has roses; for Bluebeard's scimiter the pretty new moon. And, if all tales he hears be true, no\nlonger need he dread. \"the dark stair where a bear is so liable to follow one,'\nfor the bear is one of the finest of his new friends, overflowing with sociability\n\n"} {"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand good nature. It is some time before the child can recover from the shock\nand adapt himself to fit into the social conditions of this miniature Utopia.\nAnd the real psychological moment for getting hold of him, for putting into\nhis breast the love of things fine in child lore, is just when his resilience has\nresponded to nature's touch. The novelty of the change has not passed, and\nall his little powers of receptivity are on the qui vive. He has not yet learned\nto read for himself, but oh, how willing he is to be read to, and how willing are\nhis mates to listen with him. The better the story, the better the attention.\nChildren are good natural judges; it is only when driven to it by lack of entertaining substitutes that they take to trash. And surely with today's everincreasing store of true, wholesome child literature, there should be no lack\nof substitutes.\nHow far the school library itself should be prepared to meet every phase\nof growing childhood and youth is one of the problems of education. It\nwould seem, however, that the interests of the primary department and lower\ngrades, should be well covered by the bookshelves intended for their use, and\nthat for the upper grades and the high school the library should consist mainly\nof standard authors, reference books (especially geographical, historical, and\nbiographical), books representative of the best in modern fiction, and such\nworks as may be called for by the pupils' general or special studies in classroom, laboratory, or workshop. Such a Kbrary would be sufficiently catholic\nto permit of individual choice, as well as a general help, and at the same time\nwould be so restricted as to force the eager inquirer out to the public library\nin his thirst for more. The square is complete, tho not yet is the child\nconscious that it is. He has at times felt two of the sides of his enclosure,\nand has vaguely thought himself walking in a lane between the home and the\nschool; the library is a palace of enchantment, thru the open windows of\nwhich he gazes upon landscapes of delight that stretch far out to the bounds\nof heaven; the state is an impersonal ''proposition\" he has heard discussed\nin patriotic orations or has encountered in his studies.\nAnd yet it is to the state that both school and library are looking, must\ncontinue to look, for support and encouragement by enactment and appropriation. The parent too infrequently realizes his duty with regard to fitting\nfor and working with the school and the library in the interest of his family ;\nall three — parent, school, and library — are the servants of the state.\nHitherto one of these servants has had but little recognition from her\nmaster, who has been content to look on and see — or to turn his back and disregard— the tips she has been receiving from those on whom she has happened\nto make a favorable impression. Now, the tip system is bad and cannot but\nultimately produce bad results. We value most what costs us the dearest.\nOur states, many of them, have made the most liberal provision for public\nschools, but have quite evaded, or have been blind to the fact that the public\nlibrary is a part of public education, dovetaihng with public schooling. That\nMr. Carnegie has been widely and impartially generous in his assistance and\n\n"} {"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\n121\n\nproffers of assistance, that local communities have accepted and supplemented\nhis aid, does not absolve the state from library responsibility. A people, to enjoy\nall the rights and benefits of ownership, must have earned and paid for what\nit gets.\nThere are those still living who see America's free school in states that in\ntheir childhood had no free school unstigmatized as a charity institution —\nthe while their fathers were rate-paying according to the number of their\nchildren. Since the state's assumption of public educational control, the\nsystem, by becoming what it now is, the best in the world, has gradually proved\nnot only its right to an existence, but the value of central authority emanating\ndirect from the people. If then the library is— as educators, philanthropists\nand other public -spirited men of the day hold — one of the greatest of our\neducational forces, if it is truly a university of the people, should not it have\na chance to flourish under the same fostering care as the public school ? In\nits present dependency upon sporadic endowment by private philanthropy\nor municipal pride, its benefits reach the individual as a charity, a gift, a\nprivilege (however we may gild the pill), not as his right — his right as a freeborn American to lay hold upon its utilities and wrest them to his purpose of\nmaking for himself a liveUhood and a life, at the same time that he is increasing his value in the citizenship of his country, his helpfulness in the brotherhood of the world.\nOne of the arguments used against state control of the library is that the\ninfluence of such paternalism would be debilitating. This might be the case\nwere the state to purchase a number of libraries outright, and merely throw\nthem to the people. But that is not the very successful course it has pursued\nwith regard to its public schools. Its policy has been rather to reward welldirected effort by offering further opportunity for increase of effort on the part\nof those it seeks to assist.\nIn my own Minnesota the estabhshment and continued support of publicschool libraries has been by no means neglected. The state meets the district half-way, aiding to the extent of $20 on its first order for each schoolhouse,\nand $10 annually on subsequent orders, provided the district itself raises an\nequal amount. For last year there was a total expenditure of over $70,000\nby public schools for books appearing on the approved list of the Public School\nLibrary Board, including state aid of about $20,000. This outlay represented\nthe purchase of 105,000 volumes by over 3,000 districts. The reports of the\ncounty superintendents for the year showed that out of the 7,676 school districts\nin the state, 5,586 had libraries with a total of 795,000 volumes.\nThe work of the public library among us has been strongly reinforced by\nthat of the State Library Commission, which, in addition to sending out its\nsecretary wherever a new library is to be organized or local sentiment is to\nbe created or stimulated in favor of establishment, has under its control a\nsystem of free traveling libraries. These, in wisely assorted groups, are sent\nto districts, upon requisition and proper guarantee, for a period of six months\n\n"} {"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "12 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand their influence is most satisfactorily evidenced by the increasing demand\nfor more of the non-fiction Hterature. Under a law passed in 1905, Kbrary\nboards are authorized\nto make contracts with boards of county commissioners in their own or adjacent counties\n.... to loan books of said library either singly or in traveling libraries to the residents\n.... upon such terms as shall be agreed upon in such contract.\n\nThinking that the smaller unit can better provide for its own patrons,\nthree of our counties are following one of the two distinct plans authorized by\nthis law, that of county extension, and are now supplying their entire area\nfrom their central library.\nBesides these means of public education 74 per cent, of our districts are\nfurnishing textbooks on the free plan; and thirteen years of experience has\nsufficed to convince us that this method is decidedly better than that of\nprivate purchase, one conspicuous advantage lying in the more adequate\nequipment of collateral and supplementary reading. Especially in rural\ncommunities, this system leads direct to the upbuilding of a school Hbrary.\nIt is a most helpful ally of those interested in the library movement.\nBut we do not expect to stop here. We hope that even in the most isolated\nrural district where the small school library finds a humble home, and the\ntraveling library pitches its tent for a season, these are but the pioneers, the\nprecursors of a better day not far off. In some of the sparsely settled communities unable to support a church with a regularly ordained minister, it\nhas been the custom of the people to assemble at intervals at the schoolhouse\non the hill to hear the gospel from the lips of an itinerant priest ; but presently,\nwhen the country round about has settled, there springs up the small white\nmeeting-house, truly ''of the people, by the people, for the people.\" They\nhave come into their own. So shall it be with the library — \"first the blade,\nthen the ear, then the full corn in the ear.\"\nSomeone has wisely said, \"No community is so poor that it can afford not\nto tax itself for public school education ;\" and certainly no community is so\npoor that it can afford not to tax itself to provide for its people a university of\nthe best books — a legacy to us from the most inspiring men and women of\nall time. Let the state, by appropriation, meet any community half-way in\nthe establishment and maintenance of a public library, and it will be found\nthat this encouragement not only does not repress, but that it actually stimulates, private philanthropy and local spirit to fresh exertion. By having the\nauthority vested in a state public library commission, that would have the\npower to refuse aid in the acquisition of any but the best books, the most skilful\nmanipulations of the most artful book agent with the most plausible story and\nthe most hypnotic eye, even when brought to bear upon the most sensitive\nsubject, would be completely frustrated. In his own picturesque language,\nhe would \"see his finish.\"\nDuring the first three quarters of the last century, library development was\nslow in purpose, method, and expenditure, but since 1875 the growth has been\n\n"} {"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\n123\n\nmarvelous. In 1800 there were in the United States but sixty-four libraries\nfor public use, while in the last year of the 19th century there were over ten\nthousand with a total content of forty million volumes — and half of the libraries\nthen in existence owned over one thousand volumes each. With state encouragement become general will come still greater life. So far it is the cities\nmainly that have been the objects of the book-loving philanthropists' interest.\n''To him that hath shall be given.\" It is in them that are daily springing\nup beautiful library buildings, educative in themselves, to say nothing of\ntheir contents.\nAnd on the city, with its population, wealth, and facihties, its wider opportunities for improvement and culture, will naturally devolve the responsibility\nof hastening the new order of things. The remotest districts of the country\nhave contributed their best to her upbuilding. What is to be her return ?\nOnly by sending out her best to the most isolated community can the debt —\ninterest and principal — be paid. State superintendents, normal school and\ncollege presidents, and others vitally interested in humanity have here a\nfield of service limited only by their willingness and ability to serve. You and\nI must carry the campaign from desk to legislature, from district to district,\nuntil the consoHdated school, representing increase of numbers, wealth, and\ninterest, can generate the energy and intelligence that will meet the newer\ndemands of complex modern life by providing for its patrons concert and\nlecture, literary club, and library. The state needs new Horace Manns to\nawaken the public to an appreciation of the needs and possibilities of twentiethcentury culture.\nOne of the most encouraging signs of the life and growth of Christianity\nin our day is the effacement of denominational prejudice, the fusion of denominational charity in one great, common, helpful love, so that Anglican rector.\nCatholic priest and Methodist deacon may meet together for fellowship and\nstimulus, for interchange of ideas regarding the betterment of themselves and\nothers. One of the most hopeful evidences of the life and growth of modern\neducation is the programs of its state and national educational associations —\nfor the names on them are the names not of school men only, but of notable\nrepresentatives of every educational movement, industrial, social, intellectual.\nIt is thru these that we look for the realization of a realizable ideal — the\nunification of the work of the library and the school.\nAnd this uniting of interests will eventually solve the problem of what\nwe are to do with our leisure. In the last fifty — even the last twenty — years,\nthe saving of time in travel and in service has been incalculable. The wizards\nof nineteenth-century invention, thru railroad, telegraph, and telephone, have\nconquered distance; the old twelve or fifteen hours of daily servitude have\nbeen reduced to an eight-hour maximum. But how will all this saving of\ntime advantage us if we are ignorant of its value, indifferent to its wasting,\nunable to spend it profitably ? The school must, therefore, reveal to the child\nits worth and create in him the ambition to make the most of it; the library\n\n"} {"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmust put in his hands the best tools for the furthering of this ambition and\nteach him how to use them.\nThe daily newspaper is considered — and justly — one of the necessities of\nour daily life. Its influence, whether it represent the best efforts of the modern\npress or is to be classed as yellow journaHsm, is powerful and widespreadBut be it the most elevating in its editorials and general scope, too much time\nis given to the devouring of its details. Now, as it has become the practice of\nthe public school to devote certain time to the discussion of current events,\ncould not this discussion be so made to tell upon the newspaper-reading of\nour immediate future that a cursory survey of the sheet — with an instant of\npause at the headlines, a passing-over of the \"irrelevant and immaterial\" and\nworse, and a grasping of the editorials and real news of consequence — will\noccupy but a few minutes' time ? And could not this plan, with some necessary\nmodifications, be adopted in the reading of the lighter magazines ? Interesting\nas they are in text, pleasing in illustration, and useful as they may be in their\nchatty condensation, they can no more take the place of the more purposeful,\nlarger literature than can the malted milk tablet or peanut butter take the place\nof the staples of ordinary diet. It seems reasonable to hope that the school\nand the library, in training for world citizenship, will do much toward the\nrelegation of these things to their proper place in life, to the seeing of them in\ntheir right perspective.\nI would not have it inferred that this paper's failure to mention school\nboards in these various connections implies their freedom from any responsibility or duty in the wider -spreading and deepening of general education. As\npart of the school — which is partner of the library — it is theirs to co-operate\ntoward these ends, theirs in placing new burdens upon the aheady tired shoulder\nof the teacher, to ease it of others less necessary to be borne by her; theirs\nto adjust the plan of local schooling to meet the growing requirements of the\nentire scheme.\nBut not with the rise and growth of public libraries in every village and\nhamlet of the nation does all responsibiHty for the individual terminate. As\nthe school was the first to take the small boy by the hand in welcome when he\ncame from the shelter of his home into an unknown world, so will the library\nbe the last of his teachers to take him by the hand and bid him godspeed when\nhe leaves that world for his last home. Tennyson died with Cymbeline in\nhis hand; Wolfe went to his death chanting Gray's Elegy. He ought, then, in\njustice to himself, to make this acquaintance most intimate and personal.\nAs one of his state and his community, he has an abiding interest in, and\nshould seek to the full the benefits of the libraries he has helped to purchase\nand build up, especially those in his immediate neighborhood. But his own\ngrowth can be best promoted, his own tastes best met and developed, by individual ownership. In the public library he has made acquaintance and friendships, just as he has made them in the world outside, but among them is the\ngradually increasing group of these he would fain have gather at his own\n\n"} {"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n125\n\nfireside. And he should begin in his boyhood to send out his invitations,\none or two at a time, as his natural bent, his eager curiosity, his ripening tastes\ndemand. His developing individuahty, quickened and fostered by contact\nwith the school and the public library, is the best guide to variety. That\nhis shelves will contain volumes enough that his matured judgment will repudiate is obvious — otherwise his boyhood must have gone through a process of\nunhealthy forcing; but as the gravest, soberest of men, take pleasure in going\nback over the years to the too short days of their happy boyhood, so will he\nbe likely to have a warm paternal interest in those friends of his childhood,\nyouth, and budding manhood. His collection should be his biography, marking in groups or in singles the paths he has pursued, his stopping-places, his\ndefeats, his victories. It is by appreciative use of present opportunity that the\nindividual opens for himself pathways to the larger opportunities of the\nfuture, highways to power, avenues to fulness of life. It is by training the\nreaders of today that we prepare the writers of tomorrow and so msure for the\nrace a literature ever progressive, presently helpful.\n\nTHE INFLUENCE\n\nOF WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS\nEDUCATION\n\nON PUBLIC\n\nHELEN\n\nDEAN OF WOMEN'S DEPARTMENT,\nCOLLEGE,\nFORT COLLINS,\nCOLO.\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nL. GRENFELL,\n\nSTATE\n\nEducation is evolution. Education not only develops the mind but it\nmarks out the lines along which it must move, along which it meets the least\nresistance. There are fixed laws which must be sought out and applied in any\nrational system of education. Psychology seeks to set the bounds of education\nand to discover and make known the laws within those boundaries. But ratiocination has ever been an uncertain pilot in the intellectual and moral seas of\nlife and has often listened to the voice of desire and steered the ship into the\ndangerous whirlpools of the unknown. The compass of psychology points in\nas many directions for the north pole of education and produces as great astonishment in its amazing conclusions as did the compass of Columbus. The\neducator and philosopher is ever trying to box this compass of the human mind\nand ever finding unknown directions and drifting into unknown waters.\nThe philosophy of education is faulty today and it is questionable whether\nby pure philosophy it can ever be perfected. Reason has not furnished, and,\nmay I say, cannot furnish us a complete system of education. The compass\nColumbus used was as correct as the compass we use, it turned to the magnet\nas readily as ours, but the fifteenth century navigator had not acquired a chart\nof the ocean.\nSuch a chart must be furnished by experience.\nIn early ages man sought to withdraw from society in order to educate himself, but this seclusion had its reflex influence on him and left him unfit for\npractical life. Man has a twofold nature, individual and social. Each must\nbe educated to make a full-minded man. If the individual only is educated,\nhe becomes selfish and has no interest but in himself; if the social is altogether\n\n"} {"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\neducated he loses his identity and is of no practical benefit to himself or anyone else. Such men are said to be over-educated, but in reality they are undereducated.\nIndividual or social, the early idea of education did not include women at\nall. It was for the few and those few were men. While it lived, if it was alive,\nin the monasteries, it was inevitable that it should be colored by its surroundings.\nFacts of life had to be harmonized with the fictions of religion, and the facts\nof religion were often compelled to bend to the fictitious phases of life, war itself\nand its cruelties becoming righteous if it was a crusade of the faithful against\nthe unbeliever.\nThe student had his place and kept it. Finding only too frequently but\nlittle comprehension of his learning among his fellows, he naturally did not\ntry it upon the great unwashed.\nPopular education began to dawn with Luther, who made people want\nto read, and with Gutenberg who made it possible. The Puritan might be a\nman of one book, but he knew that book by heart, and having done away with\nthe monastery, he began a system of education still sectarian in form, and still\nintended for persons who had no need to earn their living by the sweat of their\nbrows. With the reading of the Bible twice a day in the home, and its consultation upon all grave occasions, it followed as the natural corollary that the\ndaughters learned to read it also, and that was the beginning of female education.\nIt was a noteworthy fact that the first public school of the New England\ncolonies was built on ground given by a woman, and the great university on\nthe Pacific slope was largely the gift of a woman. It is a far cry from Bridget\nGraff ort, 1720, Boston, to Mrs. Stanford; and if Mrs. Stanford took measures\nto prevent too large a proportion of female students, Bridget's soul was never\ntroubled about this at all, for girls were not thought of in connection with the\nPuritan school.\nTrue, there was no organized demand for higher educational opportunities\namong those Massachusetts damsels, but the very fact that their opportunities\nwere few and limited made those girls make the most of them; and some progress must have been made in the two decades between 1806 and 1826, since\nwe are told that at the former date, geography was a study seldom permitted\nto girls as being \"indelicate as well as useless,\" while in the latter year the first\nhigh school for girls was opened in Boston amidst a storm of opposition. Two\nyears later, Boston yielded to the universal clamor and closed the school, which\nthe records state had proved \"alarmingly popular\" among the girls.\nNot unlike the reception of the first girls' high school reads the account of\nthe founding in 1868 of the New England Woman's Club in Boston and the\nSorosis in New York. We learn that \"they were the first literary clubs among\nwomen, and met severe and trying criticisms, the opposition to the idea of\nwomen's clubs being exceedingly bitter and intolerant among both men and\nwomen.\"\nThe foreboding as to the results of educational opportunities for girls and\n\n"} {"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nthe foreboding as to women's clubs and the results that would come from them\nhave alike proved groundless. While the clubs originated for social and\nintellectual advancement, they soon developed an earnest and unwavering\ndesire to help their communities and their times. To the founder of the\nSorosis Club, the movement signified ''the opening of the door,\" ''the stepping\nout into the freedom of the outer air and the sweet sense of fellowship with the\nwhole universe that comes with liberty and light.\"\nThings we once despised are found after long years to be necessary. Since\nthe time when Adam's rib was removed and by the hands of the Creator mysteriously wrought into a subtle human being called woman, to quite recent times,\nman has looked upon her as an unnecessary and meaningless thing, whose\nsometime charm was the only reason why she should be allowed to trespass\nupon the earth which was barely large enough for himself. But gradually\nman is outgrowing this primitive idea of woman's limited share in the inheritance of the universe. In the hospital she may be a nurse; in the school she\nmay be a teacher; in the office, a stenographer; in politics, a follower. He\nallows her an afternoon off to attend the club. So, gradually she has gained\npoint after point until now she aspires to help in the important concerns of\nlife. She does not ask to manage, to direct, but only to be allowed to help.\nIf she can, with tender hand, place the bandage on the suffering patient, if\nshe can with encouraging sympathy give a cup of cold water to cool the parched\ntongue, why may she not do more ? Are there not other places where she may\nhelp?\nIf she cannot assist man in his philosophy of education, if she cannot evolve\nthe thing, may she not help to environ education, so that the forces shall not\nbe so prodigally spent ? She now has an organization that she has been perfecting for years, numbering over 800,000 and of the best in the land. The\nmembers of this organization, as the mothers of children, are closer to them\nthan the fathers, who are burdened with the commercial side of life, can ever\nexpect to be. Men are doing the material work of the world — building its\nbridges, feeding its multitudes, and bartering in its marts; and women, who\nare comparatively free to devote their energies to their children's training, are\nthe natural allies of the professional educator and coadjutors in the work of\nproperly developing the child.\nIs there a place for woman ? Does she not approach the school from a\ndifferent viewpoint from man ? It is important to note that she comes to it\nfrom the outside; not being a teacher and free from the scholastic prejudices of\nthe teacher, broader in her plans and having wisdom born of knowledge of the\nhomely affairs of life and a sympathy nurtured in the environment of her own\nchildren, she may expect to bring forces to the work that can be obtained\nnowhere else.\nThe school of the past, while we are thankful for it and have only praise\nfor those faithful ones who spent their lives in trying to help on the rising\ngenerations, failed to meet the wants of the day, and turned out the child edu.\n\n"} {"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncated in a sense but not well enough adapted to meet what life required of him.\nThe courses of study seemingly followed the law of the Talmud, \"Take a child\nof six and load him like an ox,\" while they have forgotten that it also required\nhim to learn a trade by his twelfth year lest \"he otherwise learn to steal.\"\nToo long have we clung to the old idea of learning, gained thru those centuries when its feeble life was preserved in monasteries, and which did not fit\nman for life in the world. His business was to know arbitrarily, not by putting\nin practice. With woman it is otherwise. She has been brought up on the\nhomely proverb that the proof of the pudding is in the eating. As soon as she\nbegins to learn, she wants to put what she has learned out at interest to discover\nwhether it is really true or only a glittering counterfeit that can bring her no\nreturns.\nAnd so, naturally, her whole system (and a most unsystematic system it has\nbeen at times), is a kind of educational method. Beginning with books, she is\nslowly turning to life itself for lessons not to be found in any library.\nIs it any wonder that women have always taken more kindly to the kindergarten idea than men ? Their whole brief experience has been on the approved\nFroebel doctrine; they have \"learned to do by doing,\" and while their educational ideals may not have been so high as those of the world's great savants,\nthey have been broader. To them it seems more necessary that all children\nshould know how to read and write one language than that a few college professors or monastic anchorites should know a dozen or so languages — dead or\nalive.\nIf the scholar of the closet can say, \"Too low they build who build beneath\nthe stars,\" the women of the clubs have remembered that He who placed the\nstars in the heavens, also set His bow of promise in the clouds of earth. The truly\neducated child is practical, is adapted to his surroundings.\nAnd here we revert to what has previously been said that reason could\nnot formulate an ideal education. The coals must be brought hot from the\nfurnace of experience to kindle the fires of life. There is great advantage\nto be gained by accepting this help from outside the school. Woman's chief\ninterest is first and foremost the welfare of the children. The primitive woman,\nsheltering her offspring from the elements antagonistic to its existence, the\ncivilized but intellectually undeveloped mother lavishing often unwise care\nupon her children, the woman, intelligent and conscientious, taught thru association in mutual interests the value of united effort and thru wise direction\nthe true needs of all children — each has filled her place, and the law of the survival of the fittest ordains that the last of the three shall be the woman of the\nfuture.\nUndoubtedly there are women who do not understand the obligations\nentailed upon them as mothers, and who fail to perform even the obligations\nof which they are aware. Undoubtedly there are school-keepers who are not\nteachers either born or made. School-makers and home-makers each have\ntheir limitations, but one class must help the other more nearly to fill the part\n\n"} {"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n129\n\nwhich each should play in shaping the destiny of the child. If ''education is life,\" the child must have the united work of both to be properly\neducated.\nThe states with the highest educational facilities are those where the women\nare the most active. They have been largely instrumental in bringing about\nthe establishment of ethical and industrial training. They have steadily\nagitated the economic questions of the schools, having always been unjustly\ndiscriminated against in the matter of payment for services.\nA noted sociological student writes: '* Illiteracy looms largest where women\nhave least power and grows less where they vote. Of the twenty states which\nhave fewest illiterate children, women vote on school questions in eighteen.\nWe have half a million illiterate children in this country and nearly two million\nchildren working for a living. In this we rank with Russia, and not with the\nenlightened states of western Europe.\" Now, how can we continue to boast of\nAmerican opportunities when we have to admit the existence of this terrible\ndisgrace ?\nSurely there is need for the women of this country, whether in clubs or out\nof them, to come to the rescue of these two and a half million children. It is\nadmitted that the nature of woman is powerful in its influence on the race.\nInfinitely superior to even the influence of many women in sporadic attempts\nto influence the race must be the organized, conscious influence of woman.\nWoman herself is not exempt from that law of evolution — organization. We\nmust all \"join hands\" and ''pull together,\" if we wish to effect much. Woman\nhas not been with us in education in the past. She is now with us individually.\nDo we not need her with us collectively ?\nThe organizing of women for the first time is one of the splendid achievements of the nineteenth century. Up to that time women's lives had been isolated. They had existed only as separate individuals. The experience of\nmen for centuries of working in organized masses was unknown to women.\nAll through the ages appear heroic figures of women, like Deborah, Miriam,\nJoan of Arc, Elizabeth of England ; but these were leaders of men. It remained\nfor our own generation to develop among women leaders of women and to\norganize women in every community. Matthew Arnold said, \"If ever the\nworld sees a time when women shall come together purely and simply for the\nbenefit and good of mankind, it will be a power such as the world has never\nknown.\"\nThe world is beginning to see that time. Will Arnold's prophecy be fulfilled ? Let us consider some of the work that women's organizations have\naccomplished in the cause of education in the schools, and in the country at\nlarge.\nUpon first acquaintance with the Hst of responsibiUties these organizations\nhave boldly assumed and the objects they seek to compass, the inquirer might\nreadily be reminded of those who are said to \"rush in\" where certain others\n\"fear to tread.\" But as investigation continues, the same inquirer is led by\n\n"} {"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "130\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nproof of successful accomplishment to conclude that the organizations may\nhave been bold, but not \"too bold.\"\nNo magnificent libraries built by a female Carnegie dot our land, but traveling libraries founded by women's clubs are circulating in the most remote\ncorners of twenty-two states. In the state of Colorado the Federation of Women's\nClubs organized and for two years wholly maintained the Free Traveling\nLibrary system. In 1903 the legislature recognized its value and popularity by\nmaking the Women's Club Committee a State Commission, and now over six\nthousand volumes are reaching the farthest mountain fastnesses and the most\nlonely settlements of the rainbelt.\nThe work of the women's patriotic orders has been extended in nearly\nevery community for the furtherance of the teaching of patriotism and knowledge of our country's history. We all learn by concrete lessons, and the giving\nof medals for essays on patriotic subjects, the presentation with ceremony of\nflags to our public schools, make an impression more lasting than the learning\nof pages of written history. The Committees on History and Landmarks,\nfrom the women's clubs, have aided greatly in patriotic work, having successfully labored for the preservation of old missions in California, of Indian mounds\nin Wisconsin, the collection of historical data in Washington, Louisiana, and\nother states, the purchase by the state, of the Alamo battle-ground in Texas,\nthe erection by the women of America under the direction of the Oregon club\nof a bronze statue at the Portland Fair to the only woman connected with the\nfamous expedition, the squaw Sacajawa, to whose guidance Lewis and Clarke\nwere greatly indebted for their success; the preservation of the cliff-dwellings\nin Colorado and Arizona, of the Palisades in New York and New Jersey, the\npreservation of Niagara Falls, and the purchase and maintenance of the Mount\nVernon estate.\nWhether we contemplate the women of South Carolina strugglng to obtain\na state industrial school for boys — and succeeding — or the women of Tennessee\nplanting schools in their eastern mountains, or the women of states east and\nwest, variously striving for better child-labor laws, or as in Tennessee, for the\nenforcement of such laws already enacted; or whether we note the work of\nthat grand federation of clubs in Massachusetts which offers sisterly aid in\nseveral states, even maintaining a school in the Great Smoky Mountains; or\nwhether we commend the securing of good compulsory education laws and\nofficers for their enforcement, on the part of Kentucky, Mississippi, Montana,\nColorado, and the District of Columbia; or the establishment or active support\nof a juvenile court in Georgia, Utah, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas,\nand California, and our Denver juvenile court of national reputation, where\nJudge Lindsey frankly ascribes his continuance in office to the organized effort\nof the women — whether we dwell upon any or all of these manifestations of the\nclub-women's spirit, we must concede that they justify their claim to the motto,\n\"Nothing human is foreign to me.\"\nIn the comparatively new line of arts and crafts great activity has been\n\n"} {"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n131\n\nfostered. In every town or city where the woman's club has taken root, the\nArt Committee found schoob-ooms barren of picture, statue, and bust, and has\nleft them richer sometimes by one copy of an immortal painting, and often by\na complete, harmonious decoration of an entire building. Whole communities\n— such as Deerfield, Massachusetts, and the club towns of North Carolina —\nhave found inspiration and livelihood in the revival of ancient arts beautiful and\nculture-full.\nThe Minnesota Federation enjoys the distinction of founding a State Art\nSociety which has from the state an appropriation for the purpose of holding\nannual exhibits of works of art and handicraft, and for providing a course of\nlectures each year upon art.\nWe may have heretofore associated the state of Texas more conspicuously\nwith cattle than with art, yet it is the Texas women's organizations that have\nestablished a college of industries and arts for young women.\nIn the domain of household economics which has always been sacred to\nwomen — may its shadow never grow less — the modern club woman is quite as\nmuch at home and more able to entertain the public than women in the days\nof our clubless grandmothers. Perhaps their nearest approach to working in\ncombination was the preparation of \"the Thanksgiving feast and their prophetic\nsouls could never have anticipated that their granddaughters would establish\nchairs of domestic science in state institutions and secure the enactment of\npure food laws in twenty-five states and the national congress.\n''Whatever we want in the nation's life we should put in the school,\"\nsounds well. The truth is that whatever we would have in the nation's life\nwe must have in the homes that make up the nation, and if we would put it\nthere, we should have less complaint of the schools, and this the women are\nfinding out. They are learning that there is much to be done to supplement\nthe meager homes we have; people are discovering that there is a wide difference between food and things to eat, and that it is possible to be overfed without\nbeing nourished. And as they learn themselves, they spread the gospel of the\nsimpler life by means of college settlements, neighborhood houses, day nurseries\ncooking-classes and sewing-schools.\nThe recognition of the need of scientific temperance instruction was brought\nabout by the work of a great woman's organization — the subject not always\nwell taught as yet, but ever important.\nWithout the erudition of the clubs, our grandmothers knew that ''the way\nto a man's heart is through his stomach,\" but they had not learned to pave the\nway with training-schools for girls and domestic science in the schools of many\nstates. The introduction of handiwork into the public schools has given them\na practical interest to the children. There is need of further effort in connecting\nschool routine with the realities of life else we should not need such stringent\nlaws for compulsory education. Because children will not go home we blame\nthe mothers and pass curfew laws. Because children will not go to school we\npass laws, hire truancy officers, and continue to blame the parents instead of\n\n"} {"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncabling the Mikado to learn why his subjects want to break into the schools\nour boys run away from.\nThe women's clubs all over the country have done most effective work in\norganizing children's humane associations, thus implanting justice and kindness in the young. When the clubs of the country follow the example of the\nState Federation of New Jersey and resolve never to wear aigrettes nor baby\nlambskin, the wanton destruction of innocent life will be checked. The humaneeducation crusade must also eventually result in making children more considerate even of their parents and teachers, overcoming the influence of the\npresent distorted conception of children's rights.\nSince the masculine mind is proverbially the one to solve great problems,\nit is not surprising that minor details of school economy have been left for the\nfeminine mind to grapple with. The mothers are the ones to hear the cry,\n''What shall I do ?\" and ''Where can I go ?\" and to proceed to the acquisition\nof playgrounds and vacation schools in the cities. The success of those now\nsecured promises soon to be followed by many more. The National Congress\nof Mothers through its local committees comes in contact with every school in\ntowns where its branches are established and, judging by the strength of Denver's committee, whose chairman is also president of the school board, the\nvoices of the mothers are being heard in the land.\nThat modern women are learning what was once thought beyond the\nfemale capacity — some business management, is shown by the free scholarships and loan funds in the gift and under the control of the various state federations. The Michigan Federation of Clubs has a five-thousand-dollar fund,\nthe interest of which is applied to educating girls. That of Texas has twenty\nscholarships, Utah two, Colorado nineteen, Kansas eighteen to bestow; New\nHampshire is educating four girls at the State Normal School and working\nfor higher teachers' salaries, while in other localities, teachers' pensions have\nbeen obtained by women for women on account of length of service. Mississippi assisted eight girls in one year to education, while one enterprising federation helped thirty-one girls to complete their normal course and become\nteachers.\nAnd the desire to help all children is shown by the unusual scholarships of\nthe Los Angeles clubs and of six other cities where a sum equal to what his\nearnings would be, is paid weekly to the child who is the support of a disabled\nparent, upon presentation of a certificate of attendance from the principal of\nthe school.\nThe true import of women's organizations and efforts has been misunderstood. The school people have often regarded their committees as meddlesome\nand their advice uncalled-for. But this antagonism is unnatural and undoubtedly due to misdirected, if zealous efforts, or to some unfortunate personalities.\nA common bond should unite as fellow-workers the mothers and teachers of\nthe land.\nThe special phase of woman's development expressed in the woman's clubs\n\n"} {"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nis not considered by thoughtful women as an end in itself but as one phase of\ntheir social evolution and an important means toward the attainment of that\nlarger life which they know to be their rightful heritage. They realize that\nthe heart of the movement is opportunity for greater usefulness and unselfish\nservice — that all who labor effectually are agents of that Power which works\nin and thru this universe, and in doing whose work lies the only true happiness.\nOne who has studied the subject of architecture tells us that the buildings\nmen raise reflect the spirit of the times. The Acropolis of Athens perpetuates\nthe religion and art of ancient Greece and still tells of its glories. In Rome\ntoday, the ruins of the Coliseum and the Forum overshadowed by the palace\nof the Caesars, breathe the spirit of war, of the exaltation of law, and of imperialism. The cities of the Middle Ages cluster about the great cathedrals —\nthe common market-place close to the sacred structure — and tell of the church\ndominant in the heart of the city and the citizens, overmastering with its\nmystery and towering in vastness, age, and power over life's other, trivial\nconcerns. In northern Europe, we find the town halls where the republican\ncitizens transacted their business, and the belfries from which their alarums\nrang. The lofty buildings most in evidence in our own country in the nineteenth\ncentury ty^'iiy the commercial daring and aspiration of the age.\nThe examples of architecture which embody the most uplifting influence\nof the twentieth century should be the schoolhouses. Not immense structures\nwhere the individual child is lost sight of within, and crowded into the street\nwithout, but planned with reference not only to his intellectual needs and the\nculture which will make him superior, but also with their books and pictures,\ntheir playgrounds, gymnasiums, and gardens, their departments of industrial\ntraining and their halls designed for the use of the people — these buildings will\nshow the influence of woman's acceptance of her responsibihties and her cooperation with the professional educator. The two forces working together\nwill provide for the child those means of growth and development which will\nhelp him to arrive at his full estate and, by his increased intelligence and his\nability to apply it to all things great or small, to exemplify the truth of the\ndoctrine that \"real education is life.\"\nDISCUSSION\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, superintendent of city schools, Wabash, Ind. — In\nlistening to the paper just read, I was especially interested in the enormous amount of\nwork attributed — and rightly too, I believe — to women's clubs; but in spite of all this,\nI am of the opinion, that their greatest work is yet to come. There is no problem so serious\ntoday in the regulation of the affairs of education as that one affecting the relation of the\npubKc to the school. Parents are not famihar with the school system, its needs, and\norganization; teachers know too little of the affairs outside of the schoolroom, and while\nmuch has been done by various meetings and methods to lessen this tension, it is still\nfar too great for the best interests of the school and the community. The pubHc expect\nthings that the schools cannot accomplish, and the schools undertake things that do not\nhave practical results so far as the public weal is concerned.\n\n"} {"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe school talks work and teaches work, but does not make workers, many times,\nwhile the public too often feel that it is the purpose of the school to make doers of a particular type, rather than doers in general. Is it not probable that the solution of these\nproblems comes within the province of women's clubs? By the selection of members,\nthe election of oflScers, appointment of committees, arrangement of programs and topics\nto be discussed, may not these clubs make a study of these conditions, with a view to\nmaking the situation better ? Would it not be feasible and beneficial, if all the women's\nclubs in the country should set aside one or more days during the year for the discussion\nof the school system, with a view to bringing about a better understanding between the\nschool and the community or public in general? It seems to me that here is another\nproblem, the solution of which might add one more honor to the splendid list just enumerated by the speaker.\n\nCALL\nBENJAMIN\n\nIDE\n\nWHEELER,\n\nNOTHING\n\nCOMMON\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\n\"^\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nHuman society of the present time and place evidently believes in education. It is inclined to stake its life upon it. It believes on the whole with a\nfaith that is childlike and bland. It is often perplexed about what to teach\nand why, and how to teach it and through whom, and yet the perplexities seem\nonly to sanctify the deep mysteries of paidology, and strengthen faith in the\nsystems that issue from the cloud-wrapt mount of education. If education\nfails in an individual case, the faith is still strong enough and the charity gentle\nenough to judge that there ought to have been more of it in quantity, or else a\nhigher voltage; the operation was successful, though the patient died. For all\nthe social ills education has come to be as universal a prescription as bloodletting in the older medicine. If people are leaving the farms, if divorce is\nundermining the family, if the political machine is looting the cities, the remedy\nis to be found in education ; the schools must look out for it. This is the habit\nof opinion today. The habit appears to be a good one; the opinion is presumably in substance correct. Surely we of the craft are not inclined to\ndiscourage it. But the demand comes in the avalanche form. Those that\nwould be healed throng upon us and ''cannot come nigh for the press;\" men\nare fain to uncover the roof and let down the sick in beds upon us. Despite\nthe gratification this cannot fail to bring to those who have chosen the field\nof education for a lifework, in that their special product promises to gain\nenhanced value in the markets of human estimate, and their profession has\nthereby prospect of rising out of the relative disparagement and depreciation\nwhich have through the ages, notwithstanding much theoretical blandishment,\nin actual practice really invested it— despite such gratification, we must be\nconscious that the situation brings with it grave responsibility and no little\nground for apprehension. We know that any man whom public opinion has\ngrossly overestimated is in serious peril — ^peril before the reaction that must\nfollow disillusionment, and yet greater peril for his own character in the temptation to perpetuate the deception by false devices.\nThe profession of medicine\n♦ By request of the author the simplified spelling forms adopted by the N. E. A. are not used in this\naddress.\n\n"} {"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCALL\n\nNOTHING\n\nCOMMON\n\n135\n\nhas had its sore experience from accepting the blind popular confidence in its\nknowledge and command of drugs; it has seen the reaction tear from its hands\nthe control, and open the door to the pitiful deceits of quackery and the patent\nmedicine and to multiform vagaries of ignorance and superstition. Out of\nthis experience the best medical practice of today has learned to limit its sure\nclaims to what it knows it can actually do, and to deal frankly and objectively\nwith patients and disease.\nIf we as a profession of teachers find that we are responding to crude popular demand by dealing out our one medicine, the exact varieties and potencies\nof which we do not notice, and the precise workings of which we do not understand, treating all cases out of one bottle and blindly following traditional recipes\nand formal courses of treatment, it might be time for us to adopt as our own the\nburning proclamation: \"An evil and adulterous generation seeketh after a\nsign, and there shall be no sign given to it.\" We will not at any rate cloak our\nhelplessness under the schemes and schedules and curricula of other days or\naimlessly rely upon mechanism devised for other and nearer ends ; nor will\nwe, of all things, encourage a public creduHty which blindly trusts in all the\ndoings of the^ schools and colleges for all purposes, so long only as they bear\nthe sacrosanct name of education, and assigns to them some thaumaturgic\npower by mysterious process to make black white and the white matter of\nbrains gray.\nIf we still do not know what subjects should be taught, or why, or how they\nshould be taught to give appreciable results, we can at least be frank in confessing to ourselves the limits of our own ignorance and candid before the\nworld in claiming no command of mysterious processes. If we have applied\nthe light of biology and of psychology and of sociology and of the history of\nhuman training and of statistical science to our inquiries, and have thus far\nbeen disappointed in our results, we shall do well frankly to state the measure\nof our disappointment, as a safeguard to what we really have learned and a\nguarantee to ourselves against self-deception and to the world against disingenuousness and pretense. If we have indeed with all our searchings in pedagogy found no device of human training that finally takes the place of the warm\nlife of the teacher ; nothing that can replace it, or be in any wise commensurate\nwith it ; nothing that can provoke a deposit of good education out of a bad\nteacher ; nothing whether of subject or method that can get bad education out\nof a good teacher; we can safely reaffirm our old faith in the old educational\ndoctrine of 'Hhe Word made flesh,\" and adopt the fullness of the proclamation:\n\"An evil and adulterous generation seeketh after a sign, and there shall be\nno sign given to it,\" but the sign of the teacher and his living personality.\nIf there is any mystery in education, it is the one, lone mystery of the inspiring\nand converting power of personality.\nAt the very heart of the present-day belief in education is our people's\nfaith in the common schools. They have developed pari passu with our democracy. Our people are persuaded that the maintenance of our peculiar institu-\n\n"} {"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntions of popular government is dependent upon their existence, and the full\nand successful working of these institutions upon their efficiency. There has\nappeared no competent reason for impugning the wisdom of this decided and\nincreasing popular conviction. Not all the graduates of our common schools\nbecome good citizens, nor yet of our universities; but statistics assign criminality overwhelmingly to the class of the illiterates. We do not teach young\nhumans reading in order that they may read the constitution; their understanding might conflict with that of the Supreme Court; but we teach them\nreading that they may share the thoughts and observations of people of other\nplace and other time, and so be delivered from slavery to the immediate vision,\nand to all the prejudice and ignorance and mal- judgment which such slavery\ninvolves. At the basis of orderly living, which is moral living, rests the power\nto discriminate as to what belongs here and what belongs there; next comes\nthe will to classify accordingly. We cannot therefore omit the equipment and\ntraining of the intelligence from the training that prepares an individual to\nlive his life in community with other people's lives. That means moral training. Moral training is always implicit in all the work of the common school,\nthough the commandments be not stated or the code rehearsed. Obedience\nto the public laws is latent in the discipline that the school exacts, though civics\nbe not taught and the flag be not saluted. The real democracy of equal\nopportunity, fair give-and-take, and a scratch start, ancestors barred, is involved\nin the assemblage from many door-yards upon the benches of the common\nschool, and the indiscriminate tumbling of future citizens of variegated fates\nduring recess in the schoolhouse yard. The democracy is there, waiting for\nyou, though Jefferson and the fathers be not named.\nNo, the people of the nation have made no mistake in their confidence in\nthe public school as a training for democratic citizenship or as a guarantee of\nthe continuance of free institutions. Their one solicitude must be lest changing conditions of social life dislodge it from its place and throw it out of tune\nwith the democracy it was set to represent and support.\nOur democracy involves no proposition of equality of achievement, but\nstraightly and supremely equality of opportunity. It was devised in the protest against the privilege of class. It anticipated the modern doctrines of\nheredity, and trusted men, in the opportunity of a fair field and in the strength\nof their divine inheritance, to rise as individual creations out of the disease and\nthraldom of their parentage and the limitations of class and craft and caste.\nIt meditated no crime against nature; it bandaged no feet and strapped no\nskulls. It established no standard size of foot or brain ; it set no bounds upon\nspiritual vision, upon intellectual reach, upon inventive imagination, upon\ncreative skill, or upon the acquisition of substance, except as the rights and\nfree opportunity of others might be impaired. It proposed to give every man\na free chance to make the most possible out of his single life. It was conceived\nas a gospel of self-realization for the sons of men.\nIt is as a faithful counterpart to such a democracy that the public school\n\n"} {"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCALL\n\nNOTHING\n\nCOMMON\n\nmust be kept. But if you have called it the common school, as the nursery\nof a hopeless mediocrity, and if with the name you have thought such a thought,\nor devised such a use, you have torn it away with treacherous violence from\nthe very spirit and life of the democracy in which it had its birth. It is and\nmust be kept the school of the best nurture in the best things.\nWe too often hear the remark that the teaching and studies of the public\nschools must be shapen to the needs of the children of families of moderate\nmeans, or of no means, or the children of the masses, or of certain classes; and\nthat if wealthy parents want to give their children a better education or one\nthat leads to higher station they must send them to private and special schools.\nAll this is the voice of a spurious democracy. It is no democracy at all. It is\na reversion to the notions of the ''ragged school.\"\nIt is the voice of class spirit. It contemplates the classification of helpless\nchildren according to conditions of birth, and deliberately proposes to rob\nthem of full and free opportunity. Who knows that the children of the poor\nor lowly do not need to study certain things ? Who knows that they will not\nmake full use of the best instruction and the best courses of study ? Experience\nseems to show that a larger percentage of them make better use than do the\noffspring of the mighty.\nThe children of the rich labor already under disabilities enough without\nbeing isolated in private academies and being inevitably limited for their later\nacquaintanceships in life to those whose scope of vision and range of action is\nhedged about with all the paraphernalia of yachts and motors and multiplex\nhorses, clubs, assemblies, valets, and innovation trunks. Both by the limited\nassociation in school and by that of after-life these children of the rich are\ndisabled for largest usefulness through their inability to know the mind of the\ngreat body of the people among whom they are to live. Their separation is\nalso a loss to the community, and the creation of a fixed caste a detriment and\nperil to society. We surely ought to beware lest we are doing anything to\ndrive such pupils from the public schools or omitting to do anything that should\nhold them. For pupils who require special treatment or tutelage, either\nthrough their own weakness or through lack of home influences or through the\ndesire of their families to provide such special tutelage, the private school will\nalways have its place and mission; but if the private schools and academies\nare offering anything else of method or substance or curriculum that is better\nthan in the public schools, it behooves us to find it out. What is good for the\nchildren of the well-to-do is peculiarly desirable for the children of the moneyless\n— unless indeed we deliberately propose to use the public schools for the creation of social strata instead of their prevention.\nThe public school must be made and kept the school for all without recognition of classes or conditions, and it must shape its work and plan so as to\nclose no door but rather open the freest opportunity for the best achievement\nand the highest advance. The present rigid system of tlie grades, whose chief\nexcuse has been economic necessity, must yield to permit the more rapid ad-\n\n"} {"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nvance of gifted and diligent pupils. The old district school without the grades\nwas more humane. Nowadays the machinery of grades and courses is wondrously perfect, but the school exists for the child and not for the grades. The\nplace of a child in reference to the grades is at any time to be determined not by\nwhat he has gone through in the past, whether of pages or classes, but by the\nwork he is able to go on and do next. Too many minds and too many wills and\nambitions are dulled by the routine and treadmill of the grades; and that means\nbandaging the foot and strapping the skull to produce a standard size. Particularly dothe two last years of the grades need to be refreshed and readapted.\nThere is too much threshing of old straw in them; they are too wooden; they\nlag behind the growing life-interest and the advancing mental cravings of the\npupils. After completing six grades a boy is ready for something new and\n. something that will lay hold upon his opening interest in the processes of life.\nIf you withhold it you may lose him or at any rate his interest in the school;\nand if you lose that, you might as well lose him. Your boy is twelve years old\nor more. Now is the time to offer him the opportunities of instruction in the\nindustrial arts, or the agricultural arts, or in business practice, and now is the\ntime to begin language study if any foreign language is ever to be learned.\n.The fact is that our old one-story ranch house in which we all lived together\nhappily around a court has been gradually transformed, now that the city\nhas grown up about it, into an eight-story tenement house (with basement and\nroof-garden), and we are shocked to find how much of our time and strength\nhas to go into merely climbing stairs.\nSo much by way of illustration, but the flash of an illustration must not\ndaze the doctrine; the public can afford to have for the public schools the best\nteachers, the best equipment, the best studies and courses; it cannot afford\nto have anything else.\nThe common school is of noble name, noble like the commonwealth it\nstands to represent, but he who falsely shifts the value of its name is warned\nhe dare call nothing common or unclean that service of humanity at large has\ncleansed.\nA SIGNIFICANT\nJOHN\n\nADAMS,\n\nLACK\n\nIN EDUCATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nLONDON,\n\nTERMINOLOGY\nENGLAND\n\nWhile an excess of technical terms in a given subject may suggest pedantry,\nan insufficient supply of such terms may not unfairly he held to indicate a lack\nof clear thinking. The absence of a word to indicate a quality or relation\nshows that the quality or relation in question is not felt to be of practical\nimportance. In educational terminology there is at least one striking example\nof such a lack, the unnamed concept being of first rate importance.\nIn exact writing, teaching and education are generally treated as more or\nless technical terms, teaching being confined to the process of conveying information or at the best imparting skill, while education deals with the process\nof deliberately modifying the development of the nature of the person affected.\n\n"} {"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nA LACK\n\nIN EDUCATIONAL\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\nObviously education is the wider term, for while all forms of teaching have a\nmore or less direct educational effect there are other ways than teaching by\nwhich education may be carried on. It is true that many claim to be educators\nmerely because they are teachers. In the United States in particular the words\nteacher and educator are being more and more used as synonymous, the word\nschoolman being treated as a technical term to include both actual teachers\nand those engaged in educational administration.\nThat education is not by any means confined to the school is shown by\nthe very words used to express what we ordinarily understand by the term.\nAmong the Greeks -n-atSua meant primarily the rearing of children. The\nGerman Erziehung, and the French elever have the same primary meaning of\nrearing, or bringing up. The familiar American form \"to raise,\" is exactly\nequivalent to the French term. So literally does elever limit itself to the actual\nrearing of children, that Littre applies, within brackets, the word allaiter as an\nequivalent. The word education in itself rouses hopes, since by its very derivation it suggests a theory. But, so far as French is concerned, we are disappointed, for we find the depressing note in Littre: \"ediication is a recent\nword: formerly one said nourriture.^'\nYet everyone who has had occasion to dip into books on school method is\nfamiliar with the endless discussions about the derivation of the word education.\nThe popular, one might almost call it the orthodox, derivation runs: e=out\nof, and duco = l lead. From this derivation a whole theory of teaching is\nsometimes evolved. The young teacher is warned that his main business\nis to draw out rather than to put in. The pupil is to be told as little as possible,\nand knowledge is rather to be ''elicited from the pupil by skilful questions\"\nthan communicated to him. It annoys the writers of such manuals if one\npoints out the existence of a Latin verb educare that meets all the needs of\nderivation, and yet carries with it no more elaborate theory than we can spin\nout of elever; for, among the meanings of this word educare is included the\nusual \"rearing of children.\" Some dictionaries give the meaning of the word\nas \"to bring up a child, physically or mentally.\" The dictionary certainly\ndoes its best to keep the educator humble.\nThe \"g=out of\" theory is not confined to the professional teachers. It has\nspread among laymen.\nWe find Edward Burne-Jones writing:\nEducation is a pretty enough word if it is taken literally, and intended to mean an\ninfluence that leads forth something already . in one, but they seldom mean anything so\nnice as that. By the present way people's faculties are more often stuffed up than drawn\nout. Inducation is rather the word that represents it. People ought to get into the habit\nof saying, quite in an ordinary tone of voice, \"My boys are being inducated at Eton.''^\n\nThere is here more than verbal criticism. We are dealing with what\neducation is and ought to be, rather than with the mere derivation of the word.\nThe school-manual derivation owes its influence to the fact that it is countenanced by a view of education that is sound.\nBurne-Jones emphasizes the\nMemorials 0} Edward Burne-Jones, Vol. II, p. 324 (year quoted 1897).\n\n"} {"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "I40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndistinction between merely supplying information on the one hand, and on\nthe other using knowledge in such a way as to modify character. The complaint really is that boys are being taught but not educated. The word inducation is used to bring out the fact that in our practical systems teaching is not\ndistinguished from education. These two are indeed very generally treated\nas if they were interchangeable terms. This fact requires some explanation,\nsince teaching is after all only a part of education. Sometimes, indeed, there\nis admitted to be an opposition between the two processes, as in those cases\nin which a particular method of teaching is described as uneducational. The\nmeaning here is obviously that the method in question does not produce good\nresults on the nature of the person taught. We have seen that all a teacher's\nmethods must have an educational effect, just as have all the other elements\nof the pupil's experience. Education includes teaching as the greater includes\nthe less, though to judge by popular speech one would almost be led to suppose\nthat it was the other way about. A well-educated man is usually understood\nto be a well-informed man, a man of wide knowledge. It is in this sense that\nAristotle is often called the best educated man the world has even seen. On\nany other view the compliment that is obviously meant for Aristotle himself\nwould have to be carried back to Aristotle's teacher, Plato; for the teacher is\nobviously responsible for the education of the pupil in the sense of a process\nthat modifies the nature of the pupil. In this sense Alexander is more entitled\nto the epithet than is his master, though in respect of mere knowledge the pupil\nnever even approached the master's level. Yet Hegel, speaking of Alexander\ntells us:\nAristotle left this grand nature as untrammeled as it was before his instruction ; but\nimpressed upon it a deep perception of what the true is, and formed the spirit which na ture had so richly endowed, to a plastic being, rolling freely like an orb through its\ncircumambient aether, i\n\nEducation has for its aim a modification of the nature of the person being educated, and not merely the supply of a certain amount of knowledge.\nThe knowledge-mongering theory is based upon an exaggeration of a\nprinciple that is in itself sound. Nurture forms as essential a part of true education as does what is usually called training. Instruction is indeed of fundamental importance in education, but it cannot stand alone. Knowledge must\nbe used as a means toward an end. It is true that there are certain elements\nof knowledge that may be said to be of use in themselves, and apart from any\neffect they may have upon the character. Subjects that are merely ancillary\nto other subjects are of this nature, subjects that Lord Avebury would call\n\"knife-and-fork studies.\" Even here, however, it is doubtful whether the\ndistinction will really hold, for what is a knife-and-fork study at a given stage\nmay well have been a culture study at an earlier stage.\nIn fact we cannot reasonably separate knowledge from the knowing person.\nThe very grammatical function of the verb \"to teach\" with its double accusa» Philosophy of History, Part II, Sec. 2.\n\n"} {"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nA LACK\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\n141\n\ntive, drives us to the conclusion that the process becomes meaningless if we\ntry to deal with the subject taught apart from the person to whom it is taught.\nWhether he will or not, the \"mere\" teacher is to this extent an educator.\nHow far he is a genuine educator, that is, how far he deliberately seeks to\nmodify the pupil's character in a given direction, is another question.\nSo far as the general public is interested in the matter at all it is inclined\nto admit the teacher's claim to rank as an educator. It is only too willing to\nhold him responsible for the conduct of his pupils after they leave school.\nHe is taken to task for producing the Hooligan and the Apache, or at the\nvery least for not preventing their production. Probably too much is expected\nof the school. The public has an almost Red-Indian belief in the marvels\nthat can be worked there. We have Max Miiller's authority for the statement that the terms used by the red men to signify a school may be literally\nrendered ''a stopping place where sorcery is practiced.\"\nEvery good schoolman will prefer that too much rather than too little\nshould be expected from the school, and will welcome the growing reaction\nagainst the view that it is a mere knowledge shop. Still he knows that teaching\nand education are not synonymous and should be anxious to learn why they\nare so readily accepted as such by the public. The two processes resemble\neach other inasmuch as both are bipolar, they have each an active and a passive\nmember: there is the teacher and the person taught, the educator and the\nperson educated. Between the active and the passive persons in the two\nprocesses there is obviously a continuous interaction. In each process there\nis a pair of persons. As a consequence there is need for a pair of correlative\nwords in each case. In the one process teacher is the name given to the active\nperson, and corresponding to this in ordinary speech we have the term pupil.\nIn the case of education we have the active side represented by the word\neducator, but when we seek for the corresponding term for the passive side\nwe find that it is lacking. The man who writes on education, as a wider\nterm than mere teaching, has to fall back on such expressions as ''the person\nto be educated,\" or \"the person being educated.\" The interesting thing is\nthat most of those who write in English on this subject do not seem to feel the\nneed of a correlate for educator. They appear to be quite content to make\nthe word pupil serve their purpose. At the early stages of educational theory\nit may have been pardonable to make one term meet the needs of both teaching\nand education. But it is remarkable that as theory has developed this double\nwork should have been for so long exacted from a single term.\nIt has to be admitted that this lack of an essential word has not gone entirely\nunobserved: for on referring to Dr. Murray's Historical Dictionary of the\nEnglish Langmge, it will be found that the word \"educatee\" does occur,\nwith the explanation, \"one who is subjected to the process of education.\"\nBut it is accompanied by a note in italics that describes it as a \"nonce word,\"\na word, that is, that has not justified its claim to a place in the language, but\nhas been used by some writers for the nonce, to meet a passing need. Nothing\n\n"} {"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncould better illustrate the lateness of the emergence of an adequate educational\ntheory than this long continued satisfaction with an inaccurate correlate to\nthe word educator. It is only occasionally and in unimportant connections\nthat the need of the correlative has been felt. In the two examples of the\nuse of the word ''educatee\" supplied in the dictionary by Dr. Murray, one\ncannot help finding a somewhat contemptuous connotation. Like a triple\nrhyme, words ending in \"ee\" suggest a flippant context. There is in such\nwords usually a lack of philological justification.\nIn drawing up a syllabus of lectures on education there must be frequent\nreferences to the passive partner in the process, and since education is not\nlimited to the case of pupils or students there is an imperative need of a proper\nterm. In searching for a better word to express what is meant, we find that\nwe can appeal to the respectable authority of the Latin grammar, where we\ndiscover just the form we desire in that ending in — ndus. The educand would\nliterally mean the person that ought to be educated, or that is suitable for,\nor worthy of, education. Objectionable as are neologisms, it may be permitted\nto recommend the use of a term that so accurately represents the idea intended\nto be conveyed, an idea for which we have at present no equivalent in English.\nBesides, the word, after all, is only a revival. It was never current, but it\nwas used by some writers. Thus in William Petty 's Advice, dated 1648, we\nfind the words ''that the educands be taught to observe and remember all\nsensible Objects and Actions.\" The word was used in a serious way, unlike\nediicatee, so that it had its chance, like any other word, of establishing its place\nin the language. That it did not succeed in making good its claim to a permanent place can be explained only on the assumption that the study of\neducation was not sufficiently developed to make the term essential. No one\ncan write much at present on the subject of education without feeling hampered\nthrough the lack of a word to express exactly what is covered by Petty's term.\nTo use the word pupil as a correlative to both teaching and educating is to\nbeg a whole series of questions that it is the business of the lecturer or writer\nto answer.\nIt is true that there is danger of allowing a fallacy to creep into our writing through an insistence upon the correlation between the educator and the\neducand. While the educator plays the active part and the educand the\npassive in the process of education, as such, we must not let the passive form\nof the word edticand blind us to the fact that in education the person to be\neducated must necessarily bestir himself. One of the most pestilent heresies\nin education is this very notion of the passivity of the educand. He is certainly\nthe object upon which the educator acts : very frequently he is entirely in the\npower of the educator: under certain circumstances he can be none other than\nthe educator determines. But it does not at all follow that he is, as a human\nbeing, passive. It is of the very essence of successful education that the educand should be kept in a state of activity. To save the educand from spending\neither time or trouble over his work is no part of the educator's plan — unless\n\n"} {"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nA LACK\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\n143\n\nindeed the time and trouble would be spent uneducationally. A great part\nof the educator's work is to stir up the necessary mental and physical activity\non the part of the educand. So far as the educand is a living developing being\nhe is active in the process of education, though in the regulation of the process\nhe plays the passive part. In the educational process, as educational process,\nthe educator is active, though he appears to be doing little. The cavalry\ndrill sergeant who stands still in the middle of the riding-school, and uses\nonly his tongue, is educationally active, while the recruits who career violently\nround the ring are educationally passive.\nEven in the regulation of the educational process the educand may take a\nshare, in so far as he enters upon what is known as self-education. The pupil\nwho prepares with scrupulous exactness the work prescribed by his teacher\nis no doubt being educated; he is an educand and nothing more. But at a\nlater stage he probably realizes the need of making himself better than he\nis, either in skill or in knowledge, to say nothing of morals. As soon as he\nseeks to make himself different from what he is at present, he takes himself\nin hand, and to that extent ceases to be an educand and becomes an educator.\nA good system of education is marked by just this transition step by step from\neducand to educator. At the earlier stages the educator does practically all\nthe work as educator; but as the process advances the educand takes a hand,\nand by and by comes to such a mastery over himself that he is practically his\nown educator. This does not mean that at the higher stages there is no need\nof an educator, but that at those stages the teaching element is more prominent\nthan the educational. It is not so much that the educand is educated by his\nteacher as that he educates himself by reaction upon his teacher. The professional teacher becomes a means by which the educand completes his own\neducation. The whole process of education may be said to be one in which\nthe educand becomes gradually transformed into his own educator. At the\nearliest stage the educand is literally educand and nothing more. By and by\nhe begins to take a share in his own education and the educator element\nincreases at the expense of the educand element, till at last the stage is reached\nat which the educand element practically disappears. Ambitious people\nseek to strengthen their position by making themselves indispensable. The\ntrue professional educator must seek for success by quite another route. Like\nthe good doctor, the good educator proves his worth by making himself unnecessary. The true educator is never satisfied with his work on any given educand\ntill his occupation, so far as that educand is concerned, is gone.\nSince in the scientific study of education the term educand or some equivalent is necessary, we must seek to discover why the need for it has been so\nslightly felt. The explanation is full of encouragement for the teacher who\ndoes not shirk responsibility. It is to be found in the fact that knowledge\nafter all is the chief educational organon. Few people will find much to object\nto in the widely accepted definition of education: \"The science of human\ndevelopment so far as that development is deliberately modified by the impart-\n\n"} {"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ning of knowledge.\" This definition embodies, though it can hardly be said\nto be founded upon, the principle that underlies Herbart's theory of moral\neducation. If the basis of Herbart's theory could be expressed in one sentence,\nthat sentence would run: ''The will has its root in the circle of thought.\"\nOur activity depends upon our mental content. This is not a mere restatement\nof the old Socratic, \"Virtue is knowledge.\" Herbart is not content with a\nmere knowledge of right and wrong. He claims that all knowledge has an\neducational significance. The whole circle of thought has an effect in determining the nature of the soul's volitions. The soul must-be nurtured as well as\ntrained. Herbart would have welcomed the old French equivalent for education, nourriture. The soul that is poorly supplied with ideas, even if the\nideas are good, cannot rise to what Herbart would call virtue. This is what\nhe means when he says \"stupid people cannot be virtuous\" — a remarkable\nstatement in the ears of the plain man who is inclined to believe that this is\nthe one thing that stupid people can be. Herbart's word, stump jsinnig,\nrendered stupid cannot fairly be translated ignorant, though it implies ignorance. For your dull-sensed person finds it difficult to acquire knowledge\nand so must always remain ignorant in comparison with his more favored\nfellows.\nThe fact that we have been so long content to let the word pupil do the\ndouble work of pupil and educand is an unconscious, and therefore all the more\nreliable, proof that people in general agree with Herbart that in imparting\nknowledge we are modifying character. Though for technical analysis both\nterms are necessary, we have to admit that the pupil is necessarily an educand.\nThis equivalence sweeps away for ever the justification for the attitude of that\nclass of teachers — fortunately a very small class — who maintain that they are\nteachers only and decline to be held responsible for anything but the communication of knowledge or skill. The teacher is not a mere knowledge-monger,\nbut, whether he will or no, a man-maker; the school is not a knowledge-store\nbut a man-factory, a veritable officina hominum.\n\n"} {"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nMEETING,\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n1907\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING SESSION— Tuesday, February 26, 1907\nThe meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational\nAssociation was called to order in Music Hall, Fine Arts Building, Chicago, 111., at 9 : 30 a.m.,\nby President W. W. Stetson, of Maine.\nThe invocation was offered by Rev. R. A. White, of Chicago.\nMayor Dunne, who was to have delivered one of the addresses of welcome, was unable\nto be present, and E. G. Cooley, superintendent of city schools of Chicago, on behalf of\nthe city and the schools, welcomed the members of the department to the city.\nA response to the address of welcome was made by Hon. Nathan C. Schaeffer, president of the National Educational Association.\nPresident Stetson then introduced J. B. Aswell, state superintendent of public instruction. Baton Rouge, La., who read a paper on the topic, \"Is the Child the Ward of the\nNation ?\" The second topic, \"What Should the PubHc Do for the Care and Training of\nChildren before They Are Admitted to the Public Schools ?\" was discussed by Miss Ada\nVan Stone Harris, assistant superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y.\nThe two papers were then discussed by Mrs. Ella F. Young, principal of the Chicago\nNormal School; Miss Amalie Hofer, Chicago Commons, 111.; and S. Y. Gillan, Editor of\nThe Western Teacher, Milwaukee, Wis.\nThe third address of the session was delivered by James H. Eckels, president of the\nCommercial National Bank, Chicago, 111., on \"The Financial Value of Education.\"\nThe department adjourned until 2 : 30 p. M.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe afternoon session of the department was called to order by President Stetson,\nat 2:30 o'clock.\nThe first paper was read by Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, of Augusta,\nGa., on the subject, \"Should the School Attempt the Circle of the Child's Training, or\nAddress Itself to the School Segment ?\"\nThe second topic, \"Admitting That Our Schools Are Defective, Who Is Responsible\nfor the Present Conditions?\" was discussed by Payson Smith, superintendent of schools\nof Auburn, Me.\nThe third topic of the afternoon, \"Has the Product of Our Schools Reasonable Fitness in Scholarship and Personal QuaHties for Citizenship?\" was discussed by Samuel\nHamilton, superintendent of schools for Allegheny County, Braddock, Pa.\nA general discussion followed.\nMr. E. O. Vaile, of Oak Park, 111., being 14recognized\nby the chair, made the following\n5\nreport:\nIt has been just ten years since this Department, at its Indianapolis meeting, first definitely committed\ni tself to the support and use of a very brief step in simplified spelling. At that meeting a resolution was passed\n\n"} {"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ndirecting the secretary of the Association, in printing the proceedings of the Department, to use such amended\nspellings regularly, until instructed otherwise by vote, as might be prescribed by a committee consisting of Dr.\n\\V, T. Harris, Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, and Superintendent T. M. Balliet. This committee designated the twelve words which by subsequent vote by the board of Directors have since been used in all the\nprinted matter issued by the N. E. A. All will admit that the initial step has borne fruit. It gave standing\nand impetus to the spelling reform idea which were sorely needed. For the past ten years this Department\nhas been the arena in which the contest for rational spelling has been waged. Echoes from the debates on\nthe platform and on this floor have reached the outside world every year, and have served to convince it as\nnothing else has or could, that in this reform there is sound sense.\nEight years ago, I beUeve, in this very place, occurred the tnemorable debate as to whether or not the\nDepartment should petition the board of directors to appoint a board of 21 prominent public men to head the\nmovement, with Dr. Wm. R. Harper as chairman — all of them being specifically named in the resolution with\ntheir consent — and to give it annually a considerable sum. of money for promotion work. Many of you remember\nthe excitement of that session. Its like has never occurred on any other occasion in the history of the department. Tho the proposition lacked seven votes, I believe, of carrying, the uniform courtesy and good humor\nwhich prevailed thruout, the cogent arguments which remained unanswered, and the fact that those 21 men\nhad enough interest in and respect for spelling reform to allow themselves to be nominated in the proposed\npetition — this produced a strong impression in favor of the general cause and even in favor of the appropriation. Its practical effect was as intended, to fix in the mind of our educators, and as far as possible in the\nmind of the pubUc, a definite process and policy by which this reform would be lifted from its estate of contempt and ridicule and could be pushed and kept within moderate lines, safe from radicals, and zealots.\nThe plan of organized effort proposed and emphasized in that debate led directly to the establishment of\nthe present Simplified Spelling Board, and eight of the proposed members nominated at that time have\nseats today on the present board.\nThe next salient move was at the Atlanta meeting where a decisive victory of nearly 3 to i was scored\nin favor of petitioning the directors to appoint the board and to appropriate money for its use. The matter\nwas duly laid before the board of directors who according to the rule referred it to the Council of Education\nwhere dilatory if not unfair tactics in regard to it prevailed for two or three years. In the meantime, thru\nrepresentations originating from the same source that had shaped the various propositions which year by\nyear had been brought before this department, Mr. Andrew Carnegie decided to finance a trial of the\n\"Board\" plan of a simpUfied-spelling propaganda, and the present Simplified Spelling Board, on his invitation and promise to furnish funds, came into being a year ago, and has been at work since.\nTen years is a long time \"to 1 abor and to wait,\" to labor and to wait so strenuously. But the fruit is\ncoming, slowly to be sure, but with certainty I beUeve. While I regret that the N. E. A. did not take what\nseems to me its logical and natural step as petitioned by the superintendents, it is of the greatest credit to the\neducators that it has done what it has, that it has fairly and fully faced this question, that it has focused\npublic attention upon it, that by discussion it has clarified the spelUng reform propositions, and by its own\nexample and precept has shown how progress can be made. I believe the majority of you appreciate and\ncommend the coiu^age and the progressive spirit of the millionaire philanthropist who, by his timely and\neffective support of this reform, has added a unique epitaph on his monument for posterity to read.\nBefore submitting my resolutions it seems fitting that I should make a brief statement of the present\nsituation as reported by the secretary of the Simplified Spelling Board:\nMore than 14,000 persons have signed the promise to use the simpler spellings recommended by the\nboard, among them 4,000 educators — superintendents of schools, professors in colleges and universities, presidents of colleges and universities, etc.\nSimpUfied spelHngs have been adopted or authorized in many school systems, normal schools, colleges,\nuniversities, and hbraries, and recommended by state and local educational associations.\nNot only have the philologists and linguistic scholars generally reafiirmed their urgent approval of simphfied sp)elling, but a large number of scientists have done the same.\nPresident Roosevelt has adopted simplified spelling in his personal and official correspondence, and in\nfurther testimony of his approval of the principle and the practice he has accepted membership in the Simplified\nSpelling Board. The principal circulars of the board have been reprinted by the government and circulated\nin government oflSces everywhere.\nAltho no formal canvass has yet been undertaken abroad, inquiries come daily from Great Britain, Canada,\nand Australia, and from every country where English is spoken or taught. In England and Scotland especially there is great interest. Six eminent scholars in Great Britain and two in Canada are members of the\nAmerican board and will assist in the plans for an international effort to promote the reform.\nAbout 150 periodicals, many of national circulation, are now using simplified spellings, and more have\nagreed to join a general league of periodicals in an advanced step.\nMore\nthan 2,000 business men, firms, and corporations are using the simpler spellings in their correspondence\nand advertisements.\nI submit, Mr. President, that this is a pretty good record. It shows that every man and woman who\nbelieves in this movement may now lend a hand with safety and with assurance that his influence will count.\nWhether the time has come for an advance step we all leave, of course, for the Simplified Spelling Board to\ndecide. But I desire to submit two resolutions, to be voted on separately, which for its own sake as well as\nfor the sake of the cause. I hope the Department will adopt.\nThese are the two resolutions:\nResolved: (i) That the Department of Superintendence, N. E. A., hereby expresses its gratification at\nthe creation and the policy of the Simplified SpelUng Board, and at President Roosevelt's active and conspicuous\nsupport of the simplified spelling movement.\n\n"} {"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n1 47\n\nResolved: (2) That it is the judgment of this Department that all school authorities should permit and\nencourage the use of the simpler spellings, recommended by the Simplified Spelling Board, by all teachers and\npupils who feel inclined to use them.\nI move the adoption of the first resolution.\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kan., moved that the resolution be referred to the committee on Resolutions.\nJ. D. Simpkins, Newark, Ohio, opposed the motion of Mr. MacDonald, on the\nground that it throttled free discussion.\nThe motion to refer to the Committee on Resolutions was then put and lost.\nThe vote then recurred on the original motion, which was carried.\nMr. Vaile then moved the adoption of the second resolution. Arthur Powell, Middleton, Ohio, moved that the words \"and encourage,\" be stricken out of the resolution.\nThis amendment was accepted by Mr. Vaile and his second, and with this modifica\ntion the resolution was put and lost.\nA reconsideration of the vote on the first resolution was then called |or. This was\ngranted, and on a standing vote, the first resolution was again carried.\nPresident Stetson then announced the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nW. H. Maxwell, of New York\nW. C. Bates, of Massachusetts\nE. G. Cooley, of Illinois\nJ. C. Blanton, of South CaroHna\nA. C. Nelson, of Utah\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nJ. H. Phillips, of Alabama\nJ. H. Hinemon, of Arkansas\nJeremiah Burke, of Massachusetts W. N. Clifford, of Iowa\nE. C. Moore, of CaUfornia\nThe department then adjourned until 8:15 p. m.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe evening session was called to order at 8:15 by President W. W. Stetson. The\nfirst number on the program was a selection by the Imperial Quartette of Chicago.\nThe address of the evening was delivered by Chancellor E. Benjamin Andrews, of\nthe University of Nebraska, on the subject, \"The Problems of Greater America.\"\nAdjournment was taken to 9:30 a. m., Wednesday, February 27.\n\nSECOND\n\nDAY\n\nMORNING SESSION.— Wednesday, February 27, 1907\nThe morning session of the Department was called to order by President W. W.\nStetson, at 9:30 o'clock.\nAn invocation was offered by Dr. Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania.\nThe following communication from the Science Department of the University of\nChicago was read, and, on motion, referred to the Committee on Resolutions :\nThe University of Chicago\nRyerson Physical Laboratory\nChicago, February 25, 1907.\nW. W. Stetson, Esq., President of the Department of Superintendence:\nMy dear Sir: It has been suggested to me that possibly the Department of Superintendence might like to co-operate with a number of other organizations in the country in a\nvery interesting piece of educational work. This work is an extensive investigation into\nthe shortcomings of the work in physics in the schools, and an attempt to suggest methods\nby which\nthis the\nsubject\nbe made\nmore valuable\nto the'students.\nThe work\nwas acting\nbegun\nlast\nyear by\nNorthmayCentral\nAssociation\nof Colleges\nand Preparatory\nSchools,\nin co-operation with the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers.\nThese two associations have invited others to co-operate in the work, and fifteen have\nresponded by appointing committees to take part in it. Among these associations are\n\n"} {"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe American Physical Society, the New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory\nSchools, the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Southern States,\nThe New York State Science Teachers' Association, etc. The committees appointed by\nthese seventeen associations have organized into one large committee, with fifty-seven\nmembers, and are engaged in framing a new set of requirements for the unit in physics,\nand in drawing up a set of suggestions to help the teacher in making the subject more\ntruly educative.\nThe fifty-seven members of the committee are all physics teachers excepting four,\nwho are speciaHsts in education, namely. Professors P. H. Hanus, John Dewey, G. H.\nMead, and M. V. O'Shea. The work is being carried on by means of printed circulars\nand letters, samples of which are inclosed.\nIn the course of the investigation there have several times arisen points of administrative policy, which would be of great interest to your body, and in the solution of which\nwe need your assistance. One such point now under discussion is that of the certification\nof physics teachers, the admission to college by certificate, and the accrediting of secondary\nschools. As chairman of the large committee or commission, I take this liberty of writing\nto you to suggest that we would be much pleased to have the Department of Superintendence appoint a committee of three or five members to help us in this work. We are\nfinding that the investigation cannot be confined to the subject of physics alone, but is\nbound to include before it is finished the other sciences. Hence the work is bound to be\none of considerable scope and importance before it is finished.\nDuring the past year, I have had some Hght correspondence concerning this work\nwith your second vice-president, Mr. R. J. Tighe, with Mr. E. E. Brown, the national\ncommissioner, with Mr. J. H. Van Sickle, and others, to whom you could refer for further\ninformation. I also expect to attend most of the meetings, and would be glad to furnish\nadditional information. I hope it is not too late to bring this matter before the section\nfor action at this meeting. Thanking you for any attention you may be willing to give\nto this, I am,\nYours respectfully,\n(Signed)\n\nC.\n\nR.\n\nMann.\n\nA paper on the first topic, \"What Fraction of the Pupils in Our Secondary Schools\nCannot Derive Compensating Advantages Therefrom ?\" was read by W. J. S. Bryan,\nprincipal of the Central High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nThe theme of the second topic was \"What Has Been the Effect on the Pupil of the\nMultiplication of Subjects of Study and of Refinement of Methods ?\" The subject was\ndiscussed by Commissioner E. A. Jones, Columbus, Ohio.\nThe third paper of the morning, on \" Order of Development and Studies Suited to\nEach Stage,\" was read by W. E. Chancellor, superintendent of schools, Washington, D. C.\nDiscussion followed by J. W. Crabtree, president of State Normal School, Peru,\nNeb., and Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of pubHc instruction, Springfield, 111.\nAt this point Dr. W. T. Harris, former United States Commissioner of Education,\nwas invited to the rostrum and given an ovation of enthusiastic applause by the Department. He spoke briefly on the topics under discussion.\nBUSINESS SESSION\nPresident N. C. Schaeffer, of the National Educational Association, then addressed\n♦he Department on the subject of the fiftieth anniversary meeting of the Association,\nexplaining the reasons for holding the meetings in Los Angeles instead of in Philadelphia.\nMr. E. C. Moore, superintendent of city schools, of Los Angeles, was then introduced,\nand extended a cordial welcome to the superintendents and teachers to the meeting at\nLos Angeles.\nSuperintendent W. H. Maxwell, of New York, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, then read the following recommendation of officers for the ensuing year: —\nPresident — Frank B. Cooper, Seattle, Washington.\nFirst Vice-President — Stratton D. Brooks, Boston, Massachusetts.\nSecond Vice-President — Ella C. Sullivan, Chicago, 111.\nSecretary —GeorgQ B. Cook, Hot Springs, Arkansas.\nOn motion, the report of the committee was accepted, and the nominees declared\nelected.\n\n"} {"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nI49\n\nThe question of the place of meeting for the year 1908 was then taken up, and Superintendent W. E. Chancellor, of Washington, D. C, extended an invitation to the Department to meet in that city. Superintendent E. G. Cooley, of Chicago, invited the Department to meet again in Chicago.\nSuperintendent M. A. Whitney, Elgin, lUinois, moved that the Department accept\nSuperintendent Chancellor's invitation to meet in Washington. Superintendent C. G.\nPearse, of Milwaukee, seconded the motion, and, on vote, the invitation to meet in Washington in 1908 was unanimously accepted.\nThe morning session closed with a song from the Imperial Quartette, commemorative\nof the birthday of Henry W. Longfellow.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nROUND-TABLE\n\nSESSIONS\n\nThe following programs were carried out during the afternoon from 2:30 to 6 : 00\no'clock p. M.\nA.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE,\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nLeader — Thomas C. Miller, state superintendent of free schools, Charleston, W. Va\nTopic — \"The Country School and Its Betterment.\"\n(a) How to Improve Rural Schools: Miss Katherine L. Craig, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Denver, Colo.\n(b) Rural School Supervision: J. W. Olsen, state superintendent of pubhc instruction, St. Paul, Minn.; Discussion led by R. B. Cousins, state superintendent of pubhc\ninstruction, Austin, Texas; C. F. Baxter, State Superintendent of public instruction, of\nNew Jersey.\n(c) A Course of Study for District Schools: M. Bates Stephens, state superintendent\nof public education, Annapolis, Md.\n(d) Manual Training in Rural Schools : Arthur H. Chamberlain, dean and professor\nof education, Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal.\n(e) The Consohdated School and the New Agriculture: O. J. Kern, county superintendent ofschools, Rockford, 111. Discussion led by E. E. Balcomb, department of agriculture and physiography. Southwestern State Normal School, Weatherford, Okla.;\nCap E. Miller, county superintendent of schools, Sigourney, Iowa.\n(/) The Value of Educational Campaigns: J. L. McBrien, state superintendent of\npubhc instruction, Lincoln, Nebraska. Discussion led by Mason S. Stone, superintendent\nof education for Vermont.\n(g) School Board Convention: C. P. Gary, state superintendent of public instruction,\nMadison, Wis. Discussion led by Mason S. Stone, state superintendent of education,\nMontpelier, Vt.\nB.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE,\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF MEDIUM\n\nAND\n\nSMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\nLeader — George B. Cook, superintendent of schools. Hot Springs, Ark.\n(a) The Advantages and Disadvantages of Changing the Elementary Course from\nEight to Seven Years and of Making the High-School Course Five Years: James _M.\nGreenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo. Discussion led by J. H. PhiUips,\nsuperintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala.; R. B. D. Simons, superintendent of schools,\nHannibal, Mo.\n(b) What Should the Smaller Cities Attempt for the Education of Defective ChildrenPhysical, Mental, and Moral ? John Dietrich, superintendent of schools, Colorado\nSprings, Colo. Discussion led by Geo. A. Franklin, superintendent of schools, Faribault,\nMinn.; J. W. Kuykendall, superintendent of schools. Fort Smith, Ark.\n(c) The Relation of the Physical Nature of the Child to His Mental and Moral\nDevelopment: George W. Reid, superintendent of schools, Monroe, La.; John A. Stewart,\nsuperintendent of schools, Bay City, Mich.\n(d) An Overcrowded Curriculum: G. V. Buchanan, superintendent of schools,\nSedaha, Mo.\nC,\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE,\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\nLeader — W. H. Elson superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nTopic — \"The Need for Special Classes.\"\n\n"} {"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "150\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\n(a) Is There Need for Industrial Schools for Pupils Unlikely to Complete the Regular\nElementary School Course and Go on to the High School ? Should It Provide Trade\nInstruction ? Samuel P. Orth, member of board of education, Cleveland, Ohio; L. D.\nHarvey, superintendent of schools, Menomonie, Wis.; F. B. Dyer, superintendent of\nschools, Cincinnati, Ohio. Discussion led by Henry P. Emerson, superintendent of city\nschools, Buffalo, N. Y.\nib) At What Should the Ungraded Room Aim and for What Class of Pupils Should\nIt Provide ? C. R. Frazier, superintendent of schools, Winona, Minn. Discussion led\nby W. L, Stephens, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Neb.; C. F. Carroll, superintendent\nof schools, Rochester, N. Y.; George A. Chamberlain, principal East Division High School,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n(c) The Separation of Physically and Mentally Defective Children from the Regular\nSchool: C. G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\n{d) The Separation of the Insubordinate and Incorrigible Children from the Regular\nSchool: W. C. Martindale, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.; W. N. Clifford,\nsuperintendent of schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe evening session of the department was called to order at 8:15 by President\nW. W. Stetson.\nMusic was furnished by the Imperial Quartette.\nThe address of the evening was delivered by Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, of Chicago, on\nthe subject, \"Many or One.\"\n\nTHIRD DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, February 28\n\nThe session was called to order by President Stetson at 9:30 o'clock.\nThe invocation was offered by Rev. Joseph Stoltz of Chicago.\nThe first topic of the morning — \"Should the School Furnish Better Training for\nthe Non-average Child ?\" — was discussed by John R. Kirk, president of the State Normal\nSchool, Kirks ville, Mo.\nThe assigned speaker on the second topic — Professor P. P. Claxton, of the University\nof Tennessee — was unable to be present, and his place was taken by Superintendent J. M.\nGreenwood, of Kansas City. The subject was \"Are We Experimenting Too Much and\nDevoting Too Little Time and Effort to the Fundamentals ? \"\nThe third topic of the morning— \" What Are the Essentials in Subjects in the Elementary-School Course ?\" — was presented by Elmer E. Brown, United States Commissioner\nof Education, Washington, D. C.\nPresident N. C. Schaeffer then read an invitation to attend the International Peace\nCongress, New York, April 14-17.\nThe papers of the morning were discussed by Chas. H. Keyes, supervisor of South\nDistrict Schools, Hartford, Conn.; C. F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y.; Chas. A. McMurry, acting president State Normal School, California, Pa.;\nMrs. Grace Reed, principal of John B. Drake School, Chicago, 111.; F. Louis Soldan,\nsuperintendent of instruction, St. Louis, Mo.; Geo. E. Gay, superintendent of schools,\nHaverhill, Mass.; F. D. Boynton, superintendent of schools, Ithaca, N. Y. James H.\nVan Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md., then presented a report of the Committee on History, of which he was chairman.\nThe morning session closed with music by William Wade Hinshaw, of Chicago.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe department was called to order at 2:30 p. m. by President Stetson.\nThe first paper of the afternoon was read by Superintendent A. V. Storm, Iowa City\nIowa, on the subject \" Minimum\n\nQualifications for Teachers of the Elementary School.\"\n\n"} {"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nI51\n\nThe second topic, \" Minimum Qualifications for the Teacher in the Secondary School,\"\nwas discussed by Henry Suzzallo, assistant professor of education, Leland Stanford Jr.\nUniversity.\nThe third topic — \"The Growth of the Teacher; How Continued?\" — was presentedby W. F. Gordy, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was read by Superintendent J. H.\nPhillips, Birmingham, Ala., and on motion the resolutions were adopted as the sentiment\nof the department.\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nResolved: (i) That the thanks of this Department are due and are hereby extended\nto Mr. C. M. Treat Secretary of the Convention Bureau Committee of the Chicago Commercial Association for the excellent accommodations provided for its meetings, and to\nSuperintendent E. G. Cooley and other Chicago educational ofi&cials for valuable assistance rendered.\nResolved: (2) That the thanks of this Department are hereby extended to President W. W. Stetson for the excellence in the preparation and the rare felicity in the presentation ofthe splendid program which has given character and distinction to this meeting of the Department.\nResolved: (3) That we urge upon all law-making bodies and upon all boards of\neducation the necessity of making every effort possible to remove from all children the\ntemptation to form the habit of cigarette smoking; and to use all the means in their power\nto discourage a habit which lowers character and undermines the foundations of citizenship.\nResolved: (4) That a Committee of Five be appointed by the President of this department to co-operate with similar committees of other scientific associations in the discussion\nof the problem of science work in the secondary schools of the United States.\nResolved: (5) That we recognize the great significance of the movement to substitute arbitration for war in the settlement of international disputes, and recommend the\nobservance of the i8th day of May of each year by the schools of the United States in\ncommemoration of the conference which led to the establishment of the Peace Tribunal at\nThe Hague.\nResolved: (6) That we reafi&rm our belief that the paramount educational question\nof the hour is the employment and retention of a suflScient number of well-qualified teachers\nto fill all of our pubUc schools, and that this Department pledges itself to use its best\nendeavors to secure such compensation as will enable teachers to prepare themselves\nproperly for their work and to justify them in remaining permanently in the profession\nof teaching.\nBy the Committee,\nJ. H. Phillips, Chairman\nJeremiah Burke\nJ. H.N. HiNEMON\nW.\nClifford\nE. C. Moore\nPresident W. W. Stetson then introduced and welcomed the incoming president of\nthe Department, Superintendent Frank B. Cooper, of Seattle, Wash.\nFollowing a feUcitous response by Superintendent Cooper, the department adjourned\nto meet in Washington in 1908.\nJ. H. Harris,\nSecretary.\nThe following were appointed by President Stetson as a Committee on Science Instruc\ntion in Secondary Schools, to co-operate with various other committees representing the\nAssociations named in the letter of Professor C. R. Mann, of the University of Chicago,\nand authorized by Resolution No 4,' of the report of the Committee on Resolutions, viz:\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of City Schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nMason S. Stone, state superintendent of Education, Montpelier, Vt.\nJames A. Barr, superintendent of City Schools, Stockton, Cal.\nFrank D. Boynton, superintendent of City Schools, Ithaca, N. Y.\nW. J. S. Bryan, principal Central High School, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n"} {"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nJAMES\n\nB.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nIS THE\n\nCHILD\n\nTHE\n\nAS WELL,\n\nSTATE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nWARD\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nROUGE,\n\nOF THE\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nNATION?\nEDUCATION,\n\nBATON\n\nLA.\n\nThe responsibility for the child's birth may rest with the parent as a mere\nbreeding animal, but the responsibility for the child's living must rest with the\nparent as the socially, morally, poHtically responsible agency for the enrichment of the child's life, and for giving it its highest individual efficiency.\nBut this parent does and must enter into the community Hfe in which he and\nthe child must live. The community thus becomes vitally interested in the\ncharacter of the training the parent gives the child, deeply concerned as to the\nindividual that is growing into its life ; for the community in this century has\na right to expect from the child through the parent a high quality of business\nand social service. The life of the community not only depends upon, but is\nthe expression of, the intelligence and moraHty of its individual members.\nThe child, in this sense, is the ward of the community.\nBut the community is an organic part of that larger organization, the\nstate, whose stability and efficiency must depend upon the individual over\nwhose training the community is watching with zealous care. Thus the state\nin looking to the community and the parent for the material for its life and\nperpetuity finds its first concern in providing for the education of the child,\nthe citizen to be, that he may vote intelHgently, work effectively, hve honestly;\nthat he may have vision, courage, character. Thus, the child is the ward of\nthe state, not as an adopted creature, but by his inherent right as the fellowcitizen of every other individual in the state. He has a right to demand such\nopportunity as will enable him to render, in his own way, the most efficient\nservice, and thus become a valuable asset to the state, worthy of the privilege\nof citizenship.\nA fifteen-year-old boy, charged with stealing a sack of flour, said in court,\n*I stole it because the world owes me a living. \" The state does not owe the\nchild a living, but it owes him a fair chance to earn a living. It owes him\ninfinitely more, the privilege of learning and loving truth which is fundamental\nin all right educational effort; it owes him an environment which helps him\nestablish for himself definite character-standards.\nWhen the armies of Louis XIV were devastated in Flanders, the monarch\nexclaimed: \" Has God forgotten all that I have done for him ?\" The state\nis not responsible to the parent for educating his child because of anything the\nparent has done, but the state is responsible for the development of the individual for his own sake, the building of complete manhood as a prerequisite\nof citizenship, whereby the state ultimately profits. It is not the business of\nthe state to force every child's education into one mold, suppressing individual\nmotive, and thus produce a colorless civilization.\nAll legitimate educational\n\n"} {"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] IS THE\n\nCHILD\n\nTHE\n\nWARD\n\nOF THE\n\nNATION?\n\n153\n\nendeavor whose purpose is character building should be encouraged, for\nwhen all our educational institutions, public, private, and parochial, are given\nopportunity for the rendition of their best service, still our educational equipment is pitifully inadequate to the varying demands of the century. Moreover, education in a democracy is not a state drill for the state's defense,\nirrespective of the amount of the individual profit derived from the drill. The\nstate owes it to itself to provide for the education of the child because of what\nthe child may become. It is the business of the state to protect him and\naid him as he grows into the state, a man — righteous, strong, and free.\nThe state is the guardian of the child not in the sense of paternalism, but\nout of self-interest it seeks to develop the thinking, struggling individual who\nserves to interpret and modify tendencies in the social movement. The freethinking individual is vital to the Hfe of social progress and indispensable to\nits growth. \"He is the only avenue through which the social temper may\nflow and emerge in forms new for the weal or woe of the state.'' A picture\nor a poem must strike some general sentiment or have so general a meaning\nthat the average man may understand and feel its beauty before it can approach\npopular appreciation. The state best serves itself when it gives hope to the\nhumblest man, and raises the hfe-standard of the average man. Society\nitself is not a thinker, not a doer ; it is always moved by individuals who work\nupon it through other individuals. The individual thinks, feels, and protests\nagainst existing conditions, causing others so to do, and thus creates a change\nin the common mind by which society disintegrates to socialism or finds\nexpression in triumphant democracy.\nThe reason, therefore, for the need of a common intelligence consecrated to\nthe common good is not far to see. Ignorance is possible in a despotism, but\nperilous in a democracy. Under our system of government education develops\nthe individual and results in the smooth organization of society. Its purpose\nis to save both the child and the state. Recognition of this fundamental truth\nwhich compels the allegiance of all intelHgent people to this sense of unity of\npurpose will bind forever the interests of the child and the state, and thus\nassure a greater concern on the part of the state in giving the best education\nand the fullest opportunity to all its children, regardless of rank or station.\nI come from a section where the people love this nation and its institutions;\nbut from a section where the people believe not only in the Jeffersonian principle of state rights, but in the state's duty to its children. They beheve that\na vote is a dangerous weapon in the hands of an ignorant man, and that the\nstate shirks its duty to its children at its own peril. They beheve that the\nsame considerations that justify the existence of the state justify direct state\ncontrol of the pubhc schools. So firm is this belief in the state's sovereign\nright to control certain social poHtical organizations that it will not be surrendered to federal authority. There are grave unsettled questions in the\ncou-ntry, but four things may be considered settled finally: First, There will\nnever be any social equality between the two races ih the South — nor anywhere\n\n"} {"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nelse, for that matter; second, Control will remain in the hands of the white\nrace; third, The two races will worship in separate churches; fourth. The\ntwo races will be educated in separate schools.\nBut in addition to the interests of a single class or section, there is the\ninterest of a common country. New Orleans is not interested in the management of Chicago's electric-hght plant or in the maintenance and control of\nChicago's local poKce force. These are matters affecting Chicago only. But\nNew Orleans is vitally interested in what is being done in Chicago to prevent\nthe spread of tuberculosis, as is Chicago deeply concerned with the battle that\nis being waged in New Orleans to make impossible the recurrence of yellow\nfever. These are matters affecting the nation. The failure of New Orleans\nor Chicago to educate her children constitutes a national evil which must have\na far-reaching and dangerous effect upon the life of the whole people.\nNew Orleans has many local affairs in which Chicago is not interested;\nChicago has private business that is of no concern to New Orleans. But these\ntwo cities, as parts of a national being, are vitally interested in the larger\nnational hfe of each other. In its physical and geographical Hfe, the great\nvalley, on whose borders nestle these cities, illustrates this truth. Up from\nthe South come the vapor-laden winds of the Gulf, carrying refreshing rains\nto plain and prairie in summer, and capping the Rockies and AUeghanies with\nsnow in winter. Rains and melting snows take up their load of silt and hurry\ndown the mountain side to form the creek and river and finally to form the\nmighty Mississippi. Could you see that great river at this moment towering\nbetween his leveed banks ten feet above our fine plantations, you would see\nhim struggUng beneath a load of silt, the choicest of these northern soils, with\nwhich he has built the rich plains of the lower Mississippi. Thus our balmy\nbreezes bring you Hfe and freshness and return to us bearing the cream of your\nsoils, and the ceaseless flow of winds keeps up the valley's hfe.\nThe illustration proves strikingly true when we pursue it into the industrial\nlife of the people. Your rich fields send us grain and meat ; our plantations\nsend you cotton and sugar, and our ships bring for you the fruits of the tropics.\nThus the great currents of trade and commerce through this valley minister\nto the hfe of the whole people.\nThe illustration proves subhmely true when pursued into the poHtical and\nmoral Hfe of the people. We of New Orleans are interested in the prosperity\nof your crops because you feed us ; you of Chicago are interested in the prosperity ofour crops because we clothe you. But, because this is true, how great\nis our mutual concern about the kind of men that are reared ! A Louisiana\nboy sits on the bench of the Supreme Court of IlHnois ; an IlHnois boy wields\nthe gavel in the hall of the national House of Representatives. A Louisiana\nboy, now governor of his state, a few days ago journeyed to the capital city of\nIlHnois to stand by the grave beneath the blended flags of the two states to\npay tribute to the fame and memory of Abraham Lincoln. When Admiral\nDavis represented this nation so humanely at Kingston a few days ago, we aU\n\n"} {"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] 75 THE\n\nCHILD\n\nTHE\n\nWARD\n\nOF THE\n\nNATION r\n\n155\n\nfelt a national pride, and asked not whence he came — ^he is a son of the nation.\nWhen the papers bear to us the sensational reports of the Thaw trial in New\nYork, we hang our heads in shame. Alas, these, too, are the children of this\nnation ! We ask not whence they came. Chicago ! New Orleans ! New York !\nSan Francisco ! a nation's life depends upon the kind of men you rear !\nWhile the state is charged with the direct responsibihty of protecting the\nindividual and guaranteeing to the child a fair start in the world, yet happier\nand stronger is that state or community whose thought is fixed upon what\nconcerns all the people, the national life and humanity. So, the watchful eye\nof the nation must be directed to the interests of the child for the ultimate\npurpose of establishing the highest standard of citizenship. No nation can\nbecome great until it becomes homogeneous, and a homogeneous nation\ncannot result from a heterogeneous public-school system. A homogeneous\neducation in the nation is essential to distinctive national ideals, and ideals\nare the register of mental, moral, and spiritual attainment. Heterogeneity is\nthe cause of Russian dissolution, while homogeneity is the bulwark of the\nGerman nation. It is clear, therefore, that unity of purpose and sympathetic\ncO-operation of forces should be the watchword of our national educational\nsystem. The purpose, personal liberty, should be the same in all the states,\nbut the method of its accomplishment should be controlled by local conditions\nand must forever remain vested in state authority. While the child is the\nward of the family, the community, and the state, yet the nation in a larger\nsense bears the responsibility of working within constitutional limitations,\nthrough state authority, toward the highest development of the individual as\nsuch, for it is through his qualities of mind and heart and his wealth-producing\npower that the nation grows permanently rich and great. The nation, after\nall, is a mind-condition and is weak or strong as the common mind is loyal\nto its ideals and purposes.\nThe greatest glory of the American home is to develop an individual whose\nskilful intelligence and intelhgent skill enable him to express his God-given\npowers in any direction that life may demand. A group of such homes forms\na community which is the very essence of the power .that makes possible the\nexistence of government. The state, therefore, is made stronger by the individual community-development that finds expression in a larger and freer life.\nMoreover, the nation best serves itself when it encourages the individual\nstates to develop in their own way. The germ of growth, the spirit of life, is\nin the individual. It grows in the home, it inspires the community, it develops\nthe state, and finds its fullest expression in the life of the nation. As long as\nwe recognize the subhme unity in our complex life there can be no permanent\nconflict of authority, for the right and power of the state and nation in this\ngrowing civilization and through an intelligent citizenship, will be respected\nand upheld.\nWhether the national government has been a usurper of authority under\nthe provisions given to regulate commerce among the states or whether the\n\n"} {"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nConstitution has been made flexible to meet the growing demands of the new\ncentury, it is not my mission to discuss.\nBut what has the national government done directly, without usurping\nstate authority, for the children of the republic ? It has given a free mihtary\neducation to Lee and Grant and Sherman, and, in fact, with the possible\nexception of Forrest, to all the generals of the Civil War who made illustrious\nalike the name and fame of the North and the South. Through its land\ngrants to the common schools it is enabling them to reach the forefront among\nthe nations of the world. It has given through its agricultural and mechanical\ncolleges a body of civil engineers who have made possible the marvelous\nachievements in railroad building, and through these colleges it has awakened\nan interest in agriculture that has become the life-blood of the nation's wealth.\nThrough its investigations and research it has opened new fields of activity to\nits citizens.\nWhat more can the nation do to bear its responsibiHty in the development\nof the child ? Whether the national government expends money to destroy\nthe boll weevil and the cattle tick, or to prevent the spread of contagious\ndiseases, or to put pure food on the markets of the country, it is merely striving\nto lift the burden from the individual and enable him to work in his own way\nunder a clear sky. Whether it expends money for agricultural development,\nor for the study of its birds and fishes, or for its land surveys and improved\nforestry, or for western irrigation, or for levees in the great valley, it is done\nto reveal to the individual the wealth of beauty and natural resources that lie\nat his command. When he becomes wiser and wealthier, the nation profits\nby the better citizen.\nWhat more ? We may proclaim the importance of teaching agriculture in\nthe rural schools, but until the teachers have been equipped for this work, it\nwill not be effective. Note the difference between lecturing to children upon\n''agricultural topics\" and teaching agriculture to country boys. The greatest\ngood that the Congress of the United States can do at this time for the rural\nschools is to pass the pending bill giving support and recognition to the training of teachers of agriculture in the state normal schools.\nWhat more ? The people demand up-to-date information as to the daily\nmarkets of the country, and yet we have been satisfied to receive inadequate\ninformation as to the condition and movement of the children of the nation,\nthree years late. The national government has dignified the commissioner of\nagriculture as a cabinet officer, and through this department large sums of\nmoney have been expended for investigation and publicity in model farms and\nexperiment stations; but the Department of Education is merely a bureau\nwhose chief, one of the noblest men of the nation, has received a salary less than\nthat received by the manager of a convict farm in one of the states. This\nBureau of Education has been graciously permitted to publish a great many\nout-of-date statistics. Why not make the commissioner of education a\ncabinet officer and supply him with money for the legitimate expenses of a\n\n"} {"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIS THE\n\nCHILD\n\nTHE\n\nWARD\n\nOF THE\n\nNATION?\n\n157\n\nrespectable department of the national government, and command him to\nestabHsh experimental or model schools and to investigate and report upon all\nmatters pertaining to the welfare of children and child Hfe ? The Hne of work\nwould be similar to that pursued by the Department of Agriculture, and the\nDepartment of Education then would .be no less effective for the highest good\nof the nation. As the one deals with physical nature, so the other would deal\nwith human life; as the one deals with material wealth, so the other would\ndeal with spiritual riches; as the one deals with the means of power, so the\nother would deal with real greatness.\nThus, the intimate interdependence and reciprocal influence of the physical\nupon the human, of the material upon the spiritual, of man upon his environment, of the individual upon the community, the state, and the nation bring\ninto clear reHef tlie subHme truth that.\nAll are but parts of one stupendous whole,\nWhose body Nature is, and God the soul.\n\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD THE PUBLIC DO FOR THE CARE AND TRAINING OF CHILDREN BEFORE THEY ARE ADMITTED TO\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOL, COUNTING THE KINDERGARTEN\nAS A PUBLIC SCHOOL?\n\nADA VAN\n\nSTONE\n\nHARRIS, ASSISTANT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nROCHESTER,\n\nN. Y.\n\nThe struggle between socialism and individualism is as old as society. It\nis one of those wholesome and inevitable battles essential to individual and\nsocial health, that can never be settled, but must always result in continually\nvarying compromises.\nThe basis of compromise must always be the necessities of society. The\nstate must do for the individual what is best for its own perpetuity.\nThere is an inherited belief, amounting almost to a superstition, that the\nstate's obligation in the nurture and preparation of her future citizens begins\nwhen they can first attend school. It is generally believed that to open the\ndoors of a public institution to the children at four or six, and when they are\neight to go into their homes and compel them to come out and go to school, is\na perfectly safe and proper exercise of governmental power; but that to go\ninto the home either to care for the children or to take them out before they\nhave arrived at this age would be rank sociaUsm.\nIn a free state the one unvarying essential condition of continued life is a\nhealthy, intelligent, and virtuous citizenship. Whatever intrusion into the\nsacredness of the individual and family is necessary to secure this is not only\njustifiable, but is necessary.\nIn early times among us the family could easily supply the necessary nurture and training until such time as the minds of children required the sort of\nintellectual culture furnished by the ordinary school.\n\n"} {"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "IS8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nBut times have changed ; the urbanizing of population has destroyed these\nconditions for very large numbers of families. Hence more and more now the\nstate must exert its authority to secure to its people the conditions essential to\ngood citizenship.\nImaginary lines must disappear, and the state must in self-protection take\ncharge of its young whenever families in large numbers fail to meet the demand,\nwhether at the age of six, five, four, or in the cradle.\nHence there are certain positions that are frankly assumed thruout\nthis paper— That education is the primary business of the state; that the\nchild is born immediately into the state as he is into the family; that the\nconcern of the community in the child is as urgent as that of his kin ; that the\npower and duty of the state to train the child into citizenship is coextensive\nwith the needs of each individual child ; and that solidity of interests makes\nthe welfare of each the business of the whole.\nThose who do not admit the proposition of democracy would doubtless\ndispute its corollary of free and compulsory education, with all its implications. But in the confidence that my assumptions are those of a majority at\nleast of this audience, I have felt that it would be a waste of time to discuss\nprinciples on which we are agreed and have laid the stress of this paper on the\npractical application of these principles.\nI have further limited the paper to a discussion of those methods suited to\nactual present-day conditions.\nTo discuss upon what spheres of action the state should enter in a properly\nconstituted community is one thing ; to face our incoherent, struggling, abnormal social organization as it affects the child and to discuss what must be done\nhere and now under the present conditions is quite another.\nThe present discussion is sketched on the background of crowded tenements, child and mother labor, alien populations, poverty, ignorance, disease,\nintemperance and unchastity, which conspire to form the terribly dwarfing\nand deforming environment of millions of children in this land of liberty, in\nthe year of our Lord 1907.\nWhat the ideal home in an ideal state ought to do for the normal child is\na theme upon which angels might delight to write. Meanwhile as we hew\nour way thru the \"dark forest of this tangled present,\" let us look facts\nsquarely in the face and see what must be done in the broader activities of\nstate and community to give each child that square deal which is his right.\nPermit me then very briefly to discuss some of the things that should be\ndone for the child by the public before he is admitted to the public schools.\nFirst, by carefully drawn and drastic legislation the housing of the people\nin our great and growing cities should be radically bettered.\nVisit the ghetto of the overcrowded East Side, New York. The procession\nalong the highway reveals not only the apparently prosperous business men,\nbut the immigrant fresh from the foreign shore, ignorant of our language and\ncustoms.\nHere we see the lame and the lazy, the shiftless ne'er-do-wells, and\n\ni\n\n"} {"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCARE\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\nthe unfortunate generally, living in cellars and crowded tenements; entire\nfamilies in one or two rooms, among most unwholesome surroundings, the\nfamilies, both of whose parents or whose sole supporting members are compelled to go out during the day, leaving the children without proper care. As\nthe tenement-house problem stands today, in most of our larger cities the occupants suffer serious handicaps in their struggle for existence gjid a place among\nmen. It is vain to attempt to educate children devitalized in these crowded,\ndark, unsanitary tenements. Room to play in, air to breathe, must be secured\nto the children of the nation that would not invite its own decay.\nIt is true that much has already been done by philanthropic organizations,\nand especially by the city, thru the oversight of tenements and providing\nparks and playgrounds.\nBut vastly more is needed.\nThe way to secure these primitive rights is for our legislators to find out;\nthe force that sets them on the path of constructive legislation is ours to\ncreate.\nUnless government compels the owners of tenement houses to keep them\nin good sanitary condition, to provide air, light, water, toilet accommodations,\nthat are adequate and decent, the unfortunate tenants will go without them.\nUnless government keeps the streets of these districts clean, the children\nwill play in the filth, for the street is their principal playground ; and unless\ngovernment segregates those affected with contagious diseases, they will stay\nin the same rooms and the same beds with the well children, and spread the\ncontagion. But government must do more than this. It must compete with\nignorance, weakness, indifference, superstition, inherited and imparted habits\nand prejudices, all hostile to health and morality.\nOne of the most manifest needs is, first, instruction in the laws of hygiene\nas applied to the simplest problems of living. Much instruction can and\nmust be given in the schools to fit the men and women, the fathers and mothers,\nof the next generation for a more wholesome living. But that is for the future.\nThe immediate need is the instruction of parents. Those who have never\nactually visited the houses of the tenement districts can have no conception of\nthe possibilities of ignorance and prejudice that exist.\nThis instruction may be given in various ways; thru lectures, by association with the people, in settlements possibly — tho better in the way of\nbusiness or of some activity, as that of the teachers ; and especially may the\ninstruction be given thru the mothers' club and parents' meetings in connection with the schools. These offer perhaps the best centers for instruction to\nbe given to parents, and should be much commoner and more general than\nthey are.\nThe duty of the community does not end, however, with the assurance of\ndecent housing conditions. Add to the house the playground, the bath, the\ngymnasium, the park, the library, and you have the minimum which a really\nintelligent community must do in the assuring of an environment to its children that shall make a firm foundation on which to build educational progress.\n\n"} {"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "i6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nTurning from environment to the child we find that, second, it is the duty\nof the public to protect infant life by proper safeguards.\nWhen a child is born blind, or deaf, or deformed, a serious burden is\nimposed upon the state. Modern medical science has shown that a large\nproportion of these handicaps of birth are due to prenatal causes or to conditions in very early infancy. For example, blindness is induced in many\ninfants by lack of proper -cleansing and care of the eyes. All properly educated physicians and nurses understand the simple and easily applied sanitary\ntreatment that will prevent the development of the inflammation which results\nin either total blindness or permanently impaired eyesight. But the vast\nmajority of the foreign-born among the poor employ a midwife during confinement. Many of these women have had no training whatever, and only the\nmost rudimentary ideas of cleanHness. In many European countries there are\nlaws providing for the instruction, training, Hcensing, and rigid inspection of\nmidwives. In this country, with our growing foreign population there is a\ngrowing need of such legal regulation of the practice of midwifery as shall\nprotect both child and mother. The state must see to it that the needed\ninstruction is given. One of the most needed government agencies in the\ncities is an adequate corps of physicians and nurses, under the direction of the\nhealth bureau, to visit the houses of those who need it, to counsel with the\nmothers and fathers, to take charge of cases of illness, to defend the ignorant\nagainst quack doctors and unscrupulous and ignorant midwives, to enforce\nsegregation of the ill from the well, and in general to see to it that hygienic\nconditions are maintained. As representatives of the government they could\nand should secure in the homes such conditions that infants may be born right,\nnursed right, fed, bathed, clothed, and exercised right, and may thus have a\nsquare deal at the outset of their lives.\nThe very great extension of the practice of maintaining a trained nurse in\nthe public schools is also desirable. A nurse attached to each school could\nperform an educative function in the homes of the pupils whose value cannot\nbe overestimated. New ideas about cleanliness, ventilation, and feeding\ncould also be given by her to the overburdened mothers of the tenements that\nwould richly repay the community in better-fed and stronger children.\nI cannot leave this phase of the subject without alluding to the duty which\nthe public owes in the protection of the unborn.\nWe protect our cattle and horses from deterioration of stock by care of the\nmother. We allow the mothers of men to be oppressed by greed, ignorance,\nand poverty during their pregnancy, and then the public pays the bill in the\ncare of their deformed, feeble, epileptic, or idiotic children. There are abready\ncountries enlightened enough to forbid certain forms of toil to the pregnant\nwoman. Self-protection will bring society at large to recognize the danger to\nthe race in refusing the protection of the law to the helpless victims of our\ncommercial civilization.\nBut poor old father Dermas cannot rest when he has protected the\n\n"} {"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCARE\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\nbirth of the child — bless you, there's the food question\nface.\n\ni6l\n\nstaring us in the\n\nThat it is poorly dealt with up to the present time is evidenced by the fact\nthat some 50 per cent, of the babies that steer safely thru the perils of\nbirth become discoirraged and quit within the first five years. It is idle to\nrail about what ought to be. ''It is a condition, not a theory, that confronts\nus,\" as President Cleveland said; the condition being that millions of people\nare crowded together in great cities ; and that these modern chff-dwellers are\nabsolutely dependent upon their food and drink being brought to them from\nthe far-away country ; and in the bringing there are many things besides milk\nthat suffer conversion into something sadly, fatally strange. The community\nmust secure for the child clean, pure milk first and foremost. To educate\nmilk producers to elementary notions of cleanliness, to facihtate the distribution of milk, to safeguard it at every step of its path from the cow to the child,\nis one of the most important tasks of pubHc education and legislation. The\nnational pure food law is only the beginning of what piust be done in the way\nof legislation, both federal and state, to safeguard the health of the people.\nThere is no department of public responsibiUty for the child not yet of\nschool age more directly connected with his successful accompHshment of his\nschool tasks than this vigilant guarding of the food suppHes. Most authorities\nagree that malnutrition is at the bottom of much of the ''naughtiness,\"\n\"stupidity,\" and \"incorrigibiHty\" of school children. Wise legislation to\nprevent the sale of injurious or impure foods, coupled with instruction in the\nselection and preparation of food will do much to ehminate the child who\ncan't keep up.\nThe health bureau of many cities, notably my own city, has done much to\naid the community in the simplest principles of the feeding, bathing, and\nexercise of young children thru the distribution of a pamphlet on How to\nTake Care of Babies.\nAs we leave the problems of infancy and approach those of the two or three\nyears lying between the baby and the school child, the complexity of the\nproblem and the diversity of view in regard to the proper solution increases.\nOn the one hand, psychological science is making clear as never before the\nfundamental importance of these years in equipping the child for normal\nself-realization, and of guarding against permanently atrophying the higher\npowers of the nature. On the other hand, the patient first-hand investigation\nof sociologists is demonstrating that under our present industrial conditions\nthere are great masses of our population utterly unable to provide for their\nchildren the wholesome activities and environment essential to develop them\ninto efficient and useful citizens. It is idle to argue as an excuse for the public\ninaction that these conditions might be changed in time. They ought to be\nand they will be; but sociological changes come slowly: and meanwhile there\nare generations of children yet to come who must have their rights secured by\nco-operation or by pubUc action, if at all. Many of the functions best per-\n\n"} {"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nChicago\n\nformed by the home must be undertaken by the community in behalf of the\nhome of the future. To expect mothers who must toil all day to eke out the\nfamily income, or who are shut into the cramped quarters of a tenement, to\nsupply the nurture that their children must have is to expect the impossible.\nHence for a portion of our people, and that not a small one, the public must\ndo a great educational work in preparation for actual school life, or else be\nfoohshly attempting to build its educational structure on the sand.\nThe question is sometimes raised, what is properly the school age ? And\nsome are seriously asking if it is not too early or too late, if the kindergarten\noffers the best form of training for children under six, and if when the age of\nsix is reached, reading and arithmetic offer profitable employment. This is a\nmany-sided problem. It is not merely an inquiry into the proper employment\nof the time of children from early infancy. It is a very different problem in\nthe large city or the manufacturing center and in the village or the rural\ndistrict. ^ In the country a child can be left out of school until he is eight or\nmore, and still have his mind and body kept profitably busy. He can be\neducated as Rousseau would have educated him, thru contact with nature\nand thru doing things with his hands. Much of the best work that the\ntown child does in the kindergarten the country child does better still thru\nthe simple use of the tools everywhere about him, in natural activities.\nTho it must be said of him, that if he is healthy, a few hours a day in a\ngood school, after he reaches the age of six, will at least do him no harm. A\npoor school in which he is improperly employed upon the empty forms of\nknowledge may do harm in the country as well as in the city.\nIn the congested town life, if a child is left to Jiis own devices until he is\nseven or eight, the range of suitable activities is so small that he is likely to\ncome to school at eight a victim of arrested development, but an adept in evil.\nIt is quite possible to make criminals of children in those years before the age\nof eight. As was suggested at the beginning, the state must take charge of\nthe training and nurture of large numbers of its children from the very outset.\nWhat kind of training it shall give them at each stage of growth is a question\nfor experts. The only expert capable of final decision is that rare combination, the doctor- teacher, the specialist in both physiology and psychology.\nI think there can be no doubt that the earlier years, say up to four, should\nbe wholly free from control — except such as is necessary to secure physical\nand moral well-being at the time. The occupation should be play — free and\nspontaneous. Children should play, and eat, and sleep, and be happy, in\nclean, wholesome surroundings vnth abundance of fresh air and sunshine.\nThe limits of this paper prevent any but the briefest mention of the manifold activities to be entered upon by the community in behalf of the child.\nSince the greatest educational factor of the first six years of a child's life is\nplay, he must have playgrounds, amply accessible, fully equipped. And\nsince these children of the city streets must be taught to play freely — spontaneously, imaginatively, and socially — these playgrounds must be presided\n\n"} {"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCARE\n\nAND\n\nTILilNING\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n163\n\nover by wise, sweet-spirited, and well-trained teachers who will play with the\nchildren and thru play lead them into a free and joyous social life.\nThere came into one of our playgrounds last summer a boy aged seven,\nbut looking as old as his grandfather, wearing overalls and suspenders. He\nwas leading his little sister Mary by the hand and wheeling a baby carriage\nwhich contained a rickety baby of one and one-half years. The father and\nmother were day laborers, leaving home at seven o'clock in the morning.\nMary, aged three, was a little ''tuf,\" and was only happy when hitting everything in sight ! She was aided and abetted in this by the other children, who\nlaughed at all of her performances until the teacher who was in charge of the\nplayground suggested that they were hurting Mary and not helping her to\ngrow up and be a better child. The teacher appealed to the children on their\naltruistic side, until finally they agreed it was not kind, and hence they would\nno longer encourage Mary in what seemed her natural tendencies. Ere the\nsummer closed these bad habits died a natural death. Little brother, with his\nparental care, brought for baby's lunch on the first day a large piece of cake\nwith white frosting. The teacher explained that baby ought to grow and\ncould not on rich cake. The next day a large greasy doughnut appeared.\nOn the third day the teacher achieved her object. John came with a bottle\nof milk. Approaching the teacher with a beaming countenance he said,\n\"Baby will grow now, won't she teacher!\" If the playground had existed\nfor no other reason than to have driven the vicious tendencies from Mary\nand to have given the baby proper nutrition — it paid. It must be trained\nsupervision to accomplish such results.\nOutdoor playgrounds, and for stormy weather adequate covered spaces or\nplayrooms indoors, are absolutely essential for babies, for older children, for\ngrowing boys and girls; playgrounds equipped for quiet games, for noisy\ngames, for athletic contests, for all proper amusements, are part of the investment for the future that cities must make. To the playgrounds should be\nadded recreation centers, where fathers and mothers can go with their children.\nChicago's park houses are models of suggestion and inspiration as to what can\nbe done for a community in this respect. And there must be parks, accessible\nand inviting, where children may roll and frolic in the grass, zoological gardens,\nwhere the child may make acquaintance with furry and feathered friends,\npersonally conducted excursions to woods and field, and little garden patches\nwhere baby Adams may grub in the friendly earth. Transportation to these\nchildren's paradises should be furnished free if need be from the public\ntreasury.\nIn conclusion : these are a few of the obligations of the state toward her\nchildren born of the poor, the ignorant, the helpless; the care of mothers\nbefore, during, and after the birth of children, instruction of parents in the\nduties of parenthood, such supervision of the home as is imperatively needed,\nlegal control of tenement houses, doctors, and nurses trained — sympathetic and\npossessing authority — supervision of food supplies, then fresh air, cleanliness,\n\n"} {"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nand room for play in healthful and moral surroundings. These and more the\nstate must provide, abandoning all foolish notions of its limitations, when its\nlife is at stake. For the life of the state is a sane, healthy, and moral citizenship, and the quality of citizenship is determined during the helpless years\nspent by the baby in the cradle and by the toddler at his play.\nIf the state is to be saved it must heed the cry of the children.\nDISCUSSION\nElla Flagg Young, principal of the Chicago Normal School. — It is difficult, if not\nimpossible, to discuss the paper presented by the gentleman from Louisiana. The position taken in the opening pages is in accord with the principles for which the leaders in\neducation stand today. But, as the speaker explained his subject, he illustrated the\ntruth that it is possible for one to use the phraseology of advanced thinking, and yet in\nconstruing social ethics to dwell within the confines of the past. From this I shall attempt\nto enforce one practical suggestion.\nIt is easy for you, the superintendents of schools, to indorse here, in this assembly,\nevery plea for generous provision for the education of those who are not yet participating\nin the economic activities of the state ; but you may find it not easy, upon returning home\nand confronting the opposition of the men who control the commercial sentiment of the\ncommunity, to harmonize your enthusiasm of this hour with your timidity in advocacy\nof the cause of that enthusiasm. The question before you, the superintendents of schools,\nis whether or not you have convictions sufficiently deep and strong, so compelHng, that\nyou must stand for well-equipped schools in which children shall be educated for modem\nlife, even if that position lessens your reputation for clear ideas about business.\nWe all know that children, dulled by premature and long-continued toil in the factories, are a menace to the state; but have we an abiding sense of the futility of much that\nis done under the name of education ? Have we a vivid idea of the conditions under which\nchildren come to be dull, come to be a menace to the state ?\nIf children are dulled in the schools by non-productive, routine work that fails to\narouse emotions of anticipation and satisfaction, then the superintendents of schools may\nspeak the language of advanced educational theory, but they are holding the schools and\nthemselves in the confines of the past.\nMiss Amalie Hofer, of Chicago Commons. — The framers of this program have\nevidently had in mind the wider purposes of education. Individuals have inaugurated\nmanual training, domestic science, and kindred educational expansions until the state\nsaw fit to take them over. Especially the woman, by very virtue of her maternal nature,\nhas espoused and attempted \"the impossible\" for her children. Where in the eighteenth century there was one Gertrude, in one forlorn village of Bonnal, remaking it that\nher children might have a fair sanitary and moral chance, there are today great organizations of women, who do not wait for school or church or society to inaugurate such measures\nas pure food, prevention of child-labor, compulsory education, playgrounds, public baths,\netc., etc. These are some of the great educational movements which are going on outside\nof the school, but which are a logical expansion and sequel to all sound determinations\nthat children be given a fair chance and a square deal.\nS. Y. Gillan, Editor of The Western Teacher, Milwaukee, Wis. — The application\nof the subject under discussion is found only in the congested parts of great cities. Surely\neveryone will admit that in the worst portions of these plague spots the child should have\nat least a clean alley in which to play. And when we advance farther, the alley will expand\nso as to include shade trees, sand piles, and grass plots; t will develop into a wholesome\n\n"} {"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n165\n\npublic playground. But when these things are suggested to the authorities they reply that\nthere is no money for playgrounds.\nIn the present stage of our civilization, such eleemosynary efforts as are suggested\nin the paper and by the former speaker, together with enforced sanitation thru official\ninspection — efforts to ameliorate — are probably all that can be undertaken. But when\nwe become wiser, and somewhat more civiUzed, we shall look below the surface and seek\nto discover what causes the slums; we shall no longer treat mere symptoms, but will diagnose and treat the disease.\nThe land on which the slum tenements are found is owned by men with swollen fortunes. Tax this land to its full rental value and the slums will disappear. We shall\nthen have sanitary conditions, and money for pubHc playgrounds. The schools suffer\nfor the want of money, and the slums continue a growing menace because the owners of\nswollen fortunes — stolen fortunes — are the beneficiaries of special privileges. And we\nin our simplicity allow them to hold these privileges untaxed and to practice their rehgion,\nwhich is to get all they can and to keep all they get except those sums which they use for\ndebauching pubHc morals and which we advertise under the euphemism of \"gifts to\neducation.\"\n\nTHE\nJAMES\n\nH. ECKELS,\n\nFINANCIAL\nPRESIDENT\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nCOMMERCIAL\nILL.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nBANK,\n\nCHICAGO\n\nI feel that I owe you all something of an apology for, when the courtesy\nwas done me of inviting me to address you upon this subject, it was my purpose to have prepared with care an address which I might deliver upon this\noccasion ; but, in the multiplicity of a great many business undertakings, and\nother things which came to me, not the least wearing of which was the recent\ndeath of my father, I found myself unable to do justice in the way of a written\naddress, and so I am before you without having prepared anything upon this\nsubject.\nI hesitated a good deal, being engaged in the sordid occupation of handling\ndollars and cents, as to whether or no I should be doing the cause of education\nany particular good by trying to demonstrate that in this day and generation\nthere is some financial value in being somewhat learned in the books of art\nand science and agriculture. I am not sure but today when public sentiment\nis such that financial success is considered a crime and the accumulation of\nmoney something to be abhorred, that if it becomes known that men can\nbecome richer and more industrious and more saving' because they are educated, public sentiment will put the public school, and the high school, and\nthe college in the same class with other corporations, and that there will be\nserious objection if provision is made for education which enables men to live\nwell, make a fair appearance, now and then give something to a public charity\nor a public educational institution, and leave something for their children.\nIf it be true that such is the pubhc sentiment as regards the result of financial undertakings, why might it not well be argued that the thing which\nenabled a man to make two blades of grass grow where but one heretofore\nhad grown, which enabled him to apply an acquired knowledge of chemistry,\n\n"} {"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nobtained from the books in the schools, which brought about greater results\nin the arts and sciences, which enabled him to know more of mining and\nmetallurgy and all the other things that made it possible to take greater wealth\nfrom the earth ; why, I say, could it not well be assumed that the encouragement of such a thing resulted only in harm instead of in good ? Or, in other\nwords, that when educators had departed from that which in the earlier period\nof educational undertakings developed simply the scholastic side of man, and\ngave instead the industrial and commercial education, that they worked out\nharm instead of good to the community ?\nI trust I shall not introduce any discordant element if, in line with this\nsuggestion, I say a word or two upon the question of swollen fortunes. This\ncountry within the last two decades has seen a progress so wonderful that\nnot alone our own people but the peoples of other nations have stood in\namazement at it. There has been great development in lines of transportation, inthe mining industry, in agricultural pursuits, in the marvelous\nadvance of manufacturing, in the still more wonderful advance in scientific\nundertakings, not the least cause of which has been that from those schools\nand colleges over which you gentlemen preside, has come a practical knowledge of the things which are necessary for the development of these\nresources which heretofore in this country have existed, but have not been\ndeveloped. And, as a result of getting away, to an extent, from the mere\nscholastic education, and developing the practical side, making the school\nthe place to learn how to manufacture, how to apply science in a practical\nway, how to make agriculture a science instead of a mere haphazard thing —\nbecause of these reasons there has been this wonderful growth of wealth; and,\nas a result of it, men have acquired great fortunes.\nI am not here to say that all those fortunes have been amassed honestly, but\nI am here to say that in the vast majority of cases the same rule of honesty\nwhich you gentlemen apply in your daily life has been appb'ed in the acquirement of them ; and when there is created, upon a false basis, a false public\nsentiment which without inquiry and without discrimination attacks men\nwho have obtained wealth and who are using that wealth in a proper way,\npublic sentiment will be so vitiated that this country must in time come to a\nserious situation — class interests will be created and class prejudices be\nengendered.\nWhat the educator ought to do in the education of youth is to teach without\na shadow of variableness or of turning the ordinary common rules of common\nhonesty; and, if that honesty is taught, there never need be a complaint of a\nfortune, whether it be great or small, having been accumulated except thru\nhonest methods. There is no such thing as dishonesty with an honest man.\nAnd, whether that man be poverty-stricken or rich as Croesus, he is still\nan honest man; and if he is a dishonest man, whether he have a swollen\nfortune or be an object of charitable indulgence, he is still a dishonest man.\nPatriotism in the country is not the single province of any class or any\n\n"} {"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n167\n\ncreed or any political organization. It comes not thru wealth, nor is it\nthe outcome of poverty. Truth and righteousness and the things that\nmake up good citizenship may belong to the scholar or to the man of ignorance, but they are the common heritage of all our people, irrespective of\ncreed, or race, or business undertaking. What the people of this country at\nthis time need most is to learn the lesson that prejudices and indiscriminate\ncharges and all the things that make up discord and discontent are working\na greater harm to the people in all their various undertakings than can be\novercome by the results which flow from such agitation.\nBut now to the subject. I think as I have stated, that the great advance\nwhich education has made in this country within the last decade is an advance\nalong practical lines. An analysis of what has been accomplished by introducing into the school a knowledge of agriculture, it seems to me, will demonstrate that it has been of more benefit, especially in this great western country\nof ours, than any other undertaking which the educator has had in hand within\na very long period of time. I was asked the other day how I accounted for\nthe fact that in the West, and especially in the Mississippi Valley and on the\nPacific Coast, there had been brought about such a marked difference in the\ncondition of the agricultural interests. My reply was this: that, especially\nsince the period of the last financial depression in 1893, there had been a great\nlight seen by the farmers of this country, and that for that light the educators\nin our state institutions were to a very large degree responsible. That until\nthere was taught in these institutions a scientific knowledge of farming, a\nknowledge of what the soil consisted of, of what the soil was best adaptable to,\nand the kindred things which are essential to successful farming, the farmer\nwent at his work in a haphazard way, planting a crop here and a crop there,\nwithout any knowledge as to whether that particular crop was fitted for that\nparticular soil, and without knowing whether there ought to be from time to\ntime either changes in the crop planted or in the fertilizing of the soil; and\nthat, thru this schooling, there had come, as an additional means of making\nthe farmer more successful, the growing of a variety of crops.\nI can remember, as all of you can, that in the early days, for instance in\nKansas or in the Dakotas, if there was a disaster of some kind, there was\nabsolute distress and poverty everywhere, because the farmer had not learned\nthe wisdom of raising a variety of things instead of confining himself to a\nsingle thing.\nI gave, as another reason why there was so much wealth being produced\nin the West, the fact that the schools had taught the science of metallurgy and\nhad applied chemistry to the mining of the metals, so that ores which a few\nyears ago were considered of little or no value, now, by the processes which\nhave been applied thru a knowledge of the science of mining, gained in the\nschools, were made of very great value.\nAnd so you might take up a great many other educational benefits which\nhave come to the practical business side of life in such a way as to make a\n\n"} {"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "l68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ngreat amount of wealth, where heretofore there had been a great amount of\npoverty. I cite another instance in connection with agriculture, and that is\nthe perfecting of scientific and mechanical inventions which have made possible\nthe bringing to the arid parts of our country the benefits of irrigation ; where\nwater, heretofore useless, has been applied to land, heretofore useless, until\nyou have as a result very great and wonderful agricultural wealth.\nThen take the question of electricity. Its application to the art of mechanics has been so very wonderful that it seems incredible to think that only as\nfar back as 1876, when the Centennial was celebrated in Philadelphia, there\nwas not an electric light in that great aggregation of buildings. And then there\nis the other and broader side, which is different from the side of mechanics, or\nof transportation or of agriculture, and that is that it is thru the schools\nthat the young man and the young woman are best fitted to gain such a\nknowledge as is essential to the multiplicity of undertakings in the business\nworld.\nI once heard President Wilson, of Princeton University, say that, if he\nwere to sum up in a single sentence the great benefit of education as applied\nto commercial or financial undertakings, he would say that it gave the student\nwhat he termed 'Hhe traveled mind;\" in other words, that it gave him a\nmind that enabled him to lay hold on what was being done in other parts of\nthe world; that it gave him a mind that knew the geography of the world;\nthat it gave him a mind that knew what was being done by peoples of other\ncountries; that it gave him a knowledge of what India could produce; of\nwhat South America had ; of what all the European countries were best fitted\nto do, and what, in the mechanical, the business, and the agricultural world,\nthese people were doing ; and that, as applied to the ordinary affairs of business,\nthe affairs of the banker, the affairs of the merchant, the affairs of the manufacturer, is,to my mind (apart from the purely practical side of education)\nthe best that it accompHshes.\nFor he who studies the conditions of this country and other countries today\nand knows the kind of competition in every line of business, whether it be\nbanking, manufacturing, or other undertakings, must have been impressed\nwith this one thing more than any other: that we have reached a period now\nwhere we cannot succeed unless we have the very best knowledge and the very\nbest methods to apply to the business in which we are engaged, because this\nis the age of competition ; the age of competition upon the part of those who\nhave brains and who, having those brains, know best how to apply them to\nthe hand, so that the hand can accomplish the greatest results with the least\nphysical labor. It is the age when every man must be alert both in body and\nin mind. It is the age when a man who is extravagant in the work which he\ndoes, falls far behind. It is the age when the profit in business is the doing of\nthe most at the least cost, in the most scientific way. It is the age when the\nman who acquires a fortune, whether it be small or swollen, gets it because\nwith the very least amount of cost he turns out the largest volume of product\n\n"} {"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n169\n\nand he finds his profit, not in an extravagant price charged for a single article,\nbut in making that article so he can sell it at the lowest price, with the least\nprofit, and sell the greatest number of articles at such a price that most people\ncan buy them.\nNow that is what makes fortunes ; it is not trickery. In the great majority\nof instances it is the application of an acquired knowledge, coupled with\nthrift and industry, and the continual study of conditions here and conditions\nelsewhere. And, while here and there there are those who have acquired vast\namounts of money thru their wits and not their brains, they are so few in\nnumber that they stand conspicuous in the world and are the objects of ridicule on the part of those who point them out and do not draw the distinction\nthat they are the few instead of the many in this world of ours.\nThese people who talk so much of swollen fortunes are ignorant of this\ngreat world of business, here and elsewhere; for I tell you that were it not that\nhonesty is the rule, that faith in our brother man prevails, that absolute confidence iseverywhere shown in business, all this vast complexity of exchange of\nproduct, all this trusting one another, would go, and we would all be lost in a\nhopeless vortex and abyss of disaster.\nI believe in the honesty of men and women. Only in such a belief apart\nfrom class prejudice and class hatred are you ever going to have a country\nand a government here worthy of your efforts as educators, and worthy to\nbe given to the children that are under your charge. Wlien you have taught\na different doctrine, when you have instilled into the minds of the coming\ngeneration that the mass of men are dishonest and the mass of women\nencourage them in it, you have undermined the very foundations of this\nrepublic of which you boast.\nWhat ought to be taught is to flay the dishonest man and drive him from\npublic and private place. But, in teaching that, use the discriminating mind ;\nknow your facts, study well your case before you undertake to apply the lash,\nfor it is better that ninety and nine guilty men should go un whipped of justice\nthan that a single honest man should be held up to public ridicule and scorn.\nI am no pessimist, and in an optimistic view I have always believed ; but\nI tell you that if the public mind of today, fostered by unthinking prejudice,\nfed upon class hatred, continues, and men do not get back to their second\nsober sense, this boasted prosperity which is ours and which exists, this doing\nof good upon the part of so many, must of necessity come to an end. We will\nfind ourselves instead of an object of great pride and an object of great envy,\na nation that will invite commiseration. There is no room in America for any\nclass distinction or any class prejudice, and the sooner we learn it, and the\nsooner we practice it, and the sooner we are again true to the earlier traditions\nof the republic and the things that made this republic great, the sooner we\nwill be freed from things which annoy and which fret and which destroy.\nI am not here to say but that out of some of this agitation which we have\nseen has come much, and will come much, of public good ; but I am here to say\n\n"} {"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "lyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthat the agitator alone cannot make a country great, and that common-sense\nis never so necessary as when agitation is abroad in the land. It was once\nsaid by John Stuart Mills, who was as great a political economist as ever\nheld a pen in hand or taught the doctrines of political economy, when to\nhis attention was called the fact that the people of the United States were in a\nserious situation because of some great agitation which was going on, that he\nhad noticed this agitation, that he had studied it, and that he had studied\nthruout the whole period of their national existence the people of the\nUnited States, and that, while it was disturbing, he had not lost faith in them,\nbecause as the result of that study he saw this : that many times the American\npeople were upon the verge of doing a very fooHsh thing but always at the\ncritical time the common-sense and the common honesty of the people asserted\nitself ; the wrong thing was put down and the right thing prevailed.\nAnd so, strong in that same belief, with full confidence in the American\npeople's common honesty and common-sense, we can have full faith that even\nin the midst of great agitation, where discrimination is lacking, lacking both\nin respect of honesty and because of demagoguery, that in the end the thing\nwill work itself out; the right will prevail and the wrong will be put down.\nBut the strongest element in it all is the element controlled by the educator\nwho in his keeping has the youth of the country, whose minds are open and\nreceptive to the truth, whose minds, too, are alike receptive to error; who\ntake their teaching unquestioned, almost, from you who educate them and\nfor whose success in life, success in morals, and success in the discharge of\ntheir duties as citizens, you share the responsibility equally with the home,\nand if that responsibility is properly met I have no fear that in the future the\nhistory of this country will continue great and the achievements of this government glorious.\nSHOULD THE SCHOOL ATTEMPT THE CIRCLE OF THE\nCHILD'S TRAINING OR ADDRESS ITSELF TO\nTHE SCHOOL SEGMENT?\nLAWTON\n\nB. EVANS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nAUGUSTA,\n\nGA.\n\nSupposing that there is such a thing as a circle of the child's training,\nwhat are its segments ? Evidently, the first and most significant is that portion of his life when, as infant or child, he is altogether under the influence of\nhis home surroundings and of his young playmates. Unquestionably he receives\nimpressions and directions physical, mental, and spiritual, that endure for\nlife, some of which should endure and some of which should be modified or\nchanged entirely.\nIt is safe to say that whatever influences a child is born with and lives\nunder to the time he enters school will persist. If the home life is wholesome\nand co-operative it will probably remain so. If the home Hfe is unwholesome\nand antagonistic it will probably remain so. The fact that a child starts to\n\n"} {"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD'S\n\nTRAINING\n\nI71\n\nschool when he is seven years of age does not alter or modify his home conditions. He enters the segment of another influence, but carries with him the\nmodif)ang conditions that have controlled him in his primary years. Those\nmodifying conditions continue to deUght or perplex the teacher who is responsible for the next year of the child's training.\nAt one time in the history of education, when a child entered school, his\npurpose was to learn how to read, how to spell, how to write, how to calculate,\nand to acquire the simple facts of history and geography. It was all mechanics,\nwithdrawn from life entirely, and his education was indeed a simple segment\nin his experience. When he left school he knew a good many things and was\nfairly capable of learning how to do a good many other things, but his school\nlife had to be welded to his after-life by a fierce heat of adjustment, and often\nthe welding was difficult and insecure.\nNowadays we are trying to think differently, and instead of regarding\nschool life as a segment of life, it is rather a condition of life. It is all of life\nthat is suited to a child of school years. At home he should have had all of\nlife that he could understand as an infant, and now at school he undertakes all\nof life in the many phases that he can appreciate.\nIn this view there is no school segment, as separate from other segments\nin the circle of his years, but there is a school ingredient that enters with other\ningredients to make up the man; there is a school influence which added to\nother influences makes up his character; there is a school element that combines with other elements to give tone and vigor to the man.\nIf we should adhere to the school segment, what would we do ? We\nwould teach a child to read, and then leave him to read anything or nothing.\nWe would teach him to write a good hand, spell some long and hard words,\nparse or diagram intricate sentences, and leave him vacant as to how to put all\nthese together in his own composition. We would teach him to solve puzzling\nproblems for the sake of mental discipline, and leave him unrelated to the\nworld of business, and he could recite many long and needless facts in history\nand geography. Indeed he would be a small encyclopaedia of knowledge,\nmuch of which he would forget, with the student habit so fixed upon him as to\nfind himself out of adjustment with and rejected by the world of affairs, unless,\nas happens generally, his own good sense remains intact and he learns out of\nschool the very things he needs to learn in school.\nI really believe that the best thought of the profession urges the breaking\naway from that mechanical perfection in which pupils do startling things\nfrom memory and perform prodigies of work that the successful man complacently applauds as beyond him. Instead of this the thought of the hour is\nto have a child related in his work and enterprise to the affairs of the world,\nnatural, mechanical, financial, governmental, spiritual, cultural.\nThis interest should be a child's interest and the problems that he solves\nshould be a child's problem, but they sweep the whole field of life's experience,\nand, though the detail of a man's thought and power is impossible, yet the\n\n"} {"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nmain facts are there, and the wide-eyed boy stands upon the threshold of the\nworld's work and longs to take a part in it and be of it; and the real school\nwill some day emerge from the confusion of the modern curriculum and will\nshow a child how things are done — a lesson that the world has learned through\nbitter centuries.\nAnd so we are trying not merely to teach a child to read, but to give him the\nuplift gained by an insight into the great literature of the world. Reading\nassumes a spiritual aspect, rather than a mechanical one, and we strive for\nintellectual appreciation and sympathy with what is best, rather than for gHb\nrendering of hard extracts. The age for puzzle-problems is passing, and we\nteach how the business of the world is done and what business is done. Mere\nparsing is no longer considered good grammar teaching, but good speaking and\ncorrect sentence making is more valuable. It is better to make good sentences\nof our own than parse those of others. Content is greater than form. It is\nof more value to write a good thing in a fairly legible hand than it is to copy\na good thing in perfect penmanship. We are studying natural forces and\nfacts at first hand, are working out the problems of manual expression and of\nhomekeeping, rather than reading about them in dull books. This is a school\nage of acts rather than facts.\nIn all this we are not necessarily adding to the burden of our curriculum,\nbut we are leaving undone many of the needless things we once did, and are\nrelating all the other things in such a way that each study supplements and\nsupports the other. The curriculum then becomes one thing instead of many\nthings. It is presented to a child in the way it comes to him in life, and school\ngoes on outside the room as well as inside. In this larger sense the school\ninterprets and explains life as it is going on all around us — the business Hfe,\nthe social life, the spiritual life, the Hfe of the natural world as modified by\nman's need and enterprise. Then when a boy finds himself out of school he\nfinds the world ready for him and himself ready for the world.\nNor need we expect to teach a child many things as compared with what\nhe will afterwards learn. We can but give him a glimpse into Hterature,\nscience, history, art, and the world's affairs. If he desires to learn more of\nany one department there are the colleges, universities, special schools, and\nthe apprenticeship of the world itself. We are foolish to attempt to make\nexperts in a dozen different things. In the lower schools it becomes a mental\nand moral question, and the child's attitude toward all things is more important than his aptitude in one thing. It will be a happy relief to the children\nwhen teachers cease to cram it in, and the old nursery measures of ordering\nthe innocents to shut their eyes and swallow are abandoned.\nThe burden of school teaching today is not the enlarged and enriched\ncurriculum, but it is the senseless grind of many different and unrelated facts\nwhich are taught as facts and not as forces. It is the restricted teacher bound\nto the text and the required course for the year and the examination questions.\nIt is the long, dull page about nothing in particular.\nWhat wonder that some\n\n"} {"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] i^E^POiV^/B/L/ry\n\nFOR\n\nPRESENT\n\nCONDITIONS\n\n173\n\nschools are prisons when there is no view of life, and some teachers but jailers\nand task masters ? Real teaching puts the child in the center of the circle\nof the world's interest, and shows him the great machinery in motion all\naround him. He catches glimpses of every phase of Hfe, chooses his lot, and\nprepares himself for his destiny.\nGeorge William Curtis, in Prue and /, said of his education: **My father\nsent me to a schoolteacher and I found him a rag ; he sent me to another and\nI saw in him only a ferrule; he sent me to still another that I found to be a\nwell of deep, cool water, and, looking in one day, I saw the stars. \"\n\nADMITTING THAT\nRESPONSIBLE\nPAYSON\n\nSMITH,\n\nOUR SCHOOLS ARE DEFECTIVE, WHO\nFOR THE PRESENT CONDITIONS?\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAUBURN,\n\nIS\n\nMAINE\n\nWhatever claims we may make for the institution of the pubHc school we\ncannot quite justify the one that it is a divine institution.\nIndeed it is a very human one, constructed by human hands and directed\nby human brains, and because this institution is so constructed and so directed\nit must suffer from defects — the defects that are inseparable from the human\nqualities of its originators and its directors. And the defects of this institution\ncannot always be those well-defined, clearly marked defects which are to be\nreadily detached from the mass of excellences with which they are connected ;\nindeed it is by no means easy to secure an agreement as to whether a defect in\nthe schools is a defect — 30 soon as you prove absolutely that it is one someone\nelse makes entirely clear that it is a positive virtue.\nTherefore it is no easy task to discuss the defects of the schools in a twentyfive minute paper — not easy, unless you remind me that any superintendent of\nschools who has not been told by his patrons of enough defects in their schools —\nand all owing to him — to stock a paper many times that length, must be\nwithout sufficient experience to justify his attempting the task.\nHowever, I do not understand that you will expect me to refer to the everyday defects in the schools. I take it for granted that we all know that children\ncan't spell as well as they used to spell, that only about one in a hundred can\nadd and subtract with the faciUty of our fathers when they were boys, and that\nthe schools are weakened and vitiated by all the frills, fancies, and fol-de-rols\nwhich our hard-headed ancestors would have ridden out of school on the same\nrail with the teacher who had dared to introduce them. Passing over these\ncommonplace defects then, may I address myself to certain general conditions\nwhich appear to me to be worthy of our attention ?\nOne of the most serious defects in our modern school lies in its failure to\nserve the individual. We have become accustomed to dealing with children\nin the aggregate instead of with the child as an individual being. In the\nrecent years which have seen rapid urban growth we have had to deal with\n\n"} {"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nrapidly increasing numbers. In disposing of numbers modern system came to\nour rescue, and we found that we could meet our new difficulties by creating\nclasses or groups arranged according to age, or size, or supposed advancement\nin certain leading subjects.\nModern system helped us further by devising courses of study to be administered in sections, so much a year to each of the groups it had helped us to\narrange, and it gave us still more aid when it provided certain methods to be\nemployed each year for the administering of each year's quota to each year's\nclass or group; and thus was created our modern grade-system of schools.\nThe material, however, for whose benefit this system was to be conducted\nis by no means as uniform as the system itself. Drawn from all races, from\nall strata of society, from all conditions and customs of living, representing all\nsorts and varieties of natural and acquired tastes, talents, and capacities, the\nteacher is confronted not only with the task of molding out of the mass a\ncitizenship of a worthy type, but, as well, that of fitting each individual for the\nplace for whose work he is best adapted.\nIn certain phases of work our mass teaching has been a success. We have\nsettled upon certain broad foundations which must be laid for all other education and we are accomplishing certain large results with much credit. How\nmuch is to be done now, however, in the way of making this school system of\nours fit the child rather than the child fit the system is apparent to those who\nare in a position to note the annual falling by the wayside of the thousands of\nchildren who cannot be crushed into compliance with the terms offered by a\ncast-iron school system. This course of study we have designed to meet the\nneeds of an indeterminate individual whom we call the ''average child;\"\nthese methods of teaching we have devised to meet the supposed intelligence,\nintuition, reason, and judgment of this same \"average child,\" and we have\ngiven the former by means of the latter to all children, regardless of the fact\nthat our so-called average child is after all a composite child of the imagination\nand no real child of flesh and blood that was ever seen.\nWhile this defect which we are considering is due in a measure to the\nextreme to which system has been carried, it is likewise due in part to a false\nnotion which many of our people, including some teachers, hold regarding the\noffice of education. The idea has obtained that the public school, as well as\nother educational institutions, exists for the chief and nearly the sole purpose\nof giving knowledge. The larger office of education is not to give knowledge ;\nit is to develop power. Galileo well said, ''You cannot teach a man anything ;\nyou can only help him to find it within himself. \"\nWe have spent and we are still spending so much time and energy in\nteaching facts that we are neglecting that other more important duty, which\nis to help children to find themselves, to know and to use the power that in\nthem lies. The value of a school system is not to be measured by the multitude of things a child must learn under it; rather is it measured by the question as to whether, from the multitude of its offerings, he can find the things\n\n"} {"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR\n\nPRESENT\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nfew or many, which will meet his needs. We are agreed that the subjects\nwhich we use as a medium for the educational process may be wisely or unwisely selected from the view-point of the mass. Is it not possible also from\nthe view-point of the individual that this selection presents a question to be\nanswered with equal care ? That which will provide just the right mental stimulus for one child may not be at all the thing necessary for another. To direct\nany other than individual treatment is hardly less foolish than would be the act\nof a physician who should order for all his patients the same kind of medicine,\nregardless of the ailments he is curing, or the constitutions of his several\npatients.\nWe have been much concerned of late regarding the abnormal child. We\nhave awakened to our duty to the child to whom Nature has apparently been\nunkind. We are appreciating the extent of our obligation to the deaf, the\nblind, the crippled, the mental defective, and the moral delinquent. This\nawakening has come none too early. But while we are considering all these\ncases who can say that he has ever had to do with any child so absolutely\nnormal, so evenly developed, that he presented no peculiarity nor weakness ?\nWhen we shall have builded institutions in every state and in every large city\nfor those classes of children whom the public school cannot possibly serve,\nthere will yet remain that vast majority of children who present ordinary\npecuHarities and deficiencies by no means to be overlooked because they happen\nto be so slight as to afford no justification for placing the children in special\nschools. In other words it will still be the duty of the pubUc school to treat\nas individuals the children who attend it.\nIf our schools are to meet this demand then must our courses of study be\nframed so that in them will be found those things which will meet the needs of\nall children ; our programs must be so arranged as to afford time and opportunity for the teacher to meet her pupils individually, and we must cease to\nhold in sacred regard a system which is so systematic that it will neither\nbreak nor bend.\nIf this school system of ours is maintained for the child shall we not adapt\nit to his needs? But if, on the other hand, we cHng to the belief that the\nchild is created to feed the system, then must we not expect the continuance\nof present results, the casting out of multitudes who cannot be made over to\nmeet its requirements ? The advance made in recent years in methods of\nclass instruction has been notable. I beheve it requires no seer to prophesy\nthat in the years that are just ahead our greatest advance is to be in making\nthe pubHc school a more efficient instrument in bringing the individual into\nhis own inheritance.\nFrom the defect which I have just named to the next one in my list is a\nlogical step. The principle which has been mentioned is as applicable to\ncommunities as it is to persons. In the matter of laying educational plans it\nis possible to err in the too close imitation of others, commendable in themselves but impossible of adaptation to the schools with which we have to do.\n\n"} {"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nIt is certainly both natural and desirable that leadership be acknowledged and\nthat we be ready to follow those whose rarer knowledge and keener insight\nmake clear the pathway before us. Yet every superintendent knows that the\nsame method of teaching will not always meet the same degree of success\nin the corresponding rooms of the same building, to say nothing of the different\nschools of the same town or city. The principle holds even in the broadest\nway. A scheme which works in New England may not be practicable in the\nSouth, nor may the one which is practicable in New York be equally so in\nChicago. What is true of communities is likewise true of various types of\nschool. May I illustrate by calling your attention to the two types of school\nwhich we see, the one in the city and the other in the country ? With the\nrapid centraHzation of population, with the creation of the new and fascinating\nproblems of city schools, with the larger funds at the disposal of city directors,\nit has been natural that a preponderating attention should have been given to\ncity schools. While this condition has prevailed, the country school has either\nbeen overlooked or it has been made to depend for its advancement upon such\npoints as it could gather from the experiments tried in city schools. The\nresult has been that improvements in the country schools have been attempted\nalong lines similar to those successfully tried in city schools. But this effort\nto improve the rural school by imitation of a school created to serve a totally\ndifferent type of community has been accompanied with small profit to the\nformer. Much of the work done in rural schools has been actually subversive\nof the best interests of country children. They have been educated away\nfrom the farms, out of sympathy with the country and its life, until for selfpreservation's and happiness' sake they have fled to the city in order to find\nthere the only places for which their education had prepared them.\nThe future development of the country school is to lie along new lines.\nIt will make use of the material that lies close at hand; its curriculum will\ninclude those subjects of interest to the country child ; its methods will conform to its means ; it will promote those forms of manual training natural and\nindigenous to country life — and it will be worthier of respect for being itself\nrather than a weak imitation of a town school. The principle cited is applicable to the cases of different towns and cities. The school system of any\ntown or city exists in a measure to serve the interests of the community which\ncreates and supports it, and it may lose its chief value in the attempt to model\ntoo closely after other towns not similarly placed. Just as the individual\nteacher has methods which she uses with peculiar success and has characteristics which are reflected in her school, so will each school bear an individuality\nof its own. And in a larger way should all the schools of a town bear essential characteristics which will stamp them and hold them together as the\nindividual system created for, by, and of the people for whose welfare it was\nconstructed and is run.\nIt is often said that the school work is cramping and narrowing in its effects.\nIf this is true of your school work or of mine is it not because we keep too\n\n"} {"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR\n\nPRESENT\n\nCONDITIONS\n\n177\n\nclose to the lines of convention and tradition, because we follow too slavishly\nwhat others have planned, and allow to ourselves too little of that freedom of\naction which is the saving grace of any employment ?\nA current criticism of the modern school is that it crowds too much work\nupon the child, that it requires more work of him than is consistent with\nmastery and thoroness, and because I believe this criticism is in a certain\nway well grounded I am naming it as the third defect in the schools.\nNow it must be borne in mind that in any comparison regarding efficiency\nthe schools are at a great disadvantage as related to other professions or\nindustries. The physician's patient improves and gets well, or grows worse\nand dies ; the lawyer's case is passed on by judge and jury and a decision is\nreached. They know whether they have failed or succeeded. The manufacturer, whether of shoes, watches, furniture, or what not, can go at once to\nhis finished product and can make an immediate decision regarding the efficiency ofhis workmen. Point by point he can compare it with past product\nand determine at once whether there has been progress and improvement.\nNot so of the schools, however. The efficiency of our present-day school\nsystem, for example, is not to be finally judged until its product has not only\ntaken its place in the world but until it has been in that place long enough to'\nhave accomplished something. The custom, so general, of judging the schools\nby comparing the work of children with the alleged work of their parents at a\ncorresponding age is as unfair to the schools as it is to the children themselves.\nIn the experimentation which is inseparable from progress in education and\nwhich must, it is true, be based in part on theory, it is impossible that some\nmistakes should not be made; but to infer that such experimentation, because\nit involves change, is productive of harm is to deny the advantages of study,\ninvestigation, and the pursuit of truth. Therefore as much of this complaint\nas issues from dissatisfaction with new subjects coming into the course of study\nis not worthy of serious consideration. There is no need for an apologist for\nthe introduction into the schools of any subject which a study of the needs of\nchildren, the changing conditions of life, or the ends of education clearly\nmake necessary. However, when a study or a portion of a study remains in\nthe school after its lack of value is apparent, then there is a need for apology.\nThe overcrowding in the schools is due to three things: (i) to our notion\nthat every child must take all parts of all the work offered, regardless of personal and individual need. To this I have already referred. (2) It is due to\na certain Chinese characteristic of our people which insists that whatever the\npast generations had, educationally speaking, must go into the training of the\npresent one. There's many a farmer who improves his farming methods\nevery year who would apparently have us believe he would like his boy to be\neducated by exactly the same methods used on him twenty-five years ago.\nWe cling to those things which heredity and tradition have made dear.\nAnd because tradition says study arithmetic nine years from notation and\nnumeration thru partial payments and cube root and mensuration, then\n\n"} {"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\narithmetic so administered it must be. Conservative public opinion, itself the\nseverest critic of overcrowding, is in part responsible for the condition it\ndeplores. And the third cause of overcrovi^ding Hes in the domination of the\nlower schools by the classical colleges. The ''college trust,\" if I may apply\na term so commercial to an institution so literary, attempts to determine the\nHmits of education, not only for itself, but for all the schools leading to it. So\nmuch mathematics and of just this kind; so much English and of just these\nauthors ; so much history and in portions of just so many hours. By meeting\nthese requirements and these only, admission to the college precincts may be\ngained. In the great majority of towns and cities the only practical way of\nmeeting the requirements is adopted, and the course of study is framed for the\nwhole number of students to meet the needs of the few for whom the colleges\nhave prescribed.\nIn the state of Maine there are two hundred and fifty high schools, and\nthe courses of study in these schools follow chiefly the requirements laid down\nby the classical college. In that state the leading industries are manufacturing\nand farming, and unless you consider commercial courses in some way related\nto the former and physics and chemistry to the latter, then in all those two\nhundred and fifty schools there is no subject referring directly to the interests\nI have mentioned.\nIf the elementary and secondary schools are to serve the people better,\nthen must the colleges make a more careful study of the demands which are\nbeing made in other directions on the lower schools and adapt their own\nrequirements to meet them.\nThere is a class of defects in education, usually set down by the unthinking\nas defects in the public schools, the responsibility for which must, in my opinion, be placed at other doors. There is a current notion that the whole work\nof education must be attended to by the schools. It has been overlooked that\ntwo other great and important institutions have their duty to perform for the\nyoung as well as has the school. The tendency to force upon the school the\nduties, privileges, and prerogatives of the home, for example, is dangerous to\nthe school, to the home, and to the child. Among all the institutions of the\nworld none is to be compared in its possibiUties to the home.\nThe church holding on high the standard of the cross and pointing out\nthe higher life has indeed been a powerful factor in human progress ; governments climbing century after century to higher ideals have secured for mankind larger freedom and broader rights; educational institutions seeking the\npathway of truth have blazed the way to enlightenment and to wisdom; fraternal organizations have hnked human hearts in brotherly affection and they\nhave cemented the social bonds of the world. But permit me to say that not\none of these alone nor all of them together has ever taken the place or ever\ncan take the place of the home. In it the sacred obUgations of rehgion find\ntheir truest expression. By means of its association, government teaches its\nfirst lesson of obedience, and the rights of others receive their first recognition.\n\n"} {"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR\n\nPRESENT\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nThere self-sacrifice and affection find their finest opportunity. In it education begins, to the perpetuity of it education must tend, and without it education would not be worth while.\nSome of the greatest moral lessons life has to teach must be taught in the\nhome. Loyalty, honor, courtesy, self-reliance, self-control, respect for law, and\nobedience to authority, tHese are some of the things that cannot be taught by\nthe school alone ; and when I hear the criticism that our schools are defective\nbecause they do not teach these things, then I am incHned to answer that\nothers than the schools must answer in part for the defect. I have small\nsympathy with the claim that our schools are defective on the moral side. If\nit be true that education as a whole does less for children than it ought, then I\nbelieve the school must not be made to shoulder more than its share of the\nresponsibiHty. Pink teas and Browning clubs are responsible for more child\nneglect than are the teachers and the public schools. Again, we hear that\nmodern education does too little for the child's reHgious training. If this is\nso, shall the public school bear the entire blame, or is it possible that the church\nhas a duty to perform ? I am ready to agree that the public school may\nproperly give more attention than it now does to Bible literature and Bible\nhistory — that both are of too great value as literature and as history to be\nleft out of the courses in these subjects. But this does not by any means\nindicate religious training. Teaching these things bears about the same relation to the strengthening of a strong religious faith as teaching technical morals\nbears to making a boy good. The training of the child into the faith of his\nfathers can be done by the home and church alone, and such training will\nfollow when these two appreciate their obligation and their opportunity.\nWhatever our faith we must admire that loyalty and devotion which the\nCatholic church pays to childhood. She watches her children and she claims\nthem for her own. Let all the churches write into their creeds a belief in\nchildhood and its right to a spiritual training, and there will be no failure of\nmodern education on the religious side.\nFrom religion to politics may be a far cry, but I cannot close this paper\nwithout a brief reference to those unfortunate defects in our schools which are\ncaused by professional politics. The person who seeks to promote his power\nby the multiplication of wires he can pull, by the amount of patronage he can\ndispense, by the sums of money he can expend, by the opportunity to play to\nthe great galleries for applause, has unhappily not hesitated to make use of the\nopportunity offered by the pubHc-school system for doing these things. The\npolitical boss who has invaded and perverted every other branch of public\nservice has not been deterred from invading even that branch which has in\ncharge the training of the youth. The forms in which this insidious foe to\ngood schools does his work hardly need description. He breaks down the\nefficiency of the schools in the contracts which build the schoolhouses, in the\npurchases which supply and equip them, in the unseating of competent\nteachers, in the promotion of undeserving ones, and in the silencing for party\n\n"} {"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "l8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nreasons of the persons whose voices should be influential for better things.\nThe evil lifts itself as well against the high official who gives years of eminent\nservice as against the obscure teacher who goes down before pull and\nfavoritism.\nI have not lost sight of the fact that there is a sense in which it is proper\nto consider what we may call the political interests of the schools. Under our\npresent representative form of government our schools are presumably to be\nconducted in conformity to the wishes of the people. There are proper means\nto be used to discover what these wishes are, and as well to direct in the formation of a public opinion that shall desire improved conditions. But of the\ndeplorable state of affairs which allows ward bosses and time-serving politicians to dictate educational policies and to interfere with the schools it is\nimpossible to speak in terms of too severe condemnation. It is a happy\nthought, however, that if the politician is the natural enemy of the school, so is\nthe school the natural enemy of the politician and the things for which he\nstands, and it is the pubHc school which will finally drive him out of his\nnefarious business.\nOf all the defects in the schools perhaps none is more glaring than its\nfailure to inculcate in children the Hking and the power for work. We have\nso long held before youth the idea that the achievement of education means\nescape from toil that now we are even trying to make the process itself a\nlaborless one: We are constantly trying to devise methods by the use of\nwhich children shall be merely the passive agents, accepting, without reciprocating effort even, what the teacher and the book can get into their heads.\nWhere education once meant labor, exertion, and self-sacrifice it now means\noften merely getting into a wagon, being comfortably tucked in, being hauled\nto school, being placed tenderly in an adjustable seat, being given a free\ntextbook, free paper, and a free pencil, and being interested and entertained\ninto knowing something thru such educational vaudeville as the teacher may\nbe able to carry on. The process begins in the kindergarten and continues\nuntil graduation from the high school, so that the modern child counts that\nday lost which sees not some new game, amusement, or device, or athletic\nevent, or dance, or fraternity gathering, to keep alive his interest in his school\nand his education.\nDo you remember away back in your own school days the tough old\nproblem — how you struggled with it in school; how you took it home with you\nand sat down after supper to study into it ; how you took it to bed with you\nand slept over it and how you got up and went at it again in the morning —\nand then do you recall the glad flush of happiness you had when you gained\nthe victory ? And aren't you grateful today to the teacher who allowed you\nto have the joy of that triumph ? It appears to me that in the softness of our\nmodern pedagogy there is the danger that we shall prop and shield and coddle\nour children until they lose the power to go alone. The education that is\nworth while does not imply freedom from labor: it means ability and power\n\n"} {"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPRODUCT\n\nOF\n\nOUR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nl8l\n\nfor labor, and a purpose to labor as well. It does not mean dependence : it\nsignifies independence; and that educational process is faulty that does not\nleave the child at each succeeding stage abler to work for himself, more his own\nmaster, more independent both of the teacher and of the class.\nFor this defect we must all share the responsibility. Parents cannot bear\nto see their children undergo the same trials and hardships thru which they\nthemselves passed. They are forgetful that thru the ordeals of self-sacrifice,\neffort, and overcoming are developed the hardy virtues of the race. Teachers\non the other hand like to have a part in the educational process. We do not\nlike to efface ourselves. We want to feel that we personally have something\nto do about it. And so we interfere with our development lessons, with our\ntricks and devices, and with our explanations, until there is danger that our\npupils lose the power to initiate, the abiHty to attack and to conquer for themselves the problems and the difficulties which they encounter.\nIf our schools shall succeed in producing generations of independent\nresponsible men and women able to think for themselves, act for themselves,\nsupport themselves, then must we be careful lest we take from them in youth\nthe influences which shall work to these ends.\n\nHAS\n\nTHE\n\nSAMUEL\n\nPRODUCT OF OUR SCHOOLS REASONABLE\nNESS IN SCHOLARSHIP AND PERSONAL QUALITIES FOR CITIZENSHIP?\n\nHAMILTON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF ALLEGHENY\nBRADDOCK, PA.\n\nCOUNTY\n\nFIT-\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe purpose of a system of education varies with the age and the ideals of\na nation. Sparta through training sought courage; Athens, beauty; Rome,\npower; monasticism, piety; the Renaissance, classical culture. But the\nimmediate purpose of our state systems of education is manhood, the ultimate\npurpose, citizenship. This citizenship calls for personal inteUigence and personal integrity. And the question assigned to this paper for discussion is\nsimple and direct: Are the schools to a reasonable degree meeting these two\ndemands of modern citizenship ?\nThe pessimist who bemoaijs the decay of civic virtue will answer this\nquestion in the negative.\nAnd his answer in the main is correct.\nIn reaching this conclusion, he is materially, tho unintentionally, aided\nby the pubHc press. It speaks Httle of the nation's broad fields of civic life,\nrich with golden grain, while it discusses at great length the intermixture of\ntares growing here and there. It devotes small paragraphs to the intelligence, culture, and character of our people ; while it gives whole pages to their\nvice, ignorance, selfishness, and greed. It admits that we have excellent\nschools, great colleges, magnificent libraries, beautiful churches, splendid\nasylums, and fine hospitals ; while it advertises with great headlines the gold\nbricks, the political machines, the corrupting lobbies, and the oppressive\n\n"} {"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "i82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nmonopolies of modern business and political life. The press is wont to overlook the common honesty of the masses; but it proclaims with trumpet blasts\nthe bossism, the dishonesty, the selfishness, the corruption, and the political\ngraft in municipal mismanagement. It has little to say about the small business institutions that pay for all they get, seek no rebates, and Hve in the open\nfields of honest competition ; but it announces from the housetops the selfish\nmethods of corporate wealth; methods that suborn legislation, enthrone dishonesty, corrupt public morals, and buy for a private price what should be\nsold openly and then only for the public good. It speaks in whispers of the\npersonal integrity of the average business man, while it is loud in its denunciations ofthe juggling methods of high finance by which a man may actually sell\nhis plum and still own it. It passes by the honest lawyer to discuss the great\nlegal lights who sell their talents to the predatory corporations, and show the\ndirectors of such bodies how to break restrictive laws without breaking into\nthe penitentiary.\nThus the pessimist sees the decay of public virtue. To him the golden\nrule and the moral law may not be ^'iridescent dreams,\" but they seem to be\nsubmerged in the raging torrent of political corruption. These ancient laws,\nif not abrogated, seem at least to be sinking into a state of ''innocuous desuetude. \" Money seems better than manhood; cash more important than character; and growth in graft more in evidence than growth in grace. And, as a\nconsequence, the school is not meeting the civic demands of modern life.\nThese conditions reported by the press actually exist, and it is right and\nproper for it to give the broadest pubHcity to all dishonesty and malfeasance in\npublic life. The conclusion of the pessimist, too, is possibly correct, for all\nthis smoke certainly means some fire ; but it is scarcely fair to pass judgment\nin this case vidthout considering the unpublished virtues of the common people.\nIt is also unfair to hold the school solely responsible for all the frailties of\ncitizenship. The home and the church are the centers of the nation's religious life, and must therefore share this responsibility with the school. The\nstate too must bear its part. It licenses the saloon, permits the prize fight,\ntolerates corrupting lobbies, smiles at social evils, winks at political vices, and\noften moves with a snail's pace in punishing rich offenders. But while this\nis true, it is right and proper to hold the school responsible for the size and the\nvalue of the contribution it makes to civic intelligence and civic integrity.\nBut if the school is not fully meeting the demands of modern citizenship,\neven the adverse critics must admit that through the lessons, the methods,\nthe management of the school, the games, and especially through the personality of the teacher, the ethical nature of the child is trained and the individual\nprepared in a measure at least for the responsible duties of citizenship.\nBut in spite of the good ethical work of the school there is a demand for a\nhigher type of civic integrity. American citizenship needs more oak and less\nstraw in its fiber. The manhood of the nation needs more iron in the blood,\nmore wisdom in the head, more honesty in the heart, more spine in the con-\n\n"} {"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPRODUCT\n\nOF OUR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1 83\n\nscience, and more moral courage in the soul. So urgent and universal is this\ndemand that an international association for the promotion of moral training in the schools was formed in London last summer.\nThis demand is especially urgent in our own land. James Terry White\nsays the crying need of the country is not \"more law and legislation, but\ngreater virtue and more individual integrity. \" Dr. A. D. White recently said,\n\"The great thing to be taught in this country is truth; simple ethics; the\ndistinction between right and wrong. \" And for the welfare of the state, the\npresident of the United States is urging the importance of a \"square deal\"\nand a nobler quahty of personal integrity. Everywhere we are brought face\nto face with this demand for a higher type of moral excellence in the individual,\nand educators are earnestly asking how the school can do more than it has yet\ndone to give the intelHgence and the personal qualities for citizenship ?\nThe first question to confront us at this point is the question of methods.\nShall morals be taught directly? Shall we have a system of ethics and a code of\nmorals taught directly in formal textbook lessons, or shall all moral instruction be given\nindirectly through the ordinary work of the school ?\n\nExisting conditions fully answer this question. By the indirect method\nwe have accomplished much, but the results are still so unsatisfactory that\nthere is certainly a demand and a place for direct moral instruction in our\nschools.\nIn our study of the subject assigned to us, however, we shall keep in mind\nmainly the indirect methods by which the end may be attained. This subject\nsuggests the personal intelligence and the personal integrity of the individual.\nOur discussion, therefore, at this point naturally divides into two parts:\n1. What kind of knowledge contributes most to citizenship and how may the child\nacquire that knowledge in the school?\n2. What personal qualities will enable the individual to use this knowledge in the\nhighest interests of the state; and how may the school best build these qualities into the\ncharacter of the child ?\n\nIn answer to the first question, Mr. Adler suggests that the three great elements of civic duty are law, punishment, and nationaHty. If these three\nfundamental ideas constitute the elements of civic duty, then the knowledge\nthat clusters around them ought to contribute something to citizenship.\nVarious answers may be given to this question, and yet in a general way\nthe knowledge most helpful in the discharge of civic duty may be designated\nas follows:\n1. An intimate knowledge of American history, including the personal elements\nthat stir the hero-worship of the child and awaken his patriotic emotions. Dr. Jewett,\nheadmaster of Balliol College, Oxford, says that \"in the future morals will be taught only\nthrough biography.\"\n2, A definite knowledge of how the state legislates and exercises control through the\nlocal, state, and national governments seems essential to good citizenship. This knowledge\nmay be best acquired, possibly by actual practice in the school municipality, the school\nlegislature, and the school senate organized according to the plans of the George\n\n"} {"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "i84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nJunior Republic.\ncan civic life.\n\nThis will give the facts, and, far more important, the spirit of Ameri-\n\n3. A knowledge of the institutional life of the state, including the origin, growth,\npurpose, and worth of our free institutions. Our national spirit and our national genius\nin government must spring primarily from this knowledge.\n4. A working knowledge of political science, including the most important safeguards\nof civil liberty as embodied in our Constitution and fostered by our free institutions.\n5. A knowledge of the principles of sociology and economics seems desirable, too,\nsince most of our political questions are of a sociological or an economic nature.\n\nThese five fields of knowledge seem at least to include some of the \"fat\nthings full of marrow\" upon which the future citizen could profitably feed.\nWe know it is not possible because of the nature of these subjects and the\ncrowded condition of the curriculum to bring this knowledge completely\nwithin the limit of pubHc and high-school instruction. And yet the studies of\nhistory and civics, especially in the high school, could be made to include much\nof this important subject-matter.\n1 . The first objection urged against teaching these subjects more fully in the\nschool is lack of time. But if our school histories would eliminate the sickening details of war and battle, so undesirable and of such doubtful moral worth,\nthere would be abundant space left for the personal elements in biography\nthat help to make great souls of a good quaUty by filUng them with nobler\nthoughts and inspiring them to more heroic action.\nIn certain high schools time for these important studies might be found in\nanother way. Latin is the major study of the high school. It has been the\nbackbone of Anglo-Saxon culture for five cehturies, and it is Hkely to remain\nits essential element in the civiHzations which are to follow. It demands\nmuch time, and to the student who takes a complete course it gives a large\nmeasure of culture and a valuable mastery of the resources of one's mothertongue. Not so, however, to the student who takes a Hmited course and\nwhose acquaintance with Latin literature is confined to a scrappy knowledge\nof two or three books of Caesar's Commentaries. To him it gives Httle in return\nexcept that vague something that is called discipline. This is not the age of\nthe Renaissance, and citizenship, not classical culture, is the aim of the high\nschool supported by the state. The dogma of formal mental discipline too is\ngenerally discarded. If this is true the schools that do not prepare for college\nmight omit Latin and football and substitute civics and political science. If\nthese subjects are well taught, possibly the graduates would have just as much\ndiscipHne, and, in addition thereto, the knowledge that leads the way to a\nnobler and better citizenship.\n2. The second subdivision of our subject relates to civic virtues and the\nmethods by which they may be trained in the school. The personal quaUties\nthat contribute to character are many, but the virtues that are the cornerstones\nof citizenship and on which these qualities rest are few.\nI. The first of these civic virtues is common honesty. As a personal asset\nthis virtue is of first importance.\nThe undue influence of money in poHtics\n\n"} {"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPRODUCT\n\nOF\n\nOUR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n185\n\nis a crying evil of the day. The barrel is the arch enemy of the republic.\nWhen it contains beer intended to buy votes, it pollutes the stream of civic\nlife; but when it contains money intended to buy party nominations, it poisons\nthe very fountains of civic virtue. The traitor betrays his country and gives\naid to the enemies of the state ; but the politician with the barrel taints the life\nblood of the nation, saps its vitaHty, corrupts its morals, destroys its manhood,\ndebauches its electorate, and makes traitors to the state of all who are weak\nenough to be bought for a price. Election frauds, graft in public life, poUtical\nmachines, corrupting lobbies are due mainly to the illegitimate use of money\nin poHtics. And the legal right to the throne of power from which trusts,\ncorporations, and demagogues rule with an iron hand is often purchased with\ngold.\nIn fact most of our poHtical evils have their taproot in dishonesty. They\nowe their presence to the absence of moral integrity in the individual. Unscrupulous money-users in pohtics could never carry on their nefarious business\nif there were no unscrupulous money-hunters among the citizens to help them.\nCommon old-fashioned Puritanic honesty, that has suflScient strength to\nstand upon its own legs without being propped, is not a panacea for all the ills\nof poHtical hfe, but it would cure some of them. It would at least help to\nrestrain the greed and shackle the cunning of those lords of gold who expect\nto buy unjust privileges secretly.\n2. A second civic virtue that would help the individual citizen to serve the\nhighest interests of the state is moral courage. Honesty without moral courage\nwill not accompHsh the purpose. Political evils are intrenched behind the\nramparts of vice, secrecy, corruption, legislation, and party platforms. In the\npresence of these evils the citizen should be a man of courage and conviction.\nWith such men the poHtical boss may frown and crack his whip ; the treacherous demagogue may fawn and flatter; the ward heeler may rage and rant;\nthe machine may threaten; the party leader may croak of party fealty; but\nthe citizen of conviction will be swayed by none of these. IntelHgence is the\npolestar that guides the civic mariner; honesty is the compass by which he\nkeeps the ship true to its course; but moral courage is the engine that propels\nit onward. IntelHgence knows the right, honesty loves the right, but in the\nface of temptation it requires moral courage to do the right. The old adage\nwas, \"He who hesitates is lost.\" In modern poHtics it may be written, *'He\nwho hesitates is bossed. \"\n3. A third civic virtue, as president Roosevelt suggests, is the saving\nquaHty of common-sense. It dififers somewhat from intelligence and is practically synonymous with poHtical wisdom and good judgment. It is the power\nthat enables the citizen to weigh the claims of rival poHcies and poHtical platforms, todetect poHtical shams, and to select what is just and right. Common sense and good judgment are especially needed in these days of reform\nto select and inaugurate the necessary remedial agfencies that will raise actual\npoHtical conditions toward the ideal.\nLittle progress will be made in civic\n\n"} {"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nreforms if the citizen is willing to follow the idle dreamers, the visionary theorists, and the political fortune-tellers who may for the time pose as the oracles\nof poHtical wisdom.\nThere are other civic virtues that will add to the personal qualities of the\nideal citizen, but honesty, good jugdment, and moral courage are essential.\nThese virtues are the cornerstones of good citizenship, and the moral structure\nfounded upon them will weather all ordinary storms.\nIt is to be noted, too, that faith in the honesty and moral courage of the\nindividual commands the highest rewards the American people can bestow.\nIt made Folk governor of Missouri ; Hughes, governor of New York ; Pattison,\ntwice governor of Pennsylvania; Roosevelt, president of the United States.\nAnd it is these civic virtues that are today making the president one of the\nmost noted characters that ever stood in the forefront of the world's history.\nThere yet remains for us to consider the methods by which these so-called\ncivic virtues may be incorporated into the Hfe and character of the future\ncitizen. In this it is difficult to designate definite fines of action, and yet in\nevery effort to give moral instruction, whether it be direct or indirect, two\nprinciples are fundamental:\n1. Moral training must caU into exercise the virtues it would inculcate.\nExercise is the universal law of development. On the physical side it gives\nstrength of muscle; on the mental side, strength of mind; on the moral side,\nstrength of character.\nA virtue is a fixed habit of doing right ; a vice a fixed habit of doing wrong.\nAll habits are the results of oft-repeated acts. And whether these acts spring\nfrom imitation, or are the direct result of thought, every repetition of them\ntends to fix the habit upon the child.\nBut inherited tendency and impulse are often as much the source of a\nchild's actions as either example or thought. Blood tells. It writes much\nof the story of every fife. The tides of heredity empty their currents of\nstrength or weakness, purity or poison, into the human soul to aid or retard\nits moral development.\nWhen heredity retards moral growth the task is doubly difficult. The\naim is not only to develop the good, but also to eradicate evil; to prune evil\ndesires, check evil impulses, and suppress evil tendencies. But whether the\nproblem is viewed from its positive or its negative side, the law of exercise is\nequally appHcable.\nEvery day affords numerous opportunities for the exercise of this law;\noccasions when the pupil may be honest or dishonest, truthful or false, generous or selfish, candid or deceitful, morally courageous or cowardly. And the\nteacher who would do most for the future citizenship of the nation should not\npermit these opportunities to pass without requiring the child to exercise these\nso-called civic virtues.\n2. The moral training that best prepares for citizenship must, within\ncertain fimits at least, leave with the pupil the right of choice. A vice or a\n\n"} {"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE PRODUCT\n\nOF OUR SCHOOLS\n\nvirtue is a fixed habit; but there was a time when the first act was a matter of\nchoice. Man is a free agent; as such he has a moral right to select his courses\nThe state permits him to do so, but holds him responsible for the choice he\nmakes, and for the acts that spring from that choice. MoraHty is positive —\nit is will flowing thru the channels of choice and expressing itself in action.\nAnd the largest growth toward ideal self-government and ideal citizenship can\nnever come to the child who is the creature of coercion and who has been\nrobbed of the God-given prerogatives of choice and initiative.\nThis law of choice must be appHed with sense and judgment in the school.\nFor the good of society the state by prison bars often restricts the liberty of\nthe individual, but the masses are free. So, in school, the pathway of the\nchild must often be prescribed ; but too much coercion retards the growth of\nself-government, robs the child of the right of initiative, takes from him the\nprinciple of choice, and turns obedience into slavery. This gives in place of\nmoral integrity a sham substitute that is too frail to stand the tests of modern\ncitizenship. Serfs by edict maybe made freemen in a day; but that gives\nonly the right, not the power, to govern themselves. So children under czar\nrule, who have never been permitted to exercise the power of choice and\ninitiative, may emerge from the school with the rights of citizens, but with\nlittle power and Httle inclination to exercise these rights for the good of society.\nSelf-government is a matter of the will. And wills that are to exercise selfgovernment may be bent, but they must not be broken.\nMuch of the old-time school discipline is autocratic and un-American. It\nis monarchical rather than democratic in its tendencies. It trains serfs that\nmust be controlled rather than freemen capable of self-government.\nEnthroned authority in the schoolroom is not tyranny. It is unwise in the\nstate to clothe one individual with legislative, judicial, and executive power.\nAnd yet this is practically what we do in the school. The school is an unlimited monarchy, with autocratic power in the hands of the teacher. He enacts\nthe laws, tries the cases under them, sits as prosecutor, judge, and jury, and\nthen executes the findings of the court. Such a form of school government is\nnot in harmony with the ideals of democracy.\nThe child must learn to obey. But obedience without the element of\nchoice in it is slavery. We must distinguish clearly between rightful authority\nand tyranny, and between obedience and slavery. A prompt and willing\nobedience to the requirements that seem wise, just, and right to the child\ncontributes both to his respect for law and his growth in character. But\ntyrannical requirement of what seems unfair and unjust freezes the currents\nof love and respect, turns obedience into bondage, and robs compliance of the\nelement of choice, the most valuable of all the factors in the development of\nself-government and character. Obedience is half the rehgion of childhood;\nbut it must be a reHgion of choice, not coercion; of love, not fear; of selfsurrender, not servitude; of willing compHance, not of wilful compulsion.\nIf this is true, the school management and the school discipline that do\n\n"} {"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nmost to incorporate these civic virtues into the character of the child should\ncounsel, advise, suggest, encourage, and direct, rather than coerce. They\nshould point the way, touch the child's emotional nature, appeal to his sense\nof honor, and challenge his loyalty to justice and right; but as far as possible\nleave with him the matter of choice. Without this right, authority degenerates\ninto tyranny, and obedience into slavery. And the slave who does right\nbecause he must deserves neither commendation nor reward, and his forced\naction contributes nothing to his moral growth.\nIn training for citizenship, the law of choice and the law of exercise are\nfundamental. A citizen is honest because as a child and as a man right\nfeelings of Justice have often caused him to reject dishonest practices. He is\ntruthful, because his feelings of right have often caused him to reject falsehood. He is unselfish, because feehngs of sympathy have often led him to acts\nof generosity. He has the courage of his convictions, because his sense of\nhonor has often caused him to turn his back on moral cowardice. In short,\nany civic virtue is the result of choosing and doing the right when the individual\nmight have done otherwise.\nIt is not difficult to see the importance of direct moral instruction in determining choice. \"Thou God seest me, \" is a great restraining moral influence.\nAnd if the citizen who stands at the parting of the ways, who hesitates in his\nchoice between right and wrong, can at the crucial moment quote a suitable\ntext, a moral maxim, a principle of ethics, or even a proverb heavy with the\nweight of the world's wisdom, it may help him to select the right and reject\nthe wrong. And it is one of the provinces of direct moral instruction to put\nthe child in possession of a body of moral truth that will act as a balance to\nhis moral judgment and help him in the hour of temptation and doubt to\ndecide aright.\nBut in all moral training whether direct or indirect, the teacher should note\ntwo facts: First, the end of moral training is more than an intellectual grasp of\nmoral principles. Moral instruction must filter through the intellect into the\nemotions. It must touch the child's interests, arouse his feelings, awaken his\ndesires, appeal to his motives, and stimulate his activities in such a way as\nwill result in choice, action, conduct, habit, and character. Second, the best\nway to teach a subject is not to preach it. For this reason, teaching morality\nshould never degenerate into preaching the subject.\nWe have tried to show that the fundamental civic virtues are honesty, moral\ncourage, and good judgment; and that their growth in the individual depends\nmainly upon the law of exercise and the law of choice. Let us now inquire to\nwhat extent manual training qperating through these laws may be made a\nmeans of civic training.\nPsychologists tell us that a persistent application of means to an end is an\nexcellent way to strengthen a weak will. This requires continuous interest\nand demands coherency and continuity of thought, and thereby sustains that\nexercise of the will by which it is strengthened and develf)ped.\n\n"} {"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPRODUCT\n\nOF\n\nOUR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1 89\n\nMr. Adler says manual training fulfils these conditions better than the\nstudy of textbook abstractions. Let a boy, for example, make a sled. The\nwork must be planned, the lumber planed, the boards cut, the runners shaped,\nthe parts adjusted, and all put together, braced and unified in one complete\nthing. This requires the work of several days, but the interest never flags.\nCoherency of thought is prompted by tangible things — by the fitting of part\nto part as the work proceeds; and, by a patient adjustment of means to an\nend, the mental and physical effort gives that tenacity of purpose, that persistent application, which are only other names for strength of will. Morality\nis something more than kind feelings. It is the will expressing itself in right\naction. Strength of character derives much of its stability from strength of\nwill. And since manual training promotes the latter it is an important factor\nin the development of the former.\nBut manual training possibly has a more direct influence upon the development of these civic virtues. Dishonesty is an act which one individual commits\nagainst another. It follows that through deception and misrepresentation one\nmay teach this vice to many. But material things are always truthful, accurate, and honest. Wood, for example, receives, records, and retains with absolute truthfulness and honesty the effects of the saw, the hammer, and the\nchisel. Manual training teaches neither deceit nor misrepresentation, but\nrather it inculcates the virtues of caution, accuracy, truthfulness, and honesty,\nso essential to citizenship.\nIt is possibly true, too, that manual training, which calls for the exercise\nof the mind upon visible things, is helpful in the development of the commonsense and good judgment of the child. These quaHties are not the direct\nresults of scholastic knowledge: they are not always the gifts of the school or -.\nof profound learning. On the contrary, the mother in the home, the farmer in\nthe field, the mechanic in the shop with Httle scholastic training, may have a\nlarger measure of ordinary common-sense and good judgment than the scholar\nwho speaks a dozen languages and who is able to discuss intelligently the most\nabstruse questions in philosophy. Indeed the absurd theories and suggestions\nattributed to some scholastic minds are the laughing-stock of the common\npeople who are well ballasted with common-sense and good judgment.\nThe ordinary school course appeals but sHghtly to the child's observation.\nIt does not sufficiently require the exercise of the mind in judgment upon\nvisible things. On the contrary, it feeds him mainly upon concepts thought\nout by other minds and recorded in textbooks for his convenience. It presents\nthe abstract, invisible relations of facts that some other mind has perceived,\nand asks him to understand them. To many this does not seem the best way\nto develop the powers of observation, perception, insight, intuition, and\njudgment.\nIf this conclusion is correct, possibly a little more industrial work in the\nschools — work that exercises the mind directly upon visible things — would\nhelp to give to the future citizen tlie perception of actual conditions, the insight\n\n"} {"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "190\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ninto existing relations, and the well-balanced judgment that would prepare\nhim to weigh the claims of poHcies and platforms, to detect poHtical shams,\nand to select what is wisest and best for the state.\n. Then, too, manual training by giving love for work and habits of industry\nto the individual aids materially in training for citizenship. Work never\ndegrades; it rather dignifies and ennobles the worker. The idle loafer is a\nmenace to law and order and an element of danger to the republic. His\nidleness and consequent indigence make him the especial prey of the man with\nthe barrel. As the buzzards gather around the carrion, so the idle loafers as\nthe political scavengers of the body politic gather around the coin distributer.\nBut the working man with common-sense and sterHng character is the hope of\nthe nation. Work is thus a cardinal virtue. It emancipates, raises, ennobles,\ncivilizes the individual, and prepares him for citizenship. And if he is ever to\nbuild for himself that most beautiful of all temples — nobihty of character —\nand dwell therein as an ideal citizen possessing a great soul of a good qud^lity,\nhonest industry must lay its foundations, lift its walls, arch its ceilings, sculpture its marbles, tint its frescoes, round its domes, and point its spire heavenward.\nIf these conclusions are correct, if industrial training is helpful in the\ndevelopment of honesty, truthfulness, accuracy, and good judgment in the\nindividual, then the interests of good citizenship require that such training\nshould have a more prominent place in the schools supported by the state.\nIn the matter of making school curriculums that look toward citizenship,\npossibly we have some things yet to learn. The average high-school course\nwould suggest that we are still living in the period of the Renaissance, rather\nthan in the age of science, and that the dogma of formal mental discipline is\ntrue. We worship at the shrines of the past and neglect the altars of the\npresent. We crucify living issues and deify dead ones. We enthrone culture\nand ignore utility. Many courses of study present the civilizations of Babylon,\nGreece, and Rome, to the neglect of our own. The student must study the\nmethods by which the ancient temples were Hghted to the neglect of the\nmodern means by which the electric current illuminates his own home. The\nmechanical construction of Caesar's bridge over the Rhine, as Dean Woodward suggests, is more important than the splendid span over which the pupil\ngoes daily to school. Pupils must spend so much time in getting a smattering\nof a dead language that they have no time to master the beauties of the mothertongue. We batten the children on the husks of the things that were and\nignore the study of living issues. The modern magazines fairly teem with the\nup-to-date discussions of civic purity, child labor, prison reform, and municipal\nsanitation. They discuss fully and freely the tyranny of trusts, the evils of\ntaxation, the corruption of municipal Hfe, the problems of socialism, the\nownership of pubHc utilities, and all the civic, social, industrial, and economic\nquestions so closely allied to citizenship. Common-sense challenges, utility\npleads, necessity urges, and citizenship invites, but we are so busy that we have\n\n"} {"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nGREATER\n\nAMERICA\n\nI9I\n\nno time for them. In short, we give so much attention to classical culture,\ndead issues, ancient customs, extinct civilizations, and abstract generalizations\nthat we have little time for the civics, political science, the industrial work,\nand for the great problems of the day that make for citizenship.\nBut these conditions will not always prevail. Public education is the\norganized effort of the state to make a better citizen. To this end we must\nnot forsake the past nor forget the present. But clinging to what is good we\nmust add to the curriculum the subjects that will give the desired civic knowledge. And far more important than this knowledge is the moral training, both\ndirect and indirect, that will lead the individual to use this knowledge in the\nhighest interests of the state. Civic character is the supreme end of public\neducation. For manhood is better than knowledge, integrity is better than\nwisdom, goodness is superior to greatness, and the soul of the citizen outranks\nhis intellect as gold outranks the dross. Character overtops all titles, caps all\ncareers, crowns all virtues, and is the sum total of all the qualities that give\ndignity and moral worth to the citizen. And the school will not fulfil its\nhighest mission as an institution of the state until it gives these two qualities\nin the fullest measure and thus accomplishes its complete purpose.\nPROBLEMS\nCHANCELLOR\n\nE.\n\nBENJAMIN\n\nOF GREATER\n\nANDREWS,\n\nAMERICA\n\nUNIVERSITY\nNEB.\n\nOF\n\nNEBRASKA,\n\nLINCOLN,\n\n{An Abstract]\n\nThe statesmen who opposed expansion, however astray in other regards,\nhave proved quite right in prophesying that our new national path would be\nthorny. It has pitfalls on both sides and in front. Vexing problems confront\nus, that will not down, yet are bitterly hard to solve.\nA better diplomatic service is greatly needed. The United States has\nnever been strong in this branch of statesmanship and has often suffered\nbecause of such lack. Now, our multipHed possessions bringing us into more\nnumerous relations with other countries, this shortcoming becomes vital. More\nattention must be paid to the means of rearing and educating diplomatists,\nmen skilled in international law and practice, at home in modern history, and\nacquainted with the most prominent public men in all the foremost lands.\nJohn Hay was the sort of diplomat I mean.\nMay his example be prolific.\nWe have only begun, not completed, the w^ork of providing model government for our colonies. The United States is a colonial power like Rome of\nold and England in modern times, nor is it absurd to suppose that we may\nimprove upon those exemplars in the just ruling of dependent peoples. If we\never cease being a colonial power it will not be in the lifetime of any hearing\nme tonight. So far as our epoch is concerned, whatever party is in power, one\nof the great tasks incumbent on us will be to see how equitably, smoothly, and\nhumanely subject races can be governed.\n\n"} {"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nWe must not make the mistake, which Great Britain made in French\nCanada and in Dutch Africa, of trying to enforce the use of English. Also\nsteer clear of all unnecessary offense to religious ideas and usages or to social\ncustoms. Leave much to the natural force of civilizational ideas. Secure\njustice between man and man; further education; make Hfe and property\nsafe. Traverse native notions and habits so far as is necessary to compass\nthose ends, but no further.\nAbove all, train for self-government. Let none of the difficulties now\nfacing us in the management of our Philippine and Porto Rican wards lead\nus to lower our aim or the dignity of our undertaking in their behalf to lead,\neducate, and train them till they are in condition to govern themselves either\nunder the flag or out from under the flag. May the thought of tolerating a\ncrown colony like India, the people without part in their own government and\nwithout hope of attaining such, never find support in this country. Some\ntribes under the flag may need a hundred years of schooling before they can\nbe granted autonomy but let the hope of it be theirs every step of the way.\nFor the most part we have asserted and maintained the Monroe doctrine\nwithout any sense of the responsibilities involved, a dog-in-the-manger policy.\nRoosevelt was the first president to acknowledge distinctly these responsibilities. It will not do to forbid other nations attempting to aid progress in\nCentral and South America unless we offer such aid in every way. If we\ncontinued to stand off and ordered others to do so, the best moral sense of the\nworld would condemn us and approve intervention by progressive European\npowers. We should then have to give up the Monroe Doctrine or fight to\nmaintain it.\nThe president deserves support in San Domingo, risky as his course certainly is. If persisted in, no doubt that policy will sooner or later give us\npractical suzerainty over San Domingo, Venezuela, and perhaps other states,\nsuch as Great Britain exercises in Egypt. But if you thwart the President,\ntaking the stand that we cannot have aught to do with San Domingo's or any\nother state's internal affairs, European nations will immediately take post in\nSan Domingo and at some rate or other do what Mr. Roosevelt is attempting.\nThe same will happen a little later in Venezuela. That is, European powers,\none or more, will be planted in America, and your vaunted Monroe Doctrine\nwill have gone by the board.\nA problem of the utmost importance relates to the position of the United\nStates on the Pacific Ocean. We have a longer Pacific coast line than any\nother nation, and behind the best part of it in our Pacific states a great civilized\nempire. This section of our dominion is not adequately protected. When the\nIsthmian Canal is done, our Pacific coast is almost as vulnerable to European\nnavies as our Atlantic coast. True, there is now no prospect of trouble between\nus and any European government, but no one is wise enough to assure us that\nthis happy condition will be permanent.\nOne could name a number of possible happenings or conditions any of\n\n"} {"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nGREATER\n\nAMERICA\n\nT93\n\nwhich might occasion war between us and some transatlantic power. Our\ncommercial or tariff policy might set things ablaze. Mismanagement under\nthe Monroe Doctrine might.\nNo doubt peace sentiment has made great progress in Europe of late, but\nit has made none among our Pacific neighbors, the Japanese, the Chinese, and\nthe Russians, all of whom are very near us to the west. The Japs, of course,\nwill not make war upon us over the San Francisco school difficulty, but their\nreadiness to assert themselves and to parade what I must call a very doubtful\nright of theirs shows a certain sauciness with which we shall have to reckon\nsooner or later.\nIt is a great mistake to think Russia disposed of as a Pacific Ocean factor.\nShe has given up Port Arthur but not Vladivostok, which is on Pacific water\nthat never freezes enough to interfere with naval operations; nor is it absurd\nto suggest that Port Arthur may in no very long time be again in Russian\nhands. The last war with its defeats did not in the slightest change Russia's\nPacific ambitions. She has only drawn back to jump farther at the next\nattempt.\nIt would be erroneous to regard this country as safe from Russia and\nJapan because of their hostiHty, out of hope of using one against the other.\nNothing would be more natural, considering all things, than for these two\npowers, fierce as their hate is now, to make common cause for the division of\nChina, together defying us and the world. They both covet China and each\nis in a way to dominate large portions of that empire. A similar conspiracy,\ninvolving the temporary co-operation of rival nations, has twice availed to\npartition Poland.\nRussia had a hand in that crime and has not forgotten.\nSuppose China remains intact but untutored, save by these Asiatic neighbors, China itself may easily threaten our peace. The miUtary power of\nChina, roused, drilled, marshaled, and led, is frightful to contemplate. China\ncould on provocation furnish again infinite hordes such as Jenghis Khan led\ninto central Europe centuries ago. He lost without minding them 5,000,000\nmen, filling, at the one battle of Liegnitz, nine sacks with the right ears of slain\nenemies, and countermarched, not because beaten, but recalled by the death\nof the Great Khan at home. And this China with its appalling ability to\noverrun, to crush, to work world-devastation, China, our rival in the Pacific\nand so near, does not love us at all; and is subject to the influence of two\nother immense and warlike nations, both near us, two rivals of each other, it\nis true, but each a rival of ours. No patriot knowing aught of history or of\nman can deny that here is a situation calHng for solicitude and preparation.\nWe need new strength on the Pacific, its islands and its shores, even if we\nmeditate naught but self-defense. But there is another duty. The future of\nChina depends eminently upon us. If we remain apathetic touching Pacific\ninterests, saying: The Atlantic is our ocean; its interests sufl&ce us: what\ncare we for things so far west! mark my word, the Jap or the Muscovite or\nthe two together will determine China's future and it will not be very high\n\n"} {"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nor worthy. If, however, we by our attitude, utterances, and acts, without\nbraggadocio or belUgerency, yet firmly, say to all the world : We are a Pacific\nOcean power and shall defend and use our rights and influence on that splendid ocean in every legitimate way within our means, Muscovites and Japs will\nattend, with the benign result that China will be free to develop the enormous\nslumbering good her civilization contains and to complete the same by adopting\nthe best culture that the United States and Europe can give.\n\nWHAT\n\nFRACTION\nOF THE PUPILS IN OUR SECONDARY\nSCHOOLS CANNOT DERIVE COMPENSATING\nADVANTAGES THEREFROM 7\n\nW. J. S. BRYAN,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF CENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST. LOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nThe question under consideration is the ability of pupils of secondary\nschools to profit suificiently from their connection with the school to make it\nworth while for them to remain in it. What percentage of high-school pupils\nhave reached the limit of their education on account of natural capacity or\ndefective previous training, and are therefore wasting time in a vain attempt\nat self -improvement ? There is a wide difference between the number of\npupils who cannot derive compensating advantages and the number who do\nnot make the most of their opportunities through indifference, or lack of apphcation, or social distractions, or disincHnation to exert themselves.\nThe consensus of opinion of twenty-five principals of high schools in the\nlarger cities is that only a very small percentage of pupils cannot profit from\nattendance, however many might derive greater benefit.\nThe period of development. — The duration of the period of development\nincreases as the animal rises in the scale of being. The inference to be drawn\nfrom this fact is that the higher the stage of civilization attained by any people,\nthe longer the period of preparation must be for the young of that people who\nare to fit into that civilization and to intelhgently carry it forward to greater\nheights, if the biological analogy holds, and the individual in his mental and\nspiritual development is to pass in succession the various antecedent stages.\nThe need of more scholastic education than can be secured in the eight\nyears of the grammar school is now generally conceded. The consciousness\nof this need is shown by the establishment of high schools in every city of the\nland and by the very general demand for the provision of like facihties of edu.\ncation for the rural districts through consolidation and transportation of\npupils to a centrally located high school. The recognition of this imperative\nneed has been fixed in the consciousness of the people, if we may judge by the\nlarge increase in the number of secondary schools and pupils.\nThe proportion of educdble pupils. — The proportion of the educable\nincreases with the growth of the art of teaching, and the adaptation of courses\nof study to the capacity and stage of development of pupils. The failure to\n\n"} {"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMPENSATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n195\n\nreach individual pupils by a given method or mode of presentation does not\nsuggest to the wise teacher hopeless density, but rather the need of different\nor special treatment to be determined by study of pupil and accurate diagnosis.\nThe pupil is to study the subject; the teacher is to study the pupil in order to\nteach him through the subject as a means of education. The self-activity\ndeveloped in the pupil is the measure of the teacher's skill and the evidence of\nhis success. It will not be safe for the teacher to conclude that the pupil who\nfails to grasp a subject carefully presented is lacking in intelligence. The real\nproblem is how to make such a presentation of a subject as will stimulate the\nmind of the pupil to appropriate it. There is reason to beUeve that in the\nspiritual realm, as well as in the physical, action and ^reaction are equal, and\nit will be well for the teacher to assume the truth of this law. It is natural for\nteachers to commend themselves for skill when they succeed in conveying\ntheir ideas to others readily and forcefully, and to attribute their failure to\ncommunicate a thought to another to the dullness of the other in comprehension and not to their own poverty of expression or inadequacy of statement.\nAre we not able to draw from our own youthful experiences evidence of great\ndisparity in the ability of teachers ?\nFor each pupil the fixed quantity is his own capacity or need, the variable\nis the ability of the teacher to meet the need. Whatever the state or condition\nof the pupil, the remedy is to be sought and applied by the teacher, if the\ndesired result is to be secured. To take this view of the relation of teacher and\npupil is to magnify the teacher's office or function.\nWho are entitled to secondary education ?— There has been a development\nin the ideas of the public as to the extension of the privileges of education.\nEarly in. our history leaders of thought saw the justice and the wisdom of\nmaking a broad highway for the passage of those who would ascend to the\nheights of the university from the first level of the primary school. All are\nfamiHar with the great conception of Thomas Jefferson, including in one\ncomplete system of public education all stages, from the lowest to the highest,\na conception now practically realized in many states of the Union. But the\nlegal right does not give the individual abiHty to exercise it, and there may be\nthose who fail to avail themselves of their legal right because of limited capacity\nor because its exercise would be too costly. To determine whether the individual can derive compensating advantages from attendance on a secondary\nschool we must ascertain the cost of attendance and the advantages to be\nderived. What, then, is the cost of attendance ? To the pupil, in time, at\nleast four years, from fourteen to eighteen or nineteen; in money, approximately five dollars a week, or one thousand dollars in all — about enough to\nfeed and clothe him. This expense, if the pupil goes to school, will, in most\ncases, be borne entirely by parents. What is the annual cost to the public per\npupil enrolled in the high school ? Approximately, $60. These two items,\nthe earning capacity of pupils and the cost to the public for tuition, constitute\nthe total expense of a high-school education, in all about twelve hundred and\n\n"} {"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nfifty dollars. The public should receive compensation for its expenditure;\nthe pupil, for his time; the parent, for his outlay. The public will expect\nreturn in the shape of better citizenship, clearer conceptions of duty to the\nstate and society, higher ideals, and worthier Hves ; the parents will expect for\ntheir return the satisfaction of seeing their children respected, useful, and contented; the pupils will expect to mingle with men and find themselves prepared for the duties and responsibilities of life, able to sustain themselves with\ndignity and satisfaction, adapted to participate in the enjoyments of refined\nand cultivated people.\nSchool days a part of life. — Is the time spent in school to be subtracted\nfrom the years of life as though it were merely a preparation for living and\nnot an actual part of life ? The importance of a right view of this question to\na correct estimate of the cost of secondary education to the pupil is apparent.\nThe frequent repetition of the statement that school- is a preparation for life\nhas left the impression that it is nothing more. The Greek derivation of the\nEnglish word for school is suggestive of the correct view: school, a place of\nleisure ; school-days, a time of leisure for growth and development, physical,\nmental, spiritual, as contrasted with other periods of life, in which heavy\ndraughts of time and energy are made for means with which to satisfy physical\nwants. School is, indeed, a place of preparation for maturer life, and youth\nis the time for such preparation, but it is also the time in which the forces of\nlife are most actively engaged, not only in supplying the place of outworn\nmaterial, but also in developing the whole being, bringing every organ to its\nperfection and full power. It is the time in which the call to activity of every\nkind is the loudest and most insistent. It is the time in which the acquisitive\npower is strongest. The curiosity of children is proverbial, and youth is eager\nto learn. All young animal life delights in activity for its own sake, but this\ndelight is increased when some definite, desired object is in view. The doctrine of interest is based on this fact, and the school appeals to this natural\ndesire to become acquainted with one's environment and to adjust oneself to\nit, so as to work in it and through it or in spite of it. In no sense, except the\ncommercial one, is the pupil of the secondary school unable to live what is\nfor him the fullest possible life, while consciously or unconsciously preparing\nfor the duties and responsibilities of maturer life. And in the commercial\nsense, he uses this period in the storage of present energy for future use as\nmotive power and in the creation of a sinking fund to accumulate until\nits earning power shall be suflScient for a specific object.\nValue of a part of the course. — Is a part of the course of study of secondary\nschools of no value or of less than proportionate value ? To complete the\ncourse of study requires ordinarily four years of work. It seems so desirable\nthat all this should be done, that there is a distinct feeling of disappointment\nwhen a pupil withdraws before graduation. Attention is directed -to what\nmight have been done, and we are in danger of overlooking the work already\naccompHshed.\nYet, if the sequence of studies is properly arranged, drop out\n\n"} {"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMPENSATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n197\n\nwhere he will, the pupil will have done all that he could in the time given to\nthe work. To credit this is hard for both pupil and teacher. The pupil who\nfinds that he cannot complete the work provided is ready to drop out sooner\nthan is necessary, and often deprives himself of the advantages of such attendance as he could have given. The parent, disappointed in the accomplishment of his child, is unwilling to allow him even the allotted time, because,\nforsooth, he has shown especial need of more than the usual allowance. The\nteacher, distressed by the early withdrawal, is not consoled by the thought that\nthe pupil has had three-fourths, or five-sixths, or eleven-twelfths of the whole\ncourse provided. He has watched the development of pupils during the last\nyears of their course. He has noted the effects of these years, and feels keenly\nthe deprivation suffered by the pupil. Of late years emphasis has been laid\nupon the value of college education, and rightly; but as a result, there is a\nfeehng of disappointment if one who has done the preHminary work is disinclined or unable to take up more advanced work. The result of this growing\nrecognition of the advantages, or rather need, of a longer period of development, has been a greatly increased percentage of pupils passing from grammar\nschool to high school and from high school to college. On the other hand,\nhowever, the effect of any number of years of education in the schools is so\nvaluable and so evident that it must not be disparaged. Better sixteen years\nof education in the schools and colleges than fifteen or fourteen, but better\nstill ten than nine, or eight than seven.\nValue of low-grade work. — Is the work of the pupil who fails of promotion\nof no value ? In my own high-school days, classes were a year apart, and to\nfail in one subject was to review all. Moreover, the required evidence of\npreparation for more advanced work was the passing of an examination in\neach subject, covering a year's work. Now classes are only half a year apart,\nand progress in each subject depends solely on work done in that subject.\nMoreover, the daily work, together with five weeks' written tests, determines the\nadvancement, if the work is of a certain quality, and a term examination may\nbe had in doubtful cases. The latter method recognizes all work well done,\nso far as is consistent with half-year grading; but even with such an arrangement, failure does not show that no work has been done, or even that no good\nwork has been done, but only that the amount of work required for promotion\nhas not been done, and if the pupil were to stop at that point, the difference in\nthe advantage derived might be inappreciable by any system of measurement.\nThe distinctions made for purposes of grading, while necessary for the successful conduct of a school, may not be of more general application. The relative\nor absolute value of the educative process as it acts upon the individual cannot be estimated in per cents, or in any arithmetical way. Nor can the benefit\nto be derived from secondary education by one pupil be measured in terms of\nthe accomplishment of another or of the h)rpothetical or imaginary pupil.\nEarly withdrawals jrom school. — A reason frequently assigned for the early\nwithdrawal of pupils at various stages of progress is the want of adaptation\n\n"} {"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nof the course of study to the individual needs or the faulty methods of presenting the several subjects to the pupils. Undoubtedly much is still to be learned\nof the art of teaching and more of the science of teaching. Teachers do not\nknow the effect produced by each study upon the development of mind in\ngeneral or of the particular mind of the individual pupil. Education has been\nmore a teaching of subjects than a training of pupils. Teaching has been\nmore a matter of intuition than of conscious method. The value of different\nbranches as tools of education is yet largely to be ascertained and stated, and\nits discovery and expression will give new direction and efficiency to teaching.\nMeanwhile an extended and careful study of the statistics of school attendance has led me to certain very definite conclusions as to some of the reasons\nfor the facts observed. It appears that the most potent factor in the withdrawal of pupils is the occurrence of the long summer vacation, which interrupts habits of study and diverts attention to other interests and results in the\nloss of nearly twice as many pupils as would have dropped out at the same stage\nof progress if it were reached in the middle of the year rather than at the end.\nFor instance, the loss at the end of the first half-year, if the pupils enter in\nSeptember, is only fifteen per cent., but increases to twenty-nine per cent, if\nthey enter in January, so that the long vacation follows the completion of the\nfirst half-year. In all parts of the course, whenever the long vacation occurs,\nthere is a greatly increased withdrawal. The average percentage of loss by\nwithdrawals at the various stages of progress when followed by the long\nvacation has been fourteen per cent.; when not so followed, seven per cent.\nMy deduction from these facts is the inference that a large part, at least onethird of the withdrawals, are not attributable to dissatisfaction with the course\nof study or to discouragement of pupils by difficulties encountered, or to any\nother cause than lack of persistency or tenacity of purpose, for all other possible causes remain unchanged. The same lack characterizes most men\neverywhere and, as it were, stratifies them, determining the height of their\nrise. There is a decrease in the withdrawals as the grades advance. This\ndecrease is attributable to the survival of the fittest, the most tenacious of\npurpose, and to their approach to the goal of their ambition. To increase\nthis tenacity of purpose every effort should be made to discover to the pupil\nthe advantages to be derived from the continued pursuit of his studies, a\nrevelation more difficult because of the hmited education of parents and the\neagerness of both parents and children for immediate pecuniary results,\nwhich bHnds both to ultimate gain, however great. The changing or changed\nviews of the business community and the present attitude of approval of the\nwork done by secondary schools as a preparation for business will go far\ntoward changing the minds of over-eager parents and pupils.\nThis interpretation of the early withdrawal of pupils of the secondary\nschool is the more reasonable in view of a like condition in the grammar grades,\nin which the exodus begins at the second grade and takes up its steady march\nat the end of the fourth grade.\nThe increased loss between the eighth and\n\n"} {"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMPENSATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n' 199\n\nninth grades is attributable to the transition from grammar to high school,\nwhich marks a new departure.\nCommercial estimate of worth. — But the commercial estimation of the worth\nof an individual is a very imperfect index of the advantages to him of previous\neducation, because it is based on only a partial inventory of qualities possessed,\nand ''Hfe is more than meat and the body more than raiment. \" Life is more\nthan a living; a human being is more than a cash register.\nWhat pupils are most in need of secondary education? — Presumably the\nstudents who make the best record might be supposed to derive the greatest\nadvantages, but this is somewhat doubtful. I am not one of those who hold\nthat class valedictorians and honor men generally are not among the strongest\nmen in their respective classes, or that school estimates are generally unreliable\nand misleading. My personal observations and investigations preclude such\na judgment. I am of the opinion that the best third of a class have less need\nof instruction or guidance or stimulation than the poorest third, and that these\nlatter derive relatively greater advantages from their connection with the\nschool. By this I mean that the native force, and energy, and tenacity of\npurpose of the best third of a class would insure their success, while the poorest\nthird must acquire the elements of truly successful living from school training,\nor make a failure of life.\nAs a teacher I should not address myself to the most promising pupils,\nhowever deHghtful it might be to instruct such pupils, but to the less interested,\nless receptive, less responsive, with the thought that \"they that are whole need\nno physician. \" The advantages derived by such pupils from connection with\nthe school would be the greatest, though their records would not disclose the\nfact. There would be the greatest difference between what they would bQ\nwithout such education and with it.\nAdvantages of secondary education. — The advantages derived from secondary education may be described as (i) pecuniary, (2) physical, (3) intellectual, (4) social, (5) moral. They will be dependent (i) upon the content of\nsubjects studied and the method of their presentation and upon the personal\ncharacter, preparation, and skill of the teacher; (2) upon the receptivity and\nreaction of individual pupils, resulting from previous training, mentality, and\nspiritual attitude; (3) upon school spirit and the influence of the student-body;\n(4) upon outside associations and companionships and home influence.\nTime would fail us to do much more than give a partial list of these advantages:\nThe discovery of fields of activity.\nA juster estimate of the relative values of human effort.\nThe discovery of ability.\nThe training of powers of mind and body for rendering service of recognized\nworth.\nA knowledge of the human body, and of the needs and methods of securing and\npreserving health and vigor.\nPhysical culture resulting in the development and conservation of energy.\nAn idea of simple mathematical processes and reasoning.\n\n"} {"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\n*\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nAn introduction to scientific thought and methods of investigation, and to scientific\nachievement.\nAcquaintance with the languages of other peoples, past and present.\nIncreased facilities in the comprehension and use of English as a means of expression\nof thought.\nAcquaintance with literature.\nAcquaintance with the lives of historic characters and inspiration to worthy living.\nAppreciation of racial ideals as embodied in the conceptions of poetry and fiction.\nAcquaintance with ethnic development.\nKnowledge of the growth and present state of civilization.\nIntelligent comprehension of the interdependence of men of all races, and of the real\nvalue and import of commercial relations as a means of exchanging the products of industry.\nA conception of society as an institution for securing to every man participation in the\nachievements of the race on condition of his contributing of his own effort products of a\nvalue equal to that which he wishes to secure for his own use or disposition.\nKnowledge of institutional life.\nA knowledge of the source and significance of law and consequent respect for it.\nKnowledge of social relations.\nConsideration for the rights of others.\nExperience in co-operation with others for the accomplishment of specific objects.\nComprehension and appreciation of all movements for the betterment of men.\nFamiliarity with the uses and requirements of organization.\nAssociation with other pupils who constitute the most favored five per cent, of the\npupils of the public -school system and of the youth of the community, with whom it is\ntherefore a privilege to associate, a privilege not fully appreciated by those who enjoy it\nor by others.\n\nConclusions reached. — I am of the opinion, and I believe the subsequent\nlives of the most unpromising pupils will show that their connection with the\nright sort of a high school is of great benefit to them even if their record is not\nsatisfactory to the school and their attendance is of only one or two years'\nduration. Again and again I have been astonished to learn that the subsequent record of pupils, whose presence was tolerated in the forlorn hope of\ntheir finding themselves and taking hold of the work with vigor, has demonstrated that they inhaled and absorbed more than seemed likely or possible.\nWhen the boy who has seemed stoUd and irresponsive, lazy and slow of wit,\nand has made the minimum requirement only after repeated trials, shows after\nleaving school a large measure of power, and takes his place among men of\nability as though he were prepared for the assumption of really great responsibility, isit not fair to conclude that his education was not the failure it\nseemed ? When the boy whose presence has been unbearable by reason of\nwilfulness and shiftlessness is denied the privileges of further continuance in\nthe school and goes forth into the world to meet its demands successfully, is\nnot the teacher justified in congratulating himself that his work was not in\nvain, especially if the boy himself, having grown mature, gives the school\ncredit for his ability to do his share of the world's work and thanks it for the\ndiscipline that made him realize the necessity of complying with the requirements of organization and of finding his place in the social order, if he would\nnot ''strive as doth a crock with a wall, \" or be crushed instead of borne along\nby the forces of civilization and otder exemplified in the beneficent institution\nof the school, which is the embodiment of helpfulness ?\nNo one believes more strongly than I do in the necessity of maintaining a\nhigh standard of scholarship or in the utter folly of allowing one who has failed\n\n"} {"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMPENSATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n20I\n\nto do the work required at one stage of progress to take up the next task.\nNevertheless, the abihty to do is not always shown by the amount accomplished,\nand with rare exceptions, of doubtful existence, every pupil who gains admission to a secondary school whose entrance is properly guarded can secure\ncompensating advantages from attendance upon such school, if it be worthy\nof the name. The opportunities are so abundant, the equipment so extensive,\nthe personality and example of teachers so suggestive and helpful, the environment so healthful and invigorating, the spirit so pervasive, the atmosphere so\ncharged with vitalizing, energizing forces, that it is hard to conceive of insulation so complete as to preclude the possibilities of effective influence.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJ. W. Crabtree, president State Normal School, Peru, Neb. — Principal Bryan has\ntaken the wider view of this question. He has not only considered the value of secondary\neducation in its commercial aspects, but in regard to its physical, intellectual, and moral\ninfluence on pupils. Permit me to emphasize some of the points made in this excellent\npaper by presenting an imperfect study of a typical small high school in a somewhat\ntypical environment, thus reducing the question for the moment to a concrete problem.\nI will limit my part in the discussion still further by considering it only from the standpoint\nof the pupil's welfare.\nI must admit that I have spent some time in trying to draw upon my own experience\nfor data that would enable me to find the fraction of pupils in one secondary school at\nleast who have not derived compensating advantages therefrom. I could see no other\nway of getting actual figures.\nI have gone for this data to a high school, which was located in a small town where\nI was very well acquainted with every pupil in the school, and, as a matter of fact, with\neverybody in town. There was a total enrollment of 328 different pupils in the high\nschool during the six years covered by this investigation. I went over this list very carefully, picking out names for two fists : First, those who should have derived greater compensating advantages; and second, those whom we knew at the time to be getting no\nbenefit whatever from the high school.\nThere were 63 names in the first fist, that is those who ought to ha\\e gotten a good\ndeal more out of the school than they succeeded in getting. I went over this fist carefully\nto see if I had included in it any who should have stopped school at the end of the eighth\ngrade. Finding none, I gave my attention to the second fist — those who according to\ngeneral befief had failed to get value received while in the high school. I found this list\nmuch shorter than I expected it would be. It contained these names: Isabel Jackson,\nJared Splasher, Sara Spooner, and Charley Meeker — four names — giving one out of\nevery 82 pupils, or the fraction g\\.\nThen I wondered whether the twelve or fifteen years intervening since then would\nthrow any fight on the situation. While these boys and girls were without question a\nmenace to the school, possibly they, themselves, profited more from the high-school\nenvironment than we were aware of at the time. I investigated the cases of two of the\nmost hopeless, Isabel Jackson and Charley Meeker. I wrote Isabel's mother, cafiing her\nattention to my having advised her to take her daughter out of school. I explained that\nI was anxious to know whether I was right in my belief that it was a waste of time for her\ndaughter to be in school above the eighth grade. If she felt that Isabel had profited from\nher high -school attendance, I would be glad to know what advantages were actually\n\n"} {"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nobtained. I wrote a similar letter to Charley's father, Mrs. Jackson repHed as follows:\n\"I don't know just what Isabel got out of the high school, but I have just been over to\nher as she lives next door to me, and we both believe that the high school done more for\nher than the grades. She is in the society of people who have a good education, which\nis, I think, a right smart.\"\nCharley Meeker was absolutely hopeless. He had already spent two years in the\nseventh grade, two years in the eighth grade, and two years in the high school, when I\nbecame acquainted with him. He spent five years in the high school without passing\na single difficult subject, except the term that Mary Smith gave him passing grades, as she\nsaid, to get rid of him. He was always much attached to his lady teachers. He was\nusually in love with at least one of them. His sickening love glances were a source of much\nannoyance to his choice teachers.\nHe proposed to three or four of the best-looking ones.\nHis father replied to my letter as follows: \"I am glad you allowed Charley to stay\nin school as long as you did. It did him good I am sure. Now my daughter Kate was\nbright and gained a year in school, but I was as well satisfied with Charley's standing\nof 40 as I was with hers of 95. She never got below that. You see he didn't have much\ntalent and she did — that is the difference. I guess it paid all right. He is doing well\nnow on the Fowler place near town.\"\nI happen to know that Sara Spooner married a farmer and that the family stands\nwell in the community. She teaches a class in Sunday school; she seems to be a sensible\nwoman. I rather think that she, too, must have gotten greater value out of the school\nthan we were aware of. I have lost track of Jared Splasher. I have therefore reduced\nmy fraction to ^1^, and were I able to find Jared Splasher, quite likely I would discover\nthat he, too, had derived compensating advantages from that school, and I might be able\nto reduce the fraction still farther.\nThis was an average high school with average teachers in a community of average\nintelligence. It is likely that any such investigation in any other place would lead to\nabout these same conclusions stated briefly as follows : A failure to make a passing grade\ndoes not mean that the pupil has failed to derive compensating advantages from the school.\nIt is just as unreasonable to expect large results when the pupil's talent is limited as\nto expect as large a return from a small amount of capital as from a large amount of capital.\nThere are few, indeed, who, if capable of deriving profit from the eighth grade, would\nnot also be benefited by attending a high school, possibly none at all. The high school\nhas a much wider range of value to young people than teachers are in the habit of recognizing.\nWhatever else determines the extent of the value of the school to the individual pupil,\nit is clear that the central vital fact is in the pupil's attitude toward the influence of the\nschool. The degree of good that the pupil receives from the school depends almost\nwholly on the inspiration that the school puts into his life.\nFrancis G. Blair, state superintendent of pubUc instruction, Springfield, 111. —\nInjustice is done in our secondary schools as frequently to the bright third of the students\nas to the dull and average two-thirds. The agricultural college is showing us that the\nfertile, rich acres of IlUnois have been sorely abused and maltreated because the farmers\nhad gotten the notion that these acres would yield a crop with almost any sort of treatment. Scientific agriculture is showing these farmers that it requires the closest attention\nand the most detailed knowledge of the character of the soil in order to make these rich\nacres yield their maximum of productivity. I am inclined to think that it requires a\nhigher grade of scholarship and teaching abihty to develop the mind of the bright pupil\nup to its fullest capacity than to bring the mediocre child into his largest possibility. The\nfunction of education is to develop leaders. Out of this brighter third it is fair to suppose\nwill come most of such leaders. The high school should see to it that the bright pupil\ngets a \"square deal.\"\n\n"} {"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFECT\n\nOF MULTIPLICITY\n\nOF SUBJECTS\n\n203\n\nWHAT HAS BEEN THE EFFECT UPON THE INDIVIDUAL\nPUPIL OF THE MULTIPLICITY OF SUBJECTS OF STUDY\nAND THE REFINEMENT OF METHODS?\nEDMUND\n\nA.\n\nJONES,\n\nSTATE\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nOHIO\n\nOF\n\nCOMMON\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nThe subject assigned me has been classed, by our worthy president, with the\nknotty problems proposed for this conference, and such I have found it to be.\nIt suggests a comparison of results obtained in the old-time schools, when\nthe pupils devoted their entire attention to a comparatively few subjects, and\nthe schools of today, with their greatly enriched courses of study covering\ntwice the number of subjects — a comparison of results between the schools of\na generation or more ago when, without much regard to gradation, examinaation, or promotion, the largest liberty was allowed to both teacher and pupil,\nwith the carefully graded and closely supervised schools of the present time,\nsuch as we find in some of our city systems of education where a daily program\nis prepared for each grade teacher and the superintendent can tell from his\noffice what recitation is in progress in each room at any hour of the day and\nwhat particular portion of any subject is under consideration.\nThe change in these respects has been very great, more so perhaps than we\nare wont to realize. I well remember the school of my boyhood days. The\nthree R's had the most prominent place. Colburn's Mental Arithmetic was\nmastered from the first question to the last problem in the book. No time\nwas given to language lessons or the diagramming of sentences, but we studied\ntechnical grammar and had a thorough drill in parsing words found in the\nmost difficult parts of Milton's Paradise Lost and Young's Night Thoughts.\nThe older pupils learned political geography without a thought that it had\nany connection with the earth upon which they lived, and memorized Quackenbos's United States History by the page, four pages at a lesson, without any\nreference to the relative importance or value of different portions of the\nsubject. We never dreamed of nature-study, and we were not instructed in\nmusic or drawing, physiology, or civics.\nWe had a kind of manual training in full and rounded measure on the\nfarm, mornings and evenings and on Saturdays, with frequent touches of\nphysical culture in the schoolroom that produced a series of movements that\nwere not of the Delsarte type.\nThis common-school course has been gradually extended and ''enriched\"\nuntil it now includes in many of our elementary schools, in addition to the\nfundamental branches akeady named, with but Httle eHmination from any of\nthem, four or more years of language lessons, a good deal of literature, a much\nmore extended course in geography, physiology, civics, music, drawing, artstudy, physical culture, manual training, and domestic science, and in some\nschools the elements of algebra and geometry and a year of Latin.\n• With this extension of the work, there has been in many instances a shorten-\n\n"} {"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ning of the time. The school day has been reduced from six hours to five and\none-half, and in some cases to five hours, and the year shortened from forty\nweeks to thirty-eight. A loss of one-half hour a day means ten hours a month,\nor ninety-five hours for the school year. This, in connection with the two\nweeks, or forty-four hours, means a shortening of the year by one hundred and\nthirty-nine hours. Is it possible that this has something to do viith the poor\npreparation of pupils for the high shcool and the college about which we hear\nso much ?\nOur high schools, largely to meet the demand of the colleges, have extended\ntheir curricula until now the first-grade high school includes sixteen units of\nhigh-school work, which means four branches for each of the four years of the\ncourse. A large number of the high schools, in our cities are now ofiFering to\nthe student advantages superior to many of the colleges in the early days of\nthe republic. In laboratory equipment and in teaching force they are superior\nto a good many of our colleges of a quarter of a century ago.\nThe colleges in recent years have added largely to their requirements for\nadmission and have greatly modified their courses. They are giving far less\nprominence to Latin and Greek and more to science and modern languages.\nIn my college days the faculty prescribed the course to be pursued for the\nfirst three years and the student was allowed some choice only in the senior\nyear. At the present time the work is largely elective after the first year, and\nin some collegiate institutions, throughout the entire course.\nIn order to meet the demands of individual students, the courses have been\nmultiplied until, according to a recent number of the Educational Review, the\nnumber of semester courses, open to undergraduates at Cornell University, is\n510; at the University of Michigan, 698, and at the University of Wisconsin,\n681.\n\nI am aware of the fact that these changes have come about largely as a\nresult of the demands of the times. The old curricula would not answer\nfor today. We are living in a wonderful age. New discoveries and new\ninventions have revolutionized the industrial and business world. The adaptation ofelectricity to the service and comfort of man, the telephone, the rapid\nextension of interurban lines and rural deHvery have materially changed lifeconditions in the last quarter of a century. Business is transacted very differently from what it was in former years. The business methods of our fathers\nwould not answer at all in this day and generation. And yet, when one reads\nof the dishonesty that has been brought to light as the result of investigations\ninto municipal and governmental affairs, and the lack of fidelity to the most\nsacred obhgations on the part of officials in insurance circles and bankinginstitutions, one cannot help wishing that more of the old-time honesty and\nintegrity might have been transmitted to the present generation.\nIt is well for the pupils in our public schools today to commit to memory\nand appreciate fully the meaning of those lines of Robert Burns:\n\nd\n\n"} {"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFECT\n\nOF MULTIPLICITY\n\nOF SUBJECTS\n\nIs there, for honest poverty,\nWho hangs his head, and a' that ?\nThe coward slave, we pass him by,\nWe dare be poor for a' that !\nFor a' that, and a' that.\nOur toils obscure, and a' that;\nThe rank is but the guinea's stamp,\nThe man's the gowd for a' that.\nWhat though on hamely fare we dine,\nWear hodden gray, and a' that;\nGie fools their silks, and knaves their wine,\nA man's a man, for a' that.\nFor a' that, and a' that,\nTheir tinsel show, and a' that;\nThe honest man, tho' e'er sae poor.\nIs king o' men for a' that.\n\nIt is an age of great business activity and commercial enterprise. A spirit\nof commercialism and money-getting seems to pervade the atmosphere. That\nmany are willing to acquire riches without giving any sort of an equivalent is\nevidenced by the numerous patrons of the great number of get-rich-quick\nschemes that have been launched in the past few years. Secure a fortune and\nall the comforts and luxuries that come therewith, and get it by the shortest\npossible route, is a present-day maxim. The young man wants to begin in\nbusiness where his father leaves off, forgetful of the fact that the father has\nattained his present position by years of honest industry, frugality, and persevering effort. It is an age of hurry and get-there ; short-cuts are in demand ;\nmen are impatient of delay. The Pennsylvania Flyer must cover the distance\nbetween New York and Chicago in eighteen hours, no matter if a hundred\nlives are sacrificed every year by the fast schedule.\nThis spirit of haste has to a greater or less extent influenced our students\nand affected our educational institutions. The student is anxious to find a\nshort route to knowledge ; to enter as soon as possible upon his professional or\nbusiness career. There is a willingness to sacrifice thoroughness in order to\ngain time. Oftentimes the student is anxious to receive assistance from any\nsource that will help him in time of examination, and he is willing to be lifted\nover any obstacle that may He in his pathway rather than take the time and\nput forth the individual effort necessary to remove it. In this way his intellectual vigor is impaired and his power to produce results is weakened.\nWhile it is true that this is an age of wonderful development and the introduction ofnew and varied forms of machinery has wrought many changes in\nthe industrial world, and even in farm life, there are some things that have not\nchanged. The farmer by the aid of the mower and harvester and other farm\nmachinery can cut and harvest the hay and the grain much more comfortably\nand expeditiously than he could when dependent upon the scythe, the sickle,\nand the cradle. But the crops themselves do not take root, grow, and mature\nany more rapidly today than they did half a century ago.\nNature takes time\n\n"} {"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nto do her work and usually nothing is gained by undertaking to hasten Nature's\nprocesses.\nI remember about twenty years ago a prominent business man, and at that\ntime the president of the original Chautauqua, gave an address before an\nassociation of teachers in which he took occasion to criticize the public schools\nbecause they had not kept pace with the progress made in other lines. While\nwonderful strides had been made in transportation and patent devices had\nshortened the time required for the completion of work in almost all Hues, no\nteacher had succeeded in devising a plan or perfecting a process whereby the\nboys and girls could be thoroughly prepared for college or properly fitted for\ntheir several vocations in Hfe in a shorter period than formerly. He regarded\neducational processes in the same Hght as industrial, and he ignored the fact\nthat time is an important factor in education, and no one has as yet been able\nsuccessfully to hasten child development or shorten the period required for\nreaching maturity. If you wish to build a patent fence around a ten-acre\nfield, you can do the work much more quickly today than it could have been\ndone thirty years ago ; but if you wish to surround the same field with a natural\nhedge it will take just as long now for it to grow and reach maturity as it did\nthen.\nI believe it is time to call a halt on the shortening of the school day and the\nschool year. While the brighter pupils may finish their preparation for college\nor complete the high-school course in the twelve years usually allowed, it is\nbetter for the average pupil to take nine years for the elementary work and\nfour years for the high school, and the student who is graduated from college\nat twenty-three will derive far more benefit from the studies of the junior and\nsenior years than the one who completes his course at an earlier age.\nWith the multiplicity of branches in the course and the same, or shorter,\nperiod of time, we should naturally expect more of superficiality and less of\nthoroughness. As the work is made more extensive it will become less intensive. Elementary pupils will be apt to go to the high school with a limited\nand uncertain knowledge of many subjects and lacking in a thorough mastery\nof the fundamental branches. They know something about many things;\nthey are better informed than pupils of former times, but they have not as\nmuch power to grapple with the problems that confront them in the highschool course. This seems to be a somewhat general criticism that is passed\nupon our present courses of study.\nGraduates from the high school who enter our colleges are better prepared\nin many ways, especially in English, than the students of twenty-five years\nago, but they are said to be deficient in the power to think for themselves and\nthe ability to do things, a power that comes from the habit of quiet, uninterrupted study of one subject for a longer period than twenty or thirty minutes\nat a time, and the custom of solving problems by individual effort without\noutside assistance.\nIt occurred to me that our college presidents are in a good position to judge\n\n"} {"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFECT\n\nOF MULTIPLICITY\n\nOF SUBJECTS\n\n207\n\nof the results of our present-day work as compared with that of former years,\nso I submitted this question to quite a number and received from them very\nprompt replies.\nAllow me to quote a few extracts from their letters. One says:\nSpeaking generally, and with no pretense at precision, I should say the multiplication of subjects of study and the refinement of methods have had a harmful influence on\npreparation for college.\nA college needs as preparation not general information but thorough and systematic\ninstruction in EngHsh, foreign language, mathematics, and a few subordinate subjects.\nTo my mind, the tendency of modern methods is to give the pupil a little knowledge of a\ngood many subjects, without a thorough or workable knowledge of any. As compared\nwith the entering classes fifteen years ago, the average student is better informed but less\nwell prepared.\nThere is danger, too, that the extreme refinement of method may lesson the disciplinary training of preparatory work. The subjects are all made too easy and attractive.\nThe student's power of sustained concentration becomes weakened and his will enervated.\nI think the college freshman of today is less thoroughly trained and disciplined than were\nthe men of a generation ago. He is more afraid of a hard task and shows less energy and\npersistency in grappling with it.\n\nAnother says:\nIt is very difficult to define causes and effects, and especially in education. It is,\nhowever, my impression that boys now come to college with a wider knowledge than in\nformer times. I should hesitate to confirm what is sometimes said, that boys come to\ncollege less willing to tackle hard tasks. The community always has those who yield to\nslight temptations. If there is an increase in the proportion of these, this is due to an\nincrease in wealth, rather than to any change in educational methods.\n\nA third writes:\n•The great difficulty we find with students when they come to us is that they do not\nthink for themselves, and I believe it to be due to the fact that teachers now do a great\ndeal for their pupils which formerly the pupils were obliged to do for themselves. Whether\nthe multiplicity of studies has been the cause of this on account of the wider range of\nwork which the teacher must cover and consequently less time which can be devoted to\neach subject, I do not know, but I strongly suspect this to be true. My personal opinion is\nthat we need now in our schools thorough instruction in mental arithmetic, to be followed\nby mathematical subjects, science, modem languages, English, history, civics. These\nare the important things to which time should be given.\n\nFrom a fourth I quote as follows :\nPupils from the high school are coming to college now better prepared than ever before.\nI do not believe that method can be made a substitute for matter. I do beUeve, though,\nthat the matter can be improved by the method.\n\nFrom another letter I make the following selection :\nMy opinion is that we are attempting too much in every field of educational effort.\nThe child in the elementary school is not overtaught but is overburdened with subjects\nof study — some of questionable utility. The high-school pupil must round out a course\nof study — in name — and the result is mental shallowness with its attendant insufferable\nconceit. Even in college halls some students are attempting much and doing little. The\nthinker is becoming an almost unknown factor in the educational life of our pupils and\n\n"} {"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nstudents. I doubt the power of the college student of today to think more vigorously\nand rightly than his brother of forty years ago. Let some of our extensive vv'ork give way\nfor a little more intensive work. Let us in school life wisely recognize our limitations.\nWe cannot do everything the crochety brains of some would-be reformer of school work\nmay invent and we ought not so to attempt; but we can use better judgment in modifying\nour courses of study. We can recognize that to do a few things well and with power is\nbetter than to do many things with enervating result, and we can give greater force than\nwe do to a just demand for more sympathetic and better trained teachers for our youth.\n\nStill another writes :\nThere has been such an improvement in the general work of the lower schools that\nit is difficult for a college president to answer your question categorically. The maladjustment ofthe curriculum to the child has been such that he has not gotten the full\nbenefit of it in many cases. Method is useful simply in applying the curriculum to the\nchild. Possibly we have had too much method in proportion to the curriculum. I think\nit is a fact that the boys and girls coming to college today are better developed all around\nthan they were when I went to college.\n\nFrom these extracts it will be seen that there is a difference of opinion in\nreference to this question even among those in high places, men who have\nperhaps the best opportunity to pass correct judgment upon the results obtained\nfrom our present system of training as compared with that of former years.\nProbably no one of us would advise that we go back to the old course of\nstudy of thirty years ago. The course should contain something besides the\nthree R's. There was need of elimination and enrichment. Elimination of\nsome features of arithmetic, geography, and grammar that could well be\nspared, and the addition of other subjects that would be helpful in the training\nfor good citizenship. The difficulty has been in many cases that there has been\nno elimination. The enrichment has come as an absolute addition to all that\nwas included in the course before. This has resulted in an overcrowded\ncourse and pupils have been overburdened. They have acquired a smattering of many things and a thorough knowledge of no one subject. Worse than\nthis, they have had no chance to form a habit of concentration or acquire the\nmental power that would enable them to take up the work of the higher\ndepartments in a satisfactory manner or grapple with the problems of life\nsuccessfully. No course of study should contain so many branches that it will\nnot permit of a program that allows a half-hour or more of quiet individual\nstudy for each pupil in the elementary grades and a longer period in the\nsecondary school. But a small per cent, of our pupils enter upon a college\ncourse ; less than half take up high-school work. Those who receive all their\ntraining in the elementary schools have a right to something besides the formal\nstudies. They may be brought into touch with literature and become interested in a line of reading that will be of great value to them in the future.\nThrough stories of our history told by the teacher or read in the grades they\nmay be made better citizens and leave the school with a desire to know more\nof that history. They should have their eyes opened to some of the beauties\nof nature in this world that has been fitted up with such wisdom and beauty\n\n"} {"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFECT\n\nOF MULTIPLICITY\n\nOF SUBJECTS\n\n209\n\nfor the home of man — especially the trees, plants, flowers, and birds to be found\nin their own neighborhood. All these things can be correlated with reading,\ngeography, and language lessons.\nWhat is needed is the right kind of teaching, as a friend said in a recent\nletter :\nEvery day's experience adds to the strength of my conviction that the crying need\nin our schoolrooms is better-trained teachers — those possessed of better scholarship, having\na better understanding of child nature and able to devise and use sensible methods of\nteaching. An unwise teacher can plunge a child's mind into confusion and wreck, under\nany course of study, old or new. A child may be forced into the ranks of the mental incapables as well by the manner in which he is taught the \"Three R's\" as by making him\n\"a Jack-of-all-trades-and-master-of-none,\" in an attempt to get through a course of\nstudy that a sensible adult would draw back from with alarm.\n\nIn one of the quotations which I read a few moments ago the writer makes\nthis statement: \"The great difficulty we find with the students when they\ncome to us is that they do not think for themselves,\" and he further says he\nbeHeves it to be due to the fact that teachers now do a great deal for their\npupils which formerly the pupils were obhged to do for themselves.\nThe same complaint comes from other sources. Dr. Greenwood, in the\nlast number of the Southern Educational Review ^ writes:\nI believe one of the most serious defects in our entire educational system from the\nnursery through the post-graduate work in our best universities is that the teachers and\nprofessors carry too much of the loads for the learners, that they explain and direct and\nlift the learners over too many hard places. The pupils are slided over the hard places\nso easily that they really do not get hold of anything thoroughly enough to understand it.\n\nSays the same writer: ''The American teachers do not only the thinking,\nbut very nearly all the work for the pupils, as compared with the European\nteachers. \"\nTo what extent this may be due to the multiplicity of branches and refinement of methods it is difficult to determine. It may be that, having a large\namount of work to cover, and being anxious to advance as many of the pupils\nas possible, the teacher finds it easier and quicker to lift them over the hard\nplaces than to allow them the time necessary to dig out the problems and do\nthe work for themselves. No greater mistake could be made. Unfortunately,\nmany students seem willing to be carried, and it is greatly to be deplored that\nso many helps are available.\nSome of you may have noticed a catalog of a pubHshing firm that has been\ndistributed broadcast throughout the country, with a view of reaching as many\nstudents in secondary schools and colleges as possible, advertising handy,\nliteral translations and interlinear translations of all the classics used in high\nschool and college, with the statement that a literal translation is a convenient\nand legitimate help. Students who rely upon these helps make a most grievous\nmistake. No student ever learns the Greek or Latin language from an\ninterlinear translation.\n\n"} {"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nDr. Greenwood well says on this point: '*The 'pony' is the worst possible\nmount for the youthful traveler toward the mountain-tops of knowledge. \"\nThe same catalog calls attention to commencement parts and efforts for all\nconceivable occasions, ready-made for the student's use. Under such conditions, the teacher has a hard task to secure original work.\nLet me say in conclusion, the study -hour is as important as the recitation\nperiod. Any course of study that does not allow a sufficient amount of time\nfor both study and recitation is overcrowded and has been too much enriched.\nThe teacher should make every effort so to arrange the program that the pupils\nwill have a fair opportunity for individual study, and they should be advised,\nencouraged, and obliged, if need be, to do their own work. One of the most\nvaluable results that can come to our boys and girls from their training in the\nelementary and secondary schools and colleges is the ability to focus the attention upon one subject for a considerable period of time and the power of clear\nand rational thinking.\nOne of our poets has well said :\nI love vast libraries; yet there is a doubt\nIf one be better with them or without, —\nUnless he use them wisely, and^ indeed,\nKnows the high art of what and how to read;\nAt learning's fountain it is sweet to drink.\nBut 'tis a nobler privilege to think;\nAnd oft, from books apart, the thirsting mind\nMay make the nectar which it cannot find.\n'Tis well to borrow from the good and great;\n'Tis wise to learn; 'tis god-like to create!\n\nORDER\nWILLIAM\n\nOF DEVELOPMENT\nE. CHANCELLOR,\n\nAND STUDIES\nSTAGE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nCOLUMBIA\n\nSUITED\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nTO EACH\n\nDISTRICT\n\nOF\n\nIf everything in the world is well enough, why not build a lodge in the\nwilderness, and be happy ? But if all is not well, why not take a Httle innocent\nrecreation in the way of reform, beginning with that profitable surgical carpentry of plucking the beam out of one's own eye ?\nFor several years past, in the occasional quarter-hours that I have been\nable to devote to thought and work in education as such, I have been trying to\nresolve certain difficulties in the relations of the educational world to the\nsociety that environs and supports it. I have been asked and am asked these\nquestions :\n1. Why does not formal education always educate?\n2. Why do children leave school, or why are they taken from school, before they are\neducated ?\n3. Why do so many men and women criticize, distrust, censure, or reject education\nas it is for not being genuinely what it purports to be ?\n\n"} {"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nORDER\n\nOF\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n211\n\n4. Why are educators given so much responsibility and so little authority ?\n5. Why is it so difficult, why is it impossible, to get sufficient money for formal education ?\n\nWe are upon the horns of a dilemma; either American democracy must\nlook elsewhere than to education for relief from the ills that afflict us as a\nsociety and as individuals, which apparently amounts to abandoning education,\nor else educators must provide a new kind of education.\nIn what respects can education be changed sufficiently for the better so\nthat it may meet fairly well the needs of the age ? In various quarters, various\nremedies are proposed : among these remedies are more men as teachers, more\nevening and summer schools, a longer period of compulsory attendance — all\nrequiring more money- — which is the very thing denied by a skeptical public.\nThe case seems to require not so much exhortation as introspection. Of\ncourse, in certain regions of the nation, where they are still voting, county by\ncounty, whether or not to have public schools, exhortation is in order; but in\nmost regions the communities have tested private, endowed, and public education, and are paying now substantially all that they think it is worth.\nEducation takes the average boy for about one hundred and fifty days in\nthe year for about five hours in the day. Education and society both know\nthat the graduate is not really educated: but society says in its practice, ''I\nhave examined your boy who stays about ten years in education, and I really\ndon't care in most cases to pay the price for the difference in quality. \" Wherefore education, shut in to itself, begins to inquire how it can change its own\ncharacter. Obviously, it can effect changes either in its mechanism or in its\nspirit; and, obviously, it prefers the mechanical changes. But when these\nmechanical changes are tried here and there, the results are disappointing.\nA logic that appears to surround us without loophole of escape appears to\ncompel us to examine the thing itself that we profess, which is education. At\nonce, we discover that education is essentially a matter .of the exercises to which\nsoul and body are subjected.\nA few years ago, there was a theory that attracted much attention and\nsecured some consideration in our courses of study, as pursued in different\ncommunities, to the effect that each individual repeats in his own life-history\nthe life-history of the race. It is entirely unnecessary for me to review in this\npresence the arguments, the experiments, the criticisms, the books, the essays,\nthe methods and devices involved in this famous recapitulation theory. You\nall know what it is and that it has failed as yet to convince either the American\npubhc or this profession. The trouble with this theory is rather its insufficiency than any erroneousness. It is insufficient in that hitherto all nations\nhave suffered and failed because of arrest of development. We are not\ncontent that our youth shall repeat in this respect the racial history; we desire\nthem to repeat the history of the greatest of the earth, of those who have\nascended far above, who have developed far beyond, their ancestral nations.\nThis theory leaves education a truncated pyramid; we need an apex.\nBut\n\n"} {"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe theory, though mainly, is not wholly, true. As a matter of fact, we individuals tend to repeat the life-history of our own particular ancestors, not up\nto the times of their demises, but up to that partial maturity when they became\nour parents. In other words, we tend to repeat the life-history of the youth\nof our ancestors. In the word \"tend\" I have tried to suggest a second error\nin this recapitulation theory: We do not actually repeat every phase of the\nhistories of the bodies and souls of our youthful ancestors because we shortstep and even skip most of them, for the adequate reason that these histories\nare distinctly contradictory in their details. Clearly, this theory looks backward; ithas no light to shed upon the problem how to produce leaders; and\nis valuable rather for correction than for direction, to limit and to prevent\nexcesses rather than to inspire and to guide education.\nA second theory has a certain relation to the first, supplements it, to an\nextent enlarges, and to a degree improves it. By this theory, the individual\nis to be prepared for human society as it now is ; and education is defined as\ndeliberate preparation for life by intelligent participation in such modes of\nlife as are comprehensible by the individual learner. By carefully determined\nstudies and exercises, the youth is to be converted into a useful member of\nsociety; and this fact that he can be used by society to effect its ends is considered satisfactory evidence that he is educated. This sociological philosophy\nhas not yet achieved the vogue of the historical philosophy; but it has been\nurged and it is being urged by forces of the greatest significance in American\nlife. It has university standing, not less than that of the historical philosophy ;\nand it has business backing which the historical philosophy could never secure.\nIt appeals to common-sense, for it is subtly utilitarian, if not essentially materiahstic. When modified by the provision that the school must never attempt to\neducate contrary to the nature of the individual, must not try to make a merchant out of a poet, or a politician out of a scientist, or an engineer out of a\nphilosopher, or a farmer out of a lover of the crowded city, then this sociological\ntheory commands considerable attention ; that is, attention until one sees that\nthe two provisos destroy the theory root and branch, for the first proviso\nasserts that the individual, not society, is the determining factor, and the\nsecond admits that the boy cannot be made really to understand adult life and\nits institutions. All the effect of the theory is, therefore, to bring upon the\nhorizon the fact that the truly educated man serves humanity. This by no\nmeans forces us to the extreme view, that the end of education is solely to\nproduce heroes and leaders and sages; that is, great men. But it does compel\nus to see that the sociological theory in its purity is but a generalized philosophical affirmation of the commonly condemned attitude of the father who\nproposes to fit his son for business or of the mother who prays that he may\nbecome a minister. There is, moreover, another fatal error in the sociological\ntheory; an error familiar enough to all psychologists. Fit a boy for the\ndramatic profession in his youth, satiate him with opportunities of expresion ; and often he will never enter a theater, for he has exhausted his interest\n\n"} {"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nORDER\n\nOF\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n2I3\n\nin the dramatic. Facts function to inhibit as well as to generate interests.\nHuman nature craves the rounded, complete life as well as incHnes to follow\nthe famiHar lines of least resistance — in this contradiction life consists.\nThe schools of America in their average actual practice incorporate an\ninteresting philosophy. Our courses of study are the product of a kind of\nnatural evolution, not quite so natural as it seems, but of that accidental,\nhaphazard character typical of unconscious evolution. This philosophy is\nopportunism. In accordance with it, boards of education and superintendents of schools take what courses of study they find and add to them, tinker\nthem. Where the boards are in control, these additions and tinkerings result\nin courses thoroly worthy the study of educators. Whether they deserve\nstudy by the pupils is a different question. They achieve two results: they\nrecapitulate the educational courses of the parents of the pupils, and they try\nto prepare for real life. Occasionally, where in certain communities there has\nbeen for two or three decades a competent superintendent or a series of competent superintendents, with boards indifferent to educational matters or shut\nout from them by law or regulation, these opportunist courses of study show\nno little unity of purpose. When these actual courses are placed side by side,\nand when they are examined in actual operation and compared, we discover\ntwo facts; one, that opportunism is mere natural evolution, altogether out of\nharmony with that purposive conscious evolution expressed, e. g., in the constitutions ofnation and states and in all the higher phases of American culture.\nEducational opportunism does not seem to comport with the dignity of a\nprofession in such a civilization as ours. A second fact is that it results in\nunwarranted differences in practice. If opportunism expresses a genuine\nphilosophy, a body of general truths, then in like communities it would be\nincorporated in like courses of study. To this it may be objected that from\none end of the country to the other we have history, geography, spelling,\nbiology, Latin, in practically the same schools and grades uniformly and\nuniversally. This is true, tho only in appearance, for history by one\nmethod is a different thing from history by another method ; but my point is\nthat the additions and the tinkerings are surprisingly unlike in like communities— that tradition is the keynote of opportunism, and that the variations are\ndue to individual caprices, usually of laymen, are the two facts that I desire\nto emphasize.\nPsychologists will perceive that these three theories, the historical, the\nsociological, and the opportunist or natural evolutionist theories, are all\nprimarily, if not wholly, objective — they depend for their proof upon external\nfacts. And psychologists, who are now inquiring why the mind has a body,\nlogically inquire also why education does not go to psychology for a philosophy\nof a course of study.\nThis is the duty of educators : to challenge psychology and psychologists to\nperform this public duty, to show educators how the mind grows and what it\nneeds to grow, when its changes take place, and what an educated soul is. It\n\n"} {"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nis possible that psychology now has rather more to offer in the way of truths\napplicable to education than psychologists themselves care to assert. Pure\nscience seldom cares to play any part as an applied science; it is a kind of\nfilial ingratitude to a parent.\nIt seems to be pretty well agreed by genetic psychologists that the child of\nfive is all curiosity. His motive is to see things. By fits and starts, he tries to\ndo things. His intelligence is far beyond the power of the adult mind to recall\nor to imagine. He lives thru more experiences each day than I do in a\nmonth. They are, of necessity, therefore, superficial experiences, sense impressions, quick and light reactions. Of morals, he understands nothing; he has\nno need of social consciousness and of personal consciousness. Any drill is an\noffense. Any stimulus is an offense. Any demand upon his attention, any\ncommand relating to his conduct, beyond the requirements of sheer necessity,\nis an offense. All that he requires is opportunity to see things, to play, to\ntalk, and.to do things that seem to him worth while. He requires care, not\nsetting in order. When the teacher of the seven-year-old child understands\nthat morals do not concern him, save the merely prescriptive morality of\nobedience to parents and to teachers, and that efficiency is but a star upon the\nhorizon, but that the business of the day is to cultivate and to gratify the\nsearching activity of the soul of the little one — that intelligence is the ideal —\nhow many economies can be effected! And how clear is the day's duty!\nNature story-telling, learning to read, individual play, singing, happiness,\nputting-forth of the mind, finding how to do things and dropping the task upon\nthe first weariness; these fill the mind of the teacher as well as of the children.\nAt nine years of age the child is merely all industry. There has been a\nmarked subsidence of curiosity with its dissipation of attention. Moral ideas\nhave begun to glimmer in him. He desires knowledge that he may use it.\nHe is not so much self-conscious as self-centered. He is willing to drill himself in games with others; but he has not yet the true or the whole social\nspirit. His motive in life seems to be to get things for himself, especially to\nget things done by himself for himself. In this selfishness there is no malice :\nhe is simply unmoral. Drill so far from being an offense has become a need\nand a pleasure. But no mode of stimulation from outside can be endured.\nNor should any demands or commands be directed toward him beyond those\nof sheer necessity. All that he requires is opportunity to do things and proper\ndirection in doing them. He must play, but his play now needs to be checked,\nas does his reading, lest he exhaust himself with over-fatigue.\nWhen the teacher of the eleven-year-old child understands that morality\nis still far off and that knowldege of itself counts for nothing, but that efficiency\nis attainable now or never, and that the best days for the development of\nquickness and retentiveness of observation have already gone by, how clear\nbecomes the day's duty! To put thru one's undertakings, to play games\nskilfully, to know what one knows certainly, to write, and to draw, and to\nsing, and to use tools accurately, to do whatever one does well, to persevere,\n\n"} {"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nORDER\n\nOF\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n215\n\nto remember perfectly, to read exactly what was written and to express the\nthought and feeling in what was written ; for the sake of the boy, these fill the\nmind of the teacher — not so many pages of the readers or so many paragraphs\nof the geographies.\nAt thirteen years of age, there is considerable idealism, derived, of course,\nfrom the fruits of the curiosity and industry of the earlier years. The selfcentering has become self -consciousness ; in the conscience of this boy, there\nis a deal of genuine morality. Honor, truth-telling, loyalty, diligence, decency,\nare fairly well grown; but sympathy, self-denial, and graciousness are only\nin the bud. Drill is not yet resented; but the period for it has passed the\nclimax. The boy has made no little progress in his games toward action in\nassociation with others.\nMore vital still will be the change in the attitude of the first-year high-school\nteacher, and more complete still will be the change in the atmosphere of his\nroom, when he comprehends that the fifteen-year-old boy does not come to\nschool to learn Latin or algebra or physical geography or mechanical drawing.\nGod did not create the boy from the foundation of the world in order that\nthis knowledge might find preservation in him as a repository. Not at all.\nThe boy lives that he may grow and manifest in the universe certain powers\nand qualities ; at fifteen years of age, he is facing human society, to absorb this\ninto his soul, to learn how to pursue his own course in the flood of life. The\nstudies will pass; so will the boy; so will the race. They are to learn what\ncourage and fortitude and honor and truthfuhiess and self-sacrifice are. I\njudge this because I see these qualities rising in the noblest humanity in all\nlands and ages and here and now in the season of adolescence.\nAt seventeen years of age, idealism is almost at its climax. The youth has\nbegun to have a sense of values or principles; this sense is still obscure, indefinite, and unreliable, therefore, in its findings ; but intellection or reason has\nreached the point of activity. Habits are fairly well fixed, and the day of drill\nis past. Morality is not estabhshed in respect to details; but the spirit of\nmorality, which is wisdom, is alive and strong. Efficiency toward intended\nends is at its heights as a power but, of course, not yet in respect to the results.\nTo both demands and commands, the youth is keenly sensitive and fairly\nresponsive. I speak of the normal boy, normally educated, and not of the\nboy who is going to wreck in sin or in crime.\nMan is dual, as everyone knows; a creature of body and soul. For the\nbody, he has but one authoritative ideal — health; for the soul, he has three\nideals. It would be easy to show the source of man's conception of his psychical nature as triune. Without voHtion, afifection, and intellection, all\nthree, there would be no freedom for the soul, for freedom springs from\noppositions and reconciliations. Were the soul to function in but one mode,\nthere would be absolute tyranny like the cohesion of a solid ; were it to function\nin but two modes, there would be ceaseless warfare like the conflict within gas;\nbut the soul has the ordered liberty of the fluid. These three modes in which\n\n"} {"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe soul functions suggest three ideals: intelligence, efficiency, and morality.\nThese three terms, however, are not of the same powers, but form a scale.\nIntelligence may be characterized as the activity of the soul — its curiosity,\nstimulated or excited by motives set in action by facts pressing upon it from\nthe world without. Here body unites or correlates with soul, for without\nhealth, motives cannot well up in the soul. Life is primarily a process of\noriginating motive force; it is, of course, primarily physical, and becomes\npsychical only when motives stir. Motives are always unconscious : they ally\nthemselves with interests, which are the simplest effects of the functioning of\nfacts. Motives are primitive willings capable of development into conscious\npurposes, but dying themselves in the process, as the seeds die. What we\nmean by intelligence in this phase is the soul quickened by motives to inquire\nwhat the world is. Efficiency may be characterized as intelligence obedient\nto ideals. It is the resultant of motives resolutely at work finding facts of life\nand exciting the soul to interpret them. Efficiency is the result of purposes\nthat have reduced body and soul, both, to their own ends. There can be no\nefficiency until there is much critical intelligence. Morality may be characterized as efficiency that works in harmony with values or principles as estabHshed in the fully conscious soul. Such a soul knows both itself and the\nenvironing world, not completely, but certainly. Life proposes these three\naims: to originate motives, to acquire ideals, and to enforce values or — to\nuse other words — to apply principles. When an individual has attained these\nends, he is intelligent, efficient, and moral. It is possible to attain these ends\nin middle adolescence, but not before. Then, and not before, it is reasonably\nsafe to allow the educated boy or girl to encounter the realities of the world.\nThe trouble with the man who is overloaded with bank accounts and the\nmerchandise of the world is the same, it appears to me, as the trouble with the\nman who is overloaded with book knowledge and the gear of the intellectual\nlife.\nThe motive of the man with the uneasy roll of banknotes is, in his own\nbrilliant slang, \"to get action,\" to be a big part of human life. He is surcharged with force; he has found freedom. In short, he is motor in type, and\ngenerates his own power. Similarly, the motive of the man whose knowledge\nis not yet in repose is to convey it to others promptly. His energy overcomes\nhis judgment. The ideals of a man depend, of course, wholly upon what he\nhas known before. All imagination is in the functioning of facts: visions\nspring from sights. What the man hitherto hoped to be, he now undertakes\nto be. His money or his knowledge has not changed him. It has simply\nbrought his ideal to reality.\nFor the man of motives and of ideals, there is always hope : his soul has\nvitality and elevation. But the mind of man has other business than aspiring\nand desiring. It has the final business of measuring, of evaluating, of appreciating. Strong motives and rich affections are essential; but they are not\nenough.\nThere must also be fine and sane values.\nThe place of intellec-\n\n"} {"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nORDER\n\nOF DEVELOPMENT\n\n217\n\ntion is indeed last and least; but it is undeniable, and absolutely necessary to\ncommon-sense. On this battlefield of values, the nouveau riche perishes, for it\nis a field of pitfalls, sunken roads, false messages, artillery fire, and cavaky\ncharges, of laziness, treachery, and reckless daring. Some Marengo tells the\nmotive, some Austerlitz the ideal, some Waterloo the sense of values in each\nnew Napoleon.\nAnd yet this is the order of development, it seems to me, of every human\nsoul. And it seems to me that we shall never know what studies and exercises\nto put in or to keep out, to put out or to keep out on the educational curriculum\nuntil we are willing to ask of each study and exercise these three questions —\n1. What motive in the soul does this arouse ?\n2. What ideal does this furnish ?\n3. What value does this establish ?\n\nBut these three questions do not apply equally at each stage in the development of the boy and man: and for two reasons, one philosophical and the\nother scientific.\nTo expect or to desire a full and proper appreciation of the things, conditions, and relations of Hfe before one is really alive and at work for ends, is as\ndangerous to the welfare of the individual and of society as it is false to the\nknown facts. The criminal is simply the man who is intelligent and efficient\nwithout being wholly moral. The more his education in intelligence and in\nefficiency is disproportioned to his education in morality, the worse for himself\nand for the world. Fully to accept this proposition, it is, of course, requisite\nto define intelligence as the mere activity or curiosity or motivation of the soul\nconcerning the outer world — to define efficiency as successfully worked out\nmotivation, and morality as motivation successful in relation to social values.\nThe expert criminal fails to become a whole man because he works in affairs\nthat are not worth while to himself and also offend the conscience of his\nfellows. In other words, he misjudges, fails to appreciate wisely, is deficient\nin the higher modes of intellection. The philosophical reason, then, why we\ndo not ask with equal emphasis all three questions at each stage in conscious\nevolution is that efficiency succeeds, follows, and flows from soul-activity,\nprimitive intelligence, motivation; and that moraUty succeeds, follows, and\nflows from efficiency. As values and principles are higher and more difficult\nthan ideals, and as ideals are higher and more difficult than motives, so, in\nconsequence of mere unfolding of these terms, morality, or social wisdom,\nis higher than efficiency, and efficiency than intelligence.\nTo put the matter in negative propositions, no man can be moral who is not\nalready efficient; and no man can be efficient who is not already of actively\nmoving intelligence. We proceed from being observant to becoming efficient,\nand finally attain morality.\nNow this is exactly what we find in the facts of human development as\ndisplayed in genetic psychology and discovered by common-sense.\nI am not\n\n"} {"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nhere to discuss how interests grow from the activity of the intelHgence trying to\ndig facts out of the world quarry ; how motives grow from interests by digging\nmore facts; how ideals grow from motives by yet more digging; how values\ngrow from ideals; how, after adolescence, we begin the whole process over\nagain, and go from science to art and from art to philosophy. I am here to\nsuggest some of these elementary principles of psychology apparently applicable to the present general inquiry, how to make a reasonably educative course\nof study. Intervals of reflection have led me to the opinion that educators who\ndesire to avoid scholastic errors corresponding to the excesses of spendthrifts\nmust investigate the motives, the ideals, and the values befitting the human\nsoul in each of its stages and derivable from such studies and exercises as may\nbe admitted into educational courses. And I venture the prediction that, in\norder to reduce the now excessive number of topics in these courses, to set our\ntopsy-turveydom in order with the true upside up and the true outside out —\nreally to educate our youth, and to persuade the common conscience of American humanity into giving us adequate material support in this work of education— we shall yet have to devise a psychological curriculum. I have not the\nslightest doubt that we shall do this very thing, and that the outcome will be\nsimple enough to surprise ourselves and to gratify the general public.\nObviously, this- proposition amounts to throwing a gossamer bridge of\ndreams across the gulf fixed between the amazing material prosperity of the\nAmerican world and the consequently mortifying poverty of the persons who\nas teachers are absolutely essential to the maintenance of that prosperity against\nthe dearly beloved, but nevertheless certainly barbarian, children constantly\nwelling up out of our homes. But it seems to me that the eagerness of teachers\nto seize upon every new fact of Nature, every new poem, every new exercise,\nindeed everything new, as a possible addition to the school course, proceeds\nfrom the intellectual activity discontented with the void of philosophical and\npsychological wisdom.\nThe process indicated is synchronous with the physical growth and cannot anticipate that growth. The highest ideal that the primary school has any\npsychological right to set before itself for attainment is intelligence, soulactivity, motivation toward the external world. To expect efficiency of the\nboy of ten years is cruel, to expect moraUty of him is proof of total incompetence. The highest ideal that the elementary school has the right to seek for\nthe boy of fourteen or fifteen is efficiency. The proper ideal of secondary\neducation, with its climatic years eighteen or twenty, is morality, the power\nto affirm and to deny, to do and to withstand. Unless the boy shows mental\nactivity by the age of ten; and resoluteness toward ends by the age of fifteen;\nand honor, honesty, courage, fortitude, decency, truthfulness, purity, loyalty,\nself-denial and self-reliance by the age of twenty, there is little hope for him.\nBut these things are very different matters from the subjects everywhere\nset forth in courses of study. No doubt, for the courses are mainly objective.\nThey are named to please public opinion, which desires visible metes and\n\n"} {"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nORDER\n\nOF\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n2I9\n\nbounds. They can be measured and debated. They can be learned without\nany resultant education. But where the teacher sets before himself the appropriate ideal, when the words of the lesson ring in the ears, but the purpose\nof education beats in the heart, then these objective partitionings of so-called\nsubject-matter lose their soHdity and opacity, and the teacher beholds the soul\nof the learner.\nIn this summary I have tried to avoid details but to say enough to fix the\nanswers to the three questions:\n1. What motive in the soul does this arouse ? is the question of transcendent importance in deaUng with small children.\n2. What ideal does this furnish? is the transcendent question for the boy or girl of\ntwelve to fifteen.\n3. What value or principle does this estabUsh ? is the transcendent question in the\nlast years of secondary education.\n\nI apprehend that in the next period of formal education there will be such\ninternal changes in our courses of study as to make their ancestry almost\nunrecognizable. I anticipate this both because of past history and because of\nthe as yet unspent force of psychology and of sociology. It does not seem to\nme that fifty years hence we shall have (for example) for twelve-year-old boys\nand girls a daily program at school with such notations as: U. S. history;\nspelling; writing; music; languages; manual training; drawing;' geography;\nphysical culture; arithmetic.\nIt is, of course, certain that there will be new axes of thought with resultant\nnew spheres of knowledge and of art. Also it is certain that annual or semiannual or quarterly cutting-up of ten (more or less) studies and exercises will\ndisappear. What I am trying to show is that all objective divisions and\nassignments are false to educational science and therefore incompatible with\nits art. I hazard the opinion that subjective considerations will determine the\nprogress of the schools.\nWhat I am trying to say is that we shall not aim to plant a certain knowledge\nof Asia or of colonial history or of percentage or of carpentry in a boy, say\nthirteen years of age, but to evolve out of his growing soul certain powers,\ndispositions, and purposes.\nWe must thrust the course of study into its place as solely a means to an\nend. We must reject in the courses everything that is false to the period of\nlife represented by the children of the various grades. We must repel knowledge for its own sake ; there is no such thing properly known in the world of\neducation. And in the process we shall find ourselves simplifying our problem\nwonderfully.\nIn the remaking of our courses of study, we shall reform them not merely\nby years, but by days and minutes. We are doing this very thing, for educational psychology is actually getting into our schools. To accomplish this\nreform, we must turn the schools inside out, driving tradition, as such, away\nand calling in the spirit of truth, which is reason.\n\n"} {"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nCertain specific conclusions appear inevitable.\nThe school day of uniform length for all pupils four to twenty-four years of age is a\nmechanism to be discarded as soon as possible by the human spirit.\nUtilitarianism that is mere materialism must not dictate writing drills to six-year-old\nchildren, or spelling drills to sixteen-year-old youths; making school harmful in the one\ncase and hateful in the other.\nWe must locate the topics of arithmetic where they belong according to the science\nof genetic psychology.\nSince all history is essentially a story of morals, we shall leave formal history to the\nyears of well-advanced adolescence.\nLiterature, music, drawing, and play will constitute the day's program for small\nchildren.\nFor the nine-year-olds, school will be a rather formal affair, mainly of drills in language, drawing, music, number operations, carpentering, or sewing, with reading and\nwriting and games.\nFor the thirteen-year-olds, there will be the foregoing with compositions and information lessons added: there will be also a foreign language and something of what we\nnow include in arithmetic, geometry, and algebra.\nThe present scheme of one teacher for forty or fifty children for five hours a day, for\nfive days in the week, and for forty weeks in the year, with incidental home-lessons to be\ntaught by the parents, will go by the board. Night work for pupils should be unknown.\nIndividuals may benefit for a time by night-study; but the race never, the community\nnever, the next generation never.\n\nI have not tried to answer the question, What are the essential studies ?\nbut the underlying questions whose answers must determine the more familiar\nquestions. The purpose of the curriculum should be to develop intelHgence\nin beginners, efficiency in ten-year-old pupils, and moraHty in the adolescents.\nEvery study and every exercise should pass the criticism of these tests. Each\ntopic must stand, not on its own merits as viewed by the world of active life,\nbut on its merits as viewed by the world of education. There will be no more\nartificial sequences to last a year or ten years, styled grammar, arithmetic,\netc. The early secondary education will be essentially informational and\nmoral, to lay foundations for science, art, and philosophy.\nNot to be at least healthy is to be an invalid; to be healthy only and not\nintelligent is to be an idiot; to be only healthy and intelligent is to be a parasite; to be only healthy and intelligent and efficient is to be a criminal, or at\nleast a sinner, and dangerous to our fellows, and there are of these not a few,\nin prison and out; but to be all these things and of sound morality also is to\nbe the educated man whom alone the school should graduate not before the\nfulness of time.\nIn the light of ideals, shining in their proper places in the pathway of education, let youth ascend.\nThese moral, efficient, intelligent, healthy youth are safe in the world,\nand it is safe for the world to receive them.\nIn this presentation, I have absolutely rejected two familiar theories;\nthat the child must pass through the history of the race, and that he must be\nprepared directly for participation in the affairs of the modern world. I do not\n\n"} {"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nNON-AVERAGE\n\nCHILD\n\n221\n\nbelieve that either the historical theory or the sociological theory solves this\nproblem of the curriculum. I have rejected the traditional theory that we\nmust accept as very good most of what is, and add the new as public opinion\nmay dictate. And I have said in terms as unequivocal as they are brief that\nto my thinking, as I view the external world of reality and the real world of the\nsoul, we shall find our solution in a genetic psychology that reveals the processes\nand stages, the functions and the interests, the motives, the ideals, and the\nprinciples of the soul as it journeys and sojourns from birth to death.\nSHOULD\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL FURNISH BETTER TRAINING\nTHE NON-AVERAGE CHILD?\n\nJOHN R. KIRK, PRESIDENT\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nFOR\n\nSCHOOL, KIRKSVILLE, MO.\n\nTraining is a term badly overworked. It is unwisely and needlessly made\nto stand for instruction, for education, and for the discipline which results from\nregulated effort. It savors too much of formal repetition, studied imitation,\nand unprofitable routine. It puts drilling in the forefront. It puts personal\ninitiative and thinking in the background. The dog and pony show illustrates what can be done by training.\nAll children doubtless need much training, but most of them need instruction and guidance and practice in constructive thinking more than they need\ntraining. They need to be led or directed in the application and test of their\nknowledge. They need to be encouraged in both concrete and general\nexpressions of their personal conceptions of things. They need exercise and\ndirection in the use of their creative ingenuity. They need opportunity for\npersonal effort. They need to be given the benefit of recognizing their own\nmistakes. The most perfect training sometimes degenerates into semiconscious and irresponsible repetition, such as we see when children solve\narithmetic problems by models set for them by teachers or textbooks. Training in the form of numerous repetitions produces habits and automatic actions\nbut not necessarily a fair and friendly and inquisitive attitude toward the truth.\nTraining as such permits but little opportunity for mistakes that are worth\nnoticing. It deprives the student of the opportunity to reflect or cogitate upon\nhis own blunders. It tends to destroy rational initiative. Even manual\ntraining deserves to have its name changed; for if it isn't brain training and\nalso heart and mind culture it falls short of its opportunity.\nPerhaps we all agree that the non-average child should have better training\nfind better instruction, though we see slight probability of securing such training and instruction. The term \"non-average\" is conceded to be inexact and\nsomewhat unscientific. We all doubtless agree with the psychologists that\nthere is no such thing as an average child or an average man ; but we use the\nterm for the sake of discussing a condition which needs effective treatment.\nIn the case of forty children in an elementary school or high-school class,\n\n"} {"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nor forty men in a college class, we may for convenience classify them in three\ngroups: Group A comprises a half-dozen or more who are at a given time\nevidently superior in intellect to the remainder of the class. They learn and\ncomprehend nearly all subjects with quickness and ease. They are nonaverage individuals of the higher type. Group B comprises some twenty or\nmore who learn with reasonable facility a majority of the essential subjects.\nA few may not be very good in music or drawing or in the co-ordination of\nmind and body, one a little weak in mathematics and another in language, but\nthe members of this group may for practical purposes be called average individuals. Group C comprises from five to ten persons who are mentally\nweaker and slower than those of Group B; they have less power of concentration, less of self-control. Some of them learn one or two subjects fairly well\nand completely fail in several other subjects. Some get obscure conceptions\nof all subjects which they attempt to study.\nSo we may say for the sake of comparison that in any class of forty persons\nabout twenty may be called average individuals. From six to ten are nonaverage, because they are noticeably more intelligent and more ready to\nacquire, assimilate, and use knowledge than the average; while from five to\nten are non-average because they cannot learn so well or think so well as the\nlarge middle group. If one from Group A be compared with one from Group\nC in quickness of comprehension and in readiness of expression, we may say\nroughly that the one from Group A will do at least ten times as well as one\nfrom Group C. If comparison be made in the ability to comprehend and\nmanipulate numbers, one from Group A will solve many problems while one\nfrom Group C solves one problem ; and sometimes it will happen that the one\nfrom Group A will have incomparably better comprehension of each problem\nthan the one from Group C has. Comparisons may be made indefinitely\nwith all sorts of subjects and the same remarkable differences will be discovered\nbetween the brightest and strongest members of a class on the one hand and\nthe slowest and dullest ones on the other.\nGrading and classifying pupils is usually a crude and unscientific process,\na mere approximation of values. A majority of pupils are undoubtedly\ngraded or ranked as average or non-average, regardless of the relation of their\nmental types to the mental type of their teachers ; but the fact of being average\nor non-average in a class depends in large part upon the type of mind of the\nteacher as compared with the types of mind in those who are taught. A\nchange of teachers may in a short period of time produce a change in a given\npupil from average to non-average or the converse. Suppose, for example, a\nteacher to be of the highly intellectual type, fond of logical reasoning regardless of thought content, and with little or no taste for concrete illustrations.\n(And there are many such teachers, the product of our best school and college\nlife.) Under such a teacher suppose there is a pupil of the type of the concrete\nthinker, i.e., one who sees and thinks in the forms and the actualities of wood\nand stone and earth and sky. Then let the teacher of the intellectual type be\n\n"} {"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nNON-AVERAGE\n\nCHILD\n\n223\n\nexchanged for another teacher, say, of the concrete thinking type, i. e., of the\nsame type of mind as the pupil. Is it not evident that the rank of the pupil as\ncompared with classmates will in the course of time be changed ? I believe\nthere are no careful observers who have not seen in school and college life the\nutter inability of the teacher or professor to grade or rank a given pupil or\nstudent justly, because of marked difierences between the type of mind and\nhabit of thinking of the teacher on the one hand and of the person to be taught\non the other.\nAgain, suppose the children in a class or the men in a college to have teachers\nof a uniform mental type for a series of years. Is it not evident that children\nand students of one type of mind will be at an advantage while others will be\nat a permanent disadvantage, and therefore that the differences in rank as to\naverage and non-average will be appreciably due to the conditions of instruction rather than the relative abiHties of those taught ?\nHere a question arises : For what group of children or students is the curriculum of studies prepared and to whom is it adapted ?\nWe probably agree at once that both the course of study and the daily\nlessons usually are and always ought to be prepared for and adapted to the\nmiddle group or the so-called average persons. This seems to be true in\nschools, colleges, and institutions of all grades and ranks ; but occasionally a\nhigh-class professor, absorbed in the investigation of subject-matter, will in\nhis lectures address instruction to the precious few highest and best intellects\nin his class, while the average and the lower non-average groups sit in somnolent bewilderment getting nothing but obscure conceptions of the profundity\nof the lecturer; and not a few of the good teachers in elementary and high\nschools know perfectly well the bright, quick, fluent members of their classes\nand can see no other course of duty than that of exploiting visitors by the use\nof the surprising knowledge and ability of the few apparent leaders of nonaverage pupils of the higher type.\nThere are good reasons for adapting the curriculum to the uses and highest\ngood of the largest numbers. If the subject-matter be adapted to the best in\na school or class, then the middle group do not get their share of instruction\nwhile the poorest group get extremely Uttle. If instruction and training be\nadapted to the poorest group, then the middle or average group will dawdle a\ngreat deal and those in the highest group will be encouraged in idleness or else\nthey will be stupefied by inaction. Since, therefore, practical utility requires\nthat the curriculum and the daily lessons be adapted to the middle group or\naverage persons then the non-average persons are not equally well provided for.\nThe requirements are too low for the highest group and altogether too great\nfor the non-average persons in the lowest group.\nThese facts appear to be so self-evident that argument in their support\nwould seem needless ; and doubtless none will deny the desirability of better\ntraining and instruction for the non-average persons in both the highest and\nlowest groups.\nI take it further that the purpose of assigning this subject a\n\n"} {"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nplace in the program is not to prove a case but to suggest, if possible, some\nmeans of improving a well-known but unavoidable condition. It does not\nseem to me that the subject is a popular one. There is something about it\nthat grates unpleasantly upon our professional ears. To give the subject\nserious treatment is an open acknowledgment of a constant defect in the great\nagency through which we seek public betterment.\nI fear that the attention of the school superintendent is felt to be necessarily\ncentered on the vast and necessary machinery of his system, and that he is\nnot likely to have much energy left for such details as the individual care and\ntreatment of children and students in his system. I believe the inequalities of\ninstruction and training are not likely to be remedied directly through the\ndepartment of administration.\nIn a fifth-grade schoolroom with sixty children attending daily, or a\ncollege class with a hundred members, it is conceded that instruction must be\nchiefly mass instruction ; that the teacher and lecturer can have comparatively\nlittle direct knowledge of the individuals to be taught. The first remedy\noccurring to us is to divide the class and secure two instructors instead of one.\nAll must admit the desirability and concede the impossibility of doing this on\na large scale. Even if it were done the teacher in the fifth grade would still\nhave thirty individuals in a class ; the lecturer, fifty. There would still be the\nsame grouping as before. A, the small group of individuals in the lead; B,\nthe large group of middle-class or average individuals; and C, the hopeless\ngroup whom the teacher in despair feels at times like classifying as defectives ;\nand sometimes there is an individual or a group of individuals who approach\nthe border-Hne of the defectives.\nSome would have an extra teacher for each schoolroom to aid the backward\nindividuals in catching up and keeping up ; but this plan is unduly expensive\nand it is unfair. If it were practicable and if it could offer half the time of the\nextra teacher to the backward individuals and half to help the talented ones\nto catch up with the next higher class it would more nearly approach fairness.\nSome there are who would have exclusively individual instruction for each\nchild or student. If this were practicable it would be unwise, because it could\noffer nothing to compensate for the interplay of student upon student which\nin a well-managed class of any rank or grade is almost as valuable as the\ninstruction given by the teacher.\nInstruction by lectures has this same weakness and then it is usually followed by the \"quiz\" which further confines the thinking of many within the\nnarrow thought channels of one.\nView the case as we may, there seems to be no external machinery which\nwill produce the desired results. We must therefore go within the several\nclassrooms and lecture-rooms, there to discover the means of relief or else to\nacknowledge that a satisfactory adjustment of the difficulty is impossible.\nPerhaps ideal results can come only when all our classrooms and lecturerooms are presided over by ideal teachers.\nI think normal schools and\n\n"} {"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nNON-AVERAGE\n\nCHILD\n\n225\n\nteachers' colleges help some toward betterment ; but real efficiency in reaching\nindividually the average and non-average student cannot be secured by the\nmere training of mediocre persons in methods of procedure. It cannot be\nsecured in a short period of time by any sort of emotional reform. It can be\nbut partially effected by the instruction and training of elementary teachers.\nIt cannot be secured through people who depend upon ready-made or hand-medown processes learned from a book or a teacher and held in consciousness as\nprescriptions while being applied. It will never come through the acceptance\nof the doctrine, gratuitously promulgated from numerous organized circles in\nhigher education, to the effect that a half-educated person is good enough to\nteach children up to and including the last day in the elementary school, while\nfully educated teachers must be secured for the next day in school, i. e., for\nthe first day in the high school. Many university men are now urging that the\nnormal schools confine themselves to the exclusive routine of drilling and\ntraining immature young high-school graduates about two years in the doctrines, prescriptions, recipes, and practices of pedagogy with a view to making\nand molding such high-school graduates into elementary teachers. These\nmen do not see education as a whole. Their horizon is circumscribed by their\nambitions. They would unwisely establish a caste system and take to themselves that part of the preparation of teachers which is really worth while.\nWherever their creed is operative the normal schools tend gradually to become\nyoung ladies' seminaries and the more mature, forceful, capable, ambitious,\nprospective teachers, both men and women, go to the next best place to prepare themselves. The trouble about teachable pedagogy as a subject by\nitself is that the most of it is not in such organized form that the teaching of\nit contributes to mental viriUty or to scholarly habits and tastes. Hence pedagogical training and instruction unaccompanied by academic instruction is\nusually a pretty weak mental diet.\nThe fact in the case is that if anyone needs a real college education it is\nthe teacher who guides the children through the various subjects used in the\ngrammar-school grades; and on the other hand if anyone needs critical and\navailable knowledge of human nature in the uncertain periods of childhood\nand adolescence it is the teacher of the high-school child ; and it would doubtless be rash to claim that more than one-half of the high-school teachers have\nsuch knowledge or that they are likely to get it through the lecture courses in\nthe theories of education given in the typical teachers' college or department\nof pedagogy in a university. But when a normal-school diploma is made to\ninclude and cover a good college education, and when a diploma from a\nteachers' college in the university represents knowledge of childhood and\nadolescence along with teaching skill gained by some kind of personal experience, and when teachers are employed in view of their personal qualities as\nwell as their alleged training and their degrees, then there will be some hope\nfor an approach to universally efficient instruction that will effectively reach\nall individuals to be instructed.\nAnd it is to be hoped that mere custom or\n\n"} {"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nfashion in education will not bring about such adoration of diplomas and\ndegrees that the personal element in teachers will not always be recognized\neven in the absence of the documentary evidence of qualification which institutions can offer ; for really there is no means of grading or graduating persons\nin such a way as to show their personal worth and ability. The best that can\nbe said of the diploma is that it is prima facie evidence of qualifications. It\nis not fundamental but rather a valuable and desirable conventionality.\nAs for the non-average individual I believe he now has his due share of\nattention and training wherever he and his average classmates have a teacher\nof good personality, sound scholarship, and ability to devise methods of procedure adapted to each day's needs without referring back to a book or a normal\nschool or a teachers' college or the directions of a principal or superintendent.\nSuch a teacher sees his class whether in school or college as made up of individuals ofexceedingly diversified talents. He knows that he cannot keep the\nmembers of his class abreast of one another for a very long period of time.\nHe knows that the brighter non-average members must, from time to time,\nhave special promotions or be damaged by the inertia of marking time. He\nknows that the slow non-average individuals must for the sake of a fair understanding of subjects occasionally be reclassified or left with lower classes\nwhen the average members are promoted, i. e., they must be given more\ntime.\nSurely there is no valid reason for compelling the brighter, stronger individual to adopt continuously the slower pace of the average individual or to be\npromoted with solemn regularity from room to room along with his slower\nclassmates for any period of time. And there is likewise no good defense for\ncontinually lashing the slow non-average individual to keep him ostensibly\nabreast of the average individual.\nAnd again the non-average individual in a democratic country or any\ncountry cannot rightfully claim more of the teacher's attention and energy\nthan the average individual receives. The one of high endowments cannot\nclaim more privileges than the one of low endowments, and conversely, the\ndull and weak individual has no right to more attention than the bright strong\none unless he can be said to get it through the occasional reclassification which\ntakes him thru subjects a second time as classmate of younger students\nwho are pursuing the subjects for the first time.\nIn conclusion : There seems to be no immediate relief for the non-average\nindividual. Some persons are doubtless about to suggest as a remedy that\nwe have more manual- training schools, more commercial schools, more departments of various kinds. All the new schools and departments doubtless\nhelp in their way. But the non-average individual is in all these schools\nand in all school and college departments and classes.\nHence the remedy lies in securing teachers and college professors of\nuniformly high scholarship, personal force, and professional ability and skill\n\n"} {"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nIN\n\nSUBJECTS\n\n227\n\nalong with such adjustabihty in grading and promoting that no individual\nreceiving instruction will be compelled to remain very long in any class which\nis not adapted to his needs.\nWHAT\nELMER\n\nARE\n\nTHE ESSENTIALS IN SUBJECTS\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL COURSE?\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nUNITED\nSTATES\nCOMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nIN THE\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nSo far as education in the broad and large is concerned, we recall the fact\nthat it had passed through many stages before it became definitely centered in\na definite institution known as the school. There was a great deal of education before there were any schools as we know them. There came a time\nwhen a new education began to claim attention, and that new education consisted ofthe three R's, or in time it was known as the seven liberal arts. There\nhas been many a new education since that time, and each in turn has been\nheralded and welcomed by one party as a fresh revelation and has been\ndenounced by an opposing party as a mere novelty and fad.\nBut every great change in education has been closely interwoven with other\nchanges, in which the whole social fabric has been involved. The essential\nsubjects of one age have been different from the essential subjects of another\nage. The subjects have changed because the times have changed. Reading,\nwriting, and arithmetic were in one stage mere accomplishments or altogether\nunknown. At another stage they would seem to be all in all. If so great a\nchange as this could take place, what change may there not be ? Is anything,\nin fact, essential at all times, and everywhere ?\nWhether there are really any permanent subjects or not depends on what\nmeaning we give to the word ''subject. \" I shall not stop to quibble concerning the term ; but, simply diving in somewhere near the middle of this wide\nquestion, I should like to say that historically the most permanent subject of\nall seems to me that which we designate as morals and manners. And that is\nso because it is pre-eminently the subject which lends interest to all the rest\nand determines the value of all. With all the changes which have been and are\nyet to be, we can hardly conceive of any rounded process of education in which\nthis subject does not hold its place, in the earliest age of history or in the last,\nin America, Mars, or the satellites of Sirius. So long as human nature is\nwhat it is, the practice of virtue, the making of the moral life, must be among\nthe things that claim the chief regard of men, simply because they have the\nhuman character. And human nature is about as constant a fact as history\nhas yet discovered. When we get beyond human nature we need not greatly\nconcern ourselves with education.\nYet moral education differs so greatly with differing social conditions that\nthis subject hardly seems the same in widely separated periods. At one time\nit is incidental to religion, at another it is mainly civic or military or industrial.\n\n"} {"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nThe fact is, that in all ages it has many aspects and must be approached from\ndifferent sides. Which of its elements shall take the leading part will depend\nat any given time on the conditions of that time. Just now in the public\nschools of America it is primarily a civic matter. It may in the future be\nprimarily an industrial matter. But no one aspect will ever exhaust its significance. And the chief practical consideration for us is this, that we must\nteach the subject of morals in many ways, direct and indirect. Among these\nways, I believe direct instruction in the principles and the particulars of right\nand honorable conduct has a place of no small importance and should be more\nstrongly emphasized.\nWhen we come to consider, after this universal subject, what may be the\nessential subjects at any given period, as at this present period, in which\nwe are chiefly concerned, we find we are dealing with an interesting side of\nsocial history, namely, the history of the school, in which education has become\nsharply defined and institutionalized. When the school fairly came into being\nas the organized agency of education and the only agency organized for education alone, it was only a small part of education that became its recognized\nfunction. Whatever occasional and partial organization there may have been\nfor other parts and kinds of education, the school settled down at an early day\nto a narrow preoccupation with the literary side of instruction and with a\nfew subjects closely connected with this literary side. Public education now\nproceeded on two parallel and for the most part disconnected lines, the education of the school on the one hand, and the education given incidentally by\nother agencies on the other hand. I suppose every human institution has\nand always will have an educational side. Education for industrial hfe\nis one of the forms of education thus left over for incidental treatment.\nSo the industrial education of the home and of the guild, the apprenticeship system, in a word, went on side by side with the more definitely\norganized literary education of the school. The recent history of education\nis in large part the history of the expansion of that specialized educational\ninstrumentality, the literary school, to take in some of the outlying ranges\nof education, and particularly its enlargement through additions from the\nfield occupied by one form or another of apprenticeship.\nThere are various reasons why the school must inevitably expand in this\nway. The agency organized and carried on for the express purposes of education was certain to be in the long run a more effective instrument of education\nthan that which was merely subordinate and tributary to some other purpose.\nThe difference might not be apparent when one class of people served an\napprenticeship and another class received a literary education. But with the\nnineteenth century, and earlier in some states, successful attempts were made\nto give all the people the benefit of a Hterary education. The contrast between\nthe general effectiveness of school methods and the wastefulness and inequalities of apprentice methods became more clearly apparent. But certain minor\nadvantages of apprenticeship became apparent, too, and the methods of the\n\n"} {"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nIN\n\nSUBJECTS\n\n229\n\nschools underwent a gradual change, particularly in the way of object lessons\nand laboratory practice. So the school became fitted to deal with some\nphases of education which had hitherto been beyond its reach. Besides all\nthis, a subtle change has been going on in men's attitude toward education.\nIt is coming to be less a subordinate and more an independent and commanding interest. An illustration of this change, on a large scale, may be seen in\ncertain European countries, where there is now a manifest tendency to concentrate the scattered educational activities of the government under the\neducational rather than the technical branches of administration. Agricultural education, for example, may logically fall under either the agricultural\nor the educational department. Hitherto the interest in such education has\nbeen largely agricultural and it has been under the direction of departments\nof agriculture. With the growth of intelligent interest in the educational\nbearings of the subject, there has appeared a tendency to co-ordinate agricultural education with the general educational system; and so with other\nbranches of instruction, in science and the arts. A similar tendency appears\nin the gradual extension of instruction in our schools and universities, whereby\ncertain subjects become school subjects which had long been reserved for the\nworkshop and for the apprentice.\nSo it happens that our schools are coming to be broadly educational\ninstitutions instead of narrowly literary institutions. And this movement is\nundoubtedly to continue, for the people will that it shall be so and the whole\nsocial momentum of the time carries us in this direction. The three R's and\nthe other subjects connected with these cannot continue to hold the field\nagainst all comers. Some of the subjects taken over from the manual arts\nare destined to take their place beside them.\nThis change we can none of us prevent if we would, and I am sure we\nwould not prevent it if we could. But there is one thing to be done about it\nthat in some measure we can do. We can see that the good of the old order is\ncarried over into the new. The older subjects made for intelligence, the newer\nsubjects make for manual skill. In order that the full value of manual skill\nmay be reaHzed, we need to hold fast to the earlier emphasis on pure intelligence.\nThe nineteenth-century ideal of education, particularly the nineteenthcentury ideal in the United States, was one of th^ finest things in the history of\ncivilization. It was the conception of the freeman of old Athens carried over\ninto the new world and made an ideal for all men, forasmuch as all men shall\nbe free. To make men wise, self-regulated, self-reliant, this was held to be\na better thing than to give them mastery of a trade ; for those who were so educated could turn to what they would, could master new employments as the\nneed should arise. And whatever their labor in life might be, or the rewards\nof their labor, it would yield them the greatest possible values, for they would\nknow how to use it to the higher ends, for themselves, for their friends, and\nfor their country. We may allow something for enthusiasm and exaggerations\n\n"} {"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nbut fundamentally this view holds good, and I hope that with all of our pursuit of new and promising ideals, we shall keep faith with this deeply grounded\nconviction. Moreover, we need to put into our training for manual skill,\nwhich fills a serious lack in that earlier schooling, the same liberal spirit which\ncharacterized the old. In accordance with this spirit, we shall make the\nspecial skill of any single trade rest upon some mastery of the broad fundamentals ofdrawing, manual training, and free design. The subjects in the\ndomain of manual pursuits which have the strongest claim to a place among\nthe essentials in our courses of study are those which will give the best introduction to a wide range of special dexterities, and render the learner as free\nas possible to adjust himself to change of occupation or to progressive improvements in a single occupation.\nFinally, with this inevitable expansion of the functions of the school, certain\nthings will take a high place in the educational curriculum which once belonged\nsolely to the domain of play. For generations our schools have made place\nfor free play, but merely as recreation from tasks. Now with the tendency to\na hardening of social conditions, particularly in our large cities, play becomes\nalmost as important a consideration in the schools as work. We need it more\nthan ever for health ; we need it that the few and precious hours of leisure may\nbe made refreshing and not debasing; we need it to give flexibility and freedom to the spirit of the individual, now hard-pressed by the growing crowd\nand the struggle for existence ; we need it that the moving of pure joy among\nour people may carry us toward the finer forms of expression and give us a\nspontaneous national art.\nLet me speak of only one subject here, which belongs to the common\nground of art and play. We need music in our modern life, almost as much\nas we need bread; and we need it in our schools almost as much as we need\nthe multiplication table. We need it in our Hves, not only to help us worship,\nbut that we may carry away something better than a ringing headache from\nour precious hours of diversion. We need it in our schools, not as a tolerated\nfad, but as one of the things that shall make our individual and national\ncharacter.\nIn fact, the sum of all I have tried to say is this : That the fads and luxuries\nof one age may be the necessities of another. We must take on new studies\nwith a new age ; and we must bind the old and the new together by an everlasting moral conviction, and an everlasting insistence on that intelligence that\nshall make men free.\nDISCUSSION\nClarence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y. — In general we\nmost heartily agree with the theories relating to the school curriculum, advanced by our\nhonored commissioner of education. I am impelled to add that it gives me great pleasure\nto ejcpress my appreciation of the general tone of the paper, and the attitude of the man who\ntakes his place today as our leader in this association.\nOur commissioner is facing the\n\n"} {"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nIN\n\nSUBJECTS\n\n23 1\n\nfuture, studying its great problems, and making himself a part of the present. All the\ngreat questions that interest us are evidently upon his mind and heart, and his utterance\ntoday gives us assurance, not only of scholarship and leadership, but of co-operation in\nour varied and heavy responsibihty.\nIn one particular I must differ with the opinion expressed in the paper, which was,\nthat there is little continuity in the school curriculum. I agree with the main contention, the cheering and vital statement that our curriculum must be adjusted to present\nneeds, that it must depend much upon environment, but to my mind there has been wonderful continuity in ages past in the curriculum of the schools. I think it was Huxley who said\nthat if the Greek boy of 2,000 years ago could be brought back to life and placed in one\nof our schools of 50 years ago he would find himself quite at home. Mathematics, reading, spelling, writing, rhetoric, these have ever been the supposed basis of intellectual\ndiscipline.\nIn what I have to say I shall attempt to show the contrast between this older form of\ndiscipline and the cultural tendency of the present hour. The old curriculum and the\nold school represented separation, isolation, desolation. The subjects studied were\nimplements. In and of themselves they did not produce intelligence. A person might\npass 100 per cent, in arithmetic, grammar, reading, and spelling and yet be declared\nignorant and unfit to become a member of an average social group.\nIf under the old system men and women attained to intelligence it was not necessarily\nbecause of the influence of these subjects but generally in spite of it. Fifty years ago or\nmore new educational influences became evident in the community. Of course these\ninfluences had long been operating, but certainly in the best homes there was a new interest\nin the activities of children. By children's activities I mean their play and games, their\nhand work, their physical interests, in fact all that relates to their developing life. The\nname of Froebel may in general stand for this new element in our civilization.\nA new interest in the real in education appeared about the same time. The names\nof Humboldt and Agassiz express the change which I have in mind. The study of nature\nat first hand; a study of the great world and an examination of the concrete in the laboratory\nepitomized this change in the view point of educators. The \"laboratory\" method is\nnow applied by every true teacher in every variety of instruction.\nAgain, the presence of books for children marks a new era. The school and the home\nare now filled with publications adapted to the great world of childhood and are an\nindispensable factor in every variety of educational enterprise.\nFinally, culture represented by music, drawing, and art products, generally, in the\nhome and in the school, were added to the list. Out of all these grew a new social relation uniting the child to the adult in sympathy and effort, and correlating subjects of\nstudy that had before been unrelated.\nWe no longer think of the child as in an inclosure receiving light through little windows,\nbut from the first he is a citizen of the world in the midst of the currents, social, intellectual\nand physical, which imply his growth, morally, socially, and spiritually, no less than\nintellectually.\nWith the dawn of these influences there came almost instantly a demand that\nthe school share in their advancement. PubHc sentiment quickly crystaUized, and we\nhad the marvelous educational revolution that swept over the country some twenty\nfive or more years ago. Every school and community felt its touch; every school board\nordered a new course of study; every state legislature modified the minimum requirements.\nFor a time we heard the cry that the curriculum was crowded, but who shall say that it is so\nfull that no other subject can be admitted ? In a city of 200,000 inhabitants on one day\nof last week two sets of petitioners appeared at the same meeting of the school board. One\nof these bore a petition of the German-speaking element asking first that gymnastics,\nas understood by the German people, be admitted and introduced into the public -school\n\n"} {"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nsystem. They further urged that the German language be pursued by children whose\nparents might elect for them the study of this subject. The second set of petitioners\nasked if the board of education would be willing to expend a considerable sum of money\nwhich they believed the mayor and the city council were ready to contribute for the support\nof play grounds, summer vacation schools, and social centers.\nIn the city of Boston a few weeks since there assembled a great national organization\nknown as the \" Social Education Association.\" A month later another great national body,\n\"The Religious Education Association,\" assembled in the city of Rochester, N. Y. Each\nof these national associations was represented by about sixty-five speakers, most of them\nmen of note in religious, moral, and educational lines.\nThe plea of the speakers at these meetings was for co-operation between the home,\nthe school, and the church in the advancement of moral, religious, and social education.\nThey claimed that neither the home nor the church nor the school could longer work\neffectively alone; that each must depend upon the other, and moreover that the school\nwas but a part of the great circle of education in which the community must now interest\nitself, and for which it must become responsible. This larger circle includes the interest\nof the congested quarters of the large cities. It has to do with the homes of the poor, the\nignorant, the indifi'erent. In the changed conditions of the city and the startling degradation of many homes it is assumed that these three great forces in education must make\nthemselves absolutely responsible for social betterment; that they must seek to reach not\nonly every home but every individual member of every home where such assistance is\nneeded in order that we may preserve our citizenship, our place as a nation, and our\nusefulness in the world.\nWho then shall say that the curriculum is completed or even that it is crowded, as\nan answer to the demand that the school shall actively fro-operate in this work of reconstruction and salvation: for it includes both of these.\nIt goes without saying that we often expect too much from the school and that we\nmight easily, and perhaps do, often attempt too much, but the remedy is not found in\nreducing the number of subjects. We may go much farther and say that there is not an\nintelHgent teacher in America who would consent that music, drawing, or manual training, or industrial or domestic art be withdrawn from the curriculum. The remedy has\nbeen stated and proposed many times at these meetings, and it is only necessary that I\nrepeat here again that we must address ourselves to reducing to the mass of superfluous\nand unimportant requirements found especially in the old-line subjects of our curriculum,\nand of so adjusting and regulating and correlating the subjects taught that we shall make\nnot only more simple, but more interesting, the curriculum as a whole, for in the midst\nof complexity properly organized we may reach the highest degree of simphcity. It is of\ninterest here to note that there has not of late been heard in this organization a notable\nobjection to the theory which I have attempted to emphasize, and which was so ably and\nfully set forth by our commissioner. Any person, who offers such an objection, if not\nantisocial, is at least out of touch with the influences that must prevail, and is entitled\nto our sympathy.\nIt is interesting here to note that in our cities great enterprises are under way and are\norganized, quite independently, to promote the advancement of these ends.\nYou will recall that upon this platform on Tuesday morning one of the lady speakers\nstated that in Chicago alone, there are about fifty organizations of women who make it\ntheir business to do social and educational work in the interest of all classes. Another\nlady reminded us that these organizations could never wait for the co-operation or even\nthe approval of members of boards of education, common councils, or even of superintendents. The work demands haste; is urgent, imperative. If, as always happens,\nat some later hour and date, these more formal bodies come to their assistance, well and\ngood; but the official and the formal can never be depended upon to do the very greatest\n\n"} {"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nIN\n\nSUBJECTS\n\n233\n\nwork in the world, and so the women of America and of Chicago have ever been leaders\nof this great movement. Women brought into America the kindergarten; they installed\nmanual training, cooking, and sewing, and slowly but surely public sentiment has compelled city councils and boards of education to approve and adopt the measures which\nthey have thus originated. This initiative of women is one of the finest spectacles of the\nlast century. History will recall, as we cannot tell today, the true significance of their\nefforts. In no other nation, at no other period in history, has such a mighty revolution\noccurred as we have seen in fifty years, and while many other forces have contributed to\nthis change, it must forever remain true that women have led the way and deserve the\ncredit for very much of what has been accompUshed,\nLet us not fail to emphasize the statement of the commissioner of education which\nwas in effect that that which is old and tried is invaluable and worthy of our respect, and\nshould be embodied in every new theory of progress.\nIn conversation with two gentlemen with whom I visited schools on Monday, in\norder that I might have the benefit of their judgment, I asked, \"How shall we absorb\nthe new into the old so that both may be preserved ?\" One of these men quickly replied,\n\"We must eliminate everything nonessential from every subject in the curriculum, and\nconfine ourselves closely to types and representative parts of subjects,\" and without an\ninstant's delay the second added, \"We must learn to do the most possible in the shortest\ntime, suggesting the difference in skill which marks the work of different teachers.\"\nAgain on this platform on Tuesday morning a lady, who is the honored head of the\nChicago Normal School, said, that poor instruction is the most stupefying influence today\nto be found in the public schools. She pleaded earnestly and nobly for the highest standard of supervision, suggesting at least that the principal of the school and the expert\nshould be selected and retained only on the basis of merit.\nJust what may we expect from the public schools in connection with the curriculum ?\nIt is largely a local question. The state legislature may enact laws; the board of education may prescribe rules and curricula; the superintendent may issue circulars and reports,\nand so on, all along the line, but the spirit and skill in the management of each public\nschool must determine the measure of attainment in instruction, the success of each pupil\nin his recapitulation of the history of the race, and in the attainment of a social and intellectual standard.\nIn this country at least much depends upon the local standard. This is democratic;\nthis is the explanation of whatever excellence our system has attained that distinguishes\nit sharply from the fixed and inflexible methods seen abroad, where one school may be\ntruly said to be like another. Recognizing all that the community has accomplished and\nall that public sentiment demands, it is yet true that in our present civilization the teacher\nis, today, the most important element in the reconstruction and saving of our citizenship,\nand the most important factor in determining the aims and ideas which shall gover-n the\nfuture.\nF. D. BoYNTON, superintendent of schools, Ithaca, New York. — One of the essentials\nin the elementary course of study is the home reading of the child. Children will read.\nIt is astonishing how much, as well as what. Scores of Ithaca boys and girls are reading\na book at home every week.\nThe question is this: Are our children to be directed in this part of their education\nby their immature judgment or as their untutored companions dictate, or shall we undertake to direct this part of their education ?\nI am persuaded that this home reading is of more importance than much of the work\nnow done in arithmetic, geography, and grammar. We are exceedingly anxious about\nthe influence of evil companions, in short but what about the influence of the companions\nin books ? What are the impressions being made when a child becomes absorbed in a\nbook?\n\n"} {"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nOur duty is clear. We must arrange extensive courses in supplemental reading for\nthe school, and we must arrange and provide for the reading in the home. In the formative period we must see to it that the reading of the child is directed to the best in fairy\ntale and fable, in folklore and hero tales, in mj^thology, biography, and Mstory, in travel,\nadventure, and general literature. In no other way can we illuminate the course of\nstudy better; in no other way can we brighten the lives, cheer the homes, or increase the\nfuture usefulness of the children intrusted to our care.\nGrace Reed, principal of John B. Drake school, Chicago, 111. — Commissioner Brown\nspoke of the fact that Germany had placed agriculture and industrial arts under the department of education. In the Middle Ages when agriculture and industrial activities were\nthe work of the ignorant clod, the upper classes did not suspect that they would become\nscience and art.\nThe poet Wieland said: \"In jedem Menschen ist Etwas von alien Menschen.\"\n(In every man is something of all men.) As our sense of humanity broadens, we recognize\nthe equal dignity of every useful activity. There is possibly more benefit to the race from\nthe reflex or subjective influence coming from the study of agriculture and the trades than\never accrues from the mechanical performance of these labors, as it makes man more fully\nconscious of that fundamental kinship of which the poet speaks.\nIndustrial training is an end in education, not a means to educate. There should be\nan industrial course of one or two years as a continuation of the elementary-school education. In order that it need not be necessary that a \"workingman must always remain\na workingman,\" a foundation of general mental culture must be given, a training of the\njudgment and refining of the perception, which come only through exercise of mental\nfaculties. To this clue to higher attainment all children are entitled by the rights of\nhumanity. But a full preparation for life entitles them further to an acquaintance with\nthe systems of industrial production. There is much legitimate objection to trade schools.\nSuch schools would tend to turn children into trades which they would perhaps never\nhave thought of entering, simply because of the training offered, thus swamping such\ntrades with workers. If an apprentice school were opened this difficulty would not exist,\nbecause only those are trained who have made their final choice of trade on other grounds\nthan the great handiness of the preparation offered.\nThe elementary and high school are doing excellent work and are as comprehensive\nin their curricula as is consistent with equipment and youthful capacity, and multitudes\nof other important considerations. They are perhaps too comprehensive for the best\nresults to be obtainable. It is not wise to vitiate the efficacy of this system of education\nby overwhelming it with other distinctly different systems crowded into it. What we need\nis a separate order of continuation — schools of industrial arts, where elementary graduates,\nnot wishing to follow higher training for professional calhngs, may receive training in the\npractice of the trades but not where they are turned out finished in any trade.\nF. Louis Sold an, superintendent of instruction, of city schools, St. Louis, Mo. —\nWe must look to the children for the best answer to the question of what the essentials\nare. All the art of teaching consists in creating an appropriate reaction in the child.\nGreat importance is properly attached to the method by which the teacher presents a\ntopic of instruction. But far more important is the way in which the child receives it;\nwhether it causes him to think, to assimilate, to act, and live in the right way. To create\nproper reactions, a very minute classification of the children by grades of abiHty is not\nnecessary. Each one of fifty or sixty children will react just as surely, if they are handled\nby a skilful teacher, as will one child or a small group. Small groups in teaching are not\nnecessary. A class can, as a rule, be more effectively taught than a single individual.\nThe educational reaction may be different in different children, but in a fairly well-graded\ngroup of children the reactions are similar.\n\n"} {"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHISTORY\n\n235\n\nCharles A. McMurry, acting president State Normal School, California, Pa. —\nThe chief question under discussion is: What are the essentials, or fundamentals, of our\ncourse of study ?\nFor more than a generation we have been multiplying studies and filling up the common-school curriculum with new materials. But we have failed thus far to organize this\ngreat quantity of knowledge on any consistent plan. Our school course is to a great extent\nan unorganized collection of heterogeneous facts, and by constant additions it is becoming\nstill more congested. The really important question is how to simplify and organize this\nincreasing body of knowledge materials. It is a problem of eliminating the useless and\nobsolete materials that have been collected. We must clear our course of its superfluities.\nThe teachers who are actually engaged in instruction and realize the overloading are\ncalling upon superintendents for relief. Many superintendents are slow to realize the\nsituation because they are not actual teachers.\nIn order to grasp the real issue we may say that a course of study should center upon\na few leading ideas in each study, and not upon a multitude of mere facts. Our school\ncourse is now decidedly materialistic, in the sense that it emphasizes facts rather than ideas.\nImportant ideas are the vital organizing centers of the school course. A single idea may\norganize and illuminate a multitude of facts. But many even good superintendents do\nnot realize that our present course of study contains a large quantity of facts, very poorly\npermeated with ideas, in other words, dead material, making education itself, as it were,\nmaterialistic, wooden.\nThis materialistic routine, which has fastened itself upon the schools, needs above all\nto be permeated with the leaven of ideas, something to break the dead uniformity of\nmemory drills and unthinking study.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nJ. H. VAN SICKLE, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nON HISTORY\n\nOF SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD.\n\n(Representing the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association)\n\nIt seems advisable first to explain that this committee is a committee\nappointed by the American Historical Association, and that it is granted this\nplace on the program of the Department of Superintendence in order that it\nmay present to superintendents of schools the aim, the scope, and the present\nstate of its work. It is the desire of the Historical Association to enlist your\ninterest so that the report, when completed, may receive at least your careful\nconsideration.\nThe American Historical Association, a great national organization of his*\ntorians and teachers of history, is well equipped for such work as it has undertaken, through a delegated committee, in the preparation of a course in history\nfor elementary schools; but its labors will avail little unless superintendents of schools generally see in the course proposed a scheme of work that\nbids fair to put an end to the chaotic condition in which elementary instruction in history finds itself.\nThe first co-operative attempt to improve the teaching of history was made\nin 1883. Ten years later came the conference of the Committee of Ten at the\nUniversity of Wisconsin, and, growing out of this, the Columbian Conference\nand the appointment of the Committee of Seven.\nLater, several associations\n\n"} {"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nof history teachers were formed : The New England Association ; the North\nCentral Association; that of Nebraska; that of California; that of Indiana;\nand that of the Middle States and Maryland. Through their co-operative\nefforts a consistent course in history has been planned for secondary schools\nand widely adopted, and a beginning made in the modification of elementary\ncourses.\nA study made by Professor Monroe, of Columbia University, under the\nauspices of the Association of the Middle States and Maryland, embracing\nthe elementary curricula of fifty cities, selected from various parts of the\nUnited States, discloses the fact that there is great discrepancy as to the grades\nin which history is taught, the time allotment for the subject, and the organization ofmaterial. There was absolutely no agreement on the list of topics\nand the order of their appearance in the grades. The condition was found to\nbe even more chaotic in rural schools. The general result of the investigation\nwas to demonstrate that there is only one subject in the elementary school\nwhich possesses a less definite organization — and that is nature-study. In a\nsimilar way, this and other investigations reveal no uniformity in the conception of the purpose of history teaching.\nPrompted by the obvious needs of the situation, the American Historical\nAssociation decided two years ago to appoint a committee of eight of its members, each of whom was at the same time a member of one of the local associations and familiar with its work, to prepare a course which it is hoped will be\ngenerally acceptable. The committee with Professor J. A. James, of Northwestern University as chairman, includes two representatives from normal\nschools. Miss Hill, of Lowell, and Professor Thurston, of Chicago; two university teachers of history, the chairman and Professor Bourne, of Cleveland ;\na head of a well-known private school, who is also a professor of education, Dr.\nJulius Sachs, of Teachers' College ; and three superintendents of city schools —\nmembers of this Department — Messrs. Gordy, of Springfield; Brooks, of\nGreensboro; and Van Sickle, of Baltimore.\nIt has been the aim of the Historical Association to have its committee\nthoroughly representative, not only by reason of the varied educational interests\nof its members, but also by reason of their geographical distribution — New\nEngland, the Middle States, the South, and the Middle West are all represented.\nIt is not a committee predominantly representative of university interests.\nThe chairman has held responsible positions both in elementary and secondary\nschools, and he has children now attending the elementary schools. The\nsame may be said of Professor Bourne. Furthermore, the one is now devoting\nhimseK to American history, the other to European — for our purpose an ideal\ncombination of interests.\nProfessor Thurston, formerly of the Chicago Normal School, now chief\nprobation officer of the Juvenile Court, is pre-eminently qualified to deal with\nthe correlation of history and civics. Miss Hill, of Lowell, and Dr. Sachs, of\n\n"} {"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHISTORY\n\nNew York, are constantly studying elementary-school problems. The three\nmembers of the Department of Superintendence who are members of the\ncommittee are continually alive, as in fact, are all the others, to the questions\nas to whether proposed plans will work well in practice under ordinary school\nconditions. We have all been in frequent consultation with teachers of the\nvarious grades and have had the benefit of their views. We believe the course\nproposed is a thoroughly practical one.\nThe following topics have been considered by subcommittees and reported\non at regular meetings of the whole committee: (i) suggestions for a course of\nstudy for the first four grades; (2) suggestions for a course of study for the\nlast four grades; (3) European background; (4) elementary history in European schools; (5) relation of history to geography, Hterature, and art; (6)\nsuggestive methods, textbooks, and supplementary material; (7) civics in elementary schools ; (8) what preparation for teaching history should be expected\nof the teacher in the grades ; (9) what has thus far been accomplished in the\nformation of a course of study in history for the elementary schools ?\nThe task of the committee is in many respects a more difficult and delicate\none than that of forming a course for secondary schools. We have in a certain\nsense a more limited field to traverse. The youth and the immaturity of our\npupils narrow our scope ; but we must develop in our young pupils the capacity\nto benefit by the upper courses of instruction or by opportunities for study\noutside of the schoolrooms. W^e must therefore be careful not to arouse\ndistaste or engender indifference, either by bad selection of subject-matter or\nby bad methods of presentation. Since history must be considered one of the\nmost valuable cultural contributions to the efficiency of each new generation,\nthe first steps are quite as important as the work of the university.\nThe general conclusions of the committee have been stated by the chairman\nas follows:\n\" It is believed that a leading aim in history teaching is to help the child to\nappreciate what his fellows are doing, and to help him to intelligent voluntary\naction in agreement or disagreement with them. To accomplish these results\nthere must be continuous attention in each of the grades to contemporary\nproblems suitable to his intelligence, and also attention to events in the past\nthat he can understand. The following fields of human activity must furnish\nthese events: political, industrial, social, religious. And no one of them\nshould exclude the others. In the first four grades, while the teaching must\nbe incidental, it will serve to give a correct attitude toward later history.\nThe teaching of history must be closely related to instruction in other subjects of the elementary program. This feature has been emphasized by the\ncommittee, and the dependence of history teaching upon geography, literature, and art, is given due recognition. History and civics also should be\npresented as allied subjects, emphasis being placed now on the history, and\nnow on present civics.\nThe committee beheves that the subject-matter for a course in the elemen-\n\n"} {"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ntary schools should be selected from American history. But this is not to be\ninterpreted in a restricted sense. The pupil must be led to understand that\nAmerican civilization and institutions have their beginnings under European\nsurroundings, and that the problems of our national Kfe, even to the close of\nthe first quarter of the nineteenth century, were in a large measure closely\nconnected with European problems.\"\nThe committee has under consideration for fourth and fifth grades a series\nof well-selected American biographies. In these grades there is no attempt to\ndo more than give vivid pictures of men and their times, but the pictures or\nstories are arranged in sequence, so that the children may unconsciously gain a\nfeeling of the close connection of each story with those preceding and those\nfollowing. Pupils in these early grades are not prepared to take up causes\nand effects in any logical way.\nThe considerations which guide in the presentation of the material for the\nsixth grade are stated in the report as follows: \"First, a desire to emphasize\ngeographical facts, not alone those which form^part of the history of the discoveries ofthe fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, bi*t also the simpler incidents\nof previous geographical discoveries. Second, the desire to put the facts of\nemigration to America in connection with earlier movements of peoples.\nThird, the effort to show in a very simple way the civilizations which form the\nheritage of those who were to go to America ; that is, to explain what America\nstarted with. Lastly, to associate the three or four peoples of Europe which\nwere to have a share in American civilization with enough of their characteristic incidents to give the child some feeling for the names, England, France,\nSpain, and Holland. The period of the discoveries should also be included\nin the work of this grade.\nIn the seventh grade should be considered the exploration and settlement\nof North America and growth of the colonies, with accompanying European\nbackground, through the period of the Revolution. To the eighth grade\nwould be assigned the formation and inauguration of the new government;\nthe industrial and political development of the United States; westward\nexpansion ; and the growth of rival European nations.\nThe committee is further agreed that American history should be treated\nin carefully delimited stages, each period as fully presented at a given point in\nthe curriculum as the maturity of the pupils will permit. The plan of the\nentire course is based on the proposition that the history teaching in the\nelementary schools shall be focused around American history, but that American history shall be regarded as distinctly related to and developed out of the\nhistory of the surrounding world; and that if we would maintain interest\nthroughout the course we must avoid the recurrence in successive years of the\nsame subject-matter.\nThe method that should prevail is the method that characterizes the good\nstory teller. Our history teaching in the past has failed largely because it\nhas not been picturesque enough.\nThere has been so much repetition in\n\n"} {"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHER\n\n239\n\nsuccessive years that the charm of novelty was absent. Interest has been\nforestalled. The committee has steadily kept in mind the demands of the\nhour, the capacity of the teachers as they are now. The grouping of the\nwork is so flexible that, while it affords scope for the most talented teacher,\nyet the teacher of lesser attainments, of restricted information, can make it\nthe basis of a measurably satisfactory presentation ; for, except in portions of\nthe outline, where the ground covered is quite familiar, the suggestions and\nhelps are abundant, and the syllabi are worked out in considerable detail.\nThis is notably true of the outline for the sixth grade, where this course differs\nmost from former ones ; where, in order to understand the peoples who followed\nColumbus, Cabot, and Cartier across the Atlantic, we take up those characteristics and incidents in European history that are essential to this purpose.\nThe committee believe that too much emphasis has been laid upon the Atlantic\nas a natural boundary, not merely of the American continent, but also of the\nhistory of America, and in presenting a course embodying this view they feel\nbound to give the teacher all the assistance that a detailed syllabus can afford.\nThis makes the sixth-grade outline seem at first glance more formidable than\nit really is.\"\nOn the point as to whether so much help is needed, a speaker at the Providence meeting, where our report was presented in December, made the following comment: ''The grade teachers need and desire just such pedagogical\n'apparatus' as they find in our newer textbooks, and just such detailed syllabi\nas this. The day has not yet come when the majority of those who have to\nteach history in the grades can be trained specialists in that work. From\ntime to time they have heard discourses, and read treatises on the principles\nand methods of teaching this subject, but these are comparatively meaningless\nto them unless supplemented by lists of topics with references and specific suggestions Hke those included in this report.\"\nIt is the belief of the committee that if this course, in its vital features,\nmeets the views of the superintendents and teachers, there will come into being\nmore than one series of history texts — some simpler, some more detailed —\nthat will carry into practice the points of view it embodies. We are dependent\nin this country, if we would gradually emerge from the hopeless diversity that\ncharacterizes our history teaching, upon concentrated efforts like the present\none.\nMINIMUM\n\nQUALIFICATIONS\nOF\nTEACHER\n\nTHE\n\nASHLEY\n\nSTORM,\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nVAN\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCITY\n\nELEMENTARY\nIOWA\n\nCITY,\n\nlA.\n\n. The writer approaches this topic with some trepidation. It may not be true\nthat \"there is nothing new under the sun,\" yet it certainly seems that everything has been said upon the qualifications of the teacher. Everyone from\nthe writer on pedagogy to the crossroads orator has for years expressed him-\n\n"} {"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nself upon the qualifications that should distinguish the teacher from other and\nsupposedly more common clay. I fear I cannot add anything to the mountain\nof material heaped high long years ago, and thrashed annually or oftener ever\nsince, regarding the qualifications of the ideal teacher.\nBut our worthy president has added to the topic some modifying terms\nwhich may create lines of cleavage and bring great good from the discussion.\nI do not hope to exhaust the subject nor to add to your stock of knowledge,\nbut shall be more than rewarded if I may succeed in setting forth the sahent\npoints in a manner that shall provoke full and free expression of opinion on\nthe part of those present. The modifying terms which add zest to the topic\nare ''minimum\" qualifications and ''elementary\" teacher.\nWhat shall be the standard by means of which we measure the minimum\nqualifications of this elementary teacher ? Shall it be that of the rural\nor the more recently settled portions of our country, the slum districts of our\nlarge cities, the aristocratic portions of these same cities, the villages of our\nmiddle states, the schools of the mountain people of some portions of our land,\nthe rural colored schools, the Indian schools, or some other of the multitudinous phases of elementary education presented by our widespread and varying\npopulation ?\nAgain, from whose point of view shall we examine this problem ? If we\nwere a legislative body seeking to establish legal requirements for teachers it\nwould be our duty to make an exhaustive inquiry into the qualifications established bylaw in the various states, to discuss fully the likenesses and differences, the advantages and disadvantages, of all the various provisions, and to\nsuggest a body of laws on the subject fit to be enacted for the government\nwhich we represent. But we represent the entire United States, and wisely\nor unwisely education has not yet been brought to any extent under federal\ncontrol. However wise and beneficial federal control of education might be\nin some regards, there are many reasons why its advent would not be hailed as\nan unqualified blessing. It is very certain that no minimum requirements for\ncertification of teachers could be estabHshed that would be wise or just as a\nuniform standard for our entire domain. Even if such legislation were wise,\nwe are not legislators. More than that we represent a profession the members\nof which exert, proverbially, far less influence with those who do legislate than\nany other class of people who hold so important a position in the machinery of\nciviUzation.\nIf we were a board of equalization seeking to determine the qualifications\nto be dernanded of teachers in the light of the cash recompense made for the\nservices rendered, we could quickly formulate our report and adjourn. It\nwould run something like this:\nMaximum qualifications which the public has a right to demand of the\nelementary teacher based upon the cash return which said public gives for the\nservices rendered as shown by the report of the Committee of the National\nEducational Association on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Public School\n\n"} {"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "im\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHER\n\n241\n\nTeachers in the United States, July, 1905, pp. 146, 147, 148, wherein it is shown\nthat in 44 of 48 cities the minimum salaries of elementary teachers are less\nthan the wages paid to laborers on the streets and sewers, and in two of the\nremaining four cities the laborers were colored while the teachers were white ;\nin the remaining two cities the minimum wages of the elementary teacher was\nslightly higher than the street and sewer laborers. And in all of these instances\nthe employers were the same — the municipality.\nFollowing are the maximum qualifications suggested.\nReading. — Should be able to read the ballot with assistance and to read unaided the\nred headline of the yellow newspaper.\nArithmetic. — Should be able to count one at caucuses and similar gatherings. To\ncount one is sometimes as helpful as to count eleven — especially on a jury.\nLanguage. — Should understand such idioms as \"time to stop for dinner,\" \"today\nis payday,\" etc., and should be able to ask for shorter hours or larger pay (an interpreter\nmay be allowed for this last).\nWriting. — Should be able to sign a petition, remonstrance, protest, or other paper\nof service to his friends.\nMusic. — May win special promotion if able to run the (city) scales. If incapable\nof singing by note, paying by note will be accepted if accompanied by an additional signature. Should know a few significant songs, such as \"We've Three Square Meals a Day\nat Home since Dad Joined the PoHce,\" or, \"Everybody Works the Teacher.\"\nArt. — Choice of color, not material; love of yellow no disqualification.\nDrawing. — Should readily draw the inference that if the right man is elected the right\nmen will be given jobs.\nConstruction, — May be a joiner if he joins the right organization.\nPrevious experience. — None required.\nMoral quality. — Not considered to be of any value to the municipality, hence no\nrequirement.\nTaste in dress and general outward appearance. — Immaterial.\nSympathetic devotion to the most vital interests of the community. — Immaterial.\nTendency to support and sustain the hand that parsimoniously pays rather than to\nstrike or shirk. — Immaterial.\nGeography. — Should know the way to the caucus, the polling-place, and the city hall\n(no objection to the candidate knowing the way to the cemetery, tho it is not necessary,\nas he will be shown in due time; tho it may be well to know the way to the poorhouse,\nfor he may have to go there alone some time).\n\nBut we are not a board of equalization with power to adjust the cash\nrecompense on one hand, to the qualifications and service rendered on the\nother, or a greater degree of equity would prevail than now does, and it would\nnot be brought about by a reduction of the minimum qualifications or of the\nservice.\nIf we were a convention of county superintendents in a state of my acquaintance, called for the purpose of considering ways and means of procuring a\nsufficient number of teachers to fill the schools, we could state our conclusion\non this whole matter of what the minimum qualifications of the elementary\nteacher should be by telHng that story wherein it is related of Lincoln, that two\nfriends, after having argued with each other long and vigorously but indecisively the question of the proper length of a man's legs, sought Mr. Lincoln's\n\n"} {"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nopinion, which he rendered in the laconic and convincing statement that it had\nbeen his opinion for some time that a man's legs ought to be long enough to\nreach from his body to the ground. So with the quahfications of the elementary teacher. They must be such as to enable the supply to connect with the\ndemand.\nBut we are not county superintendents oppressed by the necessity of finding\nenough teachers to operate the schools almost regardless of minimum legal\nquahfications, nor is it ours to account for the difficulty of that problem. If it\nwere we would not have far to search, and we would probably find the principal answer in the field of economics.\nBut we are a group of superintendents largely from the cities and towns.\nOur duties are principally executive and supervisory. It is not ours to determine the legal quahfications of the teacher, though these may materially affect\nour problem. It is not ours to determine the financial return that shall come\nto the teacher, though a better solution of this problem would assist us much\nin solving the one that is particularly ours. Our standard of determining what\nthe minimum quahfications of the elementary teacher ought to be is neither\nthe statute nor the exchequer.\nOur experience has consisted in selecting teachers, in observing the character of their work and influence, and in seeking to improve their efficiency.\nIn the performance of these duties we have been more or less favorably\nimpressed by the results attained by teachers of different quahfications.\nConsciously or unconsciously, our ideals of what constitute the proper qualifications of the elementary teacher have been formed and reformed by our individual experiences and observations. From our study of children and books\nwe have some ideals of the kind of treatment that should belong to elementary\neducation.\nRegarding the details of the qualifications of this elementary teacher we\nmay hold more or less widely differing opinions ; but we shaU probably agree\nthat the most vital and fundamental standard by means of which we are to\ntest the proper quahfications which she should possess is the needs of child\nlife during the period of the elementary-school experience in our American\nrepublic and in the particular environment; and that secondary to this and\nconditioned upon it is the principle that the quahfications of the elementary\nteacher shall be determined by the character of the subject-matter of the\nproper course of study to be pursued by the child under the conditions stated\nabove. Another determining factor may be mentioned which is still more\nsubordinate — the particular kind of system or school organization of which\nthe teacher may be a part.\nIt scarcely needs stating, and certainly does not require proving, that all\nteachers should be honest, upright, just, tidy, orderly, punctual, alert, patient,\nchaste, healthy, sober, industrious, of good clean personal habits, of good report,\nand distinguished by all the virtues that mark the most exalted moral character\nand mental acumen.\n\n"} {"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHER\n\n243\n\nWhile in times of scarcity it would be permissible, and indeed would be\nnecessary, to lower temporarily the requirements in desirable mental characteristics or educational equipment, yet no necessity should be so grave as to make\nit expedient to lower the minimum moral standard below the common and\nhomely virtues of honesty, uprightness, chastity, purity of personal life, and\ncleanliness of personal habits. If the minimum moral qualifications were to\nbe less than these, the intellectual and educational advancement of the child,\nno matter how pronounced, would not give a suitable return for the moral\ncontamination or the lowering of the moral ideals of the child that would\nresult from such associations.\nIn addition to the qualifications already mentioned, our teacher should have\nreligious principle. The church and the state, as such, are by enactment and\ncommon custom understood to be officially separate, and our system of public\neducation being a child of the state is necessarily separated from the church as\na denominational organization. But a profound belief in the fatherhood of\nGod and the brotherhood of man, in moral right and wrong, in personal\nmoral responsibility, in obligation to one's time and generation, in the presence\nof cause and effect in the moral world, in the ultimate triumph of right and\nrighteousness — all these are invaluable as foundations upon which to build a\ncharacter for the elementary teacher. She must have a philosophy of life, and\nin order to have it rich and strong and stable and secure and fruitful it must\nhave some such foundations as these.\nThen will she have the next essential, which is the spirit of the true missionary. She must believe fervently that \"Greater love hath no man than this\nthat he give up his Hfe for his friend. \" As has been shown, she cannot hope\nto receive adequate return for her labors in cash or ''bankable paper. \" Only\nthis spirit of the missionary will enable her to give daily and yearly more than\nshe receives and at the close to sign cheerfully a receipt in full for the unpaid\nbalance. And yet this last she must do if she is to be sweet, and kind, and\nloving, and sympathetic, and is to continue so to the end. And will our ideals\nof the minimum permit us to be satisfied with anything less ? No character\nconstructively optimistic can endure to great age in such work as teaching\nwith its foundations upon the sands of atheism, of chance, of selfishness. If\nthe elementary teacher has her character well founded on the rock of religious\nprinciples and a sound philosophy of existence, and has a clear conception of\nthe scope and effect of elementary teaching, she will have added to her equipment two other valuable quaHfications — courage and pride.\nAll paths of duty not only lead to the grave but lie through a multitude of\ndiscouragements and difficulties, and in none are they more numerous or more\nvexatious than in that of the elementary teacher. And if she is to pursue it\nwith an erect head, a calm brow, a clear eye, and smiling lips, she must be\nsustained by the courage and pride born of a knowledge of the righteousness\nof the cause and the efficiency of the service. Such a teacher will be an\noptimist from principle, from practice, and from force of habit; and an opti-\n\n"} {"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nmist she should be if she is to fulfil even the minimum requirements. The\nentrance bars to the profession should never be dropped so low as to welcome\na pessimist into the ranks. Perhaps a few adults firmly fixed in their views\nof life may be subjected to the baneful effects of a pessimist without injury, but\na child of elementary-school age, resilient though his spirit may be, should\nnot be called upon to have it blighted by the withering presence of a\npessimistic teacher.\nOur properly qualified elementary teacher will always have an outlook —\nan outlook for herself, for the individual child, for the school, and for the cause\nof education. The sun will always be gilding the mountain-tops of her horizon\nsomewhere. Flowers will always be blooming for her somewhere — on the\nhillside, in the sheltered wood, in the crannied wall, or it may be under the\nsnow — but somewhere. There will always be a way open for her to improve\nherself or a pupil or her school or a friend. As she rises from point to point,\n\"from glory to glory,\" her horizon grows larger and her atmosphere clearer.\nThe errors and limitations of her former experiences she puts under foot, and\nenlarges her outlook as she increases her growth. And she never ceases to\ngrow. Beware of the elementary teacher, whatever her present attainment,\nif she has lost the power of growth. One of the most valuable capabilities\npossessed by a superintendent is his abihty to select teachers possessing large\ngrace of growth, and one of the most essential minimum qualifications for an\nelementary teacher is this same potentiality for progress.\nA great source of power for the promotion of growth is enthusiasm. Not\nthe fitful, intermittent, volatile enthusiasm, which rises and falls at momentary\nintervals like the choppy waves of a shallow and narrowly circumscribed lake,\nleading her to start all sorts of wild projects without mature deliberation as to\ntheir value or chance of success, only to regret the beginning and drop them\nlong before completion, and which causes her to flit about wasting her own\ntime and worse than wasting that of the pupils by purposeless work ; but a\nstrong, sustaining swell of enthusiasm, that against all unwarranted opposition,\npetty annoyances, difficulties, and discouragements, carries her onward like\na mighty tidal wave, making every word spoken and every step taken count\nfor progress for herself and the child. There can be such an enthusiasm without loss of poise and balance which are equally important with it. In such a\npresence many an elementary pupil, ah*eady overcharged with activity unconsciously and imperceptibly develops a strong, helpful self-possession and selfcontrol that make for real education.\nShe should possess aptness of illustration. Logical definition and argumentation supplant it in part with those more mature, but neither definition\nnor argumentation are effective with the youthful mind, and hence the great\nneed of power to illustrate on the part of the elementary teacher.\nShe should be able to originate — should have the power of initiative. In\nwhat directions and to what degree she may have an opportunity of exercising\nthis will depend very largely upon the characteristics of the system to which\n\n"} {"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHER\n\n245\n\nshe belongs. Strange as it may seem, the place wherein there is the greatest\nneed for this quality and where it finds its largest opportunity for growth and\ndevelopment is in the rural schools. Here where the only factors are the\npupils, the books, and the teacher, with a director or board in the dim distance,\nthe teacher is supreme. She determines the course of study, the methods of\ninstruction, the rate of progress, the entire regime of discipHne, rewards,\nreports, promotions, classifications, et cetera. What a glorious field for the\nexercise of the genius of initiative! And perhaps this absolute freedom to\nexercise the teacher's genius accounts for the wonderful effects produced in\nsome such schools when the right teacher has been found. In our city systems\nthere is less opportunity for the free play of this particular power of the\nelementary teacher. The course of study, the books, the method of treatment, the classification and promotion of pupils, the actions of pupils in the\nrooms, in the halls, upon the playgrounds, the time, mode, and character of\npunishments, and- a multitude of other matters large and small are settled\nand determined by some other authority than her own. In such a system the\nelementary teacher needs a somewhat different characteristic — the ability succes ful y toexecute the plans of others. This is as essential in our large city\nsystems as is the other in our rural districts. The presence of one of these\nquahfications in a teacher does not need to exclude the other. The wellbalanced teacher can follow the plans of another or can originate her own\nwhen needful. The rural teacher and the city teacher each needs a good\nsupply of both powers. Then the system should be so changed as to let the\nschools reap the greatest advantage of the possession of these qualifications by\nthe teacher. The rural teacher should be given closer and more helpful\nsupervision, while the city teacher should be released from some of her bonds\nand allowed a larger opportunity for initiative. I hasten past the general\nbut universally accepted qualities of tactfulness, alert discernment, all-round\nefficiency, as general quahfications essential alike to all teachers, and take up\none that is more essential to the elementary teacher than to any other — the\nability to interpret the child's environment to him. The purposes and\nplans of elementary education differ greatly from those that mark the high\nschool and college, since the child at elementary-school age differs from the\nstudent of high-school or college age. As a consequence the teacher for the\nelementary school should differ from the one needed in high school or college. The child enters the elementary school with all his senses keenly alive\nto the world of things about and with appetite whetted by his five or six years\nof contact with it at home. His ethical world which was a very simple and\ncircumscribed one has suddenly become enlarged in area and complex in\nrelation. For the next six or eight years his time and energy are to be\ndevoted to collecting, absorbing, remembering, assorting, and arranging\nconcrete data, and in an elementary way discovering his relations to these\nethical and material worlds and adjusting himself to them. As the physical\nchild grows rapidly during these years, so the mental child feeds voraciously\n\n"} {"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\non the concrete world about him. To keep the appetite sound, the digestion\nstrong, and the assimilation perfect are some of the tasks of the elementary\nteacher.\nFor the successful accomplishment of these tasks the teacher must know the\nchild and his environing world, and must know this world from the child's\npoint of view as well as from her own. Her knowledge of the child should be\ngeneric and specific, rational and empirical, scientific and yet eminently\npractical. Wliile it is not necessary that she have technical knowledge of the\nold type of faculty psychology, she should be familiar with the newer type of\npsychology — that of the child mind — from a perusal of some sane and simple\ntext on the subject and from a thorough, intimate, and thoughtful acquaintance with children of elementary-school age, while in natural action. Her\nknowledge of child-study should not be the vague and undemonstrated\ntheories of the dreamer nor the undigested data of the experimenter, but\nshould be the valid, valuable, and relevant results of child-study which have\nstood the test of practical experience. She is not to turn her room into a\nlaboratory for the gathering of scientific data, because she has a more specific\nand practical duty which she owes to those particular children.\nClosely associated with her knowledge of children should be a generous\namount of sympathetic love for children. A cold scientific truth may serve\nas a guidepost to direct the way, but the warm hand of a sympathetic teacher\nplaced within his own and the pleasant voice of hopeful love cheering him on\nhis way are necessary to make the child's progress pleasant, persistent, and\nprofitable. Most natures make the most rapid growth in an atmosphere of\nconfidence, sympathy, and love. And yet love and sympathy must be wisely\ndirected or they will permit a liberty which is license and leads to destruction.\n\"Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth.\" The teacher must love so wisely\nthat she seeks in all her treatment of the child his ultimate worth to himself,\nto the world, and to God, and not his present personal pleasure.\nPerhaps no greater injuries come to the child in the elementary school than\nthose that arise from the inability of the teacher to see ethical and intellectual\nproblems from the child's point of view. Many teachers filled with love for\nchildren, possessed of a high degree of moral integrity, and intellectually and\nprofessionally well trained, fail in their efforts with children because of inability\nto see such problems from the child's angle. It is valuable that the teacher\nshall know these things as adults know them. That makes a scholarly person,\nvaluable to the adult world; but if in addition to this she does not know them\nand see them and feel them as does the child, she can be of but questionable\nvalue to the child world and has no place as an elementary teacher. She must\nknow children's likes and dislikes, motives, ideals of right and wrong, fears,\nand prejudices, and a thousand and one other things that determine the subject-matter, methods of presentation, methods of testing, methods of control,\ncorrection, government, and discipline in the elementary school, if these things\nare to be administered in a way to conduce to the greatest good of the growing\n\n"} {"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHER\n\n247\n\nchild. And the best of this knowledge is empirical. If the family life does\nnot supply this intimate practical knowledge of growing children, the school\nwhich prepares the teacher for her work should. The point of view, the capabilities and limitations, the laws of development, the apperceiving masses of\nchildren at different stages of growth during the elementary-school years cannot be mastered from books alone. Real Hve boys and girls must be had, and\nneither the sugar-coated specimens preserved in books of the Sunday-school\ntype nor the mummified forms embalmed in books of the purely scientific\ntype will sufl&ce. Pope's statement that ''The proper study of mankind is\nman\" certainly applies with double force to the elementary teacher who\ndesires to bear her responsibilities nobly.\nShe must know how to govern him, not by repressing those activities that\nmay cause her temporary inconvenience, but by wisely directing them to useful\nends. She must be an artist in the use of suggestion, always prompting by\nthe influence of her presence, her acts, and her character, such action on his\npart as shall make for moral and mental growth.\nNo small part of the process of governing and character-building is the art\nof wisely doing nothing. It is a wise teacher who knows when to leave a\nchild to himself undisturbed. Some teachers blind their pupils to a knowledge\nof right and wrong in the ethics of the schoolroom by constantly flashing in\ntheir eyes indiscriminate reproof and unremitting irritation. Some others, by\na purposeless thrusting of irrelevant or inopportune questions or statements\nbetween the spokes of the wheels of the child's thought-cart, upset his load of\nwell-collected ideas, and either leave him too tired and too discouraged to\ngather them up or else cause the entire class to mark time while he shall collect\nthem.\nSuch a teacher should pray for the grace of purposeful silence.\nA qualification akin to this is the ability to suppress the purposeless chatter\nof children and at the same time promote free expression of what is worth\nwhile. Many children will go on like Tennyson's ''Brook,\" and unless\nchecked and directed will develop no power and turn no wheels.\nThe elementary teacher should know how to play with children and how\nto direct their play. To do this well she must know something of the psychology ofplay. She should know that play is developmental and educative,\noften more so than what sometimes passes for very efficient and valuable\nschool work. She should know that the play of the elementary child is different from that of older children. It must be singularly spontaneous, free from\nrules and regulations, free from directions and restrictions imposed from\nwithout, and must be individual in its responsibilities. She must know how\nmuch of \"every fellow for himself\" and how little of \"the gang\" spirit there\nis in it. If the teacher joins in their play she must not fail to play with the\nspirit of the child and not of the adult. If she does not play with them, she\nshould delight in their play. Pity the elementary-school pupil whose teacher\nhas lost the play spirit. Someone has sagely said, \"The great man is he who\nnever loses his child heart. \"\n\n"} {"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nShe should know how to receive the results of a child's ejfforts in such a\nway as to promote his growth. Many a child has become discouraged and\ndisconsolate through the carping criticism made by a thoughtless or dyspeptic\nteacher upon his best efforts, while many another has become self-satisfied\nand negligent by a flattering praise which deceived him into inactivity. To\nknow how to criticize without discouraging and to praise without weakening\nis a valuable qualification.\nThose who believe the teacher is born and not made may be willing to stop\nhere in the enumeration of her qualifications, but some may be exacting enough\nto insist that she know something of the subject-matter to be taught. And so\nshe should. The knowledge of this should be broad and general, particularly\nof those things in nature and the arts that will or should constitute the child's\nenvironment. The stupendous blunder which we have been making, however,\nis that she should know these things in the same way that the college professor\nand the high-school instructor know them. We fail to appreciate that a body\nof matter and a method of treatment which might be appropriate to the highschool or college student would be wholly unpsychological when applied to a\nchild of elementary-school age. The former tends toward the technical, exact,\nquantitative, analytic, and abstract, while the latter should be more general,\napproximate, qualitative, synthetic, and concrete. If education is adjustment; ifby far the largest part of our school children leave school before\ncompleting the elementary grades; if they are to go through life with such\npower of adjustment to environment as the elementary school can give in\nthese few years, then our elementary-school teacher must know many things\nin the world of nature and the arts and in a vastly different way than she would\nneed to know them in order to teach in the high school or college. We must\nremember that environment has psychological as well as geographical limitations. Proximity of a thing in time or space does not constitute it a part of\nour intellectual or spiritual environment. A mental or spiritual ability to\ndetect its presence and determine somewhat its attributes is essential. Has\nthe landscape beauty to the eye that has not sight? It is the purpose of\nelementary education to open the eyes and unstop the ears; not only to\nfurnish the child the tools by the use of which he is to glean from books, but\nby means of things to establish the most numerous and the most vital and\nhelpful points of contact between him and what is and is to be his environment.\nThe whole world of nature and the arts is the elementary teacher's field for\nselection of material and the entire range of forms of impression and expression is her method. From such an embarrassment of riches what shall she\nselect ? Time will permit us to give but meager suggestion.\nIn language she needs a strong and pleasing personality, for language is\nlargely unconscious imitation of what is received throught he ear, and the child\nof elementary-school age is more susceptible to the language influence of the\nloved and respected teacher than he is in later years. The elementary teacher\nhas less use for grammatical rules and definitions than for the habit of correct\n\n"} {"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHER\n\n249\n\nand refined speech. She should be a good story-teller. Story-telling is an\ninviting form for the presentation of much material to the child, and a large\npart of the efficiency of the story is in the telling. A large knowledge of the\nhistory of English literature will not spoil our elementary teacher if she knows\nhow not to use it. The history of literature is the husk and shell of which the\nHterature itself is the kernel. Children have wisdom enough to like the\nkernel. She should know the choicest poems and stories for children, selected\nfrom all the ages, and should love them. From the multitude of classics in\nstory and poem she should give the children what they love and what she loves.\nIn her efforts to satisfy the hunger of the children for such nourishment, we\nwill pardon her if she fails to read the \"ten best selling books of fiction for the\ncurrent year. \"\nIn art she should know well and appreciatingly a few pictures of real merit\nthat successfully touch the child's life, and should be able to help the children\nto interpret and to love them. On the side of execution she should know the\nHmitations that nature has placed on child life in its different stages as to its\nabihty to execute detail and to perform a finished piece of work. She should\nremember that the child has eyes of faith and sees many things in his own\ncrude drawing which her poor adult vision, rigid and exacting, cannot discover\nthere.\nIn reading she needs Httle of the artifices of the pseudo-elocutionist. She\nshould be able to read understandingly, impressively, and feelingly, with a\nwell-modulated natural voice. She should have such a knowledge of literature that by skilful questioning and wise suggestion she can lead the children\nto extract from the selection all the nectar of knowledge and sentiment which\nit possesses for them. She should have a knowledge of some plan for mastering the mechanics of reading so the child may become independent, so far as\nthe mechanical side of reading is concerned. She should know how to correlate the other studies with the reading that the child may come to each readinglesson with such apperceiving masses as will enable him to interpret readily\nthe thought-content of what he reads.\nIn arithmetic she should know accurately and thoroughly all parts that are\nnecessary for conducting ordinary business. If she knows algebra and geometry as a background for a better view of arithmetic it will be an advantage.\nShe should have some knowledge of what children of certain ages are able\nto learn advantageously. She should know the present point of view of our\nmost modern arithmetics but should have an anchor of conservatism that shall\nsave her from some of their faults. She should discriminate between the\nvarious classes of material in the arithmetic. She should have clear notions\nof what is essential and what is not essential and of where to place the various\nkinds of emphasis. She should have a store of sound devices for retaining\ninterest in those exercises which for reasons of drill must be oft repeated.\nShe should know how to spell the words she and her pupils use. Whether\nshe shall spell according to the \"stand pat\" or the \"reform\" standard is\n\n"} {"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nperhaps debatable ground. Perhaps hke the old-time pedagogue she should\nbe able to do either, as he taught the earth round or flat according to the\ndesires of his constituents. She should direct the child's effort toward a\nthoro knowledge of the spelling of his writing-vocabulary, and should not\nallow^ him to waste his efforts upon material for which he will have no\nfuture use.\nShe should be able to write a round, plain, legible style with a free movement, and should know how to conduct a writing-lesson that shall be a writinglesson and not a drawing-lesson. Elementary penmanship is one of the worsttaught branches in the curriculum for so simple a one, and will continue to\nbe so long as we worship the element of slant and fail to give proper recognition to movement. Drawing copies will not make writers. The way to\nbecome a writer is to write, placing the minimum emphasis upon theory and\nthe maximum upon intelligent movement.\nPerhaps in no subject (unless it be science) is the elementary teacher of\ntoday so far below what ought to be the minimum requirement as in the subject\nof history. If her knowledge is limited to what she has learned from an ordinary condensed history of the United States or of the world which she used in\nthe eighth grade or in the high school it is practically useless to her in presenting history properly in the elementary\" grades. For her history is of dynasties, administrations, laws, constitutions, wars, rebellions, and subjugations,\nand these expressed in the most condensed and almost isolated generalizations.\nIf such is to be the matter and method of history for children it is well that the\nmisery and mischief of it all has been postponed to at least the late grammar\ngrades. But children are able to get good from history in all the elementary\ngrades if the proper material and the proper modes of presentation are used.\nNot all of us will agree as to the chronological and geographical sequence\nthroughout the grades, but there are many things upon which we probably can\nagree that the elementary teacher should know, who is to teach history.\nShe should know that it must be concrete, dealing with phases of Hfe which\nthe pupil can interpret by a comparison with his own times and surroundings ;\nthat it must contain the personal hero or heroine; that it must be in detail,\nthat is, the individual notion and not the general notion must prevail; that\nthe relation of cause and effect should be present but that this relation should\nbe between conditions which are within the child's comprehension ; that\nchildren in the lower grades develop great power of weighing evidences and\ndetermining probable causes and effects when properly led and when given\nmaterial appropriate to their capabilities ; that all history for the lower grades\nmust be narrative; that children are interested in real men and women and\nboys and girls and not in the apotheosized saints nor in soulless institutions,\ncorporations, and civil organizations.\nIf she knows these things, she will fill herself full of a knowledge of life as\nit was in the various times and places with which she desires to acquaint her\npupils, and using the arts of the story-telling teacher will lead them to drink\n\n"} {"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHER\n\n251\n\ndeep at the refreshing fountains of the past. She may use an ethnological\nbeginning and sequence and commence with the tree-dwellers, or a semichronological one and begin with the Hebrews, or a geographical one and\nbegin with the Mississippi Valley heroes. Which of these or other similar\nplans she shall adopt is not so vital as that she shall begin in some way,''and\nshall recognize in her work the fundamental characteristics that should\ndifferentiate the teaching of elementary history from that of more advanced\ngrades.\nIn geography she should know thoroughly the physical and political geography of her own locahty, and should know how to use these as foundation\nmaterial upon which to build the child's conception of those portions of the\nearth which are beyond the reach of his senses. She should know how to use\nthe stereoscope, the picture, the story of travel, and the general library. She\nshould know how to develop from details the general truths of geography\ntreating the earth as the home of man. She should know how to make advantageous use of types as rallying-points for the pupil's knowledge. If she will\nfaithfully prepare herself upon such material as this we shall not be particular\nif she has meanwhile forgotten some of the names that dot the map of Asia or\nof Africa.\nConnected with her knowledge of geography should be her knowledge of\nnatural science. It is in this field more perhaps than in any other that the\nmethods of the high school and the college are most at variance with what the\nteacher has to do. What she most needs is a first-hand, commonplace, openeyed knowledge of the animate and inanimate nature that surrounds her\nschool on every hand. The microscope, scientific nomenclature, intensive\nstudy of minute parts and strange species have their place, but it is not in the\nelementary schools, at least so long as the children there are as blind as they\nnow are to the artistic and economic values discoverable with the naked eye\nand describable in common speech, which are their constant companions.\nLet us have a higher minimum requirement for the elementary teacher in\nthese subjects that properly presented enrich the child's life for all time, and\nlower if need be the requirement in pertain portions of some of the more ancient\nand honorable studies whose gray hairs are the sole reason for their presence\nbeing tolerated in the elementary schools.\nYou will readily discover that I have failed to enumerate specifically the\nexact and definite minimum qualifications of the elementary teacher. The\nreason I have failed is because I do not beheve it can be done. The only points\nof view from which succinct and categorical answers can be given are those of\nfinancial equity and administrative necessity, and those I have furnished. The\nremainder of the paper is based upon two principal thoughts. First, that\nsuperintendents and boards of education should have clear ideals of what\ncharacteristics distinguish the good elementary teacher. Some of these I\nhave briefly set forth, but not all. Any one of you could enumerate as many\nmore.\nThe second thought is that once having those ideals established the\n\n"} {"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nminimum qualifications in your particular schools will be determined by your\ntreasury. You will raise your minimum as high as you can and keep your\nschools supplied. You will get all you can for your money or you are not\nAmerican.\nIf these things be true, we who believe that the best legacy left by one\ngeneration to the next is the children ; that every year the school becomes a\nmore important factor in the development of childhood; that now and for\nmany years to come the great majority of our citizens will know no other\nschooling than that which they receive in the elementary schools ; that each\nyear the naturally endowed and properly prepared elementary teacher becomes\na more potent factor in education — we who beheve these things must wage a\ntriple campaign : One for a better appreciation on the part of school officers\nand school patrons of the peculiar qualifications that make the efficient elementary teacher; another for more and better training-schools where those\nnaturally fit may readily procure that particular type of professional preparation which best fits for elementary teaching; and a third for adequate financial\nresources that shall enable the state to attract to her elementary schools\nwhere all her future citizens are trained more of the strong and forceful, many\nof whom now find more fruitful returns in other honorable fields.\n\nMINIMUM\nHENRY\n\nQUALIFICATIONS FOR THE TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS\n\nSUZZALLO,\n\nASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nJR. UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA\n\nLELAND\n\nSTANFORD\n\nIt is one of the lamentable things in the control of our public education\nthat one large division of the system has had no widespread provision for\ninsuring well-trained and properly certificated teachers. I refer to American\nsecondary education. In almost every state in the Union, an ordinary\nelementary-school certificate will permit an individual, so far as the law goes,\nto teach in the secondary schools. Two marked exceptions, at least, California and Indiana, have evolved a high-school certificate and shown what\ncan be done in the special standardizing of teaching in the public high school.\nFor this condition the public-school superintendent is to a considerable\nextent to blame. Usually a man promoted from the elementary-school service,\nhe has followed his own interest and the larger problem in his care, and given\nhis attention to the work of supervising elementary education. The high\nschool of his city or district has, meanwhile, been left to the care of the highschool principal, or to what is a still more speciaUzed control, to the university\nprofessors. In this way the one educational officer who should represent the\npeople's total interest in all the schools, has been reduced in influence where\nthe secondary school is concerned — reduced because he has, in a sense, given\nup his opportunities.\n\n"} {"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n253\n\nFrom some such conditions has arisen that peculiar and important controversy as to whether the high school shall \"prepare for college\" or ''prepare\nfor life.\" That it does, in practice, prepare largely or primarily for college\nis due to that neglect of the pubUc-school superintendent who has allowed\nuniversity-entrance examination, and university inspector, and the universitytrained principal to dominate the secondary school. That the problem is now\none of some importance in theoretic discussion is a sign that the superintendent\nand other representatives of the people have become critical with regard to\nthe situation. Without underestimating the splendid, though one-sided, influence of the university on the high school, the supervision that needs most to\nbe done now is that of the school superintendent, the ofl&cial representative of\nall the interests that the people have vested in the school system. Among the\nmany lines of work with which he can concern himself is that of the adequate\ntraining and certification of secondary-school instructors. That work he\nhas successfully done for the elementary school, and it needs to be done for\nthe secondary school.\n\"What shall be the minimum standard for training and certification of\nsecondary teachers?\" There, the problem is stated. This minimum is the\none uniform standard toward which all localities should strive. It is a kind\nof final minimum\n\ntoward which all states should progress, rather than the\n\nleast requirement which varying conditions may dictate as expedient or possible now. However impossible such attainment may be to you now, in your\nown particular place, you need to have a goal of requirement with which to\nbring your local evolution into line with true and general movements of progress.\nIn stating minimum requirements for the secondary teachers I would say\nthat they should fall into two divisions. On the one hand, there are academic\nrequirements, standards of scholarship, which must be maintained. Knowledge of the subject-matter to be taught is a fundamental demand. On the\nother hand, there are professional requirements. The secondary-school\ninstructor is not a mere man of culture with a command of the hberal arts;\nnor is he just a student with scholarly habits. He is a social worker performing one great function for society as its agent. His main material is a group\nof human beings, and his command of subject-matter is merely one of his\ninstruments. The knowledge of the experience of the men and women of\nhis own profession, predecessors or contemporaries, is a guidance in the care\nof his main responsibility that he should not be without.\nHow much academic training should the high-school teacher have ? Certainly more than the students taught. Our best practice would seem to suggest a clear principle. The best normal schools for the training of elementary\nteachers require high-school graduation as a basis for professional work. The\nlargest colleges ask that their teachers have had graduate work in the university proper, and usually the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, which represents\nthree years of advanced academic work. If the teachers in the lower and the\nhigher schools must pursue academic work beyond the institution in which\n\n"} {"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthey expect to teach, why should not the teachers of the secondary schools be\nexpected to do the same ? College graduation should be the final minimum\nstandard for academic training. This conclusion is concurred in by the report\nof the Committee on College Entrance Requirements, presented to the National\nEducational Association in 1889.\nWhat and how much shall the professional training be ? Or perhaps, to\nmeet the conservative on his own ground, ''Should there be any professional\ntraining at all ? \" I know what many sincere but inexperienced or insensitive\nmen would say, both in the university and in the high school. There have\nbeen many bold enough to hazard the statement that there is nothing in professional training. Probably the best answer to these would be to lead them\ninto a kindergarten where the gap in maturity between themselves and those\ntaught is widest, and the misadjustment of the organized knowledge of adults\ngreatest, and ask them to teach. Without teaching technique most of them\nwould be hopeless. With a few, perchance, those methods of handhng human\nbeings, an unconscious part of their personalities would get along fairly well,\nbut even then not for long. They would then become conscious of the\nthing we call professional method because the misadjustment is so obvious.\nThe lesser misadjustments arising in the teaching of university and secondary\nstudents, persons nearer their own maturity, had not been so evident to them.\nIf misadjustments are very bad we notice them and do something about\nthem. It is precisely for this reason that teaching method as an institution\nof high importance was born of the primary school and kindergarten, and\nextended its force upward into the higher school only by slow degrees. In\ngeneral is is true that method (teaching method, not methods of research or\ninvestigation) move upward from the lower schools. Subject-matter, except\nthat introduced primarily to better teaching method, has, generally speaking,\ncome down from the top. You will find the greatest body of scholars at the\ntop. But the best teachers in the world, the best adapters of knowledge to\nimmaturity to be found in the world, are to be found in the primary school.\nWhat I have said applies mostly to teaching method, but the argument is\nequally good for administrative, disciplinary and other methods of the secondary school. The secondary teacher, if one knows the history of educational\nexperience at all, needs some professional training.\nIf some professional training is needed, what shall it be ? Educational\ntraining is not the easiest one in the world to estimate or determine. When\nwe educate we do so for the whole of life. In places, the findings of exact\nscience will guide us, but only here and there. Between the fragments of\nknowledge granted by pure science, is the field of general educational experience, as yet but vaguely interpreted. Again and again in education we must\ngeneralize from the history of our total experiences. The \"history of education \"we must have. It should deal with the history of secondary education\nin particular, more especially since the Renaissance. But it must not be too\nnarrow.\nIt must show the connections between life and the school at every\n\n"} {"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n255\n\npoint, and between the middle schools and those above and below them.\nThere is nothing so effective in breaking up the inflexibility, in the opinions\nof teachers, as to the finality of present traditions, as the history of education.\nIt is the best instrument for the enlargement of openmindedness in the secondary teacher, who is in too many cases, with his humanistic or scientific bias,\none of the most traditional of creatures in the acquisition of his educational\nvaluations.\nAs a second professional subject, I plead for a neglected aspect. What\nthe secondary-school teacher needs is an educational sociology. As the highschool teacher turns his eyes away from the university for his sanctions, his\neyes must turn society-ward. The school is pre-eminently a social institution,\nand the teacher primarily a social worker. Only secondarily is the school\npsychological and pedagogical in its functions. We have in our past history\nbeen giving teachers tools to use and methods of applying them, but there\nhas been given little real consciousness of social ends. If more high-school\nteachers were a trifle more social in their point of view, they would have no\ndifficulty in seeing the difference between \"preparing for college\" and \"preparing for life.\" The domestic arts as ministering to family life, and the\npolitical sciences as contributing to political life might then have for them a\nconceivably higher value than Latin and Greek. The social nature of the\nschool itself as a grouping of human beings would be better understood. The\n\"frat\" and the \"athletic\" fevers might be understood as spontaneous bursts\nof social impulse, that could have been expressed in infinitely better forms if\nthe high-school authorities had possessed some better notion of the social\nnature of a school. T,he evils of \"frats\" could have been gotten rid of by a\nlittle judicious and diplomatic substitution pleasing to all, rather than by the\ndoubtful methods of legislatures and courts. A study of such facts of social life,\nas are directly pertinent to the school, is a basis that every teacher should have.\nAs a third subject, I mention an educational physiology, or a school hygiene,\nas you choose to call it. Its value is J;oo obvious to require any expHcit statements as to its worth.\nAs a fourth subject, one which Hes back of all conscious teaching method,\nI suggest an educational psychology. Most of our progress in school proceedure in recent years has been a direct reflection of the increase in our knowledge\nof human nature due to the findings of psychology. The psychology of\nadolescence is particularly important for the high school.\nAs a fifth subject we have that organization of our best educational experience and our best scientific knowledge into a body of controlling principles,\nwhich we may term the principles of education. It is the correct application\nand reappHcation of these which will make the detailed conduct of the school\nright. It is this body of general truths derived thru generalizations upon\nboth our gross and refined experiences which will guide the teacher in new\nsituations, saving him from the tyranny of mere device.\nAs a final theoretic subject, there should be courses in the special methods\n\n"} {"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nof the subjects that the prospective teacher expects to teach. The special\nmethods of teaching Latin, or chemistry, or domestic science, etc., form the\nmost intimate and final approach of theoretic work to actual teaching. Every\nsecondary teacher should have three or four such causes, representing his\nparticular lines of specialization.\nThe last professional training demanded would be practice teaching.\nTheory must emerge in practice. It is theory's testing-ground. It is the\nplace where the teacher faces the whole teaching situation for the first time,\nbringing his knowledge to bear in all sorts of relations and as necessity requires.\nThe principle of practice teaching is well established in the training of elementary teachers. It needs to assert itself in the secondary field. If anything,\nraw teachers are more costly in the secondary schools than in the elementary school. Young children can disregard a teacher with less selfconsciousness and affront than older ones. Such work as is being done at Columbia\nUniversity, the University of Missouri, and the University of California should\nbe incorporated elsewhere.\nThe above factors in professional training prior to certification seem to\nexpress our needs. Just how they are to be pruned to our true limitations or\narranged for most effective training is another problem. The state of CaHfornia now asks a year of graduate work in the university beyond the bachelor's\ndegree to allow of proper training. It is probable that with a year of graduate\nwork this minimum standard at which we are finally to arrive may be attained.\nI commend it to the superintendents as their obhgation to raise the standard\nof professional work. The people are always complaining of poor work and\nasking for better teachers. Give them what they want, or try to do so. Do\nnot bother about economic matters. The raising of a standard will mean\nshortage of teachers, of course, but it will be temporary. Yours is a professional obligation. The economic obligation belongs to the people. Sooner\nor later, if you do not get frightened in the meanwhile and relent, they will\nmeet it with an economic recompense that will be nearer your heightened\nstandard.\nGROWTH:\nWILBUR\n\nF. GORDY,\n\nHOW\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCONTINUED\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nWhen the president of this body requested me to prepare a paper on the\nsubject under discussion, I told him he could find others better qualified, by\nreason of longer experience and wider observation in the field of superintendence, to say something worth while on a question of such vital importance.\nI do not feel that I can bring to you from my own experience suggestions of\nmuch value ; but it has been my purpose to gather from all parts of the country\nthe views of superintendents, in cities large and small, as to the best means to\nbe employed in stimulating the growth of teachers.\n\n"} {"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGROWTH:\n\nHOW\n\nCONTINUED\n\n257\n\nThe American people have been exceedingly generous in the support of\ntheir public schools. They have spent lavishly upon material equipment,\nand in the rapid growth of their cities this equipment has entailed heavy burdens upon the tax-payers. The policy in general has been to construct\nexcellent buildings with the best facilities for advancing the work. Moreover,\nmuch time and thought and expert knowledge have been devoted, in the past\nthirty or forty years, to the organization of school systems and to their wise\nadministration.\nBut, in the meantime, the body of human knowledge typified in the course\nof instruction has been growing greater year by year. Every generation makes\nnew discoveries and brings to light new truth which is the rightful inheritance\nof the next generation — a fact that society recognizes in a proper way by\nrequiring the school to incorporate such truth in its curriculum. As is well\nknown, this must be done in one of two ways — in the form of a new study,\nor by the addition of new facts and principles to an old study. In either case\nthere must be a new adjustment, an adjustment that will inevitably result in\nadopting a different principle of selecting the topics and facts to be taught.\nMoreover, far-reaching developments in modern pedagogy have shown\nthat in any branch of knowledge a careful distinction should be made between\nscientific completeness and pedagogical fitness. If a teacher knows all the\nleading facts and principles of a given subject he may be said to know it in its\nlogical completeness. But he may make a serious failure in teaching that\nsubject by considering logical completeness at the expense of pedagogical\nfitness, and this mistake he will certainly make if he fails to select the\nfacts with reference to the learner's ability to understand and assimilate\nthem.\nThese things are clearly understood by school experts and need scarcely be\nsaid here, except as an introductory word to lay stress upon the fact that never\nbefore has there been so great a need of able, broad-minded, and cultured men\nand women to take charge of the educational interests of the people. Accurate\nscholarship, pedagogical insight, and rare skill in handling classes are requisite\nto successful teaching; but beyond this, a sympathetic imagination, an inspiring personaHty, a large capacity for friendship, and a keen appreciation of what\nis truest and best, are a few of the qualities that should characterize teachers\nin the public schools.\nElaborate material equipment, effective organization, superior administration, and a course of study based upon scientific principles, are all of great\nvalue, but the quahty of the teaching is the pivotal fact in any school system.\nFor equipment, organization, administration, and the course of study simply\nminister to the one great central purpose — the bringing of the individual teacher\ninto intimate personal touch with the individual pupil — and, in common with\nall other instrumentalities, must be ahke barren and futile unless the teacher\nhas the vitalizing power to reveal and interpret to the pupil what the course of\nstudy represents.\n\n"} {"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^Chicago\n\nWhether or not too much attention has been paid to material equipment, it\nis emphatically true that too little consideration has been given to vital equipment. The American people are eminently practical, and will one day realize\nthat the thoroughly business-like policy for them to pursue is to make it worth\nwhile for the ablest men and women to join the teaching profession. The\nquality of our citizenship and of our institutions is involved in the quahty of\nour education. Never before has there been so much expected, and never\nbefore has there been so much required, of the public schools. These things\nbeing true, the question of all questions is. How shall we secure teachers who\nrank well in scholarship, professional training, teaching power, and personal\ngifts? The merit system, enforced with fearless and impartial justice in\nmaking appointments constitutes a good beginning; but the problem is only\nhalf solved when the right sort of teachers are secured. It is one thing to get\nteachers of vital power who are capable of growth ; it is quite another to provide effective means and influences to prevent them from being narrowed by\nthe specialized work of the schoolroom.\nFor the best teacher is the growing teacher, one who keeps himself young\nby a continuous process of rejuvenation. Many teachers reach a pitiable state\nof mental stagnation long before they are thirty-five. Such persons go through\na certain daily routine in the schoolroom in a thoroughly respectable fashion;\nthey are faithful in meeting the requirements of the course of study along\nmechanical lines ; their pupils are well drilled in the facts of the textbook, and\npass without conditions the entrance examinations to the high school or to the\ncollege. But pupils with such training have not been vitalized, their lives have\nnot been enriched, their hearts have not been touched, their personalities have\nnot been strengthened, because the teacher did not have the power to breathe\nthe breath of Hfe into his teaching.\nAs I have already said, much depends upon the kind of teachers that begin\nthe work, but quite as much depends upon stimulating their proper growth\nwhen they have come under the influence of school routine. For at the best\nany school system is an immense machine, and unless some special method is\nemployed to vitalize the teacher he is likely, as the years pass by, to lose rapidly\nin teaching efficiency.\nMy first step in the preparation of this paper was to send out a questionnaire\nto one hundred cities. These included not only New York, Chicago, Boston,\nCincinnati, Baltimore, and other large cities, but smaller cities, some of them\nhaving a population of 20,000 or even less. My purpose was to get a variety\nof experience and suggestion, so that I could know how superintendents, working under various conditions, were regarding this problem and how they were\ntrying to solve it. Ninety of the hundred to whom the questionnaire was sent\nresponded, and in most cases in definite and concrete statements. They showed\ntheir keen interest by the fulness with which they wrote, and a considerable\npercentage of them urged me to give them the result, in a tabulated form, of\nmy investigations.\n\n"} {"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGROWTH:\n\nHOW\n\nCONTINUED\n\n259\n\nThis was the questionnaire:\n1 . What method is adopted in your city for stimulating the growth of teachers, either\nalong professional lines or along lines of general culture ?\n2. What suggestions are you willing to offer as to the best means of stimulating such\ngrowth ?\n\nAs was to be expected, a large number of the answers referred to teachers'\nmeetings, general and grade, and to principals' meetings, as effective means of\nreaching the teachers, especially in the discussion of schoolroom problems. It\ngoes without saying that the value of such meetings depends, in a large measure, upon the stimulating and suggestive power and the professional and\ncultural breadth of the superintendent and his co-workers in supervision. For\nhe is the director of a complicated normal-school system, in which the work\nof a highly professional character is daily carried on, every teacher being a\nstudent and every schoolroom a laboratory where educational principles are\ntested and applied. The director should regard as sacred the teacher's individuality, and while he should be definite in his suggestions as to the fundamental principles and central truths embodied in the course of study, he should\nencourage initiative and allow a large measure of personal freedom to every\none of his co-workers in and out of the schoolroom. If he will consistently and\nwisely pursue such a policy he will foster that fine professional spirit and cooperative temper which are essential to the most effective teaching.\nIn answering my questionnaire, several superintendents of smaller cities\nspoke with enthusiasm of conventions, or grade-visiting days. A group of\nteachers — in some cities consisting of all the teachers in a single grade — and\ntheir principals, will witness the actual work of a fellow teacher, usually of\ntheir own grade, who has received two or three days' notice of the special\nsubject or subjects to be taught. After observing the work all the morning,\nthey will discuss it freely, sometimes spending an hour and sometimes an\nentire afternoon in such discussion.\nIn Springfield, we sometimes call together the teachers of one grade, to\nspend an afternoon in observing recitations conducted by several skilful\nteachers, all of whom will take up the same subject, and we have found such\nillustrative lessons very helpful and stimulating. In this way a few especially\nable teachers will materially strengthen the work of their grade throughout\nthe entire city.\nAs is well known, much of the value of the average teachers' meeting is\noften wasted by holding it at the close of the school day when many of those\npresent are so tired that they cannot give the best attention to what is said. In\nRochester the school authorities avoid this mistake. They dismiss all the\nschools of a certain grade for a whole day, in order that the teachers may meet\nat a central place for specific instruction. As may readily be seen without\ndiscussion, this plan has much to commend it because it is so rich in possibilities. Itfurnishes an opportunity to concentrate attention upon given\nproblems in such a way as to lead to large and telling results.\n\n"} {"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nSome of the superintendents, in responding to the questions sent out,\nreferred with approval to the work of teachers' clubs. One superintendent\nspoke of teachers' clubs by grades, in which some committees investigate matters of special interest to their grade, and others review certain books and make\ndigests of magazine articles for the benefit of the club. One superintendent\nof a city of considerable size wrote to me in substance as follows : Classes are\norganized for professional study, and each of them meets once a week or once\nin two weeks. Such classes are very probably more stimulating than lectures.\nIt has been my observation that teachers will go and listen to a course of\nlectures without doing much studying, but if a class is organized the teacher\nmust work. Another well known superintendent said that for a number of\nyears teachers have pursued in connection with their work a course of study\nalong both professional and general culture lines, and that the culture work is\nemphasized. In connection with this culture work courses of lectures are\ngiven which are largely attended by citizens.\nSeveral of the superintendents referred with much approval to the readingcircles organized in their cities, and pointed out various ways in which books\nare studied. In some cases principals study the books with the teachers of\ntheir schools, the work being supplemented by the superintendent. One or\ntwo superintendents said they review the books with the principals alone before\nthe latter meet their teachers, and others review the work of the principals by\ngoing over it with the teachers after the principals have held their meetings.\nI can bear witness to the value of a particular form of club work which,\nmany years ago, came within the range of my own observation. Our club,\nconsisting of some fifty teachers, spent three winters, under inspiring leadership, inthe study of English literature. The first winter we spent uponWordsworth, and the second and third upon Carlyle. It was an enriching experience,\nwhich broadened the life of every member of the class.\nClubs organized for reading and study make a strong appeal to that considerable body of teachers who wish to engage in some systematic work in\nprofessional or scholastic studies. Some cities meet such wishes by organizing\nclasses for teachers in their evening schools; but Baltimore — and Baltimore\nis not alone in this movement — authorizes its superintendent, ''when funds for\nthe purpose are available, to furnish an instructor for any club of twenty\nteachers who desire instruction which will tend to increase their knowledge of\nthe subject they are expected to teach, or to give them greater skill in teaching.\"\nThe most systematic and, as I believe, the most effective method of stimulating the growth of teachers, as reported from the various cities, is the promotional or professional examinations, with the distinct aim of increasing the\nteacher's salary as a reward of merit for increased teaching efficiency and for\nthe enlarged breadth of view of the relation existing between the school and\nthe life and work of the world. In reporting what is done by various cities,\nlarge and small, I shall name only those which have published their plan of\nwork, inasmuch as I have not asked permission from the superintendents to\n\n"} {"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGROWTH:\n\nHOW\n\nCONTINUED\n\n261\n\nquote anything that they said in their personal letters to me in answer to my\nquestionnaire.\nThe following statements came from superintendents in cities varying in\npopulation from 30,000 to 100,000:\n\" For teachers who study along professional lines or who carry one academic study or\nwho do summer work in an approved summer school, credit is given so that they can\nreach the maximum salary in five years.\"\n\"To encourage those who do not have a first-grade certificate, a renewal of certificate\ns based upon certain pedagogical studies prescribed by the superintendent. This work\nnot only counts for a renewal of certificate, but also applies toward securing a highergrade certificate.\"\n\"Teachers are required to pursue some Hne of professional study during the entire\nschool year. At monthly meetings the subject is discussed and reports made upon the\nsame.\"\n\"For the past few years we have organized courses in the evening school .which have\ntaken up certain lines of work that would be of advantage to teachers, and the teachers\nin different grades have been required to take these courses. The class thus organized\nmeets once a week during the winter. For instance, the primary grades one winter had\ngeography, taking special methods with some outline work in geography; the grammar\ngrades taking history. Two or three courses of lectures during the following winter will\nbe arranged, one along lines of general culture, and the others more definitely professional.\"\n\"When once appointed, a certain amount of professional work prescribed by the\nsuperintendent is required each year as a condition for the renewal of a city certificate,\nwhich technically expires at the end of each year. This professional work may include\nthe reading and study of some book or attendance upon a course of university-extension\nlectures, as was the case last year and this year. This is regarded as the mimimum amount\nof professional work. Two years ago each teacher was permitted to choose some branch\nof study upon which a report was given at the close of the year.\"\n\nThe most definite schemes of promotional or professional examinations\nwhich have come to me as a result of my investigations are those now carried\non in Chicago,^ Kansas City, Baltimore, Boston, Cincinnati, Saginaw and\nSpringfield, Ohio. It will be observed that all these cities are large except\nSaginaw and Springfield, each of which has a population of less than 50,000.\nIn outlining the scheme as planned by each of these cities, I shall take into\naccount only the essential features.\nIn Chicago the promotional examinations, which have now been discontinued byvote of the school board, were given at the end of the sixth year of\nservice. At that time if the teacher's mark for efl&ciency in the schoolroom\nwas 80 or above, she was permitted to take a promotional examination, and\non passing it to receive an increase in salary. These promotional examinations included: (i) an examination in a professional study — psychology, pedagogy, and history of education, and (2) an examination in one of a number of\nacademic subjects. The mark which a teacher received was the average of\nthose received in (i) an academic subject, (2) a professional paper, and (3)\nthe efficiency of the school work.\nThis system was begun in 1902. So many\n' Since writing this statement I have learned, as noted below, that Chicago has given up the promotional examination.\n\n"} {"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CHcago\n\nteachers wished to take these courses that Chicago was obliged to adopt a\nnormal-extension scheme, in accordance with which a group of teachers in any\npart of the city desiring to pursue a definite line of study was furnished by the\nschool board with a room and a teacher without cost to the group. The enrollment in such classes in 1904-5 was about 3,000. It should be noted that not\nall of these teachers were studying for promotional examinations. The most\npopular classes were in the various branches taught by normal instructors who\npresented the studies from the standpoint of their pedagogical significance.\nIn Kansas City the first professional examination may be taken at the close\nof the fifth year of service, when there is an increase of salary if the examination ispassed, and the second may be taken one year later. The first professional examination covers the following subjects: history of education, philosophy of education, school management, and English Hterature; and the\nsecond includes history of education, philosophy of education, school management, and history of western Europe. Any teacher, after passing the second\nexamination, shall receive a salary of $800, and on teaching at that salary for\none year shall receive a salary of $825 per year, if the superintendent so\nrecommends. But none of these professional examinations are given to\nteachers who have not shown advancement in teaching and governing that is\nsatisfactory to the supervision. Superintendent Greenwood reports a ''remarkable awakening,\" and says that \"mental activity is aroused which indicates a genuine revival of learning.\"\nIn Baltimore, the first promotional examination may be taken during the\nthird year of service, and the second two years later, provided the teacher's\nschoolroom record is satisfactory. The first examination consists of an\n\"impersonal written test in the correct and effective use and interpretation of\nEngHsh, \" and the second of a thesis upon some schoolroom problem. The\nteacher is expected to make, before an examining committee, an oral defense\nof the statements appearing in the thesis, and to offer an explanation of all the\nauthorities quoted and cited by page references and in marginal notes. It\nwill be noted that the second examination is distinctly professional. It does\nnot necessarily demand originaHty, but it tends to develop it, and it also\nencourages a sympathetic study of children, individually and collectively, not\nonly in their school life but in then* outside environment.\nIn Boston, promotional examinations are based upon (i) success in school\nduring the preceding year, (2) professional study, and (3) academic study in\nsome one line. The rule of the Board is as follows:\nAll teachers whose compensation is on a sliding scale with a fixed increase for each\nsucceeding year of service must take the promotional examination next following the\nsecond anniversary of the date on which they began service.\n\nThe first examination may be taken before the end of the second year of\nservice and the second at the end of the seventh year.\nIn Cincinnati, the advance in salary for special study of some kind is not\ngiven until the end of the tenth year of service. At that time the teacher is\n\n"} {"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGROWTH:\n\nHOW\n\nCONTINUED\n\n263\n\nreceiving |8oo per annum. According to the rule, \"elementary-grade\nteachers who have taught one year or more at a salary of $800 shall be entitled\nto an increase of salary the following year, provided they present satisfactory\nevidence that they have done sufficient scholastic or professional work \" while\nteaching in Cincinnati to entitle them to a total of eight credits. These credits\nare given for university courses and for club work of recognized character\nunder the direction of a leader whom the superintendent approves. The clubs\nare conducted by the principals of the schools. To this scheme there are no\nexaminations whatever attached.\nIn Saginaw, a course of professional study and reading must be taken\nbefore the teacher can receive the second-year salary. In either the second or\nthird year the teacher is required to make a written report on some school\nproblem — a report which may take the form of a study of a group of children.\nEvery year thereafter, a course of reading must be taken by a teacher before\nthere can be an increase in salary.\nSpringfield, Ohio, has Just adopted a merit system, the principal feature of\nwhich, as I understand from a newspaper report, is that at the end of three\nyears of satisfactory service, during which salaries rise at a fixed rate per\nannum, further increase in salary shall depend upon passing an examination\nin English and on some professional study.\nIt is to be noted that all of these schemes are alike in the double purpose of\n(i) making the basis of salary increase improved efficiency and not length of\nservice, and (2) of stimulating teachers to continue professional and cultural\nstudy.\nIf there were time, it would be of interest to comment upon the difference\nin the character of the professional and cultural work called for; upon the\nnumber of years in each case, during which the salaries rise automatically\nas a result of increased experience, and at the end of which the special work\nmust be done before any further increase of salary can be made ; and upon the\nnumber of examinations given and the extent of the special work required in\neach city. Such comparisons would be fruitful in suggestion and can be easily\nmade by anyone who may be inclined to do so.\nBut it will serve my present purpose to call attention to the fact that in\nmost of the cities where these merit systems are in operation the teachers may\ntake the examinations or not at their discretion. As a matter of fact, there is\nabundant evidence that many teachers continue both their professional and\ntheir cultural studies after they have reached the maximum salary. This is a\nhighly important consideration, but it is exactly what we should expect. For\na large proportion of American teachers have high aspirations and large ideals,\nand if they are offered suitable opportunities for growth they will cheerfully\nand eagerly seize them. Said Superintendent Greenwood, in answering my\nquestionnaire, \"Last year 89 of our grade teachers took some university work\nwith a view of getting degrees. They were of the number that had taken both\nprofessional examinations, and a large class is carrying forward such work this\n\n"} {"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nyear. All this is the result of our professional examinations for the advancement of salaries. \" Superintendent Van Sickle wrote: ''Many teachers under\nour system who are not obliged to take examinations to secure advance in salary ^\nare just as anxious to avail themselves of professional and cultural courses as\nare those who have in view promotional examination\nAt present there\nare 247 teachers taking courses in English, between 40 and 50 taking courses in\nbotany, and 1,237 have appHed for courses offered in educational psychology. \"\nThis definitely organized movement to condition the advance in salary\nupon the value of the service rendered, and to measure such value not by\nlength of service but by increased efficiency as determined partly by professional interest on the one hand and by specialized knowledge and general\nscholarship on the other, signifies much for the future of American public\nschools. For no matter how greatly we may criticize the details of the various\nschemes just outlined, each has a commendable purpose, and that purpose is\nto aid in putting sound scholarship and a fine teaching spirit into every schoolroom.\nSuch is the brief statement I have to make to this body as a result of my\ninvestigations into the means employed in various school systems throughout\nthe country to stimulate the growth of teachers. If it is true, as has often been\nsaid, that the teacher makes the school, and. if it is equally true, as I believe,\nthat the superintendent and his co-workers in supervision have much to do\nwith making the teacher, the transcendent value of our work in its bearing\nupon professional interest and scholastic attainment must be strikingly evident\nto all.\n\n-\n\nROUND\nA.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nTOPIC — THE\n\nKATHARINE\n\nTABLES\n\nOF STATE AND\nTENDENTS\nCOUNTRY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\nITS\n\nSUPERIN-\n\nBETTERMENT\n\nHOW\n\nTO IMPROVE\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nL. CRAIG, STATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION;\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLORADO\n\nThe great and all-absorbing topic in the educational world today and one, I might\nsay, which has been of vital importance for the last half -century, is, \" How to improve the\nrural schools.\"\nThe typical school of half a century ago was the district school, rural in thought, rural\nin manners, with its rude benches, its battered seats, its wood stove, its austere teacher,\nand its iron discipHne.\nIn many parts of our country the conditions which existed then exist now, but this is\nan exception rather than a rule.\nThe rural school no longer consists of the rude log hut or the one-room frame building but in nearly every locaUty it has been supplanted by well-constructed brick buildings,\nwell lighted, well heated, and well ventilated. The rooms have all the modern equipments\nin seats, desks, books, charts, and maps necessary for the acquiring of knowledge.\nEven\n\n"} {"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n265\n\nthe walls are no longer left bare to look down with a stony stare, but many of them have\nreproductions of famous paintings and statuary of exquisite mold.\nMany of the defects of the old school have been remedied in our more modern educational system, and modern methods all elaborately wrought out and handed down for use;\nyet the question still remains, \"How can we best improve the rural schools ?\"\nWe frequently hear the inquiries, \"Are our rural schools doing all that they can do ?\"\n\"Are they doing all that we have a right to expect them to do?\" and \"What are the\nmost efficient means to increase their usefulness ?\"\nThese are healthful inquiries made at an opportune time and may be answered from\ndifferent view points, according to locality, population, and financial conditions, for the\nproblems which confront the rural schools are many sided, and the solutions bearing upon\nthe educational process and upon their administrative questions of ways and means are\ngreatly varied.\nThe problem is a great one also because it lies at the heart of our educational system,\naffecting it at its very center, and it is certain to affect the character of our citizenship as\nit is correctly or incorrectly solved.\nThe rural school may be considered the thermometer which marks the rise and fall\nof public opinion and pubhc interest. It rises to the height, or drops to the level according to the conditions by which it is surrounded.\nAs superintendents we boast with pardonable pride of the best-conceived and bestexecuted school system in the world, and frequently we are heard to say that from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific shores, from the breezy Northwest to the southern states, the forward progress of education is such as to awaken the pride and admiration of the whole\nthinking universe, and in our loud acclaim we often forget the thousands of men, women,\nand children who throng our states, and who cannot read nor write. And when educational statistics bring them vividly to mind we simply look wise and deplore the condition\nof the rural schools; and while many of these schools may be weak and poor and miserable, they are not wholly responsible for their condition. Still the questions characterizing\nable results attained by system, organization, consolidation, and efficient superintendency\nare ever confronting us.\nIn this broad land of ours there are thousands of rural-school districts administered\nby local officials, many of whom have only a mimimum training for the duties which devolve\nupon them, and who cannot always justly manage school interests. This condition is\ninherent anri insuperable in sparsely settled locahties, for the average country district\ndoes not always contain three men or women adequately equipped for school administration. Therefore the only way by which a thoroughly efficient administration can be\nsecured is to abolish the numerous local boards and elect a county board of directors of\nseveral members who are well able to control school affairs, and clothe them with all the\npowers of local directors, duly compensating them for their services. This would not\nnecessarily necessitate the consolidation of the rural districts, neither would it necessitate\nthe change of the present laws relating to the distribution of public-school funds, but it\nwould eliminate petty quarrels, jealousies, and sometimes inefficient school management.\nThe schools in Europe are controlled from a central power, and while this method of\nnational control of schools would not be deemed advisable under our form of government,\nyet as a county measure it would surely and certainly prove a solid foundation upon which\nto build good schools.\nThe present means which we have of overcoming or correcting inefficient school\nadministration is through the supervision of the county superintendent, who in a marked\ndegree is responsible for the educational standard in every district in his county, since\nit is made his duty, by law, to exercise a careful supervision over the schools of his county\nand to aid the superintendent of public instruction in unifying the work basing it upon\nscientific principles of definite working-plans.\nThese working-plans must have for their\n\n"} {"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nfoundation a definite course of study which is not subject to changes, according to fancied\nneeds in this or that particular locaHty, but one that will meet the requirements in every\ndistrict and one that will be adhered to with a faithfulness that will pass all understanding.\nThe foundation of all educational work in city or town, county or district, must be\nlaid with the same precision, the same level and the same solidity if you would have it\nbear the weight of its own structure. The great argument which is being made in our\npresent state of educational fermentation, and that which was instituted by Horace Mann,\n\"Teach the child according to his environment,\" is today fatal doctrine. The country\nchild knows his environment and seeks that which he has not. People move from rural\ndistricts into the city in order to educate their children, not so often because of the quaHty\nof the city school, but because of environment and the systematic work in the school.\nMuch of the work in the rural school is necessarily done at haphazard. Plans are not\nthought out and carefully executed. Classification is poorly planned and causes great\nwaste of energy and time.\nSystem must be the great remedy.\nAnother of the great hindrances to the improvement of the rural school lies in its\nisolation, and its inadequacy to furnish the teacher the stimulative influence which comes\nfrom social contact with superior minds in the research and study in the profession. There\nis a monotony in sparsely settled country localities that the average teacher cannot adapt\nto her well-being, and which is not conducive to contentment and long service. Teachers\nrarely ask for re-employment or for a second term in the isolated districts, and no school\ncan grow to a marked degree with a continual change of supervision. Forceful and sue\ncessful teaching is the result of a well-defined system carried on from time to time with no\nintervening space nor disconnected Hnks. Most of the teachers who teach in the rural\nschools are inexperienced, and as soon as they become proficient by reason of experience\nacquired, they are induced to seek better positions where larger salaries are offered and\nsocial conditions more inviting. The country school can ill afford to pay the higher\nsalaries such as are given in towns and cities, and just so long as this condition exists,\njust so long will the country school be compelled to engage the new and inexperienced\nteacher from term to term. Throughout the West the question of salary soon will be no\nlonger a mooted one, but it will be firmly fixed upon an increasing scale according to the\nincrease of property value.\nThe argument frequently advanced that the small country school offers no educational\nfeatures and no advancing interest to the boy or girl is a misguided one. The history of\nthe world has been made by men reared in the country and schooled in country schools.\nThere is something in the contact with farm life and rural training which in many\ninstances, has developed a farmer's son into a world of power. Possibly it is the many\nhours every day which are spent largely away from his fellows; possibly it is the quiet\nof the farm house during the long winter evenings, where study is the rule and sport of\nany kind the exception, which accentuates the situation and develops the individuaHty\nand mental growth. At any rate the effect is there, and it is written plainly in the lives\nof our great men and there is no question but that the highest type of manhood and\nwomanhood has germinated in the class of a country-school teacher. I am free to\nsay that I have an abiding faith in the rural schools. I have faith in their possibihties,\nand the question of equipment, salaries, and organizations is determined by the everpresent supervision.\nRURAL\nJ. W. OLSEN,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nMINNESOTA\n\nThe country child is entitled to just as efficient supervision as is the city child. At\npresent he is not getting it. State superintendents, and other educational authorities\nthroughout the land, generally agree that school work in our cities is more closely and\n\n"} {"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n267\n\nmore ably supervised than that in the country. Some states have practically no rural\nsuperintendence. In most places the unit of supervision is so large that the directing\nauthority cannot give the teachers, pupils, and local school officers, the time and attention requisite for the best results.\nNearly all rural superintendents are paid much less in proportion to the number of\npupils under their charge than city superintendents, and also much less in average annual\nsalaries. Some states do not prescribe educational or professional qualifications for their\ncountry superintendents or like officers. Most states elect them amid the turmoil incident\nto general election campaigns. Even where educational qualifications are prescribed by\nlaw, the standard is usually too low. Neither written law nor pubhc sentiment demands\nfor our rural schools the scholarly professional oversight that is making possible the excellent work in our city schools. Without train dispatchers, a railroad manned by employees\nof the utmost intelligence and energy would be unable to run its trains. Teachers cannot\nattain the highest results without system, order, organization, and competent superintendence.\nOutlying rural communities, with their isolated and conservative population, that\ndoes not and cannot come into frequent contact with the most helpful intellectual stimuli,\nare even more in need of trained, scholarly, inspiring, sympathetic superintendents, than\nare our cities with their aggregations of financial and intellectual wealth, with their skilled\nteachers, and with liberal, broad-guaged business men upon their boards of education.\nThe country needs the active leadership of experts of scholarship, culture, tact, wisdom,\nenergy, consecrated purpose, and business ability who keep pace with the most advanced\neducational thought, become fully acquainted with the needs of their district, and intelligently meet them; who, from the pubHc platform and by personal influence, can arouse\nparents, pupils, officers, and teachers to a sense of the possibilities and responsibilities\nof educating for twentieth-century life. In order to secure such, it is necessary to pay\nthem^living wages, and all legitimate traveling and other expenses incurred in the performance of duty. In most of our states non-provision for the payment of such expenses\nplaces a premium upon inactivity. Not only the standard of wages but the standard of\neducational and professional quaHfications must be raised.\nRural communities must offer, not only larger financial inducement, but some system\nof appointment or election that insures stability of tenure, promotion in the service, and such\nremoval from pohtics as will permit the self-respecting educator of scholarly instincts to\nbe elected without going into an unbecoming contest with wire-pulling opponents. In\nnearly all of the northern states, outside of New England, a candidate for the county\nsuperintendency must go thru ward caucuses, county conventions, and all the annoyance\nand expense of a general election, and under this system, he cannot look forward to promotion in his specialty. After three or four years' service, when his experience should\nmake him really valuable, the people are apt to insist, \"He has had it long enough,\"\nand \"It ought to be passed around.\" A superintendent in a smaller town who establishes a reputation for efficiency may expect a calf to a larger one with its greater responsibility and larger remuneration; not so, a county superintendent.\nOur country schools, in which the majority must receive their education, have been\nleft to shamefully underpaid supervision that has too often lacked scholarship, experience,\nculture, and intelligent interest. Nor is it surprising that the rural superintendency fails\nto attract and retain our best educators. If city superintendents were elected at ward\nprimaries from resident candidates only, during party contests; if the salary were so\ninadequate as to be beggarly, and if the situation offered no prospect of promotion, our\ncity schools today would not have at their head the best men of the country.\nWhy should not the present successful system of choosing city superintendents be\nadapted to the needs of rural schools ? The appointment of county superintendents by\nstate boards of education, or the appointment by state authority of county boards of\n\n"} {"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\neducation, that in turn appoint rural school superintendents, is generally satisfactory where\nit is in operation ; but it is not probable that legislatures in our northern states will look\nwith favor upon a plan to remove the administration of their school affairs so far from\nthe people themselves. Why should not educational boards for the county, or other\nlogical unit of government, be created to select county superintendents and other supervising officers in the same way as city boards of education select city superintendents ?\nCities go into the open markets of the nation to secure the best superintendents that a reasonable amount of money will purchase, regardless of parties and politics, the accident of\nresidence, or any considerations other than the best interests of the service. Affairs of\neducational administration should not be intrusted to county commissioners, county\ncourts, or county boards, whose duties are general, and whose oflScers are not elected with\nspecial reference to their interest in the cause of education. Members of boards of education in our cities, I beheve, represent higher types than are found, as a rule among ward\naldermen. Members of county boards of education, or their equivalents, should be elected\nor appointed because of their high character, generous pubUc spirit, and special interest\nin the development of childhood into the noblest maturity. May we not hope that, should\nthis plan become general it will induce some of our strongest young men and women to\nplace themselves in special training for this responsible service ? Why should not the\nsuperintendent of a smaller county have the same opportunities for promotion as has the\nsuperintendent of a town or smaller city ? Why should not every county in the country\nbe in a position to compete with every other for the services of experts in rural school\nsupervision, Hke our friends O. J. Kern and Cap E. Miller ?\nNot only would the plan under discussion be a better means for the selecting of\nrural superintendents, but it would, after their selection, tend to render their services of\nmore value. Accountable only to a small board of men, chosen because of their interest\nin educational affairs, a county superintendent would naturally feel more independent\nin the discharge of his duties than were he the choice of a hundred or more poHticians, each\nof whom believes, or tries to make him believe, that he owns the voters of his precinct.\nNot infrequently a county superintendent has been elected by a very small pluraHty, and\nit is severely testing frail human nature to expect of him the strength of character necessary\nto refuse a certificate to the incompetent daughter of a politician, who, it is known, controls alarger number of votes than composed that plurality at the last election.\nAnd in matters relating to the condemnation of unsuitable schoolhouses, the formation of school districts, the selection of textbooks, may we not look for more honest and\nindependent action when the tenure of office does not depend upon the good will of those\nwho are seeking their petty self-interests and are unable to see either their own or the\npublic's ultimate good ?\nThen, too, such a board, we might confidently anticipate, would prove a strong moral\nsupport to the county superintendent in his working out of far-sighted poHcies for the\nadvancement of education, which necessitate the molding of pubHc opinion in their behalf\nand freedom in their execution. •\nWe can hardly expect the masses, who do not give special thought to problems of\nschool administration, to demand a reform that is in many places apparently so great an\ninnovation. PubHc sentiment, within and without our legislative halls, must be framed\nby you and me, who have been chosen to lead in those movements toward something\ndistinctly better and more helpful for the boys and girls that will be enrolled in our rural\nschools on the morrow.\nDISCUSSION\nR. B. Cousins, superintendent of public instruction, Austin, Tex. — Not having had a\ncopy of Superintendent Olsen's paper, it has not been possible for me to prepare a written\ndiscussion of it. I shall therefore content myself with reinforcing a few points of the\nexcellent paper.\n\n"} {"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n269\n\nThe paper maintains, and so far as I know no one dissents from the position, that\nevery county of sufficient population — say one thousand scholastics — should have a county\nsuperintendent. Or, which is better, each township in the populous states should have\na township superintendent. The superintendent should be a man of force, scholarship,\ncharacter, and special fitness for his work. In this day of organization no other business\nenterprise of half the importance of a system of county schools would be undertaken without\nfirst estabHshing an official head. No city or town attempts to run its schools without\na superintendent or supervising principal. The public mind with discouraging but\ncertain progress is reaching the conclusion that county schools are not an exception to\nthe rule that is universal, that every business of whatever nature must have a responsible\nhead.\nIt is agreed that the salary of this officer should be such as to command capable men.\nThe poor pay of the position has in most states been the largest obstacle in the way of\nefficient service. Recently, great progress has been made in this matter throughout the\ncountry.\nThere is some debate yet as to the manner of selecting the superintendent. It is\nmaintained in some quarters that he should be elected by the direct vote of the people.\nThis, in my judgment, is not the best way to select him, because it involves the expense\nof a campaign and not infrequently involves the schools in all manner of political broils.\nThe office and the officer should be removed as far as possible from the evil effects and\ninfluences of partisan or personal politics, and should be put on a professional basis.\nIt is maintained in other quarters that the county superintendent should be selected by\nthe governor or by the state superintendent, or by a county board thus appointed. This\nremoves the office too far from the people and inhibits the bond of mutual dependence and\nsympathy which should obtain between the people and the officer. He should be elected\nby a county board which is selected by direct vote of the people.\nThe importance of the office is the supreme importance. If reforms are to be inaugurated or general improvements are to be made in the country schools they will begin and\nend in the county superintendent's office, in so far as these reach any given county. He\nis the only man that can attack the problems of longer terms, better houses, better salaries,\nconsoHdation of schools, or indeed any other problem of general interest in the counties,\nfree from the charge of ulterior and selfish motives. This office is not inferior in importance\nto any other office in the counties in possibilities for good to all the people. In due time\nthis fact will be generally recognized.\nC. J. Baxter, state superintendent of pubHc instruction of New Jersey. — County superintendents should never be elected by popular vote. In New Jersey they are appointed\nby the State Board of Education, Each receives a salary of $2,000.00 per annum from\nthe state and an allowance of $350.00 from the county for traveling expenses. Only\nthose who have had extended experience in educational work and who hold state certificates are eligible to appointment. Each is required to formulate a county course of\nstudy that will receive the approval of the state superintendent. To make it practicable\nto carry out such course and complete our system of supervision, township supervising\nprincipals are appointed. The state appropriates $600 toward the salary of each supervising principal. To insure sanitary school accommodations all plans and specifications\nfor school buildings must receive the approval of the state architect, before contracts for\nthe construction of such buildings can be awarded.\n\nM. BATES\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nSTEPHENS,\n\nSTATE\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nDISTRICT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nANNAPOLIS,\n\nMARYLAND\n\nThe correspondence which took place between Superintendent Miller and myself\nin regard to this part of the program was brief, but I have a distinct recollection that he\n\n"} {"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nlaid more emphasis on his decision that this paper should be about fifteen minutes than about\na course of study for the district school. Deference shall be shown his good judgment by\ndoing everything possible to keep within the limit. Beyond the boundaries of that splendid\nlittle state of West Virginia, one of Maryland's nearest neighbors and her most beloved\nsister state, it is as impossible to deal with this question comprehensively in fifteen minutes,\nas it is to put a gallon of water in a pint bottle. I am persuaded it was meant that this\npaper should do nothing more than make a few observations regarding the curriculum for\nthe rural school, and nothing more will be attempted.\nDuring the past decade, many of us believed we saw a solution of the rural-school\nproblem through the plan of consolidation, and had hoped that its inauguration was the\nbeginning of the end of the one-teacher school. As late as five years ago, I would not have\nyielded to anyone the privilege of seeing larger possibiHties in consolidated or central\nschools, where all pupils could enjoy equal educational facilities, than I did. This vision\nof the new school was so full of glamor that the district school and its perplexing problems\nfaded from the scene. Some apprehension is now felt lest what was taken to be a vision\nwas, in reality, a nightmare.\nThere must be some reasons why school consolidation has not made the headway\nwhich its seeming merits would warrant, and when we look around we find some of them.\nA weak point in the scheme is that absence of a satisfactory plan to collect the various\npupils in the wagon for transportation. We have not been able, in the efforts made in\nMaryland looking to the consolidation of two or more schools, to meet this objection in\na satisfactory way. There is also a tremendous sentiment in every community in favor\nof retaining its schoolhouse as a center of community interest and life. For generations\nto come, at least in my state, there will be no general consolidation of schools. It will\nbe in spots, and these spots will include but a small percentage of the district schools.\nNothing is intended to be said in this digression from the subject, tending to throw\ncold water on the honest efforts which are being made in the direction of school consolidation, or to minimize the immense advantages which come to pupils in such schools as\ncompared with those of the one-teacher school; but I really feel there are also advantages\nto the pupil of the district school, which are to some extent lost when he enters a school\nwhere there is a different teacher for each grade. This can be made clearer if you will\ntell me why it is that in our cities a very large percentage of the leading business men,\nbankers, and lawyers were raised in the country and were educated in the rural school.\nWhat they seemed to miss in a division of instruction among several teachers, they appear\nto have more than made up in some other way. They have been more uniformly successful in business pursuits than the more educationally favored city individual. The\ntype of manhood and womanhood developed in the country district and its school seems\nto be more independent than we find in any other environment.\nMichael Angelo saw in the rough marble a beautiful figure incarcerated within its\nwalls, which only needed his master mind and artistic touch to set free. He entered upon\nhis work with a definite conception of what the finished product should be, and he did not\nentrust to another the task of transforming the shapeless mass into an expression of the\nconception which was in his mind. For the reason that the teacher is the most vital element\nin the school system and is the architect and builder of the child's mental and moral\nstructure, is it not probable that the developing process is subject to fewer jars, and that\nconsequently the product will be of a higher type where there are fewest changes in instructors ? There is an advantage of greater importance than we are apt to suppose where the\nsame teacher can follow and work with the child from the period of crude material until\nthat pupil becomes an expression of what the school can do to prepare him for complete\nliving.\nThis apparent digression has been made not to enter the domain of any other discussion but to give expression to an opinion that the district school still lives, and, from\n\n"} {"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n271\n\npresent indications it would seem that the number will not be reduced to any great extent.\nWe must continue to provide for their needs and to make them equal to the demands which\nthe community may impose.\n1 . The course of study for the district school, where there is but one teacher, should\nbe different from the one used in town or city schools. While the integrity of the grades\nshould not be wholly destroyed, the grading should be flexible; and there must be combination, correlation, and alteration in order to reduce the recitation periods to a reasonable\nnumber. Close grading in the rural school has multiplied the recitation periods to such\nan extent that but a few minutes can be given to each. A Httle bite here and there, with\nno time to assimilate, has given ground for the charge that school work lacks thoroughness,\nand there is much force in the criticism. To be able to think quickly and accurately and\nto act honestly and courageously is one of the chief requirements made of American citizensliip, and consequently is the principal demand in school work. A rural school program\nwhich provides for thirty or more recitation periods gives so little time for each lesson that\nnothing more can be done than to test the memory, and this tends to reduce the bulk of\nschool work to a memory plane. The period for the recitation must be made longer\nand this cannot be done unless we provide fewer recitations.\n2. What should be the extent and the content of a course of study for district schools ?\nThis question suggests a funny interview between the late President Lincoln and one of\nhis callers at the White House. The stranger facetiously asked: \"Mr. President, how'\nlong should a man's legs be ?\" Mr. Lincoln replied that he had given the matter but little\nconsideration, but on slight reflection, he thought they ought to reach from the body to\nthe ground. Any course of study must keep constantly in mind the pupil, who needs to\nknow, on the one hand, and the world, which is his field of knowledge, on the other. The\nchild must know the world in all its phases in order to have the fullest dominion and\nbecome lord of what he surveys. This earth is his home and he must become acquainted\nwith its civilization that he may fit into its conditions with the least friction. We are\ntold that there are five distinct phases of knowledge, viz.: (i) human thought; (2) mathematical relations; (3) natural phenomena ; (4) human action, and (5) ethical and aesthetic qualities. Any course of study, whether limited or otherwise, must keep in mind these\nphases in order that our instruction may reach and develop each. We see how the coordinate grouping is made to correspond to these phases and how school subjects are classified under these five groups in such a way as will make the quickest and most effectual\ndevice for mastering the world's knowledge.\nDr. Payne, in his excellent book recently published. Public Elementary-School Curricula, makes this statement: \"The school is fundamentally a social institution set up\nby society for its own protection, i. e., for the preservation of the best of its experience and\nideals. It is, in short, the function of the school to adjust or relate the individuals of the\nsocial group to the social whole, of which they are parts. In this fact, we find the controlling\nstandard in the selection of the subject matter in education. Briefly stated, this principle\nis that the needs of society should determine the selections of the subjects and topics of\nstudy in the elementary school. These needs are discovered by observing the activities\nof society. What the adult group is doing and thinking in Ufe the child will in all Ukelihood have to do and think. Therefore, if society controls the school, it should mould the\ncurriculum.\"\nFormal studies and abstract work have enjoyed too much prominence in our instruction. The normal child must do something. He must not only have something to think\nabout in the realm of abstraction, but he must have something to do in the sphere of the\nconcrete. This explains why the percentage of time given to formal studies has greatly\ndecreased and that given to content studies increased, proportionately, during the past\ndecade.\nIf we define content studies as those which lead more directly to an insight into the\n\n"} {"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nstructure of society, we will find that the curricula of some of our European countries are\ngiven over to such studies to the extent of more than 65 per cent. Only during the past\nfifteen years has manual training been included in school instruction in the American\nschools. When we combine with manual training the related subjects of drawing and\nconstruction work, the schools of New York City devote to this more than 15 per cent,\nof the recitation time. Then there are other new subjects, among which must be included\nin any course of study for elementary schools, nature-study, elementary science, civics,\nand English. While these studies have been added, we seem to have lost no reverence\nfor the formal studies, because none have been omitted.\n3. In the American schools we are still giving about 60 per cent, of our time to what\nwe may appropriately call the three R's; but the emphasis today, in our teaching, is upon\nthe content or concrete, as distinguished from formal or abstract studies. I find there\nis much more said in the course of study and in educational meetings about the importance\nof the content studies than is done by the average teacher in the schoolroom. Not many\nschool buildings are arranged so that instruction in this class of studies is easy. Professor\nBailey of Cornell University is right when he insists that in every school building there\nshould be at least two good-sized rooms — one for the formal study work, such as we now\nhave, and another room, which should be a veritable workshop, for manual and industrial\ntraining, nature-study, drawing, construction work, and experimental science. If the\nschool is to attach the pupil to the community and provide for the \"sociological and psychological aspects of human Hfe,\" it must surround itself with those adjuncts which are necessary to engraft such an education. The country school needs this content element of the\ncourse more than ever before. Very many of the occupations, where at least the beginnings of trades and vocations could be learned and some manual dexterity acquired,\nhave faded from community life and have been absorbed by industrial combinations.\nNothing has come to take their place; hence the school must provide for that instruction,\nwhich, in the good old days, was provided out of school. At a small additional cost the\n\"workshop room\" may be included in the school plant.\n4. There should be such a combination, correlation, and alternation of subjects in\nthe district school as will reduce the number of recitation periods to twenty. There are\nmany helpful suggestions in Dr. Emerson E. White's three-group program pubHshed in\nhis book on school management. The plan, in its entirety, deserves careful consideration, although some of the combinations seem inexpedient. The integrity of the grades\nmay be somewhat better regarded, as there should be separate reading and spelling classes\nfor each grade, to and including the fourth; and the arithmetic may also continue as a\ngrade study. A little pamphlet, pubHshed for the consideration of the Maryland teachers,\ncontains a program of recitations based on Mr. White's three-group plan, and should\nanyone here care to look over the details of that schedule, a copy may be found on Superintendent Miller's desk. It has not been made the course for our country school yet, but\nevery teacher in our state is or should be examining it, so as to endorse or criticize it before\nthe close of the present year.\nThe object in view is to provide a minimum sacrifice of the pupil's individuality\nand at the same time to preserve the sequence and co-ordination of school subjects to the\nend that all the activities may be more or less regarded.\n5. If we are to accept the Herbartian idea of native interest and self -activity as the\nprimary principle in education, we must not forget that this depends rather on the selfactivity of the teacher. The country schools need the best elementary teachers and their\nsalary ought to be the highest.\nOne mild criticism on the teacher. There has been very little study by teachers of\neducational theory, because they have been absorbed in practice work. As has been\nsaid, the course of study is a prescription for the child's needs. It was prescribed by our\nmost learned doctors of pedagogy.\nIt represents the accumulated experience of the best\n\n"} {"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n273\n\nteachers of all ages, and it comes to us as a sort of an abridged edition of the history and\nphilosophy of education. But that history has no life nor its philosophy any meaning if\nwe cannot hold it up to the mind's eye, see it in all its parts, and understand the reasons\nwhich led to its adoption. Rural-school teaching will make distinct gains when all teachers\nknow what the course of study is and what it is meant to accomplish.\n\nMANUAL\nARTHUR\n\nH. CHAMBERLAIN,\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDEAN AND PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nNIC INSTITUTE, PASADENA,\nCAL.\n\nTHROOP\n\nPOLYTECH-\n\nThere is a growing disposition of late, on the part of those in the city, to discuss the\nproblems of the country school. There is a conviction abroad that the good things in\neducation are to be found in the city, and that it is only fair and just that the country boy\nand girl be given a chance at the educational grab-bag and an opportunity to share in the\nmental wealth handed out from the urban schoolhouse. To one acquainted with the\nups and downs, and the ins and outs of both country and city schools, a striking parallel\nto the belief just mentioned seems to be found in the foreign missionary field. We grow\nenthusiastic when we consider the work done for the glory of God by our own self-sacrificing, unselfish men and women in distant lands, and then, as we turn a corner of the street,\nwe are shocked by coming face to face with a condition or circumstance of which there\nare thousands similar in every city. For a moment at least we are convinced that all our\ntime, energy, money, intellect, and love are needed at home to assist in cleaning up our\nown back yards. The grass in the other fellow's pasture always appears greener and\nsweeter than that in our own.\nPerhaps the advantages the country child enjoys make his school life fully as enviable\nas that of the city boy and girl. In any event there is sufficient need of improvement all\nalong the line.\nOur topic, \"Manual Training in Rural Schools,\" might well be amplified to read,\n\"How May the Rural School Be Made More Efficient ?\"; in other words, how may new\nlife be injected into the schools of the rural communities, so as to induce the pupils to remain\nfor a longer period; and not only to remain longer, but to have offered them work more\nreal, less artificial than now, and that shall fit the students to cope successfully with the\nproblems of the rural community, and create in them dispositions less dissatisfied with\ncountry ways and less willing to leave the seeming dead level of life on the farm for the\nfuss and feathers of city existence ?\nIn the short time at my disposal I cannot presume to discuss, were such discussion\nnecessary here, even a portion of the great questions and issues involved. The reasons for\nthe introduction of manual training into rural schools, the kinds and forms of activity\ndesirable, whether boys and girls should receive, each the same kind of instruction, the\nreasons such work is not more universally found to exist, the chief obstacles in the way\nof the introduction of the industrial processes, how to obtain teachers possessed of a knowledge of the subject and sufficiently skilled to carry the work successfully, how to create\npublic sentiment and to raise public funds, whether the pupil or the school shall furnish\nthe tools and materials necessary to the work, whether the trade or utilitarian idea upon\nthe one hand or the so-called educational or formative phase upon the other shall be given\nplace, these are suggestive of the matters to be considered in such a discussion as the one\nbefore us.\nSome years ago I was free to join my voice with others in insisting that manual training\nwas not demanded by the country child. His out-of-door life gave him the physical exercise so essential to his best development; plain, wholesome food and pure air and water\ncontributed to his needs in this direction; the common household duties in which the girls\nhad a part and the tasks upon the farm and the working with tools and machines under-\n\n"} {"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ntaken and shared by the boys — these, we insisted, gave to the country child that necessary\ntraining called manual in character, that came to the city boy or girl only through superficial means or was embodied in manual-training courses. The common argument as\nagainst this latter view, however, is that the work in rural communities, while healthful\nand of great value, is not directed, lacks in scientific treatment, accuracy, and unity; in\nshort, is haphazard.\nAgain I found my views dovetailed with those of the multitude in insisting that what\nwas \"sauce for the goose was sauce for the gander.\" If a given fine of industrial work\nmet the needs of the boys, it would, perforce, prove just as beneficial for the girls. This\nargument, if legitimate, appHes with equal force to the country and city child alike. We\nare now sure, however, that this philosophy was not even good theory. Each environment demands a treatment and interpretation distinctly different from that given elsewhere. Not only must differentiation begin early, boys to be treated as boys and girls\nas girls, but the problems of the country being widely diverse from those of the town,\nthe work must be different even though the principles are the same. And finally, each\nboy being cut on his own bias, the needs, abilities, and desires of each are not to be ignored.\nThere is no doubt in my mind that each school in a rural community should offer\ninstruction in industrial education, including domestic science, domestic art, and household economy for girls; agriculture and tool practice for boys, and an appreciation and\nunderstanding of applied design and of color and harmony in flower cultivation and\ngarden making for all. But how can all this be done; where are the teachers who can\ninstruct in the work; and do the rural communities desire such a plan ?\nAfter a thorough investigation of the conditions as they exist in rural Cahfornia (and\nthe locahty, in this particular, is quite typical of that in any section of the country) the\nfindings of a committee appointed for this purpose are most noteworthy and suggestive.\nIt would appear that it is lack of favorable sentiment rather than scarcity of funds that\nhas in most places deterred the introduction of such work. The rural folk, keen, analytic\nand practical, and ofttimes well read, fail to see in the results achieved in schools where\nmanual training is given, satisfactory reasons for its introduction into the rural schools.\nNaturally enough, investigation by committee or school board is carried on in the town or\ncity. Here they observe practices that are restricted and unreal. Most of the articles\nmade have no apparent value or use. The work is shilly-shally and bric-a-brac. Too\nmuch fine, delicate construction, they find, with the main emphasis upon technique and\nfinish and too little attention to strength and character of construction and to thought\nvalues. They can see no bridge between the industrial work done and the probable\nfield of activity in the life of the future citizen. The reach, if there be one, is too great,\nand they say, \"The game is not worth the candle;\" the time and money could better be\nspent in other lines of work. Of course the view-point here may be cloudy as these people\nare looking upon work presumed to be adapted to the needs of the city boy. I am inclined\nto the belief, however, that there is reason for their dissatisfaction, and so long as the\nindustrial training offered in the majority of city schools is of the present character, the\nrural communities will find it rather an argument against the introduction of courses in\ntheir schools.\nThere are scores of rural schools where industrial training in some of its phases would\nlong ere this have been introduced, had sentiment been favorable. The financial side\ncan, in most instances, be easily satisfied. The people must be convinced of the value\nof the instruction offered in industrial lines. Such instruction must appeal to them from\nthe utilitarian side. While the trade school is not needed in this connection, nor is trade\ninstruction demanded, the work should always be eminently practical, that is, useful.\nIn the country, in industrial training, we should \"never work contrary to trade practice,\"\nsays one who has studied the question thoroughly. Whatever tool is used should be a\ntool the tradesman would use for a like purpose. Special or miniature tools should have\nno place.\nThe method of procedure employed should also be that of the man of the\n\n"} {"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n275\n\ntrade, while the material upon which the students work should be such as an expert would\nselect in the world of activity. In other words, the boys and girls should, by reason of the\nindustrial training carried on at school, have nothing to unlearn when they face the searchlight of actual living.\nIn a study of literature in the school only the best is chosen, that which in style, composition, force, and power to instruct and uplift is pre-eminently superior. That which\nin mature years will appeal to the individual as literature is studied as such in the school.\nSo it should be with the industrial forms of work — its tools, its methods, its materials, its\noutput. A process is not necessarily lacking in educational value simply because it possesses commercial worth and is made after the shop pattern or is given the handling of\nthe craftsman. Depend upon it, those who work day by day at a given process or along\na given industrial or technical line are, broadly speaking, using the most economic methods,\nthe most desirable tools, the most satisfactory materials. To be sure the educational\nprinciple should be applied in the school, but always in the light of the practice of the\ntradesman.\nThere is, of course, another side to the question. A false standard is often placed by\nthe parent of the country child. \"I hsd to work for a living when I was a boy,\" is the\npopular cry; \"I had no schooHng, and I want my son to have better things and to enjoy\nthe advantages of an education.\" Since most of those who have had to work for a living\non the farm did not study Greek or Latin, the assumption is that to be educated one must\nbe learned, and that such learning consists in an acquaintance with Greek and Latin. It\nshould not be necessary to discuss the fallacy of such a view or to point the necessity for\nall boys, sons of rich and poor alike, being on speaking terms with the industrial world\nthrough the industrial processes.\nThe work of such men as Stetson, of Maine, Bayliss and Kern, of Illinois, Harvey,\nof Wisconsin, Miller, of Iowa, Hartranft, formerly of Washington, and Robertson, of\nCanada, and many others, has demonstrated beyond peradventure the value of industrial\ntraining in the rural school, and they have blazed some of the lines along which such\ntraining should be directed. Instead of cutting out a corner lot 300 x 200 feet at a convenient crossroads, planting the schoolhouse in the center, and artistically filling the space\nleft with a green pump and fuel, and outhouses at the several corners, leaving scarcely\nsufficient room for a game of \"anti-over\" or \"three old cat,\" two acres or three or five\nor eight should be had where land is cheap. This will give opportunity for experimental\nand practical agriculture, not of the play garden type. The growing of fruits and vegetables\nand flowers can also receive attention. This will necessitate the securing of the services\nof some boy who will care for the gardens through the summer months.\nIf the school has a basement it can be used as a shop. If thoroughly drained and\ncemented a kitchen may be located here. In new buildings provision should be made\nfor additional room, and in districts where no space in the present house is available, a\nsmall addition may be constructed or a separate building erected, well lighted, and weatherproof. Such a building, if used for shop purposes, may be made with sides that can be\nraised, so that in j&ne weather the pupils will have all the advantages of working out of\ndoors.\nIn dealing with this problem in the rural school it is not safe to attempt to educate\nthe taxpayers to the value of making things that have no utility and such as possess no\nbeauty, nor intrinsic worth. We must proceed rather from the standpoint of values as\nheld by the community members. There are schools where the course of study in manual\ntraining is on such a scientific and pedagogic basis and so educational in its applications,\nthat should a boy bring from home a hammer that he desires to rehandle, he will be allowed\nthis mark of privilege only as he completes successfully a definite model or exercise in a\nprescribed series. The procedure should be directly reversed. The handlmg of an ax\nor hammer, the mending of a window sash, the rehanging of a door, the doweling of an\numbrella handle, the glueing of a picture frame, the splicing of a plow beam or the mend-\n\n"} {"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ning of a box, the making of pieces of furniture such as tables, tabourettes, chairs, stools,\nbenches, cupboards, cabinets, boxes, book cases — this is the type of work that should\nhave first place, and prescribed courses of study should be brought forward only in emergency cases.\nBut where can competent teachers be found ? One school board makes the bold\nstatement that the less the man knows of the subject the better teacher he is, for under\nsuch conditions the boys do their own work. The expert is too prone to rob the boy of\nthe benefits he should receive, by himself performing the difficult details, the excuse for\nso doing being that more ground is thus covered and a better showing made. Whether or\nnot the argument of this school board is germane, in manual training as elsewhere in education, common-sense is the first essential. If the country school is taught by a woman,\nthen is the problem of the instruction of boys complicated, for it is neither natural nor\ndesirable that boys in seventh or eighth grades and above be taught the industrial processes\nat the hands of a woman.\nThe same objections advanced against the teaching of industrial training to bo5's\nin rural schools is Ukewise made as to the work suitable for girls. Many mothers have\nsmall favor for domestic economy in the school. This, they claim, can be learned at\nhome. Here again popular sentiment must be aroused. While the processes must\nproceed along educational lines, the industrial spirit or commercial handling must be\npresent. If the mothers are to be educated to the appreciation of certain economic and\nscientific points of view it must be by beginning with processes they understand, with\nmethods they can appreciate, and with equipment and utensils with which they are familiar.\nIf it be demonstrated to them that the tools they possess can be used to better advantage,\nthey will not be long in acquiring new methods. Much can be taught at home but it is\nunnecessary to suggest here why industrial occupations, including sewing, cooking, and\nalHed subjects, cannot be fully or adequately thus taught. Such economic and sociological\nquestions are involved as seem to be a barrier to home teaching, although the value of\nhome instruction is unquestioned.\nWork for girls should include not only sewing and cooking in their narrow aspects,\nbut a study of the chemistry of foods, simple analyses, marketing in its economic phases,\nheat, Hght, ventilation, house sanitation, plumbing, and disinfectants; proper methods\nof sweeping, dusting, laundry, and care of the home; hygiene, nursing, and emergency\naid; a knowledge of accounts and business forms, domestic architecture and planning\nof the house and grounds; gardening and tree and floral culture and much more that in\nthe Swiss schools is included under the term \"female handwork,\" and which is both practical and cultural.\nBut work for girls must be considered from another than the sentimental point of\nview. The argument has been that since boys have manual training, we must consequently provide some work with which the girls may \"occupy their time\" during such\nperiods.\nThis argument is no argument at all.\nThe time has passed when any thinking man or woman will advocate the same kind\nor type of work for girls and boys alike. In the early years all may engage in like occupations, but differentiation should not be long delayed, and processes suitable to the aptitudes, desires, and actual needs of girls should be offered and required. In the ungraded\nrural schools the problem is a difficult one, as neither time, equipment, nor space may\npermit a great variety of work for girls of various ages and abilities.\nLet me give an illustration of what can be done. A teacher in a country locality\npersuaded his board to purchase benches and tools for his older boys, and so much money\nwas spent that I characterized the policy as extravagant. This teacher had only a pickup knowledge of tool handhng but understood boys, and as the older boys were leaving\nthe school, he made his appeal on the basis of keeping them in school for a longer period.\nNote extracts from a recent letter. \"I thought,\" he says, \"you would be interested in\nthe turn affairs have taken in our work here.\nI thought our equipment — tools, benches,\n\n"} {"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n277\n\netc. — quite good enough for any one. Several of the boys decided they wanted better\nbenches — they wanted to own the benches they worked on and the tools they worked with.\nAccordingly two have completed benches of their own and will soon buy tools. Two\nothers are drawing plans for benches and will proceed at once to make them. They are\nputting on rapid-acting vises and tail screws. I became alarmed, fearing all were intending to turn themselves wholly to woodworking. But one boy assured me that he regarded\nit merely as 'an intelligent form of recreation,' and while he expects to study law says he\nwill always have his bench and tools at home.\n\"One matter I wish to have you take up for consideration. I cannot teach sewing\nor anything of that kind. I am very anxious to formulate a course in manual training\nthat is adapted to girls. I can use some work in wood carving, free hand and mechanical\ndrawing, but I think there might be something in the way of constructive work. I have\nwondered whether there might not be a course where the materials used would be paper,\ncardboard, etc., combined with fabrics and trimmings. I think perhaps our present\nline of work a little heavy for the average girl, but feel that some work where the student\nactually creates something that answers a need, ministers to a want, or serves a useful\npurpose, is almost a necessity in the education of a child.\n\"I have been pleased if not flattered recently to note that several leading men in the\nEast are advocating the very plan I am following, and poking fun at the idea of making\nmodels of nothing and joints just for the sake of joints. If you know of a course for the\npurpose I have suggested I shall be greatly obliged for information concerning it.\nI would be willing to go anywhere in the United States during the next summer vacation\nto equip myself for work of that kind.\"\nThis is the spirit that will win in this matter of industrial education. But in the rural\nschool it must be considered rationally. It must not be deadened by being handled by a\nnon-appreciative teacher who knows nothing of its content; it must not be in the hands of\nan enthusiast who rushes away to make tradesmen or seamstresses or professional cooks;\nit must be placed on a true commercial basis and considered from the standpoint of the\npractices of the craftsman. It must always be considered in the light of relative values\nand dictated in the terms of common sense.\n\nTHE\n\nCONSOLIDATED\n\nO. J. KERN, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nOF WINNEBAGO\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSCHOOLS, ROCKFORD,\n\nILL.\n\nThe time limitation of fifteen minutes for papers on the various phases of the\nbetterment of the country school will not permit of any extended treatment. The countryschool problem is the most important educational problem of the hour. The welfare of\nthis most distinctively American institution affects more people, directly and indirectly,\nthan the educational systems of the towns and cities. Certain it is that any one of the\ntopics to be considered this afternoon by the various leaders could consume the entire\nafternoon with profit and interest.\nThe subject then would not be exhausted.\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nThere is a new agriculture. The higher institutions of learning for the farmer, viz. :\nthe colleges of agriculture and the experiment stations, are developing a new science, the\nscience of farming. Old methods must give way to new. The exhausted soil must be\nbuilt up anew, if we are to have a permanent system of agriculture. The fertility of the\nbest classes of soils must be maintained. So the soil survey maps with bulletins on rotation of crops; the chemistry and physics of soils ; the breeding of plants; care of animals;\nfarm mechanics and home economics, all emphasize the fact that we have a new agriculture\nand further emphasize the fact that the important work of the higher institutions of learning for the farmer must be made available for the great mass of country children who\n\n"} {"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nwill remain on the farm and will never go to the state college of agriculture or even to the\nnearby city high school. It is estimated that in many states 85 per cent, of the children\nnow in the one-room country schools never pass beyond the boundaries of the home district, so far as school training is concerned. Surely here is an educational problem worthy\nof most careful consideration.\nTHE\n\nCONSOLIDATED\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe union of several small country schools with a country high school with a course\nof study flavored with country life and interests seems to me to be the only far-reaching\nsolution of the problem of agricultural education to fit the mass of people to meet the\nconditions of the new scientific age of agriculture. This does not mean that any of the\nevils of a city graded system, if there be any evils, shall be transplanted to the fields. Certain itis that the country child is entitled to as good an educational opportunity as is now\nenjoyed by the most favored city child attending the American public school. Certain\nit is, also, that the country people can have better schools by spending more money for\neducation and spending it in a better way.\nThere seems to be no other way.\nA NEW\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIDEAL\n\nThe hardest of all educational problems is to reach the average farmer and to lead\nhim to do things to better the country school. The fact also that he is conservative and\nopposed to change does not remove the necessity for improvement. The fact that he does\nnot believe in agricultural education does not render useless the work of the agricultural\ncollege and experiment station. The fact that on stated occasions he manifests great\nconcern for the country schoolhouse, merely sentimental ofttimes, does not change the\nconditions there; does not plant a tree; paint a board; put a book into the school; increase\nthe attendance; or add a dollar to the salary of a well-trained teacher for the dozen pupils\nenrolled in the school for six months of the year. How to create a new educational ideal\namong the farmers is not the question under discussion. I yield to no one in my belief in\nthe country school and give full credit to most excellent work being done in many schools.\nA general campaign of education needs to be carried on for several years to remove misunderstanding and prejudice with reference to the consolidation of country schools.\nThe farmer will have to be met on his own ground.\nSPIRITUALIZATION\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\nThis is the first distinct service the consolidated school will do for agriculture. The\nright kind of training in this school with its high-school course will furnish a new type of\nfarmer. He will have a wider outlook. He will be in sympathy with all that is richest\nand best in country Hfe. Civic improvement will appeal to him. The study of nature\nin his high-school course will increase his respect for flowers, trees, etc., and lead to the\nadornment of country home and roadside. His social interests will be enlarged. The\nassociation with most of the boys of a township while in school cannot fail to make men\nmore sympathetic and social. The organizations of boys while in school will naturally\nlead to the organization of men out of school. The isolation of the farm home will pass\naway. The influences of art, music, literature, and the science of agriculture will mitigate\nthe drudgery of farming. \"The man behind the plow\" or \"the man behind the cow\"\nbecomes a new man.\nAnd with this new man comes a new spirit to his work.\nVITALIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nThe consolidated school will make possible a course of study suited to the needs\nof country life. There will come a study of the environment of the child and in this environment will be found educational material of the highest practical utility and cultural value\nas well. Dean Bailey, of Cornell, has said \" there is as much culture in the study of beet\nroots as in the study of Greek roots.\" The course of study for the country child will\nnot be patterned after that of the city school, where different conditions obtain.\nThe\n\n"} {"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n279\n\npossibility of secondary education out in the fields makes the high school accessible to all\nthe children. The high -school course of study will include soil physics, agricultural chemistry, agricultural botany, farm mechanics, and home economics. The child will be\nput in touch with Hfe. As Superintendent N. D. Gilbert, of the Northern lUinois Normal\nSchool, says, \"From all that has been said, it is evident that social efiiciency demands that\nthe course of study in all its detailed outworking should be made a \"local issue;\" that it\nshould utilize the local community life — its occupations, resources, organization, traditions,\ncustoms. The school should be consciously in touch with all. Today the serious charge\nagainst it is its isolation as a realm of child life and its failure to articulate closely and\nsmoothly with the home, the neighborhood, and the community at large. Only so can the\nrealities of the larger life come to the child: only so can the instruction of the school take\non the reality needed to make it vigorously and practically effective.\"\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF THE\n\nTEACHING\n\nFORCE\n\nLastly for the purposes of this discussion the consolidated school will increase the\nefficiency of the teaching done. This kind of a school will demand and secure better\ntrained teachers who will be able to vitalize the course of study. There will be a longer\nschool year, with better salaries, with longer tenure of office on the part of the teaching\nforce. The superior character of the instruction will bring the country school and the\ncountry home closer together to meet the conditions of a new country life. Such trained\nteachers will make the consolidated school the connecting link between the farm and the\ncollege of agriculture.\nHow to make the country people realize this is another question.\nDISCUSSION\nE. E. Balcomb, Department of Agriculture, State Normal School, Weatherford,\nOkla. — I fully agree with all that Superintendent Kern has said. We need to be impressed\nwith this statement that the country-school system affects more people directly and indirectly than the educational systems of towns and cities. The course of study is less adapted\nto the needs of these children than to city children. Conditions are such that they have\nthe poorest instruction. Making agriculture the basic study and correlating other subjects with it will remedy the one evil. The consolidated school will remedy the other by\ngiving better buildings, equipment, and instruction.\nIn the brief period for this discussion I can say nothing of the consolidated school\nexcept that I most heartily endorse the movement. The point Superintendent Kern\nmakes concerning the advantages that the consolidation of schools will give in encouraging\norganization among farmers learned from organized school associations is excellent.\nWe need more time for the discussion of this subject. What opposition there is to\nthis movement comes from misunderstandings of what is expected in agricultural\ninstruction.\nMr. Bishop is preparing a most excellent program for the department of agricultural\neducation at the N. E. A. and I hope that we may have a full meeting.\nMr. Kern speaks of the difficulty of interesting the farmers themselves. He has already\ndone much to interest the farmer. Superintendent McBrien and Mr. Bishop of Nebraska\nare reaching them successfully through the boys' and girls' clubs. In Oklahoma we are\ncarrying on a campaign in connection with farmers' institutes. This work could be made\nmore effective by interesting the leaders of the farmers' unions, the granges, etc. We\nought to have these leaders in conference at our national and state associations, and\nshould secure their co-operation in reaching the farmers.\nAs Superintendent Kern says, \"what we need is a general campaign of educational\nneeds to be carried on for several years.\" We should need to have a national organization of\neducators and farmer -leaders to forward this movement. They should issue a bulletin.\nThis organization should carry on experiments to prove the value of this work.\nWhat\n\n"} {"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nwe need is reliable data gathered from all over the United States, as far as possible, under\nall conditions, as to whether the present or any suggested course of study and methods of\nteaching are the best possible for the development of the American citizen.\nWhat would be the procedure in the laboratory if there were a hundred different\nmethods of preparing a certain chemical compound ? Conditions would be made as nearly\nuniform as possible and a thousand different trials would be undertaken by each process.\nThen everyone would be satisfied that the one producing the best results would be the\none to be employed. What would be thought if the chemists called convention after\nconvention, and each chemist gave his opinion and his experience? We would say \"a\ngood way to begin, but an extremely sorry way to end. Why did they not put an unbiased man in each of a hundred laboratories and then face the facts ?\" We have been\nlong in the condition of experience meetings in educational matters, and now we should lay\nthe foundation for producing facts.\nThe U. S. Department of Agriculture no longer confines its efforts to issuing bulletins,\nhowever valuable they may have been. They were all that could have been done in\ncenturies dead and gone, but now they send out men to all parts of the United States to\nconduct model farms among the farmers; they have railway trains to carry practical\ndemonstrations to the very doors of the farmers.\nWhy should we hesitate ?\nThe past fifty years of the N. E. A. has been crowded full of good things, useful\nthings, necessary things. Educators were brought together, papers read, discussions\ncarried on, learned men consulted about the best way of doing things, each brought of\nthe richness of his home experience and all went away benefited.\nBut for the fifty years of the N. E. A., in the dawn of the twentieth century, all are\nfrom Missouri: \"they must be shown.\" Things must be demonstrated. The people\nmust see. Talk is cheap. The man who has done something is extolled far above the\none who has simply talked about something.\nLet the N. E. A. arrange for collecting experimental data concerning groups of children\nin various parts of the United States and under all conditions of life to pursue different\ncourses of study through schools, following their after school life long enough to determine\nwhich course of study had best prepared them for citizenship. The United States commis ioner ofeducation and the United States Department of Agriculture would, without\ndoubt, be glad to co-operate. The consolidated schools would furnish the best of\nlaboratories.\nI urge that a resolution be passed by this section requesting the N. E. A. to inaugurate\nsuch a movement and asking President Miller of this meeting to appoint a committee to\ninvestigate the expense of such a movement and to communicate with the departments\nat Washington as to their attitude in this matter. This could be a part of the work of\nthe national organization, the Society of Agricultural Education before suggested.\nCap E. Miller, county superintendent of schools, Sigourney, Iowa. — Some\npeople think that boys and girls are naturally lazy. I don't think so. To me they are\nbusy bodies, running over with an abundance of energy. They want to be doing things\nwith their hands, as well as their minds. They like to experiment, and if teachers can\nconnect this experimental tendency with school work good results will follow. No branch\nof study offers a better opportunity than that of elementary agriculture. You may be\ninterested in a few experiments that have come under my observation. One is an experiment in cross-fertilization. A boy planted a hill of yellow field com and surrounded it\nwith a number of hills of sweet corn. At the proper season of the year he cut off the tassel\nof the field-corn stalk, so that the only kind of pollen that it could get was that from sweet\ncorn. And here is the ear of corn that resulted from that experiment. The boy brought\nthe ear of corn to me and told me about his experiment. When he had finished I called\nhim by name and asked him what the experiment had taught him. This is what he told\nme:\n\n\"It taught me that cross-fertilization is a real fact, that it takes place out of doors.\n\n"} {"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "M\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n281\n\nThe pollen said, 'I'll decide what the color of the cobb shall be and I'll decide what the\ncolor and characteristics of the grain shall be.' But that old com stalk said, 'I'll decide\nwhat the size of the ear as a whole shall be.' \" The boy reversed the experiment and had\nthe same story to tell concerning it. The best thing about the experiment was that all\nthe boys and girls in that country learned all about it. And this is only one of hundreds\nof experiments that these boys and girls have performed.\nThe study of plant life offers boys and girls a great help in composition work. Ask\na boy or girl to write about life, success, or character, and he doesn't know where to begin\nor end. He searches through the encyclopaedia, the dictionary, and all kinds of books\nto find something on the subject. But if a child is asked to write about a plant, the seed\nof which he has put into the ground — a plant for which he has cared — a plant that he has\nstudied for a whole year — then he was something concerning which he knows and concerning which it is a pleasure to write. There is a natural and logical order in the growth\nof the plant that furnishes the child a foundation for composition work, and when he forms\na habit of using this logical order it will stay with him for life and help to influence his\nwhole life, even if he becomes a minister, lawyer, or farmer. You will understand the point\nI am trying to make more clearly if I give you a composition written by a Uttle country\ngirl, not more than ten years of age and who had never seen the inside of a high school.\nHer teacher had heard several talks on the teaching of elementary agriculture and had read\na large number of pamphlets sent out by the Iowa Agricultural College and by the U. S.\nDepartment of Agriculture.\nAN INTERESTING\n\nPLANT\n\nIn this great wide- wonderful world of ours there are many kinds of flowers. Some\nare not so pretty as others, but each has its mission to fill.\nTo me one of the most beautiful and interesting plants is the aster, so called from the\nclose resemblance of its expanding leaves to a star. It is a native of America and Eurasia.\nLast spring we tried to improve our school surroundings, and so we made flower beds.\nand planted seeds and as these flowers grew we carefully studied them.\nI chose the aster because it has flowers of many rich colors and is a late-flowering\nplant, blooming throughout the fall.\nOne morning in June, when it looked Uke rain, I, together with some of my schoolmates, spaded up a circle ten feet in circumference; then filled it with rich, -.black soil,\ncarried from the roadside, and around it we placed green sod.\nShortly afterward some aster plants were given me and I planted them in the bed\neight inches apart.\nThe plants were about an inch in height and had three or four small leaves. At\nfirst they had but one large and two or three small roots, but soon other Uttle roots kept\ngrowing out from the large one, until there were about twenty or more, each made up of\nlittle cells held closely together.\nThe roots kept growing into the rich, moist, warm earth and the little cells took up\nthe rich juices, and then the moisture and food was pushed up into the stems, which are\nthe tubes that carry the food and moisture to the different parts of the plant.\nThe little cells could not take up the mineral food the plants required just as they\nare found in the earth, but when the rain came down and sank into the earth a kind of\nsirup was made and furnished food for the plant.\nWhen the little cells had taken up all the minerals they would hold the leaves threw\noff the water that was left and gave it to the sun.\nAs I lived just across the road from the schoolhouse I was able to give the asters\npropercare during vacation and almost every evening after sunset I watered them. I was\nalso careful to keep the weeds out of the bed, so they would not absorb the moisture the\nplants required.\nAnd when school began in the fall the asters were beautiful full grown plants one\nfoot in height and at this time very beautiful and commanding and covered with white,\npink, purple, and scarlet blossoms.\nThere they grew and blossomed through the long bright summer and autumn hours,\ncasting sweet perfume on the air, nodding in the breeze and cheering the passers-by.\nAnd above all together with other flowers, our scho6l yard was prettier and more\nattractive than ever before.\nPlease remember that this little composition is only one out of hundreds and thousands\nof similar compositions that were written by the boys and girls in one county.\n\n"} {"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nIt may be an unusual thing to hear boys and girls give from memory compositions\nthat have been written on such subjects as wheat, corn, fern, potato, tomato, sweet-pea,\naster, peanut, watermelon, bean, rose, pumpkin, or cabbage, but no one who has ever\nlistened to such a program will question the good that comes from it. If this idea could\nbe incorporated into some of our commencement programs, the people would be better\nsatisfied than they are sometimes and the boys and girls would gain some information\nthat would be valuable to them all their lives, no matter what their life-work happened to be.\nI can never forget some of my experience with such programs. I remember one program\nin particular when a number of boys and girls were on the platform. They had done\ntheir best and they had done well. Mr. Joe Trigg was present. Mr. Trigg was known\nall over Iowa and even throughout the nation as a writer on agricultural topics. His\nparagraphs in the newspapers became so famous that they were nicknamed \"Joe Triggers.\"\nWhile the judges were deciding which pupil had made the best effort the boys and girls\nasked Mr. Trigg to talk to them. Mr. Trigg was a man who had always taken a great\ninterest in school work and in boys and girls. He knew what a good school was. He\nknew what good school work was. -He was a man of many years' experience and his\nhair was white with age. What he said on that occasion ought to have some weight. I\nwill remember it all my life. Here it is: \"Whenever the time comes that a Httle girl,\nnine years of age, curls hanging down on either side, coming from a rural school district,\ncan get up on a high platform like this and grow eloquent as she tells of the Hfe of a simple\ncabbage plant that she has studied and cared for through the long summer, something\nvaluable has been added to our school system.\" That was the introductory part of his\ntalk.\nEach year it has been a part of my work and a pleasant task to send some kind of\nseeds to the school boys and girls. Hundreds of letters have come to me and many of\nthem have had the characteristics of the following one:\nNorth English, Iowa, Oct. 28, 1905\nDear Sir: I would like for you to tell me what I am to do with my corn. How much\nI am to send to you and how to send it. I have seven bushel from 1,170 grains and my\nsister has three bushel from 350 grains. [Here is a chance for the teacher to find some\nproblems in arithmetic that will be better than most of the problems that are found in the\ntextbooks. Many problems can be framed from the efforts of these two girls in their\nstudy of plants.] The wind blew my corn down and it was not as good as it might have\nbeen if it had stood up straight.\nYours truly,\nMinnie Jones\nCare of N. S. Jones, North EngHsh, Iowa\nLet me take a few sentences from a compostition that was written by a little girl on\nthe subject of peanuts. These are her words : \" My peanut bed was so small that the weeds\nwere easily kept out by the use of my hands. I counted on one vine ninety-seven peanuts.\nI planted about a pint of peanuts and raised a gallon, and selected peanuts for study because\nI had planted them and observed them carefully.\" It is an inspiration to Hsten to such\ncompositions. Sometimes our boys and girls read them in the class recitation and often\nthey commit them to memory and give them as a part of some school program. Their\nteachers always require that they bring with them to the class recitation or to the platform\nthe product that goes with their composition. And as this little girl held the peanut bush\nand many of the nuts in her hands, she went on to explain to us things of this kind, \"On\nevery branch there are just four leaves — never fewer. The flower is shaped something\nlike a yellow violet.\"\nTHE\nJ. L. MCBRIEN,\n\nVALUE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nCAMPAIGNS\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nLINCOLN,\n\nNEBR.\n\nThe value of educational campaigns must be measured by the importance of the\nquestions at issue and the abiUty and integrity of those who take part in their discussion\n\n"} {"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n283\n\nand promotion. Once in four years our great quadrennial election comes off, and during\nthe campaign pandemonium reigns from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Lakes to\nthe Gulf. Some say these wild excitements are not wholesome. In my opinion they are\nthe best things that can happen to the country. The best speeches of the ablest statesmen\nof all poUtical parties scattered through the land by the press in pamphlets, heard on the\nplatform, and in debate, discussing the tariff, finance, taxes, immigration, child labor,\nship subsidy, regulation of railroad rates, pure-food laws, imperiahsm, the Isthmian Canal,\nand our foreign poHcy, are the education of the common people, and they learn more in a\nyear of universal debate than they would in twenty years of reading and thinking without such help.\nI do not mean to say that educational campaigns must partake of the noisy turbulence\nwhich marks poHtical campaigns in order to be valuable. But every educational campaign\nmust have an issue before any value can come from it. That issue may concern but a\nsingle school district, and yet to the people of that district be a question of greater importance than any of the problems in the domain of national pohtics. Suppose it is the voting\nof bonds for the erection of a new school building in a district of not over 3,000 population.\nYou often see such a district shaken from center to circumference in the boisterous storm\nof public discussion. The value of such a campaign must be judged by the ultimate\nsuccess of those in favor of progress.\nThere are many questions any one of which is of sufiicient importance to justify an\neducational campaign under the direction of county and state superintendents in their\nrespective fields. Take the question of free textbooks for a state. This is a question of\ngreat importance to every county superintendent and the state superintendent where a\ncampaign is to be made for such a law. If such a campaign is to result in good to the\ncommonwealth, its advocates must be able to show its advantages if enacted into law.\nBriefly stated, these advantages are : It is a logical sequence to the free-school idea, diminishing still further the barrier betw^een the rich and the poor, removing an obstacle which\nstands in the way of attendance of the very class the common schools were chiefly designed\nto reach; it reduces largely the cost of books to the community as a whole; it enables the\nmanagement of the schools to secure more satisfactory and modem books and materials;\nwhen properly administered it promotes the free use of books which are needed for study\nat home, and helps the teacher to inculcate habits of neatness and care in the use of books.\nThe chief objections to the system come from two sources : First, from those who oppose\nall taxation for school purposes; second, from places where carelessness in the administration of the law has resulted in unnecessary destruction of books and in careless habits\non the part of pupils. It is safe to say that wherever proper attention has been paid to\nthe administration of the law the results have been highly gratifying to school authorities,\nteachers, and patrons. It is furthermore safe to assume that having once come to understand the advantages of this logical extension of the free-school idea, the people of no\nstate will ever willingly go back to the system of individual purchase and ownership with\nall its perplexing problems in gradation and classification, and the absolute inabiUty of\nthousands of the children of the poor properly to supply themselves with books.\nIn Nebraska we have had a free textbook law since 1891. We do not believe in state\nuniformity, state ownership, or state publication of textbooks. Neither are we in favor\nof county uniformity, where a small committee selects the textbooks for a county. Such\nselection too often smacks of graft. The Nebraska law makes district ownership and\nuniformity mandatory. Before any pubHsher of school textbooks is permitted to enter\ninto contract with any school district he must file with the state superintendent of public\ninstruction, to be approved by him, a good and suflScient bond in the sum of from $2,000\nto $20,000 for the faithful performance of the conditions of the contract; and such publisher\nmust also file with the state superintendent a sworn statement of the lowest prices for\nwhich his series of textbooks are sold anywhere in the United States under similar conditions.\nSo much for those who contemplate an educational campaign for such a law.\n\n"} {"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nIn those states having such a law it is incumbent upon county superintendents and\nthe state superintendent to make a campaign for the care of school property with special\nreference to textbooks. Experience proves that where proper care is exercised by the\nschool board and teachers the free textbook law is popular and satisfactory; but it becomes\na detriment and a nuisance wherever pupils carelessly soil, mark, deface, or destroy books.\nSee that teachers appeal to the pride of their pupils; that they insist on habits of neatness\nand cleanliness; that they make a regular inspection of books, at least once a month.\nNo other agency is more effective than a regular book inspection. In every session of\nthe legislature since the passage of our free textbook law, an effort has been made by\nlobbyists to repeal the free textbook law and enact in lieu thereof a law providing for\nstate uniformity, state publication, and state ownership, under such nefarious plans as\nto bankrupt the state with reckless expenditure and graft. Be it said to the credit of every\nNebraska legislature that all such cunning schemes have been promptly and emphatically\nexposed and denounced and rejected. At the last session of our state teachers' association\na committee on school legislation was appointed, one from each congressional district and\nthree at large, to represent the school people before the legislature on matters of school\nlegislation. This committee at a recent meeting unanimously passed the following\nresolution : That it be the sense of this committee that Nebraska has the best free textbook\nlaw in the United States and that we are unalterably and unqualifiedly opposed to any\namendment thereto.\nThere should be an educational campaign waged by every county and state superintendent in the United States for at least a five-dollar library in every rural school. The\nvalue of such a campaign can be measured only by the value of the books which it will place\nin the hands of the rural pupils. Their value cannot be estimated. To inspire in pupils\na love for good books is to fill them with a desire to frequent the company of their betters.\nThey learn to note what great men and great women admired. They learn to admire\nand worship rightly, and thus are proper ideals placed before them.\nSeveral states now have excellent library laws. There is a measure now pending\nbefore the Nebraska legislature which has passed the house and has been recommended\nfor passage by the senate committee on education. This bill makes it mandatory upon\nevery school district — except in districts appropriating at least $300 per year for the maintenance of a public library — to set aside annually from the general funds of the district\nthe sum of ten cents per pupil for the purchase of books for the school library. The\nauthor of this measure, Hon. Trenmore Cone, is also the author of Library Day, observed\non the Friday nearest October 21. The observance of this day was inaugurated by the\nNebraska state teachers' association on a resolution introduced by Mr. Cone in the year of\nthe Columbian Exposition. This day is now celebrated in many states of the Union\nand will no doubt, like Arbor Day of Nebraska origin, be celebrated in a short time in\nevery state in the Union.\nIn a campaign for free textbooks and school libraries let us not forget to caution every\nschool district board and every teacher against purchasing any books whatsoever from\ntraveling agents. Many school districts in Nebraska have been imposed upon by chart\nsharks and fake agents. A traveling agent cannot pay his railroad fare, hotel bills and\nlivery hire, allowing him nothing for his salary, and visit rural schools at an' average cost\nof less than five to ten dollars per district. Then such agents are usually paid two prices,\nand oftentimes four prices, for their books, which are, as a rule, not suited to the average\nrural school. The actual expenses and profit of the traveling agent would secure for any\ndistrict a good library by dealing direct with reputable publishing houses. These companies are ready and anxious to furnish state and county superintendents with price lists\nof their books, carefully graded. Books will be sent in a single parcel, transportation\nprepaid, by publishers to any teacher or school officer in any state on receipt of the money\nfor the books offered. County superintendents should furnish their teachers with price\nlists of library and textbooks from reputable publishing companies.\nIn states having a\n\n"} {"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n285\n\npublic-library commission a graded list of school libraries may be secured by addressing\nthe secretary of the pubUc-Ubrary commission. In the same campaign it is a duty incum\nbent upon state and county superintendents to warn their teachers against being duped by\nthe oily-tongued swindler who is abroad in every state seeking whom he may devour.\nIn the most courteous language he presents to teachers his reference book prepared especially for teachers, so he claims, but if his siren song fails to coax the teacher to subscribe\nfor his book, he then endeavors to scare her into it by calling her a back-number. One of\nthese sharks called at our office last fall. According to his insidious story he had the most\nwonderful offer ever made to teachers. He was selling a six-volume concern on which he\nclaimed to make a special rate of $32.70 to teachers on the instalment plan, taking the\nteacher's note therefor. In the upper left-hand comer of the note were the figures $55 .00\nin bold black-faced type, which were red-lined out and underneath printed $32 . 70. Across\nthe note were printed the words \"Fifty-five dollars\" in bold black-faced type and under\nthem printed the words \"Thirty-two and ^^^ dollars.\" This reduced rate was for\nNebraska teachers only. The $55.00 rate represented the price in eastern and central\nstates Hke Maine, Vermont, Indiana, and Ohio, if the agent told the truth. But it was on\nits face a lie. I told him so in just these words and sent him on his way lamenting.\nIn every state there is a demand for a campaign on compulsory education, better\nquaUfied teachers, better paid teachers, certification of teachers, the normal-school idea,\nprofessional training for teachers, beautifying of school buildings and grounds, heating,\nlighting, and ventilating of schoolhouses, consolidation of rural schools, transportation of\npupils, free high-school privileges for rural-school pupils, and the organization of boys'\nand girls' industrial associations with especial reference to agricultural instruction, manual\ntraining, and domestic science; but to properly discuss anyone of these questions would\ntake more time than is allotted to me for this entire paper. I am compelled to pass these\nby for want of time and for the reason that many of them have been the subjects of hackneyed discussions in teachers' associations throughout the country for the past five years.\nHowever, they are none the less important. I would that I had time to discuss the value\nof an educational campaign for normal training in our strongest high schools, and the\nimportance of modernizing our high-school course of study. I believe with Commissioner\nDraper of New York that \"The true high-school course is four years in duration. It\nnot only covers classical and mathematical instruction and prepares for entrance to college,\nbut high-school courses have widened out from the old classical lines and have gone into\nabout everything that can aid one to earn a living.\" Normal training in high schools\nis no longer an experiment or a temporary expediency in New York, where it has been\ntried for nearly three-quarters of a century. This is evidenced by the opinion of Commissioner Draper in his annual report for 1905. He says on this subject: \"For a long time\nthe state has maintained training classes for teachers in the high schools and academies.\nThese were in charge of the board of regents until 1889, when, by voluntary action of the\nboard and then by legislative act, their management was transferred to the state superintendent ofpublic instruction. These classes are not intended to do the work of the normal\nschools. They are expected to provide limited instruction in pedagogical courses for\nbeginners in such work who reside in their neighborhood. If often happens that students\nwho begin in these classes acquire an interest in the subjects in which they have been\ndrilled to an extent which leads them to go to the normal schools or to pedagogical courses\nin the colleges and universities. There are over one hundred of these training-classes in\nthe better academies and high schools in various parts of the state. They are distributed\nunder appointment by the commissioner of education, with some reference to the ability\nof the schools to care for them and to the convenience of intending students. The expense\nof these classes to the state is a little more than $100,000 annually. In the last year they\ninstructed 2,921 students.\" In his annual report for 1906 Commissioner Draper says of\nthis work in the high schools of New York: \"The most fruitful if not the most hopeful\nsource of good teachers for the district schools is found in the training-classes.\nIt is\n\n"} {"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CWcago\n\nconfidently believed that this agency for providing teachers for the rural schools will be\never increasing in its efficiency.\" In our opinion there is no other avenue open for the\ntraining of teachers for the rural schools in Nebraska than through the agency of our\nstrongest high schools. The graduates of the colleges, universities, and advanced courses\nof our normal schools will be required for superintendents, principals, and high-school\nand grammar-grade instructors of our town schools. The graduates of the elementary\ncourses in our state and private normal schools will be required for the grade work in town\nand city schools. It follows that we must look to our high schools to train those who are\nto teach in the rural schools.\nIt is a condition and not a theory that confronts us.\nBut the greatest of all educational campaigns that can be waged in this country at\nthis time is for state and county superintendents, high-school principals, and teachers\neverywhere to unite their forces in giving every American boy and every American girl a\nthorough eighth-grade education. This minimum amount of education is absolutely\nessential if we are to make this in reality as well as in name a government of the people,\nby the people, and for the people. We should give them eight years of education, nine\nmonths or i8o days to each year.\nWhat have we done as a nation in the amount of schooling we have given to each inhabitant ? The scale gradually ascends from 1870 to 1906, having for the past ten years\nexceeded five years of 200 days each as the average education given to each member of\nthe entire population of the United States. The maximum was reached in 1900 in about\nfive years and a quarter of 200 days each; that is to say, 1,046 days would have been given\nto each individual in our country at the rate of public instruction for that year. Do you\nget the force of these figures ? It means this : The average education of all our people —\nold and young, illiterate and learned, in both state and nation — stops short of finishing\nthe sixth grade. Theoretically, then, we give 100 per cent, of our people almost six years'\nschooling, but in reality we do not afford 50 per cent, of our people this amount of education. Of the number who enter the first grade less than 30 per cent, finish the eighth\ngrade, and less than 10 per cent, enter the high school. Of those who enter the high school\nless than 10 per cent, graduate. Of those who enter college or university less than 10 per\ncent, finish the course.\nThere are about 25,000,000 children of school age in the United States today. All\nthe children now of school age will have passed beyond the range of public-school education\nin the next fifteen years, or at the rate of 1,666,000 per year. Since they leave the public\nschools with an average education of considerably less than six years, if we were to begin\nnow to raise the average education to eight years it would mean at least two years more of\neducation for each individual pupil than we have been giving, or an aggregate of 3,333,000\nyears more education for all the pupils passing from the public schools each year; and in\nfifteen years — a decade and a half — it would mean an aggregate of 50,000,000 years more\nof education for the common people than we are now giving them. In other words, as\nwe ordinarily express school attendance, it would mean an increase in average daily\nattendance of 3,300,000 pupils, and increasing the length of the term to nine months in\nthe year.\nWhat to teach our teachers in the training schools and what our teachers should teach\ntheir pupils in the pubHc schools so as to give our boys and girls a thorough eighth-grade\neducation is a paramount issue in American education today. In Nebraska there is\nbut one subject, under the existing statute, which it is mandatory to teach, namely, physiology and hygiene with special reference to the effect of alcoholic stimulants and other narcotics upon the human system. There is now a great conviction taking fast hold upon the\nleading educators and the people ever)rwhere that it is much better to teach much of a few\nthings rather than a little of many things. And so came to pass our crusade in Nebraska\nfor the five essentials — reading, arithmetic, grammar, geography, and history. By reading,\nwe mean not only the ability to grasp the thought of the printed page in a silent study of the\n\n"} {"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n287\n\nbook, newspaper, or magazine, but the art of a good oral expression of the thought in the recitation as well as before the school or a public audience. Reading must comprise a knowledge of our best literature and include a mastery of the arts of correct spelling, punctuation,\npronunciation, and the proper use of the dictionary. Arithmetic should be intensive\nrather than extensive. Eliminate stocks and bonds, exchange, alHgation, duodecimals,\nand all such impractical subjects. Make rapidity and accuracy the watchword in the\nfundamental operations. Let thoroness and exactness be the motto in the principles\nand applications of fractions, denominate numbers, and percentage. These are the indispensables to be mastered in arithmetic. This subject should also comprise mental arithmetic. Grammar should include English composition and letter-writing. In geography\nnature-study, agriculture, and commerce must be given consideration. History must not\nonly tell the story of our country — it must teach the principles of free government and\nthe duties of American citizenship.\nIn the old civilization the few led, the many followed. And I am led to believe that\nour system of education, like the old forms of government, forgets the many to care for\nthe few. If it be so, it is a grievous fault, and grievously must we answer for it. Therefore let us inaugurate a system in our education that will prepare the ninety per cent,\nfor the actual problems of life and the everyday responsibilities of American citizens,\nrather than to create crowns for the few, make educational aristocrats, and kingly interpreters ofthe more fortunate 10 per cent. \"The people must needs take thought of what\nthey shall eat and wherewithal they shall be clothed. And the education that fits them\nbest for this is, from necessity, the best; at least until they are so developed and improved\nthat the people, the great longing, struggling, hungering, needing, hoping, despairing, and\nyet unyielding people, shall not need to take thought only of what they shall eat and wear.\"\nThis would not be an attempt to build society. It would be an attempt by society\nto build the individual. Such a policy holds that the state is strong in the proportion in\nwhich every individual in the state is free, large, educated, independent. The policy\ntoo long pursued may have given us a finer educated upper class, nobler and deeper thinkers\nin greater numbers than we would have were we to bend our efforts along this new line,\nbut we have educated the top long enough at the expense of the bottom. Let us unite\nto educate society from the bottom to the top. \"We are not attempting to Hft the favored\nclasses higher; we are not attempting to give to those that already have; we are attempting\nto put our hands under the foundations of human society and lift everybody up. That\nis a slower work; but when it is done and its fruits are ripe you will never doubt again\nwhich is the wisest and best policy.\"\nDISCUSSION\nMason S. Stone, superintendent of education of Vermont. — ^We had an educational\ncampaign in Vermont last May and in the evening our governor and one or two other\nprominent speakers participated.\nMr. Cap E. Miller, of Iowa, rendered excellent service\nn the day meetings by presenting the agricultural phase of education. As the state was\nready for an advanced movement along educational lines, these meetings helped to intensify\nand crystallize opinion, and contributed to the strong constructive legislation of the 1906\nsession of the General Assembly. This session gave to the state more new and coherent\nschool law and more aid for public schools than any legislature since the state was organized\nin 1777. The results were an excellent high-school law, a law permitting the consolidation of schools with state aid to the extent of 25 or more per cent, of the transportation\nexpenses of the pupils, an increase in the permanent school fund, and a law permitting\nttwo or more districts or townships to unite in employing a supervisor whose salary shall\nbe no less than $1,250, $1,000 of which shall be paid by the state.\nWe have just completed another campaign for educational purposes.\nThis was to\nnlighten the people in regard to the needs of our schools, to advocate industrial educa-\n\n"} {"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ntion, to show that our schools are too bookish, and that pupils should be taught to do as\nwell as to know, and also to instruct school officials and others in regard to the new laws\nand the increased advantages that will accrue to the schools of the state through the new\nprofessional supervision system and greater state aid. These meetings have been largely\nattended, and a greater interest than I have ever known before in the state has been manifested. Therefore, I believe in educational campaigns.\nRURAL\nC. p. GARY,\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOL-BOARD\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCONVENTIONS\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\nI distinctly remember, when I first began to tliink seriously of teaching school, that\nmy father gave me a very serious talking to on the matter. He had been a farmer on a\nsmall scale all his life and he urged upon me that farming was the most independent occupation any man could follow. He thought that school teaching was one of the most unsatisfactory and most dependent occupations a man could follow. He said that the farmer\nwas in a position to ask no odds of anyone; that he could always make a living from his\nfarm, and that while others were dependent upon him he was always independent of others.\nI mention this conversation in this connection for the reason that it flashes light\nupon problems connected with educational affairs in our country schools. It is true that\nthe farmer feels independent of other people industrially, poUtically, and socially. His\noccupation is one of the most fundamental and one of the oldest in which modern men\nengage, strongly tending toward conservatism and individualism. While he has readily\nenough in past years and generations combined on a small scale with his immediate\nneighbors in log-rollings, house-raisings, harvesting, threshing, and the like, yet all this\nhas been on terms of complete equality and mutual consent.\nCustom has had a strong hold upon the farmer, and even today such remarks as\n\"What was good enough for me is good enough for my children\" are far from uncommon.\nThe farmer has in the past been hard pressed to clear off the mortgage from the farm, to\nget his farm well stocked, and to get new buildings, and it has been his desire to hold the\ntaxes down to about the minimum limit. That this is not true of all farmers or all communities goes without saying, and it also goes without saying that entire states differ\nin some degree, owing to industrial conditions, nationality, and other causes.\nI here speak of traits that tend to manifest themselves in rural populations. It\nmight be added that the farmer has never been a discriminating critic of school work.\nThe teacher who can succeed in getting the good-will of the pupils, no matter by what\nmethod, is usually regarded as a successful teacher; while the teacher who has trouble\nwith the pupils is looked upon as a failure, no matter what the circumstances may be\nleading to the \"trouble.\"\nOnce more, the farmer, in past years has not had a keen appreciation of the value\nof an education. To him as a rule an education means ability to read, write, spell,\nand figure. I remember in my own case, that after I had completed the ordinary work\nin the country school and had left home, my father one day remarked with considerable\nearnestness that he was proud of the education he had given his son. He thought and\nsaid that I had received at his hands an excellent education. I have no doubt that he\nwas far from being an exceptional case in estimating what constituted an excellent education.\nIt has happened, then, that our country schools have been far less progressive than\ncity schools generally have been, for the reason that farmers have been slow to reaUze\nthe desirabiHty of establishing larger units than the little subdistrict schools and they have\nshown an intense desire to manage these schools for themselves without any outside interference. They have desired to have the school run upon a cheap basis, and to have the\narchitecture of the simplest and most conservative kind. They have been willing to send\ntheir children to school in the dead of winter when there was little work to do and have\n\n"} {"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superiatendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n289\n\nbeen willing to send the younger members of the family, whose services were of no economic\nvalue, to school in the spring and fall.\nCounty superintendents when elected by popular vote have as a rule been very sensitive to the good-will and approval of the farmer. The result has been that this official\nhas done comparatively little aggressive work in the way of securing better buildings,\nbetter ventilation, better teachers, better courses of study, and all other things that make\nfor the upbuilding of a modern school. County superintendents who grew too active\nin many of these matters were usually put upon the poUtical shelf at the earhest opportunity.\nA change, however, is coming over the farmer. The daily newspaper is reaching\nhim, the magazines, the lecturer before the farmer's institutes, political speeches, have\nof late years contained less of the element designed to appeal to the mob spirit and more to\nintelligence and reason. The telephone is reaching into the country, likewise the trolly\nlines. The increase in reading among our farming population in the last decade is something enormous. The farmer shows an increased desire to be up with the times in barnbuilding, stock-raising, grain-raising, and everything else that pertains to his industrial\nand economic welfare. It would be strange indeed if he were not growing more sensitive\nto the needs of the school. Many states have shown a decided tendency toward centraUzation of various kinds; particularly is this true in the doing-away with the subdistricts and\nthe substitution of the township system or some other large unit in its place. This makes\nit possible for the people to select, as a rule, a better board of education than could\nordinarily be secured in the little district. Less attention is paid to the petty fault-finding or mischief-making of various members of the community. In Wisconsin our experience with the township system has not been altogether satisfactory for the reason that in\nmany cases the board has made use of most of the money in ways that are past finding\nout. I hasten to say, however, that the township system is not in extensive use in our\nstate, the old subdistrict with its three board members being still in use in practically all\nexcept the newer counties in the north. The farmers generally are opposed to any form\nof consolidation. They are very loath to give up their little home schools, or to surrender\nin any way their direct management of them.\nWhen I entered upon the work in the office of state superintendent of schools four years\nago, it seemed to me that, aside from a few changes in the law, the chief thing that could\nbe accompHshed was to carry the message of the newer school, newer educational ideas and\nideals directly to the people of the rural districts. The task for a time, however, seemed\nso large as to be hopeless. Ultimately the plan was evolved of holding school-board\nconventions systematically in every county in the state at least once a year, and of securing an assistant in the department who should devote his entire time to the rural-school\nproblem, one of his chief duties being to attend these school-board conventions and address\nthe school-board members upon the most immediate and pressing needs of the school.\nAfter a good deal of effort, legislation of this sort was secured, and last year school-board\nconventions were held in every county in our state and, with one or two exceptions due to\nillness on the part of the speaker, a representative of the educational department was\npresent and made two addresses before the conventions. The subjects taken were\n\"The Minimum Equipment for a Rural School,\" and \"The Sanitary Condition of the\nSchool and How to Improve It.\" The present year the two topics taken were \" The School\nBoard and the Teacher\" and \"The Financial Aspect of the School Problem.\"\nThese school-board conventions were attended last year in the aggregate by about\n12,000 school-board officers, and this year the number will be somewhat larger. It is\ntoo early yet to look for extensive results. Nevertheless, hundreds of schools have doubtless reaped benefits from these meetings. In the first convention that I addressed last\nfall there chanced to be a county superintendent from another county seated on the platform with me. In the course of my address I turned to him and asked how many schools\nin his county had purchased ventilating stoves as the result of the school-board conventions held the year before.\nHe replied, twenty.\nIf I had asked him with reference\n\n"} {"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nto the apparatus, I presume that the reply would have been equally satisfactory. Here\nwas a county in which probably one district out of every five or six had within the first\nyear of our efforts made provision for improvement of this one matter of ventilation.\nI cannot say that this case was typical; probably it was more than the average, yet this is\nmerely a surmise on my part, for I have no data of an accurate sort for determining results\nthat have been reached.\nI am well aware that there are a number of other states in which school-board conventions are now held with considerable regularity. There can be no question that the\nschool-board conventions with one or more men going out from the state department of\neducation to assist, is one of the most fruitful movements for the improvement of the\ncounty schools. Hundreds of school-board members in my own state have said that\nnever before had they been told what they ought to have in the way of supplies, or that\nthey ought to ventilate the schoolhouse, or that it mattered concerning the manner in\nwhich a house is lighted, and the like. We have found the farmers eager, surprisingly\neager, for all the information they could obtain concerning improvements in education.\nTo reinforce what was done the first year, we sent out to the annual meetings a letter\nto be read by the clerk, bearing upon the questions that had been discussed in the conventions. This of course we shall continue to do from year to year. School-board officers\nvery generally have felt that it was unfortunate that all members of their districts could\nnot be present at these meetings in order that all might have the uplift and the outlook\nthat they themselves received. In a few counties active and interested citizens called\nmeetings at schoolhouses and presented a program of a mixed character, a part of which\nwas intended to serve as missionary work for the good of the schools. We confidently\nbeUeve that the outcome in a few years will be a deep and far-reaching change of attitude\namong country people toward the rural- school problem. The present year a part of our\nefforts were directed toward impressing the school-board members with the necessity, if\nthey really desired to give their children suitable educational opportunities, for better\nsalaries for teachers, longer school terms, better attendance, teachers with greater maturity\nand better training. In addition to this campaign of education for education, we have\nfor several years past, with more or less regularity, been sending out from our normal\nschools, institute conductors and other teachers adapted to the work, into the rural districts to visit rural schools, hold evening meetings and teachers' institutes on Saturday.\nIn this way within the past six or eight years many counties have had the benefit of the\nservices of an educational expert and enthusiast for a period of a week or more. The\nefforts of these men have been unified to the extent that unification was desirable, and the\noutcome has been excellent.\nTo sum the matter up in a few words, we need of course good educational laws, but\nquite as much as educational laws we need campaigns of education for education among\nour people. I am well aware that the needs of no two states are precisely alike, and yet\nI think it would be difficult to find a state in which it is not exceedingly desirable to bring\nthe message of education home to every parent.\n\nB.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENTS\nCITIES\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nA SEVEN-YEAR COURSE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AND\nA FIVE-YEAR COURSE FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS\nJ. M. GREENWOOD,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nKANSAS\n\nCITY, MO.\n\nAn educational round-table conference is of the nature of an educational clearinghouse in which ideas are exchanged, accounts balanced, new experiments outUned, existing methods and processes criticized, and educational systems compared.\nIt is here also\n\n"} {"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\n291\n\nthat the widest range of discussion is permitted, and each one advocates or opposes whatever he pleases.\nAt the outset the writer, however, most earnestly objects to the insinuation recently\nmade by a noted Harvard professor, \"that a Round Table is a gathering of from ten to\nfifty persons in a small room firing squibs at one another.\" While this vicious definition\nmay be true at Harvard University, it hardly comports with the dignity of this honorable\nbody, or any other similar organization in any state in the Union.\nThe subject for discussion. — The subject for discussion is Janus-faced; or it is more\nproperly an elementary course of study with a rider attached. On several occasions I have\npublicly maintained without any qualifications, as a fundamental proposition in elementary\neducation, founded upon an experience now extending over almost thirty-three years, that\nchildren admitted to school when six years old or older, can complete reasonably well, as\nwell at least as the children of any large or small system of city schools in the United States\ncan complete, all there is of real value in an elementary course of study in seven years, and\nthat they are just as well fitted for high-school work, or for business, as are those children\nwho are kept sauntering through their elementary studies eight years. The experiment I\nhave made is a good experiment. It gives information outside of mere detached facts, and\nit enables one to foresee results, or to generaUze, which is the real test of any experiment.\nIn fortifying the position I advocated, I submitted courses of study, the work done, as to\nquantity, quality, and time, and showed that under the conditions existing in the schools\nof Kansas City, more children entered high school, remained in as long or longer, and\nthat a larger percentage graduated from the high schools, than in any other large city\nsystem in this country; furthermore, that 40 per cent, of those who enrolled in high school\nwere boys and 40 per cent, of those who graduated each year were boys, and this has been\ntrue of all classes for more than twenty years, and the ratio remains unchanged between\nthe sexes.\nIt is true that I have united these isolated facts from year to year in a continuous\nline from one city only, and I have for years challenged any other city of a hundred thousand\nor more inhabitants to show a higher record of high-school attendance, graduation of\npupils, or a larger percentage of pupils in high school as compared with the total school\nenrollment, the voting population, or the population of the city. I attribute this condition of the high-school situation to the simple fact that Kansas City has always had a\nseven-year course below the high school, and not to the fact that people of Kansas City\nentertain a higher appreciation of high-school opportunities than the citizens of other\ncities. Moreover, from my observation in teaching children and in watching children\nin school work, I am thoroughly convinced that if a child of average ability is kept out\nof school till it is eight or nine years old and then entered, it will finish a solid elementary\ncourse of study in from three to five years, and will understand all the subjects as well as\nthe pupil of the same ability who begins school at the age of five or six years, and continues in school regularly the full period assigned for elementary work. There is, I am\nsatisfied, a sort of automatic movement of classes in some schools that is very detrimental\nto the progress of pupils.\nThe statistics I have collected show that where pupils are given the opportunity under\nan elastic system of promotions, as many pupils finish the elementary course in six years\nas those pupils who require eight years, while more than 80 per cent, complete it in seven\nyears under the limitations I have given. With these well-established facts which I have\nverified time and again, I can see no vaHd reason for changing my views in reference to a\nseven-year course for elementary schools. For those wedded to an eight-year course,\nI will say frankly that I do not agree with them, and never have since I began an investigation of the subject.\nFive years in high school. — As to a five-year course in high school, except for slow\npupils, I take the negative. There are two vaHd reasons, in my opinion, why a five-year\ncourse, or any other number of years above that number, is unnecessary.\nThe first is\n\n"} {"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe additional expense. High schools cost a great deal of money as now conducted on a\nfour-year basis, and were they stretched out over a longer period they would be still more\nexpensive. There is a limit to the tax-paying ability of every community in the United\nStates beyond which it is dangerous to go. Many schoolmen seem never to learn this\nlesson.\nI need not discuss this phase of the question further.\nThe second objection that I urge is that an extension of time is unnecessary, and\ntherefore it is undesirable. It would repel instead of attracting pupils. I will submit a\nfew suggestions on the actual workings of the high schools as they are now organized and\nconducted.\nUnder college and university pressure, a most baneful influence has fallen upon secondary or high-school education in our country. Ever since the college and universities began\ntinkering with high-school courses of study, under the cloak of \"college requirements,\"\nthe standard of scholarship has steadily fallen. The wide acreage allowed under the\nhead of optional courses that the pupils may choose from, and the scraps and carvedout pieces of subjects, thrown out of their proper relations, to be learned and assimilated\nto satisfy the whims or fancies of a set of college professors, is a very poor way to fashion a\ncourse of study. Instead of shaping the course to the pupil, the pupil is compressed into\nthe course. This deadly blight has fallen on our public high schools like a mediaeval\nplague. Everywhere among high-school teachers is a rush and scramble to comply with\nthe \"requirements.\" Everything is prescribed by piece and hour, and there is no time\nleft for teachers to do real educational building, either in scholarship or character development. All is summed up in the one word, \"Prescription.\"\nUnder the old regime, which was certainly not the best, a pupil was kept at some few\nthings till he learned them fairly well, and he had acquired some power to do many other\nthings. There is now no going through a thing. It is working with some of the pieces\nof a piece. It is also a continuous and continual flitting from one thing to another, so\nthat the learner has no time to strengthen himself well in any subject. The entire highschool machinery should be reversed and run by another set of engineers and firemen.\nThe high-school principals and teachers should make their own courses of study, adapted\nto the wants of their several localities, patterned in general on a broad and liberal course,\nand the colleges and universities should adjust their work to the high-school studies. I\ndo not know how these \"requirements \" are worked out in detail, but I can imagine ! From\nsome of the outlines I have examined and the numerous references interlarded to help the\npoor overloaded teachers, the tremendous amount of study not put on the courses so\nminutely analyzed, I discern through the murky intellectual atmosphere spheres of influence of a straddling nature to balance diverse interests.\nIt is a firm conviction in many minds that owing to the detached and dissipating\nprocesses now operating in the high schools of the cities, the classes are not so strong in\nreal scholarship as they were before all these distracting and scattering influences came\ntrooping into the recitation rooms. The pupils can dip into more things, but they learn\nless of everything they are supposed to study. The teachers, too, formerly had some latitude, some freedom, some judgment as to what they had to do, some initiative. Now\nthey have an incubus hanging over them all the time. Formerly they taught — not scattering topics. The pupils were then kept on a subject long enough to know something about\nit, and to get its bearings with other subjects. Now all the work is prescribed, outlined,\ngibbeted, sandwiched, and it is exceedingly superficial. Knowledge requires time to soak\ninto the learner's mind, to become seasoned and ready for use.\nA jew things a high-school graduate should know. — A high-school pupil in four years\nshould be well grounded in the elements, at least, of one or two languages outside of his\nown tongue; he should have read some few good books in English to give him a little\ninsight into literature, and he ought to be strong in English grammar and rhetoric; he\nshould have a good knowledge of elementary physics and chemistry and some knowledge\nof his own body; a fair survey of ancient and modern history, reaching down through\n\n"} {"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\n293\n\nEuropean history into the history of this country; he ought to have picked up some general\nfacts belonging to the earth, the air, the ocean; and if he has wandered off into space, so\nmuch the better. In mathematics he should have leisurely made his way, at least, through\nplane trigonometry. Above all, he should have learned how to study, and how to help\nhimself. A few subjects studied well and mastered so far as they are studied, is better for\nany boy or girl than three times the number leisurely gazed at in passing along.\nA weak spot. — Another very weak spot in our high schools, in a majority of cities,\nis that the pupils about one o'clock each day are sent home that they may prepare their\nlessons for the next day. As a result of this freedom, many of these boys and girls wander\nabout through town aimlessly of afternoons, and contract the bad habit of putting their\nlessons off till the very last minute. This is not the worst feature, however, in those cities\nand towns in which poolrooms and other dens of iniquity are tolerated, no inconsiderable\nnumber of these boys drift into crimes, or into habits that lead directly to criminaUty.\nHigh schools, academies, and seminaries used to have all -day sessions — sessions that began\nat 8:30 A. M. or 9:00 A. M., with an intermission at noon of an hour, or an hour and a\nhalf, closing the school day at 4:00 P. m. or 4:30 p. m. Instead of turning the boys and\ngirls loose at one o'clock, or thereabouts, to gad around on the streets the session should\nnot close in the afternoon ^1 the regular time for dismissal. The best place for a boy or a\ngirl to prepare a lesson is in the schoolroom, or study-hall, under the eye of the teacher.\nNearly all the lessons should be prepared at school and where the teacher can render some\nassistance when it is needed.\nRight habits of study need to be taught as well as the branches the pupils pursue.\nShort high-school daily sessions weaken high-school work and induce a species of dissipation that lowers preparation, prevents the cultivation of systematic habits of work, and\ndiminishes the appreciation of high-school opportunities. Short high-school sessions\naffect injuriously the home Hfe of the pupil, and pave the way for evening parties and other\nforms of dissipation that are detrimental to close persistent application to studies and\nbesides oftentimes undermine health. There is undoubtedly a close and an intimate\nrelation existing between these two conditions. The argument frequently advanced\nthat high-school teachers, in general, have so much more heavy work to do than the grade\nteachers, and consequently require shorter hours, is not borne out by the facts. While\na grade teacher hears a recitation, she is keeping another class at work preparing the\nnext lesson, and she does this all day long. The softest position in pubUc-school work is\nin high school. I speak from an experience in class work myself, and also of recitations\nwith higher-grade pupils. Teaching such pupils is not such hard work as teaching in\nthe grades. There are also other distractions and extravagances that exert considerable\ninfluence on the progress or non-progress of pupils, which will readily suggest themselves\nto those familiar with high-school work.\nA word on diplomas. — A high-school diploma should show in quantity, quaUty,and\ntime, what a student has done in certain branches of study. The last spurt in getting\nready — dressing up for the final display — should be abolished. A great deal of time is\nwasted in preparation for graduation. Besides our schools are democratic institutions,\nand dress-suits and other toggery ill become boys who have to go out and make their own\nliving in the world. Oftentimes such extravagance is a great hardship on parents. Plain\ndressing and high thoughts would be more in keeping with common-sense.\nBack to the subject. — Finally, I see no objection to arranging a five-year course of\nstudy for those pupils that are physically, mentally, or otherwise unable to complete an\naverage course of study in four years. Such pupils, and there are probably from 10 to\n15 per cent, of them in every school, should not be crowded. For such the course should\nbe lengthened out, but for no others, and on no other condition.\nIn conclusion, I favor an eleven-year course for elementary and high schools, beginning\nwith pupils at and above the ages I have mentioned; but I am firmly opposed to an eightyear course for elementary schools, or a five-year course for the high-school pupils.\nThe\n\n"} {"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nnumber twelve is not a magical number in my arithmetical vocabulary when applied to\nthe education of boys and girls.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. H. Phillips, Superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Alabama. — Inasmuch as I\nheartily indorse nearly all the positions taken by Superintendent Greenwood upon this\nsubject, I shall have very little to add. I have had an experience of ten years with the\nseven-year plan in the elementary schools, and I have found some very definite advantages\nin it. The most manifest benefit of this plan is the large increase of pupils entering the\nhigh school. Usually the great majority of boys withdraw in the fifth or sixth year of\nschool in order to go to work, or, in some instances, because they become tired of the monotonous stretch of uninspiring work running through eight years of the elementary course.\nLocal conditions of course affect the question. In an industrial community, the temptations to withdraw from school are more alluring, and the nearer the high school can be\nbrought to the boy the more likely will he be to resist these temptations in order to enter.\nFor the past two years, practically all the eligible pupils of the seventh year of our elementary schools have entered the high school. This, I must confess, is due in part to an attractive high-school building, with manual-training and domestic-science facilities, a spacious\ngymnasium, and a swimming pool. When the boy gets in sight of this high school, he is\nnot satisfied until he gets inside.\nAnother reason for the adoption of this plan with us is the fact that the legal age for\nentering the public schools of our state is seven. The pupil is more mature and is able\nto do stronger work from the start than those who enter at five or six. I contend that\na pupil entering at seven can accomplish more in seven years than a pupil entering at five\ncan in eight years.\nAnother advantage of this plan, I think, is the fact that teachers are compelled to\nreduce the amount of the formal and mechanical work required, and to give the pupil\nat an earlier period work of richer content. I am of the opinion that the chief weakness\nof the elementary schools of the country is the stress that is laid upon the formal and mechanical elements of school work. Much matter is presented to the child whose content involves\nfacts beyond the scope of his experience, and a degree of reasoning power in advance of\nhis maturity. By shortening the time of the elementary course, and introducing a brief\nreview of advanced arithmetic, formal grammar, mathematical geography, and United\nStates history during the last two years of the high -school course, far better results can be\nobtained.\nThere is no need, so far as I can see, for a six-year high-school course. I regret the\nfact that the high school at present is suffering from the dictation of the colleges. Just\nas our elementary schools today are determining the conditions of high-school entrance,\nthe high schools of the state should determine the conditions of college entrance. It is\nhigh time for us to reaUze that the \"chief end\" of the pubUc high school is not preparation\nfor college. The \"college trust\" which now arbitrarily dictates courses of study for our\nhigh schools should be superseded by an association of all the high schools in the state,\nwhich should determine substantially the conditions for entrance upon a college course.\nThe greatest need of the American high school is a \"declaration of independence\" from\ncollege requirements, which will enable it to accomplish the work needed in sound preparation for citizenship and for life.\nR. B. D. SiMONSON, superintendent of schools, Hannibal, Mo. — Because of the brief\ntime allotted me, I shall present few arguments. I must be content, for the most part, with\noffering statements based upon an observation and experience short and confined to the\nschool system of which I have the honor to be the head. I am not unaware of the danger\nof founding conclusions on too few data and of the unsoundness of failing to recognize\ndissimilar conditions existing in different school communities.\n\n"} {"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\n295\n\nAs preliminary to the direct discussion of this topic, permit me to say that I do not\nregard as sacred the quadrennial stages into which it is customary to divide elementary,\nsecondary, and higher education. I have not found in the physical, mental, or spiritual\nnature of the child any satisfactory reasons for such a division. Perhaps some of you\nhave.\nIf so, I should like to be enlightened.\nAgain, I believe that all our courses of study should be so arranged as to allow each\nchild to progress as rapidly in each study as his ability and proficiency may warrant and\nthat promotions should be by subjects rather than by classes. Nevertheless, there should\nbe, in my opinion, a limit, somewhat definite, fixed for the completion of what is known\nas the elementary course; but this limit should not be so fixed and rigid as to produce\nbetween this and the secondary course a chasm v/hich requires that skilful bridge building\nof which we have all heard so much. I further believe that a period of seven years of\nnine months each is, under efi'ective teaching, a sufficient time for the completion by the\naverage pupil of an elementary course, and that the eighth year of school life should be\nspent, if possible, in the high school, in intensifying under special teachers, or rather,\nunder the departmental system, the work of the elementary period, and in preparing for\nthe standard secondary course. I have been led to this conclusion by no experience or\narguments of others, but by the results of my own observation and experience during the\npast two years.\nNot for the purpose of advertising or even of commending our school system in\nHannibal, but because I seem forced to it by the exigencies of the case, I make the following statements:\nAt the end of our seven years' work, the Fifth Reader and two or more classics selected\nfor literary study have been completed. English grammar has been carried through\nanalysis of sentences, a moderately full treatment of the parts of speech, parsing, and\nconsiderable composition. A well-sustained and correlated course in nature-study,\nincluding plant-study, animal-study, earth-study, weather-study, together with the elements\nof physiology, physics, and chemistry, has been concluded. Biography, elementary\nUnited States history and English history, and finally United States history by topics,\nhave been pursued for three years. The spelling-book has been finished. All the arithmetic necessary for an elementary course and a portion of an advanced text has been\ntaught. A course in general geography extending from home geography, beginning\nsystematically at the opening of the third year to the completion of an advanced textbook, has been pursued.\nThe course in our eighth year, the first in the high school, consists of English, embr\ncing grammar, composition, and literature : mythology — Guerber's Myths of Greece and\nRome; arithmetic — including more diflScult work in interest and the other applications\nof percentage, proportion, square root, and its applications, more difficult problems in\nmensuration, longitude, and time, the metric system, and a general review of the subject;\nelementary civil government of the United States and the history and civil government of\nMissouri; drawing — free hand and mechanical.\nOur regular high-school curriculum ranks with those of similar institutions in cities\nof our class.\nThe teachers in charge of the eighth-year studies are the assistants to the heads of\ndepartments; two of the three were promoted from the elementary schools after several\nyears of successful experience therein, two are college graduates and one lacks but a few\npoints of the requisite number to secure a degree from the Chicago University.\nWith these preliminary statements, I proceed to name as briefly as possible what I\nconceive to be the advantages of this arrangement.\nFirst, it has secured a large increase both in absolute and relative high-school enrolment. Our city has become during the past two or three years a manufacturing center\nof some pretensions. The establishment of factories employing child labor tends to decrease high-school enrollment. During the fourteen years from 1892 to 1905, both inclusive,\n\n"} {"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe average number enrolled in our high school at the end of the fifth month was less than\n138, or an average of a little less than 7 per cent, of the entire number enrolled. The\naverage number enrolled at the end of the fifth month of the last two years, or since we\nremoved the eighth grade to the high school, despite the increased demand for child labor\nduring that time, was 300, and the average percentage of high-school enrollment on total\nenrollment was over i2|.\nThe erection of a fine new high-school building containing a gymnasium and all the\nmodem conveniences, and the withdrawal of the eighth grade from the elementary school\nand adding it to the high school will account for some of this relative increase in highschool enrollment, but by no means for all of it. Carefully compiled statistics of twenty-one\nclasses belonging to our various elementary schools from May, 1895, to June, 1905, show\nthat during those years an average of 50 per cent, of the pupils entering school at the\nbeginning of the seventh year had dropped out of school at the end of the eighth year,\nand of those remaining, 3 per cent, failed to graduate from these schools. Further, a\nlarge percentage of the graduates therefrom did not enter the high school. I think I can\nsafely say that this condition of things is not now so serious.\nA second advantage is the absolute and relative increase of the number of boys entering the high school. Using for comparison the same periods as before, the average\nnumber of boys enrolled in our high school during the first period was less than 39 ; during\nthe second period, 1 1 1. The average percentage of boys on the total high-school enrollment\nwas during the first period less than 28; during the second period, nearly 37.\nThe boys are now brought within the sphere of the uplifting influence of the high\nschool before the spirit of commercialism has taken a firm hold on them. The greater\nfreedom of the high-school life, the pleasurable experiences in the gymnasium, the presence\nof the high-school library, the glimpses caught of the laboratories, all tend to excite the\nambition of these impressionable boys.\nAll this contributes to two other advantages, the creation of an aspiration among\npupils of the elementary schools to become high-school students, and the prevention of\nthe tendency of the pupils, even in the elementary schools, to drop out.\nAs to the reality of these advantages, several parents have assured me that previous\nto the making of the eighth grade a part of our high school their boys seemed to have no\nambition to enter the latter, but now, since it is so much closer to them in time, and because\nof the favorable reports of school associates a year or two in advance but now in the high\nschool, these boys talk of nothing else but continuing in school till their secondary course\nis completed. Invariably, eighth-grade pupils now in the high school, when asked to\ngive in writing their impressions of that institution, express their preference for the conditions found therein.\nAnother advantage which has accrued from the plan under consideration is the\nawakening of a livelier high-school sentiment among our citizens and a clearer recognition\nof the fact that this institution is the most democratic of our educational institutions.\nThe great increase in enrollment has effected this. Many more of our citizens are thus\nthrough their children brought into touch with it and aroused to the desirability of a secondary education.\nOur experience so far leads me to mention a sixth advantage, which is the saving of\nabout one-half of a year in the total length of the course. Most of our pupils by reason\nof the longer periods for recitation and the shorter daily sessions, thus affording more\ntime for study, together with perhaps the better teaching of each branch by a specialist,\nare able to accomplish all the essential part of the work prescribed for the eighth year in\nabout half of that time.\nLastly, it is the testimony of several of our high-school teachers who have ninth-year\nstudies that the pupils who have taken their preparatory work in the high school are\nbetter fitted for these studies than were those who formerly remained the whole eight years\nin the elementary schools.\nWithout in the least reflecting upon the often excellent teaching\n\n"} {"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\n297\n\nof the eighth-grade teachers in these latter schools, I think the reasons for this are obvious.\nNow, in presenting these advantages of changing the elementary course from eight\nto seven years, and of making the high -school course five years, I may be grossly in error;\nbut since I am from Missouri, I shall have to be shov^^n — wherein.\nI may now turn to some of the disadvantages of the plan, alleged and real.\nOne of the alleged disadvantages is the immaturity of the pupils when they enter the\nhigh school at the beginning of the eighth year in school. Well, the pupils of the eighth\ngrade admitted to our high school in January averaged: boys, 14 years, i month; girls,\n14 years, 2 months. These pupils were probably a little older than the average of that\ngrade because the teachers of the seventh grade had been strengthening them. But it\ncan be seen that they were not too immature to take the course which we have mapped out\nnor to receive the inspiration which the high school affords.\nAnother alleged disadvantage is the removal of children of so tender an age from\nthe influence and fostering care of a single teacher and the distribution of responsibility\nfor them among several teachers. This objection may have some force, especially if the\nsingle teacher is a very lovable and efficient one. But why not make the same objection\nto any form of departmental instruction; why not make it in the case of ninth-grade\npupils, many of whom are not older than fourteen ? Is it not also true that about this\nage boys especially become tired of being \"mothered,\" and will be developed better if\nthey are less guided and pampered (or nagged) and a little more \"fathered\" ?\nI mention but one more alleged disadvantage; it is the lowering of the dignity of the\nhigh school by incorporating in the student-body a lot of \"babies.\" So far, I have failed\nto see the force of this objection. If it has any it is more than oJBfset by the dignifying of\nsaid babies.\nA real disadvantage that we have felt is the opposition of some of our principals to\nthe plan because it deprives them of their advanced class, thus compelling them to relinquish the pleasure of teaching pupils of the maturity of eighth-graders and leading them\nto dispense with graduating exercises, etc., etc.\nI regret this opposition very much and can sympathize with them in the matter, but\nso far as the pubUc graduating exercises at the end of the elementary course are concerned,\nI have come to the conclusion that they do not incite the graduates to go higher in their\ncourse; and many parents are now-a-days objecting to the expense to them attending the\nso-called commencements.\nI mention lastly as a disadvantage, which threatens to become real to us in Hannibal\nin the event that our high-school enrollment maintains its rate of increase made during\nthe past two years, a lack of room in the high-school building. Under such conditions\nthe plan cannot be perpetuated except by pushing the eighth-year pupils back into some\ncentral building as near as possible to the high school, and placing them under a principal\nfor that grade and his or her assistants, or by adding rooms to the high-school building.\nDoubtless, in many medium or small cities the high-school building cannot accommodate afive-year high school.\n\nWHAT\n\nJOHN\n\nSHOULD\n\nDIETRICH,\n\nTHE SMALLER CITIES ATTEMPT FOR THE\nTION OF DEFECTIVE CHILDREN— PHYSICAL,\nMENTAL, AND MORAL?\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nCOLORADO\n\nSPRINGS,\n\nEDUCA-\n\nCOLORADO\n\n\"It is the function of the state to force men to be free. \" It is the right of every child\nto receive an education. The opportunity awA the means should be provided by the\nparent and the state. Even the defective child 1* capable of taking some sort of an education that will make him a happier and a more useful citizen than he would otherwise be.\n\n"} {"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nHe is entitled to all he is capable of receiving, whether that be five talents, two talents, or\none talent — \"every man according to his several abihty.\" \"Education is a productive\nexpenditure, not mere charity.\"\nProblems pertaining to the welfare of normal children have been met and discussed,\nand better ways have been devised and more adequate means have been provided for\ntheir development. Until within the last fifteen years little attention had been given to\nthe defective or backward child. The great progress that has been made in the department of special education during the last decade is another evidence of the whole-hearted\neducational spirit of the American people. We have at last come to beHeve that many\nso-called dull or defective children are capable of receiving mental training to a degree of\nefficiency far beyond the most conservative estimates of educators of a few years ago.\nThe amount of development that many of these children are capable of, when properly\ndirected by a trained teacher, is simply astonishing.\nIn speaking of the possibility of educating even idiots, one writer says, \"Idiots have\nbeen improved, educated, and even cured; not one in a thousand has been entirely refractory to treatment; not one in a hundred who has not been made more happy and healthy;\nmore than 30 per cent, have been taught to conform to moral and social law, and rendered\ncapable of order, of good feeling, and of working like the third of a man; more than\n40 per cent, have become capable of the ordinary transactions of life under friendly control,\nof understanding moral and social abstractions, of working like two-thirds of a man;\nand 25 to 30 per cent, have come nearer and nearer the standard of manhood, till some of\nthem will defy the scrutiny of good judges when compared with ordinary young men and\nwomen.\"\nWe have come to realize also that the number of defectives is increasing at an alarming rate, as a result of the lethargy on our part regarding the problem of subnormal children. In 1890 there were two weak-minded persons to every one thousand people in the\nUnited States, or about one-fifth of i per cent. About one-half of i per cent, or five to\nevery one thousand of the pupils in our public schools today are subnormal, with all\npossible variety of grades, from those who are merely somewhat slow to imbeciles and\nidiots. About 95 per cent, of all dull or backward children are defective mentally or\nphysically.\n\" Practically we have experienced that whether from barbarism and strain of war,\nor from the little less strenuous anxieties and struggles of our industrial and commercial\ncivilization, or whether from other human strains, dissipations, accidents, and excesses, a\nlarge part of our fellow human beings have lo^t a part, and some the whole, of the original\ndivine heritage of their five natural senses, and that it is these maimed, deprived, disinherited\nindividuals that constitute what is known as our defective classes; and that if some distinctively and effectively preventive means are not speedily adopted, vigorously prosecuted,\nand resolutely persisted in, a degeneracy — mental, moral, and physical and of the darkest\ntype — will be the immediate and logical result. \"\nThese problems thus forced upon us by the defective classes must be met. The\nschools of the small city as well as those of the large city must share in their solution.\nIn many instances the work of the small city through its school system will necessarily\nbe somewhat indirect. This will be especially true of cities ranging from two to five\nthousand inhabitants. In cities having from five to fifty thousand inhabitants the work\nmay be direct.\nAbout twenty states have made some provision for caring for the feeble minded.\nThere are also as many private institutions for weak-minded persons. From forty replies\nreceived from city superintendents of schools in answer to the question, \"What provision,\nif any, are you making for the education of the feeble-minded children in the public\nschools of your city?\" it is evident that about half of them are doing something for these\nunfortunates; about one-fourth of them believe that the smaller cities can deal as effectvely with the problem of the education of subnormal children as the large cities. All\n\n"} {"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\n•\n\n299\n\nconsider it essential to have state institutions for the education of the feeble minded.\nAbout one-third of these superintendents state that state institutions for weak-minded\nchildren should supplement the work of the public school, and the remainder of the\nanswers favor these institutions taking complete charge of the education of defectives\nfrom the beginning, and especially so, when these children are residents of the smaller\ncities and rural districts.\nThese replies indicate that there is a marked and growing interest on the part of\nboards of education, city superintendents and teachers, looking toward the answer to the\nquestion, \"What should the schools attempt for the education of defective, backward, or\nsubnormal children ?\"\nAmong the large cities in this country that are giving some special attention to the\neducation of defectives are Chicago, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. San\nFrancisco had begun the organization of special schools just prior to the earthquake.\nChicago makes no provision for idiots of the first, second, or third degree, nor for subnormal children of the first degree, that is, children who are so subnormal that they will\nnot be able with special training to attain to the equivalent of the fourth grade on reaching\nthe age of fourteen years. Those children who are able to reach this standard are placed\nin special rooms for subnormal children. They are taught by special teachers, and have,\nin a great majority of cases, come up to the expectations of the supervisor and teacher.\nIn Baltimore subnormal children are placed in ungraded rooms. Philadelphia has ten\ntruant schools. These are distributed over the city. In each of nine of these there is a\nroom for defective children. New York City has about forty ungraded classes for defectives. The rooms occupied by these pupils are connected with the public schools in order\nthat they may feel that they are a part of the public-school system, and also to give them\nan opportunity to mingle with the other pupils in going to and from school and while on\nthe playgrounds.\nLondon has a plan of her own for caring for subnormal children. By a rigid examination conducted by a committee of experts, epileptics and the lower grades of mentally\ndeficient children are ehminated from the public schools. These are cared for in a boarding-home. The remainder of the subnormal children are placed in one of the following\ngroups — blind, deaf, mentally deficient, and cripples. The more exaggerated cases of\ncripples are placed under special teachers and are not assigned to this fourth group.\nAmong the smaller and medium-sized cities of this country that have made some\nprovision for subnormal children may be noted, Denver with ungraded departments;\nNew Haven, Connecticut, uses one room in her main school building which is in charge of\na special teacher; Providence, Rhode Island, has had special schools for defectives for\nten years, there being three such schools in this city at the present time, with an average\nattendance of fifteen pupils each; Rochester, New York, has one room for defectives;\nWorcester, Mass., has five departments for subnormal children; Patterson, New Jersey,\ndoes not set apart a room for defectives but organizes classes for subnormal children in the\nsame room with normal pupils; Los Angeles has twenty ungraded rooms for defectives.\nThat there is a real need for special work for the betterment of subnormal children\nin the schools of the smaller cities is self-evident, but in many of these places the mere\nsuggestion of an attempt to do something for these unfortunates would bring forth the cry\nso often heard upon the eve of a needed innovation, \"O, The cost! The cost!\" But in\nthis instance the cost need not be alarming. The principal item of expense in the small\ncity would be the salaries of trained teachers for the special department. Should it not\nbe desirable to set apart a room in a regular school building, a cottage could be built on\nsome site already owned by the district at a nominal cost. The average city of say from\nfifteen to forty thousand inhabitants, would have enough of defective pupils to warrant\nthe organization of at least one department for such pupils, and if so-called slow and\ndull pupils are to receive special treatment, there would be need for several ungraded\ndepartments.\nThe enrollment in these special departments should not exceed say fifteen\n\n"} {"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\npupils. In the smaller cities ranging from one thousand to fifteen thousand inhabitants,\nspecial classes for defectives could be organized in the same department with normal\npupils. While this plan is far from ideal and is not conducive to the best interests of\nnormal or subnormal pupils, it would be found far better than no plan at all for caring for\ndefectives. It is highly important and conducive to the interest of both the normal and\nsubnormal children that they be in separate rooms. Both classes will do better work\nwhen so seated. This will be found especially true of the work of defective children.\nEvery precaution should be taken to have defective children escape from the feeling of\ninferiority. Very much will be gained by having them associate with their peers. Where\nthere are enough of these defectives to warrant more than one special department in the\nsame school there should be a complete segregation of the sexes in the schoolroom, but\nnot on the playground, provided, however, that the playground is under the supervision of\nsome oflSicer of the school during intermission hours.\nThe question may be asked, \"Why not send the defectives of small cities to special\ndepartments in large cities, or to some state or private institution for the feeble minded ?\"\nIt must be evident to any thoughtful person that many of these subnormal children have\nexcellent homes, and that they much prefer to be at home, and that their parents much\nprefer to have them at home. They will do better work when contented and happy.\nAgain, it is highly important for the sake of the best results in the training of defectives\nthat their education should begin at a very early age, say at five or six years, and as a rulfe\nif these children must be sent away from home this would be impracticable, while in their\nown city their education might begin at that early age.\nWhy not allow the home to educate the defective ? It has been found that home\neducation is unsatisfactory. The influence of the mother for instance under the same\nroof with the child is usually a hindrance. Many parents prefer that these children be\neducated in the home because they fear that development will be retarded by association\nwith other subnormal children. But this is not true. Some of the best teachers in charge\nof these special departments tell us that the mass recitation as a rule accomplishes more\nfor the subnormal child than does the individual plan.\nSpecial departments may be quickly and easily organized. There should be a committee to determine who are eligible for membership in these special departments. This\ncommittee may consist of the superintendent, principal, teacher, and school physician, if\nthere be one. If there is no school physician then the city health ofiicer should be a member\nof the committee. This committee should by careful tests determine who are defectives.\nUnder rules adopted by the board of education these pupils may be broken up into groups.\nSome of these defectives under the board's rules and the rules of the state school for the\nfeeble minded, should be sent to this institution at once. The remainder of them should\nbe carefully classified and assigned to a class or department for weak-minded children.\nIt should also be the duty of this committee to determine when a pupil of the special school\nshould be transferred to the regular school for normal children. It should also be the\nprerogative and duty of this committee to make recommendations from time to time to\nthe authorities of the state institution for the feeble minded regarding the transfer of certain\npupils, for whom the special department can do no more, to the state institution for such\npupils. Rules governing the transfer of pupils to and from these special schools should\nbe so framed as to meet the needs of the particular city or locality.\nIt should be the aim of the special department to use the course of study of the regular\nschool, but it will be found necessary to modify it to suit the capacity and the needs of the\nseveral grades of defectives. Much attention should be given to industrial work, naturestudy, and physical culture, especially out-of-door exercise. Much may be accompUshed\nfor these children mentally and morally through a rigid course of physical development.\nThe fundamental branches should be presented in a simple and practical way. No\nattempt should be made to cover a previously specified amount of work.\nOnly trained teachers should be placed in charge of these departments.\nThe best\n\n"} {"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\nteachers will be those who have had experience with the healthy mental type of pupils.\nTeachers of defectives should have special powers of adaptability and insight. They\nshould be sympathetic. The state should license them and should in some way manifest\na complimentary recognition of their skill or j&tness for this special work. Such recognition would encourage first-class teachers to seek positions in schools for subnormal children. Boards of education and superintendents should improve every opportunity to 01\n3\ndetermine the best methods and devise the most effective means for educating those who\nmay be assigned to these schools. Every problem of the special school should be dealt\nwith in a practical way. The machinery of the entire pubUc-school system should be\navailable for the support of the special school or department in its important mission.\nEvery reasonable effort should be made for the immediate amelioration of the sad condition of these unfortunate children, and for its ultimate extirpation. From the work of\nthe special department will come a demand for endowed schools and endowments for the\nsupport of investigators in the interest of defective classes. The work of the special\ndepartment in a system of public schools will be the means of making every teacher more\nthoughtful as regards the welfare of subnormal children. It will be the means of directing\na more careful study of every child on the part of teachers and parents. The most prevalent causes of defectives will be discovered and remedies suggested and applied. It will\nstimulate greater effort to prevent the impairment of one or more of the child's senses,\nthus removing or reducing the prevalent causes, such as tuberculosis, alcoholism, rickets,\nadenoids, infectious diseases, and malnutrition to a minimum.\nThese special schools will create a demand for custodial schools. Many a so-called\ndull and backward pupil who is now inclined to leave school early in his educational career,\nmore or less discouraged, will, through the kind offices of the special department, be\ninduced to remain in school. The special school will be the means of saving many a\nso-called dull and backward child, who is not mentally defective, but only seems so because\nof a defect of his sight or hearing, or because of a lack of nutritious food, rather than a\ndefect of the mind, from a life of sadness and failure to a life of happiness and usefulness.\nIt is indeed true that the cause or seat of the trouble does not always readily appear to\nthe unprofessional observer, but the trained teacher and the medical official quickly\ndiscover it by simple tests.\nEven in the absence of a special department or a special class for defectives much\nmay be done by the small city, through its schools, to alleviate the condition of defectives\nand to retard the increase of subnormal children in the community. The entire corps\nof teachers may be directed in a careful study of the causes of this sad condition and how\nto remove them, and also of the best methods of treating the feeble minded. The interest\nof the school in these matters will soon enlist the co-operation of the home and the community.\n\"Physicians may safeguard the sanitary interests of the community, the state, and\nthe nation ; in just the same way the teachers of our land may stand as a great bulwark of\nstrength and protection between the American people and the threatening dangers resulting from inherited mental and moral weakness and disease. Just in proportion as they\nrealize the importance of their mission and are suitably equipped for carrying it out, pst\nin that proportion will the number of really efficient men and women increase and the\nnumber of inefficient and incapable decrease. It seems that it has been reserved for the\nschools of today to take up questions pertaining to subnormal children — those that come\ninto the world handicapped by mental and moral deficiency, and solve them, not only in\nthe interest of the deficient, but for the welfare of the community at large. Scientific\nmethods must be employed.\n\n\"Science thought is human progress itself.\"\nDISCUSSION\n\nGeorge A. Franklin, superintendent of schools, Austin, Minn. — In the discussion\nof this subject I can only hope to emphasize some of the points so well set forth in the very\n\n"} {"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ncomplete presentation to which we have just Hstened. Having worked for twelve years\nin a city in which were located three state schools — for deaf, blind, and feeble minded —\nand observing the excellent results obtained in each — I naturally beheve that, for those\nchildren defective to a considerable degree, such schools are the best. I doubt if even the\nlarge city can so successfully care for its defectives as can the state.\nBut we are interested in that class of defectives who are able, under proper care and\nguidance, to make some progress in our public schools, without interfering with the rights\nof the normal children. We must analyze the question from two standpoints, as has been\nsuggested by Superintendent Dietrich: (i) How can we deal with the causes which produce defectiveness ? (2) How can we deal with the child himself, so as to make of him a\nself-supporting, honest citizen ?\nWe have just heard how alarmingly the percentage of subnormal children has increased\nduring the past sixteen years. Much of this is beyond our power to remedy, either directly\nor indirectly. We can do something. We should do all we can for the betterment of\nthe home — the home of today and the home of the future — and of public sentiment. The\nhome is the most potent influence exerted upon the child. Many of the physical and\nmental, and most of the moral, defects are directly traceable to the home. Neglect,\npoor food, irregularity, unhappiness, and often cruelty and vice are the home companions\nof the young. Ignorance is often the cause. We should try by parents' meetings, through\nthe public press, and by private interviews to raise the sentiment of the parents to a better\nunderstanding of what the child needs. We must interest them in our plans for their\nchildren and create a helpful sympathy. Much may be done in this way in our smaller\ncities where the teacher is personally known and is one of the people.\nThe child himself. — The ungraded room and special department are profitably employed. When these are not possible for any cause, and sometimes when they are at hand,\na greater elasticity of our gradation is desirable. Many of these subnormal children are\ndeficient in certain lines. With the comparatively few cases to deal with, it will cause very\nlittle confusion to have the children go to two or three rooms to recite. I have sent pupils\nto two or three grades below the room in which they sat to pursue the study or studies in\nwhich they were the most deficient. This enables them to associate with pupils of more\nnearly their own age and with whom they have much in common. They are not so much\ndiscouraged and often make more rapid progress. The teachers may at first object, but\nsoon fall in line and like the plan. We cannot afford to be too rigid in our adherence to\nour system — to our perfect gradation — ^not only for the sake of our subnormal but also\nfor our normal children.\n* Industrial work should be freely employed in all our schools. The time has come\nwhen even the smallest cities recognize that our educational system is incomplete without\nmanual training and domestic science, and they are rapidly finding that the cost must not\nstand in the way of their introduction. Not only for the normal child is this work needed,\nbut for the backward pupil, who often discovers that which he can do well and with\nsustained interest. This success stimulates his mental activities, makes him happier,\nmore self-respecting and self-reliant. In the case of the morally deficient child I have\nknown cases where the transformation was marvelous.\nIn the domestic-science department the backward girl sometimes finds her sphere of\ninterest and usefulness. It is here that I look for the greatest hope for the home of the\nfuture, and the removal of much of the cause of deficiency. If our girls are trained in\nthe home arts as well as in the academic branches they will be able to make true homes.\nThey will help make the husband's salary provide for the wants of the family, and as a\nresult health, contentment, and happiness — the best foundation for uprightness — will\npossess the home.\nBut it is for the morally defective that I would especially plead. In a paper read\nbefore one of our Minnesota Teachers' Associations this year. Superintendent Whittier,\nof the State Training School for boys and girls, told the following incident:\n\n"} {"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\n303\n\n\"Just before the State Fair, one of the advertising pictures of the famous pacing\nhorse, Dan Patch, found its way into the State Training School. It represented the horse\ncoming straight toward you with its excited eye, dilated nostrils, and wonderful stride, and\nmade a picture almost startling in its vividness. It was, by some of the boys, tacked to\nthe wall in the engine-room. Under the picture was printed in bold type, 'The fastest\nhorse the world has ever seen.' Some boy wrote immediately under this, 'The fastest\nworld the horse has ever seen.' As I stood looking at it for the first time, one of our\ninmates came along, looked at the picture and read what was printed and written, and\nwith an expression of sadness and regret, added, 'Too fast for me. That is why I am\nhere.' \"\nWe must do more for the child in this fast world in which he is living. In our public\nschools we must employ, more than we are now doing, the methods used in our trainingschools and reformatories, and practice the principles of Judge Lindsley and others of the\nJuvenile courts. We must be taught that while the harsh measures may produce the\nquickest results, they do not reach the root of the evil. How often we punish a boy for\nwhat his parents are to blame. True, one generation must suffer for the sins of the\npreceding ones, but our treatment of the bad boy or girl, whose parents are arrayed against\njustice and truth and against the school authority, must be tempered by mercy, kindness,\nand love — that love which perhaps the incorrigible is so much in need of. He sometimes\nthinks no one cares for him, is unhappy and desperate. It is the happy person who does\nright easily, and the unhappy one finds it almost impossible to do right.\nAll have some good quaKties. We must recognize and cultivate these, show the\nchild we have interest and confidence in him and lead him to see that he can fill an\nimportant place in this \"fast world.\" Many a child dislikes school and with good reason.\nLittle will be accomplished in such an atmosphere. In the smaller cities we may be able to\ndo more than in the larger ones to make the school surroundings attractive, or substitute\na teacher who will. The poor teacher must be sacrificed for the school, the perfect machine\nfor the individual needs of the pupil.\nJ. W. KuYKENDALL, superintendent of schools. Ft. Smith, Ark. — In considering what\nthe smaller cities should attempt for the education of defective children, I think we will\ndo well to consider them in two classes. In the first class I would include those whose\ndefects are so marked as to necessitate special schools or asylums, as the blind, the deaf\nmute, the imbecile, and the depraved. Such special institutions form no proper part of\nthe public -school system of a small city. The care of these unfortunates may be more\nproperly undertaken by the county and state.\nBut the other class, whose deficiencies are such as to render them less helpless, but\nnevertheless to unfit them for doing the ordinary work of the schools, presents a problem\nfor the consideration of the school authorities of a small city. In this class, we may\ninclude (i) those children whose eyesight, hearing, or speech so hampers them as to\nimpede their progress in school, (2) those dull, backward children who constantly fall\nbehind their classmates each year, becoming a residue of each promotion, until discouraged\nthey disappear from the schools, (3) those abnormal children who develop an aptitude for\ncertain lines of thought but seem hopelessly deficient in others, and (4) those occasional\nchildren who manifest a tendency to kleptomania or other moral diseases.\nHow shall the small city meet its manifest obHgation to these \"misfits,\" so universally found in our schoolrooms ? If a proper place for these deficient children can be found\nwithin the possibilities of our small cities, a blessing will not only result to these sub-normal\nchildren but also to the normal children, to whom the presence of these \"misfits\" is a\nconstant impediment. I believe the only practical solution lies in the establishing of\nspecial rooms and special schools, where the most skilful teachers may be assigned, each\nto take charge in limited number of these children and give them that individual care\nIwhich alone can supply their several needs, and where needed medical attention may also\n[be supplied.\nThat there are difiiculties in the way of establishing these rooms and schools goes\n\n"} {"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nwithout saying. The first difficulty that will present itself is a financial one. Most\nsmall cities need better school facilities for their normal children and school authorities\nwill hesitate to spend their meager revenues upon the sub-normal. I shall not stop to\ndiscuss this phase of the question, but, leaving each one who realizes the necessity to meet\nthis problem in his own way, I shall pass to the most serious difiiculty that is to be found\nin establishing these special schools. This is the very natural opposition offered by\nparents to having their children taken from their accustomed places in the schools and\nsent to these special schools. If these schools partake of the nature of asylums for the\ninfirm, physically or mentally, a parent may very justly object to placing upon his child\nthe stigma of having been an inmate therein. This, at first thought, seems to destroy\nat once the usefulness of these special schools, and to make their establishment imwise.\nIn order to avoid this source of opposition, these special schools should not be asylums\nor schools for the unfortunate, and they may be made to partake of an entirely different\nnature by enlarging their scope. In addition to the classes named above, we have another\nclass of children to whom a well-managed special school would prove an unalloyed blessing,\nthe child who is several years behind his fellows of the same age. At this meeting one\nyear ago the attitude of these children in the regular classes was shown by Miss Richman,\nDistrict Superintendent of New York City, in these words, \"Let me say right here that the\nfirst-year classes are meant for babes, and the second-year classes for those a bit older;\nand the child of ten or eleven or twelve or older has no place in the regular classes of the\nfirst three years, no matter how ignorant he may be of reading, writing, or arithmetic.\nSuch a classification of the older boy has a bad subjective influence upon him, and a correspondingly bad objective influence upon the child for whom the grade work was planned. \"\nThis class of over-age children is made up of many elements. It includes nearly all\nthe \"bad boys\" whose deeds of misconduct are usually the outgrowth of idleness and of\nlack of harmony with their surroundings. Our foreign-born children contribute their\nquota to this class. I recently observed a Syrian boy of sixteen in a first-grade room, who\nwithin three months was able to advance as many grades. Lack of early opportunities\nfor attending school is a fruitful source of backwardness. The surrounding rural communities annually contribute a large number of such children to the schools of a small\ncity.\nMy plea, then, is for the establishment of ungraded rooms or schools wherein each\nabnormal child, each \"misfit,\" may receive the instruction most suited to his needs. I\nurge that these schools be made attractive by removing from them the character of asylums\nfor the unfortunate, and by including in their course of study a large element of practical,\nconcrete work. Sloyd, basketry, weaving, woodworking, and domestic science should be\nthe leading features. The essentials, reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, etc., should\nbe well taught. But the one essential of the curriculum should be its elasticity, so that\neach case may be treated according to its individual needs. The child who is assigned to\nsuch a school should be kept just so long as is absolutely necessary to fit him to return to\nthe regular classes or to fit him to be a self-reliant, self-sustaining member of society. No\nstandards of promotion or graduation, which may be ever so admirably fitted to the\nnormal child, should be permitted to stand in the way of the proper disposal of such a\nstudent. Such schools would not conflict with the standards of the regular school system,\nfor the reason that their patronage is only of those who never complete the work of the\ngrades, but who soon fall out of school to become the large army of hopelessly dependent,\nto enter the workshop or factory, or to swell the number of street gamins, the embryo\ncriminals.\nReverting to the question of cost, the failure to provide the means whereby these\nclasses may become self-sustaining citizens is the most costly economy that our cities,\nlarge or small, can indulge. What right can the community claim to tax all the property\nfor public education on the plea of the public weal, while it neglects to provide for those\nin greatest need, for those who are its greatest menace ?\n\n"} {"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nRELATION\nGEO.\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\nOF THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF THE CHILD\nMENTAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT\nW.\n\nREID,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCITY\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMONROE,\n\n305\nTO HIS\n\nLA.\n\nMental activity has its foundation in physical activity. Nervous action is the result\nof a certain stimulus upon a certain physical organ ; hence the mental activity is influenced\nby the nervous action.\nWe are told that the nervous system is made up of neurons, and that each neuron\nconsists of a cell and a fiber. The fibers extend in all directions throughout the body,\npermeating every tissue, dividing and subdividing, until they end in the periphery of the\norgans. Although these neurons run side by side, cross each other, yet the impulse\nreceived by one is never influenced by that of another, except by the process of induction.\nA great number of impulses may be received at one time. By induction the impulse\nof one neuron may influence the impulse of another neruon which it crosses; at the same\ntime it may be influenced by the impulse already there. From these impulses, somehow,\nmental states or conditions arise. As the physical body of the child develops, new and\nvaried impulses are received which change the physical nature. Since there are three\ngeneral periods of development in the physical child, there ought to be, at least, three\ngeneral periods in the development of the physical nature.\nOnly a small part of that period of the development of the child from two years to\nseven comes under the direct supervision of the teacher. We know that the body and\nthe brain have developed rapidly up to and including seven years. So rapid has been the\ndevelopm.ent of the brain that at the age of eight it has almost attained its full size. During\nthis period the body is attacked by the infectious diseases common to early childhood.\nNervous diseases are quite common, convulsions, bad dreams, stammering, squinting, etc.\nI have observed that where a child at this age has strabismus its physical nature is more\nreticent. It does not seek companions. Its mental development is somewhat slower.\nWhere strabismus is the result of some spinal affection during the first years of infancy,\nthe mental development is slower than in the child where strabismus is caused by some\nvisible defect, as in the lens or a muscle.\nOftentimes the hearing of the child is defective and the fact is unknown both to the\nparent and the child. This is often due to what is known as risings in the ear during\nearly infancy. While defective hearing does not affect the physical nature of the child,\nat this age, as much as defective sight, the teacher will soon discover that his mental\ndevelopment is slower, and that special arrangements must be made for him.\nDuring the second period of development, from eight to eleven, there is noticeable a\ngreat change in his physical nature. This is a critical period of the child's life. The\nbrain grows slowly; the vascular system is at a standstill, while the muscular development\nleaps forward in great strides. Because of these conditions physical fatigue manifests\nitself, and not only physical fatigue but mental fatigue with all the nervous accompaniments, otherwise unaccountable. The child is able to do less work at the age of eight\nthan at the age of seven. One of the first symptoms of this period is the seeming appearance of laziness. He is now in the third-grade work, and we as teachers demand more\nwork than the year previous, while parents are calling for more and better results. What\nmust be the effect upon that nature mentally and morally, that is constantly being nagged\nby teachers and parents, when it is now doing its very best ? He is peevish, irritable, and\nhas little ambition to accomplish anything. He is subject to all diseases, somatic and\nnervous, of the period just passed and those of early childhood. Fortunately for him\nthe fatigue part of this period lasts but a few months, but sometimes it may extend over\ntwo years.\nOne of the most common diseases of this period is that of adenoid growths. It is\n^claimed that about 37 per cent, of our children have these growths to some extent. We\n[have all seen the dull, listless, stupid expression on the child's face; the staring eyes,\n\n"} {"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nwrinkled face, the open mouth; have heard the indistinct speech, and noticed the defective hearing. These cases we report to parents and physicians, but there are pupils in\nwhom the diagnosis is not so clear, those who today breathe with perfect freedom, hear\ndistinctly, and do their work well, but tomorrow come with dull expressions; they hear\nindistinctly; they breathe with difficulty; their lessons are unprepared. Why ? Because\nlast night cold settled in the adenoid growth. It is inflamed, and as it hangs there in the\npharynx just in front of the openings to the Eustachian tubes, the granulations so swollen\nthat they touch the tubercle projections at the beginning of the Eustachian tubes, thus\npreventing the same pressure of air against the tympanum on the inside as on the out, the\nroaring sensation is produced, the dull expression exists, and the depressing feeling that\nis so characteristic of such conditions permeates the whole physical nature. If this is\nallowed to continue the child deteriorates. He grows mentally weaker; not only that,\nbut he is affected morally, because he sees that he is blamed unjustly, and traits of character are developed that should not be found in the normal child. Many of these growths\nare absorbed as the child grows older, but the effect left on him mentally and morally\nstands forever.\nAnother disease common to this period of development which has much influence\nover the physical nature, and as a result a mental and moral influence, which decreases\nthe efficiency of the child, is chorea. We are told that one of the growing results of our\nschool system is the nervous child. This disease comes on so gradually that before we are\naware his physical nature is undermined. He is blamed, scolded, censured, because he\ndoes not write or draw as well as he did a month ago. When sent to the board he drops\nthe eraser, chalk, book unintentionally. Again he is scolded or punished in some way.\nIf he is carefully watched we will see that all his movements are spasmodic, irregular,\njerking. This does not last long — two or three months — and usually occurs in the spring\nof the year; but the influence upon the mental and moral nature, if not discovered by\nthe teacher, and handled in a sympathetic way, will be to reduce its mentality, and create\nan irritable disposition.\nThe third period in the physical development of the child is included between the ages\nof II and 1 6. During the years previous to these the child has been storing up strength\nfor the struggle through which he must pass. The age of puberty is at hand. The\nstrife that is going on in the development of the physical organisms is so great that mental\ngrowth practically ceases. If we would go through the entire category of different kinds\nof natures and dispositions that are common to the race, we would see that the child\npasses through all of them and has a few more to stamp his own individuality.\nIf we examine the bodily development, we see that the muscles and bones lengthen so\nrapidly that the brain is -unable to adjust itself to the new demands, and as a result the\nmovements are awkward, ungainly, clumsy. The boy is all feet and hands, and what to\ndo with the things puzzles him somewhat more than his school work.\nHe is in a morbid state of mind, so much so that he cares not what he does nor where\nit is done. He does not know why he does these things, but at the same time he will try\nto make you believe he knows why. He will listen to a reprimand or an approving\nutterance, but we never know from any outward sign or manifestation the result.\nHe believes that parents, teachers, and friends are against him; in fact he thinks he\nmust fight everyone and everything to accompUsh — what ? He does not know. Mentally\nand physically he is incapable of doing as much, in the same time, as he did at the age\nof lo or II years. But everyone demands more, and as a result his mind is warped. He\nbegins to separate himself from the world around him. As the caterpillar grows to an\nenormous state, and then begins to spin the beautiful cocoon and shut itself in from the\noutside world, there to undergo a wonderful transformation and finally to burst forth a\nmagnificent specimen of its species so the boy begins to weave a web of such delicate texture\nwith such subtleness, that before we are aware, we are shut out of his life — our control\nover him is gone.\n\n"} {"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\n307\n\nHappy is the parent or teacher whose relationship with the boy has been such, that\nwhen he shuts up that life of his from the outside world, he will be included in it, that\nhe may direct, and lead him through this transformation so that when he emerges he may\ncome forth a magnificent specimen of man.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. A. Stewart, superintendent of schools, Bay City, Mich. — The speaker remarked\nby way of explanation rather than apology that naturally it was somewhat embarrassing\nto discuss a paper which had not been presented but, as he had learned a few days previously that such might be the case and that no \" core\" might be expected to fall his way,\nhe had gathered together a few ideas on the subject under consideration. He was well\naware that there are all kinds of teachers, ranging from the selfish, mercenary, unfeeling,\nsour, crabbed, harsh, and unsympathetic, to those abounding in sympathy, mellowed by\na life filled with good works, patient, longsuffering, walking in the footsteps of the great\nMaster and Teacher, and Hke Him broad-minded with a heart large enough to take in\neven the ragged and dirty little specimen of humanity that often becomes transfigured\nunder the genial influence of the teacher's loving care. There are but few samples now\nof Squeers and Ichabod Crane. The great mass of the teachers are trying to lead the\nhigher life and point the way to their pupils.\nThis means far more responsibility than formerly, covering, as it does, not only the\nintellectual but the physical as well. The scope of our work has materially broadened.\nThe child is no longer regarded as a receptacle for the inpouring of a mass of information,\nnew and old, but an immortal soul with unlimited capacities to be developed, who is to be\nbrought into harmony with his environment, with physical powers to be trained, a conscience tobe evolved, and as a future citizen to be fitted for the intelhgent use of his powers\nand privileges. The teacher in an effort to reach the highest results finds it necessary to\nreach out beyond the confines of the schoolroom. As indicated by the excellent paper\npresented by Miss Harris on Monday, we must take the child from the very moment of\nits birth. This cannot mean simply to care for its physical well-being. The little brain\nmust be trained to manage and manipulate the various parts of the body. We must give\nit a healthy body, largely as the best accompaniment of a strong mental equipment. If\nwe are to believe and trust the conclusions drawn by eminent specialists who have made a\nstudy of the functions of the brain, we must conclude that only in working for the harmonious development of mind and body can we meet with any fair measure of success.\nIn The Nervous System of the Child, Francis Walker, M.D., of London, has this to\nsay:\nf\n\"The brain is the physical basis, the seat of mental action such as is expressed in\ngesture, movement, or spoken or written words; further, the action of the brain gives\nvitality to the body, controlling its nutrition as well as the processes of digestion, respiration and circulation.\"\n(Page 5.)\nFurthermore he says:\n*\n\"Teachers see the child in the school in the morning, fresh and active, when he may\nbe quick, eager, and conscientious in work; the parents see him at night, tired, peevish,\nand fretful, as well as disinclined for either food or rest. Observation might soon show\nat what period in the day fatigue signs commence — when, though mental work continues\nunder the stimulus of school surroundings, the brain nutrition begins to decHne.\"\n(Page 7.)\nHe stood for the admission of the child into school at the eariiest possible moment\nbelieving the average teacher to be better fitted than the average parent to direct the child\nin the use of its body and mind. Five years of age is none too young, nor even four.\nHe believed also in longer school hours, rather than shorter, with more rest periods and\nless intensive work. It is not necessary to keep the school in a fever of excitement throughout the session. He would have the pupils active but not anxious. The teacher must\nstudy the nervous temperament of the child and be its guardian in the true sense of the\nterm.\n\n"} {"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE\n\nOVERCROWDED\n\nG. V. BUCHANAN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nCURRICULUM\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSEDALIA,\n\nMO.\n\nThe public-school curriculum of today contains more branches of study and more\ndrills than did that of half a century ago. This fact, taken alone, would suggest a crowded\ncondition.\nTo the elementary-school course of that period there have been added — in response\nto public demand — commonly, elementary algebra or geometry, vocal music (as a branch\nof study), drawing, nature-study, manual training, and civics, with some broadening of\nthe work in English. This addition looks quite formidable but it should be remembered\nthat the length of the school year has been increased, and some important eliminations have\nbeen made from the prescribed work of the old course.\nMuch time and energy are saved to the pupils of the present by the omission of some\nparts of the arithmetic, geography, and history, especially, as not demanded by present\nconditions.\nIn the former branch numerous cases are now commonly left out — notably bank\ndiscount, compound interest, the progressions, and others; and in several cases, such for\nexample as partial payments, equation of payments, and denominate numbers, the longer\nand more perplexing problems are now usually omitted or not positively required. Most\nof this curtailment of work is justified on the ground that it has not now a practical application to life's duties, and that its culture value is obtained from the algebra and geometry.\nThe long and tedious course in arithmetic is thus relieved with no real loss.\nFrom the old-time course in geography, with its taxing lists of facts and names of\nmountains, rivers, and cities, especially in foreign countries, and its large body of encyclopaedic information, liberal omissions are now common. There is also great saving\nhere by use of late improved methods, one of the most marked being the representation\nof statistical information by tinted maps and by colored discs and charts calculated to give\na vivid, instantaneous impression which formerly required much reading and reflection to\nfix in the memory.\nThe present course in United States history contributes largely to the relief by putting\nmuch of its information into statistical form for easy reference, and to lighten the burden\nof the memory; by omitting hundreds of unimportant dates from the lessons, and by\nleaving out all lengthy descriptions of battles except a few of the most important. It seems\nto me that much time is also saved to the pupil by the superior putting of things in our\nmodern texts in history. Child-study has taught us that we may greatly increase the\npupil's capacity for getting, retaining, and using information by securing his interest.\nThis we do by arousing and holding his attention. Acting on this principle, modern\ntextbook writers have succeeded in presenting the drama of American history to the\nchild's liking. One simple device which has attracted general notice is the arrangement\nof the salient facts of each period of our history with some great hero or patriot as the\ncenter. Children are naturally hero-worshipers and this arrangement gives to the whole\nbody of historic facts of his time something of the enchantment possessed by the great\ncentral figure.\nI believe that much time and energy are saved to the pupil by present methods in the\nteaching of reading — coupled with the fact that almost all children now have access to\nan abundance of good books. These conditions make it possible for most pupils to become\nrapid readers and quick to grasp the thought from the printed page. Since most of the\nbranches are gotten by reading, it is easy to see of what vast consequence good reading is\nto the school life of the pupil.\nIt is the opinion of many teachers of large and successful experience that the time\nspent on such educational drills as vocal music, drawing, nature-study, and most of manual\ntraining does not prevent the old time development in the essential branches, but its being\ninterspersed with them forms recreation periods and thus fits the pupils for more effective\n\n"} {"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\n309\n\nwork on these heavier branches. As the recess period is to the body so is the bright,\nspirited drill to the mind.\nIn the high-school curriculum there is little suggestion of crowding, as the number of\nbranches has not been increased in the ratio of the expansion in the number and length\nof courses. Besides, the work has been lightened by pushing civics and elementary algebra\nor geometry into the eighth grade and by omitting certain branches of science — commonly\nphysiology, geology, and astronomy. True biology has been added, but it serves so well\nas an introduction to botany and zoology that it hardly requires the time and effort of an\nadditional branch. Manual training and the commercial branches have also come in,\nbut much of the former serves the same purpose here as in the elementary schools, and\nthe small time it consumes is neutralized by its resting and stimulating effect upon the\npupils. The remainder of manual-training work and all the commercial branches take\ntheir places, usually, in special courses and do not add to the work of the others.\nThe principal addition to the general high-school curriculum is in the extension of\nsuch courses as history, English, and mathematics; but the extension of a branch is\nusually not so taxing to the pupils as the addition of a new one.\nThere seems good ground for beHef that with our present large measure of the laboratory method applied to the sciences we fail to get as much clear, tangible, and satisfying'\nknowledge, in a given time, as was done in the old way. It is possible that this method,\nin the hands of teachers of small experience, so fills the mind with minute details that comprehensive views of the science are not grasped; that pupils finish their study of a science\nwith vague memories of myriads of fragments of truth but no clear vision of a body of\nrelated, essential, scientific knowledge.\nBut, on the whole, I believe it is safe to conclude that the measure of student effort\nnecessary for success in the high school is not now greater than it was half a century\nago; that the curriculum is richer, better adapted to the needs of the masses, and thus\nmore popular and useful.\nThe two principal evils which would result from the overcrowding of the curriculum\nare injury to the health of pupils and lack of such mastery of the branches as gives efficiency and encouragement. These have ever menaced all school work, and it seems to me\nwe have not sufl&cient evidence that they are generally caused by the fulness of the curriculum nor that they are relatively on the increase. We grant tliat the curriculum should\nnot be allowed to outgrow the capacities of a majority of the pupils, yet we should not\nlose sight of the fact that much of it should be only suggestive, should simply open the\ndoors to departments of art and contemplation and research which invite to unlimited\noccupation and growth.\nIf it is true, as many critics insist, that the modern high school produces a smaller\nrelative percentage of pupils who have such a thorough knowledge of the branches as\ngives power and independence in their use; that its product is immature, shallow, and\nunpractical, may it not also be true that the cause is not so much with the curriculum as\nin the environment ? Are there not social and domestic reasons why our boys and girls\nare lacking in high ideals of industry, pluck, and power ? Have our critics compared our\nmodern home, with its exemption from child responsibility, to that of our fathers where\neach had his daily round of duty, and have they philosophized on the effect of this change\nupon the characters of the children ? Have they carefully compared the work, the real\npleasure and the inspiration of the old-time Hterary and debating societies with the frothy\nand giddy fraternities of today, and pondered on the differences in the logical results of\nthese changes ? These are only suggestive of conditions in our modern social life which\nsurely are largely responsible for the lack of faithfulness to duty and responsibility which\nis the most distressing condition in the high school of today. For these conditions which\nseem unfortunate the schools have the smaller share of blame, but are not wholly exempt.\nIf the school had not shirked its responsibility to its literary societies the fraternities would\nnot have been so much in demand.\nThe social life of the country is largely responsible\n\n"} {"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "310\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nand to it we must look for the greater work of restoration, but the schools have a duty here\nwhich they can ill afford to neglect. The home realizes that the school is failing of highest\nresults but does not see the real cause. The school sees the true condition, knows the\nreason, and is in position to suggest the remedy.\nWhile we should be alert to know and meet all just criticisms of the product of the\nschools, we should not be too easily moved by them. Such criticisms have always existed,\nand there never was a time when social and commercial life were making such heavy\ndemands on the schools as in this opening decade of the twentieth century.\nWe may not easily show that our pupils are better prepared for college than were\ntheir parents, but there seems good ground for a substantial belief that they are better\nequipped for living under the conditions which now exist; and this preparation is the\nlarger duty of the public schools.\n\nC.\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENTS\nTOPIC— THE NEED\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\nFOR SPECIAL CLASSES\n\nIS THERE NEED FOR INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR PUPILS UNLIKELY\nTO COMPLETE THE REGULAR ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL COURSE\nA ND GO ON TO THE HIGH SCHOOL ? SHO ULD IT PRO VIDE TRADE\nINSTRUCTION ?\nI.\n\nL. D. HARVEY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nMENOMONIE,\n\nWIS.\n\nBefore attempting to discuss this question it will be well to state the conditions of\nthe problem. In every city of any considerable size there are a large number of children\nwho do not complete the course of study in the elementary schools, but who, for one\nreason or another, leave the schools at an age when they should still continue to receive\ninstruction adapted to their needs and capacities.\nThe recent report of the Massachusetts commission appointed by the governor to\ninvestigate this subject, disclosed the fact that there were twenty-five thousand children\nin that state between the ages of fourteen and sixteen who were not in the pubUc or private\nschools, and that if they were employed in any gainful occupation it was of the lowest\nclass of unskilled labor, commanding a very low rate of wages, and with little or no prospect for advancement to a higher and better-paid class of labor.\nObservation in almost any city will disclose conditions similar to those found to exist\nin that state. These children have left the public schools for a variety of reasons. In\nsome cases it is the result of necessity — the low wage-earning capacity of the parents,\ntheir improvident habits, or the size of the family may make it imperative that these\nchildren shall add their mite for the support of themselves and the other members of the\nfamily. For that reason they are withdrawn from school at an early age when an opportunity isopen for earning even a small pittance per week. Others have left the schools\nbecause of indifference, either on their part or on the part of their parents. They are not\nnterested in the work of the schools; they have no comprehension of the value of an educartion; the immediate opportunity to earn even a few dollars a month appeals to them with\ngreater force than do the problematical benefits of further schooling. In many cases\nthis indifference is due to the fact that the character of work in the elementary schools,\nmaking as it does little or no demand on the motor activities of the child, does not appeal\nto them. They see no value in it as measured by their standard, and they withdraw from\nthe schools frequently when there is no necessity for it and when they do not engage in\nany productive labor. Many of them, who do secure employment, enter upon it under\nconditions which are the worst possible, both for the moral and physical development of\nthe child. From this class a large number of the recruits come for our charitable and\npenal institutions later on. Such a class, lacking in opportunity, hope, and aspiration,\nin an environment most depressing, is a menace to society and to the state. There will\n\n"} {"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n31 T\n\nalways be such a class, but the question which interests those who are concerned with the\nwelfare of society is — How large shall this class be ?\nLooked at from the industrial standpoint, what are the conditions ? The old apprenticeship system is rapidly disappearing, and even where it is still in operation, manufacturers\ndo not want apprentices under sixteen to eighteen years of age. There are few opportunities today for a young person to learn a trade in its entirety, under conditions at\nall favorable, and for the boy under sixteen years of age there are no opportunities.\nThe minute division of labor which has accompanied the development of our manufacturing industries has eliminated many of the trades which, earlier in the industrial\ndevelopment of the country, were a necessity. What was formerly done by one individual\nis now the work of many individuals and complicated machinery. While this has reduced\nthe necessity for the continuance of the old apprenticeship system, it has introduced a class\nof labor in which the individual is trained to do but a single thing and which does not demand\nthe wide range of mental activity and development necessary under the older system,\nnor does it secure the power of initiative on the part of the operative. While the division\nof labor which has accompanied the development of our manufacturing industries has\nresulted in cheaper production, it is coming to be recognized by manufacturers generally\nthat cheapness is not the only essential element in the command of the markets of the\nworld. Quality as well as cheapness is an essential, and quality demands intelligent labor\n— intelligence which goes beyond the mere manipulation necessary in a single process;\nan intelhgence which comprehends the relations between processes, and between processes\nand material; an intelligence which makes it possible for the individual to adapt himself\nto new conditions and to be an effective economic unit under whatever conditions he may\nbe placed.\nManufacturers complain that there is a dearth of men whose training has been sufficiently broad in a particular line of work in which they are engaged to fit them as foremen\nand department superintendents, and they are demanding that some means shall be provided\nto prepare young men more adequately for effectiveness in the industrial field. Manufacturers and men of affairs are awakening to the conditions which exist in some of the\nother countries of the world, especially in Germany, due to the establishment of numerous\ntrade and technical schools, and are recognizing that our educational system makes\nno adequate provision for giving such training, and that with the going-out of the apprenticeship system nothing has been provided to take its place. They have noted the marvelous\nstrides Germany has made in recent years in the industrial world, and have studied the\nreasons and have found them not in the advantages which Germany possesses in raw\nmaterial, in means of transportation, or in other of the material things which we possess\nto a degree far in excess of any other country in the world, but in the development of the\neducational system of Germany on technical and industrial fines, and they are demanding\na modification of our educational system on similar lines.\nIn recent years educators have been studying this problem and a marked change is\nevident in their view of the inadequacy of our present educational system. They are coming to recognize that the fundamental thing in educational effort is to develop the capacity\nto earn a livelihood. Because further development along cultural or other lines is conditioned bythe capacity of the individual to support himself, they are recognizing that this\ndemands the introduction of industrial education in training young people to do something with their hands, as well as to know something of what other people have thought\nand done.\nThe statement of conditions as thus set forth would seem to make imperative the\nnecessity for the establishment of schools in our cities, whose prime purpose shall be to\nfit boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen to earn a living; not to take\nthe place of existing schools, but to furnish an opportunity for the large number of children\nwho do not remain in the schools and who would avail themselves of this opportunity\nif it were afforded, to begin the mastery of some trade and to enable them to secure employ-\n\n"} {"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CUcago\n\nment at a higher wage and with greater opportunities for advancement than is possible\nunder existing conditions.\nThe report of the Massachusetts commission shows that the parents of at least 45\nper cent, of the children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen who withdraw from the\npublic schools would keep them in schools of this class if they were provided, instead of\nallowing them to roam the streets or to engage in the low grade of unskilled labor which\nalone is open to them; and that the parents of 76 per cent, of these children are able to\nkeep them in such schools. From the standpoint of the boy and girl, from the standpoint\nof the manufacturer, and from that of society itself, such a system of schools seems a\nnecessity.\nIn years past there has been some question as to the right, or as to the wisdom, of a\npolicy of providing schools at public expense, whose avowed purpose was to fit the individual to earn a living. Public sentiment upon that question has materially changed in\nrecent years. State institutions are maintained by pubHc taxation, furnishing just this\nclass of instruction on the higher levels of industrial effort. An examination of the right\nof the state to maintain a public-school system fails to disclose any reason why such a\nsystem should be so constituted as to bar what is necessary training for the earning of a\nlivelihood in a particular direction, and instead, to offer what is regarded by some as a\npossible, but which generally proves to be an inadequate, preparation for earning a Uvelihood in any direction. Briefly stated, the state has a right to do whatever is necessary\nfor its well-being and perpetuity; good citizenship is essential for such well-being and\nperpetuity; the fundamental factor of good citizenship is a trained intelligence which\nenables the individual to support himself and those dependent upon him; a school which\nprovides such training and sends out individuals so trained may be supported legitimately\nby pubHc funds. If a large number of the childten of any given community are not having\nopportunities furnished for the training which enables them to meet this necessity, then\nthe state is failing in its duty to itself.\nAt the outset it may be necessary for public-spirited citizens to provide the funds for\nthe establishment of industrial schools wherein can be demonstrated the value of industrial\neducation. Although in a number of states pubHc sentiment is sufficiently advanced to\nhave secured legislation providing for public support of such schools, in localities where\nsuch sentiment does not already exist, private initiative must furnish the object-lesson out of\nwhich an enHghtened public sentiment shall grow.\nFor the class of children under consideration, the trade school is unquestionably the\nkind of school needed — the school in which the individual shall be made master or shall\nmake considerable progress in the mastery of some occupation in which there is a demand\nfor his services. The work should not be exclusively hand work, but should be associated\nwith such related academic work as will be of the greatest value to the individual.\nIt may be felt that there is some danger in the establishment of such schools that they\nwill have a tendency to draw away from the public schools, at an early age, children who,\nunder existing conditions, would remain in them longer. The children who would thus\nbe drawn away are in the main those who will find their life-work in some phase of industrial\neffort. For this class of children there must be provided opportunities farther along in\nwhich they can prepare themselves for the still higher forms of industrial activity. With\nsuch schools provided, there would be little inducement for children to leave the public\nschools who otherwise would remain in them and who see, farther on, opportunities for\nspecific industrial training in various fields.\nThe introduction of manual training, looking distinctively toward the industrial lines\nof development, if made a part of the elementary course of instruction in the cities, would\nundoubtedly awaken an interest which would hold many pupils in school longer than they\nnow remain. It would give them a general training which would make them more efficient\nin the specific work of a trade school, and if carried on through the high school would lay\nthe foundations for a much broader and more effective industrial training than is now\n\n"} {"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n313\n\npossible. It would develop the artistic sense so lacking in the manufacturing field in this\ncountry today. It would give a breadth of mental training not now secured by the public\nschools which confine their efforts to the study of books alone.\nA practical question in the development of trade schools may arise which should\nreceive consideration. By some it is feared that such a movement would be opposed by\nthe labor unions. Even the introduction of manual training has been opposed in some\ncities by such organizations. I do not believe that the best elements in organized labor\nare opposed either to manual training or to the estabHshment of trade schools. A considerable number of the most prominent labor leaders have already committed themselves\nas favorable to the establishment of trade schools. They know that the higher the grade\nof intelligence and the greater the efficiency of the workman, the stronger the position of\norganized labor. The leaders in this movement whose influence is not the mere momentary\ninfluence of the demagogue but the outgrowth of intelligence and wisdom, recognize that\nthe interests of the laborer are closely bound up with the interests of the manufacturer,\nand that whatever can be done to dignify labor and to make it more effective is the course\nof wisdom for both the employer and the employe. It is the sons and daughters of the\nrank and file in the army of labor who are to be benefited personally by the establishment\nof this class of schools.\nThe purpose and place of these schools in the educational system must be made clear.\nThe manufacturer, the public-spirited citizen, the educator, the labor leader, and the\nrank and file of labor must come together for the discussion of this subject. Those\nwho are advocating it must be prepared to present a definite, well-organized plan to show\nto all who are interested that the aim is the bettering of conditions for both employer and\nemploye. When once there is a common ground of understanding, all opposition will\ndisappear, and the trade school will be a strong bond of mutual interest between the laborer\nand the manufacturer.\nII.\n\nF. B. DYER,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCITY\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCINCINNATI\n\nThe problem stated. — Children are usually released from compulsory school attendance\nat fourteen. Many drop out sooner unless there is a vigilant \"attendance department.\"\nCareful investigation shows that in large cities more than one-half of our youth avail\nthemselves of the privilege in their fifteenth year, or almost immediately. Probably onehalf of these do not get beyond the fifth grade. This means that one-fourth of our people\nare practically illiterate, receiving only the education that normal children have at ten\nyears of age.\nThe following statistics are given as a basis for the above statement:\nThe number of children present on the 21st of February, in a large city, with their\nage at their last birthday, was as follows: 12 years old, 3,605; 13 years old, 3,191; 14\nyears old, 2,029; ^5 years old, 1,089. The number 15 years of age were 34 per cent, of\nthe number 13 years of age'. Nearly two-thirds of our pupils leave school in their\nfifteenth year.\nOn the same date the clerk of the Attendance Department looked up the record of\nthe last hundred boys and the last hundred girls, under 15 years of age, who had applied\nfor certificates to work.\nOf those who stopped school at 14 or very shortly thereafter —\n\" \" 4th\n■\" of\" the\n2 per cent,\n\" boys and 2 per cent, of the girls were in\" the\n\" 3d\n5th grade\n9 \"\n218 \"\n29 \"\"\n\n10\n10\n\n\"\n\n2\n\n\"\n\na\n\n<<\n\n(c\n\nc'(\n\n<<\n\n<(\n\na\n\na\n\nu\n\nci\n\n((\n\n11\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\nIt will be seen that over\n\n'\n'\n\n\"\n\"\n\nIS\n37\n\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\n'\n'\n\n\"\n\"\n\n16\n8\n\n\"\n'■'\n\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\n'\n\n\"\n\n20\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n\"\n\n'\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n6th\n7th\n8th\nHigh\n\n\"\n2\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\nSchool\n50 per cent, of those who stopped at 14, got no farther than\n\nthe 5th grade, and 25 per cent, more reached only the 6th grade.\n\n"} {"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nThe reasons for stopping may be classified under two heads: necessity and inclination, and the latter is probably more general and fundamental than the former; for when\nthe incUnation to stop is strong, the necessity can readily be demonstrated.\nWhether these statistics are representative or not (and I believe they are), all will\nconcede that our great cities are permitting to develop a large proletariat whose rule is\nking mob. Many of these youths take minor positions, which they soon outgrow; but\nthey get no farther, for they are fitted for nothing better. There is danger of their becoming loafers at i8, and criminals at 20. If they go into the factories they are likely to make\npoor, incompetent workmen ; the modern factory system scarcely allows of apprentices,\nand in the few remaining trades such apprentices are neglected, and the quality of the\nwork degenerates. An industrial system that is largely recruited from the illiterate and\nincompetent, with no means of self-improvement, will not long be able to compete with\nthe systems of other countries, whose rank and file are skilled and intelligent artisans,\nelaborately trained in the theory and practice of their special vocations.\nSomething may be done in our present school system to remove the inclination of\nyouth to leave, by the introduction of manual courses that will make it seem to them worth\nwhile to continue. Something may be done for backward children, as will be brought out\nin another topic on this program, but the problem will remain : What can be done for the\ngreat number of ilHterate and inefficient youth who are scarcely touched by our educational\nsystem ?\nEvening school as a method of solution. — The evening schools are doing something,\nand in the expansion of their work lies the readiest method of attacking the problem.\nAbove all others, the teachers of our evening schools should be chosen for their sympathy,\nenthusiasm, and teaching ability, from the most capable people available. Enough\nteachers should be clustered at a center to permit a fairly close classification of students.\nA continuous course should be offered in the essentials from the sixth elementary grade\nthrough the four years of high school. The latter course should be sufficient to admit to\nprofessional schools. This has been accomplished in some cities in a way more or less\nsatisfactory, usually the latter. Attendance is irregular and capricious, depending upon\nthe magnetism of the teacher.\nBut the larger number of youths do not respond at all to such instruction. In many\ninstances they have left school to escape it. They are at work in factories and business\nhouses. The only thing that appeals to them is help in their immediate and imminent\nneeds. They do not care to read, unless it is in close relation to what they do; to study\nmathematics, unless it applies closely to their vocation; to attend to civic instruction\nunless it has a bearing upon their own civic and business relations. What they do care\nfor is an industrial course consisting of the principles of industrial work and industrial\nart, and their practical application, leading up and finally applied to their own vocation.\nThe same with suitable modifications may be said of commercial instruction.\nThe evening school at best is a mixed blessing. The child of 14 who works all day,\nprobably beyond his strength, is often not in fit condition for prolonged mental effort at\nnight. The time is too meager to accompHsh much. Capable instructors in technical\nsubjects outside of usual school teaching are hard to find. The conventional schoolroom is not a suitable laboratory, and cities are not frantic to equip special buildings for\nnight use only. Especially will such a system be very imperfect so long as attendance\nis optional with the student and unsupported by the state.\nIn spite of these objections, however, I believe that every large city should give immediate\nattention to the expansion of the evening school, and the differentiation- and development\nof its industrial, commercial, domestic, and general course, in a manner not yet attempted\nin any American state. Out of this will almost certainly evolve and arise an industrial\nand trade-school system such as the needs demand. The rapid increase of manualtraining high schools prepares the way.\nThe evoliUion of industrial schools in other countries. — The evolution of a system of\n\n"} {"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n315\n\nindustrial education may be studied in almost any state of northern Europe. In Baden,\nfor example, children may go to work at the age of 14, but must continue their schooling\nuntil 16, when they must enter a trade school in which they are engaged in industrial\noccupations.\nThe continuation schools were at first evening schools, somewhat like our own,\nbut many of them developed later into industrial evening schools. Some of these were\nopened during the day, and employers released their boys for certain hours to attend\nthem. The employers soon found it preferable to take boys who had completed their\npreliminary training, and many of the continuation schools became general industrial\nday schools.\nTrade schools have existed there for generations, supported by trade organizations,\nas the guilds have ever been solicitous for their apprentices and ambitious to improve\ntheir skill and ability, and thus increase the prestige of their guild. But with the rise of\nmodern industries and the development of industrial continuation schools, the trade\nschools multiplied everywhere, taking the youth after their general industrial education\nand fitting them for their special vocations. As the need for such schools was shown, the\ncity supported them, and the state granted one-half the running expenses. With this aid\nmost of the trade schools and many of the general industrial elementary schools became\nday as well as evening schools, and a state school for training teachers for those special\nschools was established.\nFive years ago Baden, with the population of Chicago, supported 200 evening schools,\nof which 96 were general industrial schools, 28 were primary commercial schools, 36 were\ndomestic science schools, and the others general continuation schools. Forty-six industrial schools were also day schools. These schools prepare the way for the trade schools,\nwhich are open to those who are 16. Every city must have at least one continuation school,\nand every boy must attend either an industrial or commercial continuation school (either\nday or evening) for two years after completing the common-school course, unless he goes\non to the higher schools.\nGeneral industrial schools necessary. — From a study of foreign systems it appears that\ngeneral industrial schools should be opened in our cities. These should admit pupils 14\nyears of age upon very easy terms as regards scholarship.\nThose who have not completed their elementary schooling (who, you will remember,\nwill constitute three-fourths of the attendance) should continue in the most essential\nstudies, but their promotion should depend almost wholly upon their advancement in\nindustrial work. Attendance, either in day or evening schools, should be compulsory\nuntil 16, except as excused by central authority. (I beHeve this is now the law in New\nYork.)\nTrade organizations should agitate the opening of trade schools, to specialize the\nwork of the student after 16. They should take the initiative and, I believe will, if it is\nproperly brought to their attention. The trade school in some form will come shortly\nto every city. The whole country is looking with interest upon the experiment in public\ntrade schools just begun in Philadelphia, and to the outcome of the report of the Connecticut commission, recommending the opening of a general elementary industrial\nschool in every city, one-half of the support to be given by the state. A similar report in\nMassachusetts is awaiting action. A National Society for the Promotion of Industrial\nEducation is at work. The President of the United States has sent a message to Congress upon the subject. Recent consular reports show conclusively that the prestige of\nAmerican industries will rapidly decline unless our educational systems are expanded.\nOur doctrinaires who decry the education of youth to make a living have long held the\nfield, but perhaps they have not seen the whole truth. It is possible that there may be\nsome culture and much character- building in a serious training to earn an honest livelihood.\nBetter for the submerged Jialf of our youth an education that will produce intelligent and\ncompetent artisans than no education.\n\n"} {"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i6\nAT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nWHAT\nC.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSHOULD THE UNGRADED SCHOOL AIM AND\nCLASS OF PUPILS SHOULD IT PROVIDE?\nR.\n\nFRAZIER,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWINONA,\n\nFOR\n\n[Chicago\nWHAT\n\nMINNESOTA\n\nThe insane asylum, the prison, the schools for the blind, the deaf, and the feeble\nminded are institutions which have grown out of the needs of society in caring for its\nabnormal members. The state has provided, equipped, and maintained these institutions generously, but while this has been doing, society has been intent upon a study of the\ncauses of these abnormahties and the means of reducing their number, and if possible*\npreventing them altogether. Important and necessary as are these corrective agencies,\nno one questions the greater importance of preventive measures such as will reduce the\ntendency to the abnormal and give positive direction along the hues of normal development, thus giving to society as a valuable asset that which would otherwise become a public\ncharge and a menace.\nThere are in the schools and among the school population of every city, irregular,\nbackward, incompetent, and incorrigible children. They are the abnormal elements of\nthe school. The parental school, the special disciplinary school, and the ungraded room\nare the agencies that have been provided to correct these abnormal tendencies, and it is\nperhaps well enough to inquire what measures are being taken to prevent development of\nthese special cases which are so difficult to deal with. Except where ungraded schools have\nbeen allowed to become mere disciplinary schools, they have aimed to take care temporarily of (i) foreign children of some maturity, but unacquainted with the English language; (2)those who have attended an ungraded rural school and have advanced unevenly\nin their studies; (3) those who because of irregular attendance or physical deficiency have\nfallen behind their grade, and finally (4) those who because of failure, due to discouragement and lack of ambition, need special individual attention. The number of those who\nfall into the first and second classes is small in most communities; the number of those\nwho fall into the third class is larger, and the number of those who fall into the fourth\nclass is still larger. The cases arising under numbers one, two, or three are probably\nnot preventable. In most cases those falling under number four are preventable, but the\nsame measures which are preventive for the discouraged or unambitious class will be\ncorrective for the pupils of the first three classes, i. e., those who are irregular thru no fault\nof their own.\nIf we shall bend our energies toward reducing the number of pupils per teacher and\ntoward arranging programs which give time for individual instruction and supervision\nof study, we can, in most communities, at least, relieve ourselves of the necessity of establishing and maintaining ungraded classes. The mass teaching of the modern school\nresults in the teacher losing sight, until too late, of the pecuHar difficulties of the individual\nchild. A few days of failure and neglect leaves him in an indifferent and perhaps hopeless\nattitude. The tedious process of long-drawn-out torture often administered to an embarrassed pupil who is much more conscious of the scrutinizing attention of the teacher and\nclassmates than he is of his own powers of thought, causes him to suffer agonies of embarrassment and perhaps humiliation, and the remainder of the class to become disgusted\nwith the waste of time involved in trying to teach an individual something that they\nalready understand. It is undoubtedly true that in just such ways as this many pupils\nare lost to the normal development of which they are capable and soon become abnormal\ncharges upon the school and the home.\nIn some good schools the special-help hour at the close of the day, in other good\nschools the special help of a second teachet provided for this purpose, and in many schools,\none form and another of special provision for individual help and supervision of study has\nbeen provided, but this is not at all general. Every school program for the middle and\nupper grades should make adequate provision for individual instruction and supervision\nof study.\nIt has been found an excellent plan in some rooms to reduce the number of\n\n"} {"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n317\n\nclass recitations by half, the pupils spending the time thus saved to the teacher in study\nunder her supervision. Much of the individual instruction and testing is thus done during\nthe study period, leaving the recitation time for the consideration and development of the\nmain issues involved in the lesson. The study period in one subject may alternate with\nthe recitation period on the same day, or an entire day may be given up to study except as\nbroken by lessons in writing, drawing, music, etc., the next day being given up to recitations.\nIn either case, the teacher not only has an opportunity to furnish a little help or stimulus at\nthe initial point of difficulty, but she has a grand opportunity for teaching pupils how to\nstudy, thus gaining power over subject-matter and control over themselves, which keeps\nthem in the line of normal development. Under this system the number of deUnquents is\nreduced to the minimum. Pupils become conscious of power, and teachers feel that composure and poise which come from a knowledge that they now have time to do the thing\nwhich they had always wished to do but could not.\nThe writer has greater confidence in such arrangements as shall give the teacher\nan opportunity to give to special cases the attention which they need in the regular schoolroom, than he has in the special schools for special classes. When adequate provision is\nmade for individual instruction and attention, either upon any of the plans suggested\nabove or by other means or devices, it is believed that there will be very little need for the\nungraded school, and less need than at present for the disciplinary or parental school.\nThe positive thing done at the right time is much better than the corrective thing done\nwhen compelled by necessity.\nIn Winona an ungraded school was maintained for two years with a special teacher\nand with manual-training equipment, but the school soon came to be known as the truant\nschool, the bad boys' school, etc., and the stigma attached to membership therein neutralized its usefulness and led the school authorities to discontinue it, a policy in which principals and teachers concurred. It was decided that these special cases would better be\ntaken care of in the regular schoolrooms. This latter policy has been persisted in for\nfour years with results which we think justify its continuance in our particular community.\nCorrespondence with superintendents in different educational centers develops the\nfact that other communities have had a similar unfavorable experience with ungraded\nschools. One city which maintains at the present time both truant schools and ungraded\nschools, but keeps them distinct and separate, nevertheless finds pupils and parents\nregarding the ungraded school as odious and the superintendent of these schools expresses\nhimself as dissatisfied with the results of the experiment with the ungraded school. On\nthe other hand, several superintendents of important school systems report ungraded\nschools working well and still more express their intention of establishing such schools\nsoon.\nEven when every effort is made to prevent irregularities in the development of pupils\nand after every possibility for providing individual attention in the regular schools has been\nexhausted, there still may exist in some communities a need for the special ungraded\nschools. Granted that such schools are needed, it will require no argument to establish\nthe aim of such a school as being simply and solely to care for the intellectual needs of\npupils, who, for one cause or another aside from conduct, are unable to classify with\nregular classes. If the ungraded room undertakes to become a reformatory for incorrigibles and truants, or even if it is allowed to get the name of being such an institution,\nthe very aim and purpose for which it is instituted must necessarily be defeated, for a\nchild or a parent with even a small degree of pride will resent such a classification; it\ncomes to smack too much of reformatory and prison. It would seem, then, to be clear\nthat the aim should be to take care only of those whose failure has been intellectual rather\nthan moral and to avoid scrupulously the sending of pupils into these classes whose reputations with their fellows is bad from the standpoint of conduct. Teachers recommending\npupils for assignment to the ungraded room should avoid giving the impression that such\nan assignment is disgraceful in any way.\nThe teacher of the ungraded room should be a\n\n"} {"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nman or woman of attractive personality, versatile in devices, whole-souled, and optimistic. He should have good insight into child nature and be skilful at diagnosing cases\nsent him and able to base his treatment of a case upon an intelhgent understanding of it.\nHe must not be expected to deal with large numbers as his instruction is, in the very\nnature of the case, individual; probably fifteen pupils are as many as any one teacher\nshould attempt to handle at a time. He should assume and have his pupils feel that they\nare there temporarily for a special effort in which they are to have the help and sympathy\nof a competent teacher. While to some few he may have to play the role of taskmaster\nbecause they are unable to understand any higher language, for the most part, he will be\nthe skilful and inspiring helper, desiring to co-operate in every way with the pupil for the\naccomplishment of a recognized purpose.\nAnother aim of the ungraded school, perfectly consistent and with the advantage of\nbeing positive, is to enable pupils who have the capacity, the health, and maturity, to do\nsome special study under direction, make up a grade, and pass into a higher class. The\nbright child has his natural rights as well as the slower child, and that often means the\nright of advancing a grade ahead of his class, but there is danger in the so-called \"skipping\"\nof grades. The ungraded school enables the bright child, in a short time, to master the\nessentials in the work between his class and the next one instead of skipping them. Allowing\npupils of this kind who are well known to be strong in scholarship to have membership\nin the ungraded school will do more than anything else to remove the curse of belonging\nto the ungraded school. It becomes a place for the bright and the dull student alike.\nIf the ungraded room can come to have the name of being in existence for the purpose of\ngiving special opportunity to the forward and backward pupil alike, and if it can be kept\ndisassociated in the minds of pupils and parents from anything in the nature of a reformatory, itcan no doubt be made a blessing to many communities. Nevertheless the advisability of establishing and maintaining ungraded rooms in any system of schools should not\nbe conceded until every possible effort to render them unnecessary has been exhausted.\n\nDISCUSSION\nW. L. Stevens, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Neb. — i. The aim. — For the\nmost part pubHc provision for backward children is institutional in character. This plan\nis defective because many of these children cannot or should not be removed from home.\nCompetition and companionship are as valuable to these children as to normal children.\nInstitutionalism may prevent progress or produce degeneracy, leading to the almshouse\nor the prison. The aim, therefore, of the ungraded class should be to make out of the\nbackward child a self-supporting member of society. It is not a question of inculcating\neducational facts but of getting an educational grasp of the child.\nA secondary aim is to relieve the regular class teacher of certain classes of pupils\nwhose presence in the room demands an undue amount of the teacher's time and strength.\n2. The pupils for which th'e ungraded room should provide. — i. Defective children:\nthose who can profit little from the ordinary methods of instruction. Learning thru the\nsenses.\nLearn to do by doing.\n2. Backward children: those who have entered school several years later than usual,\nor those who are dull but who can profit by the usual methods provided they are given\nmore time and much individual attention.\nManual training.\n3. Disciplinary classes for those who are seemingly incorrigible, whose presence in\nthe ordinary classroom makes teaching difl&cult and even impossible. Essential subjects.\nMilitary drill.\n4. Foreign children, who need instruction in language to make classroom work\nintelligible.\nLincoln's best field children.\n3. The need of specially trained teachers, and of expert medical inspection. The\nabnormal child responds readily to proper stimuli when placed in congenial and well-\n\n"} {"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n319\n\nregulated environment and will develop toward true and self-controlled manhood and\nwomanhood.\n4. Results.\nHenry P. Emerson, superintendent of schools, Buffalo, N. Y. — I wish to say a few\nwords relative to the opposition to technical education on the part of labor unions, and\nthe best practical way of dealing with such opposition. Buffalo is a rather conservative\ncity, and up to twelve years ago had done absolutely nothing in the way of manual or any\nspecial training in the public schools. Since 1895, however, manual training has been\ngradually extended and perfected in the grades. Three years ago the nucleus of an advance\nschool for technical training was begun in a grammar-school building which was no longer\nneeded for elementary work. About two months ago I recommended that the city make\nprovision of a new building for the technical high school. This precipitated a discussion\nof the whole question and brought out whatever opposition existed to technical education.\nAt a public hearing several men who professed to represent organized labor opposed the\nrecommendation on the ground that the school was designed to produce strike-breakers\nand was favored by manufacturers for this reason. Thereupon, the principal of the\nschool invited some of the most influential of the so-called labor leaders to visit the school\nand make themselves famiHar with its work and aims. They were induced to remain long\nenough and to make the inspection thoro enough to understand what was going on.\nThe result was that most of the visitors confessed that they had entertained unwarranted\nopinions about the school. In short, they were converted, and as a result of their change\nof heart the United Trades and Labor Council officially indorsed the proposition to erect\nand equip a new building for the school. I have related this bit of actual history in order\nto show that it is often better to get into touch with opponents of our plans and reason with\nthem rather than to keep at a distance and hurl philippics against them.\nClarence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y. — The question\npresented by Mr. Frazier calls for a discussion of the interests of the individual pupil.\nTheoretically we class pupils as precocious, normal, slow, backward, and defective. As\na matter of fact these divisions are for the most part imaginary and one class passes by\ninsensible gradations into another. At some point every child is an abnormal child, and\nneeds especial assistance and direction at a given point. If this principle were generally\naccepted we should be more careful to study each child and to have at hand a diagnosis\nthat would assist us in directing his interests.\nThe various suggestions that have been made for the treatment of the slow, the backward, and the defective all have their practical bearing and value. Every item of suggestion may be carried into practical effect at some point. For example, a teacher should\nalways be willing to assist a child in need of such assistance out of school hours. She\nshould have in mind the particular and probable need of such a child at all times. She\nshould instinctively, by the unerring instinct of her sex, watch his recitation and his study,\nand provide the needed assistance at the critical moment.\nOn the other hand it is to my mind a mistake to prescribe as a cure for all evils the\n\"after-school\" theory. Just as serious a mistake would it be to prescribe what has been\nexploited as the \"individual\" method of assisting the slow pupil. As a system either of\nthese is insufficient and will break down in practice.\nAs a matter of fact the individual may be reached and often is by an expert teacher\nquite as effectively in the class recitation as by the so-called \"individual\" method. Such\na skilled teacher will so direct her questions, so present the elements of the recitation in\nconcrete form that even the slowest child may at least during a part of each general recitation be stimulated far more successfully than by any individual scheme. A skilled\nteacher will thus accomplish wonders with the slowest pupil and promote every member of\nher class. This fact may be studied most effectively in the work of the successful teacher\nin the first grade where practically she never fails to advance every child.\n\n"} {"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nIn addition to these various so-called schemes of reaching the individual we must of\ncourse provide special classes, which is only another way of grouping pupils according to\ntheir need and ability and present attainment.\nThis leads me to say what I most desire to express in connection with this discussion.\nWe should recognize some general principles in connection with this most vital question.\nFor indeed it is of central importance to our system that the lock-step be broken, that the\nindividual be reached, and yet that we preserve enough of unity and organization to make\nour work economical and effective.\nThe first of these general principles is in brief that we should ever seek for frequent\nadjustment. This adjustment should be made in the organization of the schoolroom as\na whole. In every schoolroom there should be at least two working groups, and in the\nlower grades this number may be increased profitably to three or four or more if the\nschool is very large.\nThere are two advantages patent in the grouping system. One is that the teacher\nby such a division as the grouping system is enabled to reach successfully practically every\npupil in class recitation. Even if at the outset forty or fifty pupils appear to be well graded\nthey quickly and inevitably drift apart and demand variety of treatment by the teacher.\nAgain on the group plan each pupil has an opportunity for independent, quiet study\nat his desk, which is likely to be wholly lacking if the pupils recite in mass. There is the\nadded advantage that the nervous strain of the constant attention required in recitation is\nrelieved. This division into groups makes it possible for the easy and natural transfer\nof pupils from one section to another if they forge ahead or fall behind in their work.\nSuch transfer or adjustment should be frequent and a matter of course if the necessity\narises.\nAgain classes for backward, defective, or non -English-speaking foreigners should be\norganized temporarily wherever and whenever called for. It may indeed be well to have\none or more permanent centers for such pupils in any city or section of a larger city, but\nwe should never wait for the slow-moving process of such possible centers. If a group of\na half-dozen such pupils appears in a given building more provision should be made for\nthis group. If for a small school, principals may be asked to give considerable time\nand attention to these pupils. In the promotions it may be possible to leave a smaller\nnumber of pupils in a given room in order that this group may there receive special attention from the teacher in charge. Such a group may be provided for temporarily by a\nteacher added to the force for this occasion and for a Hmited time. In other words if the\nneed of this local group is upon our minds and if it is our earnest purpose to provide\nsuitable instruction, we may find a way to accomplish this end, and the superintendent,\nsupervisor, principal, and the teaching force of the building should co-operate in meeting\nsuch emergency.\nFurthermore, after a recent experience which was my first with the semi-annual\npromotion, I am ready to recommend most earnestly this theory for general use. If\npupils are advanced twice in the year a general adjustment to the needs of all pupils can\nbe much more successfully attained, and the need of the backward can certainly be met\nmore satisfactorily. If a pupil is left behind his mates for an entire year his loss morally\nand intellectually is almost irreparable. It goes without saying that this loss is minimized\nmaterially under the system of semi-annual promotions.\nTo review briefly: Any theory of deaUng with the individual is faulty when it attempts\nto prescribe definitely a single method to be followed. The time, the place, the school,\nthe child, the teacher, the environment, all these must influence the application of the\ntheory if we are to accomplish results most helpful to the system and to the individual\nand to the community.\nGeorge A. Chamberlain, principal, East Division High School, Milwaukee. —\nAmong the reforms recently introduced in the Milwaukee school system is the half-hourhelp period at the end of the school day.\nThe attitude of pupils toward this help-hour\n\n"} {"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n321\n\ndepends upon the tact of his teacher and principal.\nIn schools where the \"help\" phase\nis emphasized, the pupils do not think of \"staying after school.\"\nWith regard to the ungraded room, I feel that its reputation will depend upon the\nteachers. Let the strategic time when several pupils can be helped to gain a grade by the\naid of such a room be utiHzed to start the experiment. Then the attention of the pupils\nwill be directed to the advantage of membership in the ungraded room rather than to any\ndisgrace.\nThe ungraded room will then find a warm welcome among the pupils.\n\nTHE\n\nSEPARATION\nOF PHYSICALLY\nCHILDREN FROM THE\nC. G. PEARSE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nAND\nMENTALLY\nREGULAR SCHOOL\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nDEFECTIVE\nWIS.\n\nI think it will not be denied that children who depart somewhat from the normal\nor regular type should be kept and taught with normal children so far as is possible without\ninjustice to the children who are normal and without failing to give such instruction as is\nnecessary to those children who depart, either physically or mentally, from the normal.\nWherever those children who are somewhat different from the usual normal child can be\nkept as a part of the school community, wherever they can be educated by the usual\nmethods and under usual conditions, wherever they can learn to maintain themselves and\ncare for themselves in the presence and company of others who are normal, it is most\ndesirable that they shall have the opportunity to do so. But certain children depart so\nfar from the normal through lack of certain of the senses by which education and knowledge\nof the outside world are acquired, or through lack of the necessary intellectual strength\nto receive profitably this knowledge from outside by means of the senses and to classify\nand organize such knowledge, that some separation for certain definite classes seems\nadvisable. This is true not only for the sake of children who are normal and who might be\nhampered in their progress if the teacher were required at the same time to attempt to care\nfor the children who are not normal, but also for the sake of the non-normal children who\nunder such conditions would fail to receive certain special and skilled instruction which\nis indispensable to their most favorable development.\nAmong those children who should certainly be separated thus from normal children for\na considerable portion of their earlier school life would be children who are deaf. These\nchildren, through their lack of hearing, are unable to acquire the usual knowledge and arts\nof Hfe through the usual instrumentaHties. They must have specially trained and skilful\nteachers who know their pecuHar needs and can minister to them; methods peculiarly\nadapted to their condition must be used in their instruction — methods which cannot be\nvery well carried on in the presence of classes of normal children without great disturbance\nto the children who are normal and great embarrassment to the children who are deaf.\nThese facts have been thoroughty estabHshed by the experiments which have been made\nin the conduct of special day schools for deaf children. However, when these children\nhave made considerable progress and have learned to speak and to read the lips of those\nwho speak to them, with sufficient skill, they may, perhaps at the high-school age, be\ntransferred to the usual classes in the high schools and do, in most respects, the work\nwhich other students of their age are able to do.\nIt will be generally agreed, I believe, that children who are bHnd or whose vision is\nseriously defective must be taught in different classes or schools, at least for a considerable\nportion of the time in the earlier years of their school life. These children, as is the case\nwith children who are deaf, require different school appliances, skilled and specially\ntrained teachers, and the use of methods which cannot well be carried on in the presence\nof the usual classes without disturbance to these classes and embarrassment of the children\nthus specially aflflicted. As the children who lack good vision advance in their studies\nthey may gradually assume their places in the regular school classes — at first for a part\nand later for most of their school instruction.\nThey will for a long time require special\n\n"} {"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nhelp in study and in the preparation of their lessons. This must be given by teachers\nspecially trained to teach the blind. But after the earlier years of separate instruction they\nwill gradually acquire the ability to mingle and work with the normal members of the\nschool upon a more and more nearly equal basis.\nIn some cities schools for crippled children have been established. It may be that\nfor certain classes of crippled children such separate schools are desirable. It is possible\nthat children who are crippled so as to be almost constantly in pain, whose nervous sys\ntems are more or less shattered by the sufferings they have endured and do endure day by\nday, or children who lack even reasonable control of their bodies or their limbs owing to\nparalysis or similar afflictions, or children whose physical misfortunes are such as to render\nthem unsightly or loathsome in appearance, should be segregated from other children in\nrooms where special freedom can be allowed them, special appliances if needed can be\nprovided for them, and special help such as they may require can be given. But where\nchildren are not seriously crippled, where they are defective only to the extent of an arm\nor a leg, or have such minor physical misfortunes as do not deprive them of reasonable\nphysical strength and activity, it seems far better that they should remain members of the\nregular classes. They must, after leaving school, become members of the community,\nwhere they will be in competition with and will constantly meet people who are normal.\nThe training they get in school, meeting such pupils in the competition of the classroom\nand the playground, is a valuable exercise for them in preparing for the work of life. The\nlittle courtesies and the consideration which can and ought to be shown them by the other\npupils of the school offer, also, excellent training for the children who are normal. For\nthese reasons it seems to me that only the seriously crippled or incapacitated or the\nunsightly ought, on account of their crippled condition, to be segregated in separate\nschools.\nFor the remaining class, those who are mentally defective, the interests both of normal\nchildren who would otherwise be kept in their company and the interests of the mentally\ndefective children themselves would require that they be put into special classes where\nthey may have such consideration, such freedom from conventional methods, such special\nappliances, and such specially skilled and sympathetic teachers as their unfortunate condition requires. It is especially important that these children should have every opportunity\nfor the training of the hands. Often the sluggish or undeveloped intellect may be stimulated or developed through the work of the hands. The peculiar nervousness which\nthese children often show, the perverseness which often characterizes them, when subjected to the usual school methods or conditions may, in a multitude of instances, be\navoided by placing them under the care of properly skilled teachers and under proper\nschoolroom conditions.\nIt is unfortunately true that many of these mentally defective children cannot be so\neducated as to become self-directing, self-sustaining members of the community. They\nmay be trained to certain useful arts, to certain habits of industry; they may become\nuseful workers in various lines under wise direction ; but great numbers of them will never\nbe able to become self-controlled, self-directing, self-supporting citizens. Special work\nin these special classes will go far to cultivate in them habits of industry and good conduct,\nsome industrial skill, and finally a good disposition toward the community and toward\nthose with whom they must work and upon whom they must be dependent for direction\nand suggestion if not for care and support.\nTHE\n\nSEPARATION\nOF THE INSUBORDINATE AND\nINCORRIGIBLE\nCHILDREN FROM THE REGULAR SCHOOL\nW.\n\nC. MARTINDALE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nDETROIT,\n\nMICH.\n\nInstead of \"The Separation of the Insubordinate and Incorrigible Children from the\nRegular School,\" my choice of title, if I had had the selection, would have been, \"Separating Children from Their Insubordination and Incorrigibility.\"\n\n"} {"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n323\n\nUnder the head \"Duties of Teachers\" the first rule in the Manual of the Detroit\nBoard of Education reads as follows:\n\"It shall be the duty of teachers to practice such discipUne in their schools as would\nbe exercised by a wise and judicious parent in his family — always firm and vigilant, but\nprudent.\"\nThe traditional pohcy of the Detroit schools is in line with this conception of the\nrelation between teacher and pupil; and the same spirit, I believe, is manifest in our\ntreatment of the problem of insubordinate and incorrigible children.\nThe question of the separation of this class of children from the regular school and of\ntheir treatment in special schools is a broad one, involving, as it does consideration of\nmental and physical pecuUarities and of environment. However, I shall treat the subject\nlargely from the side of administration.\nI will say first that the maximum number of children to a teacher in the ordinary\nschoolroom is at present too large. In our School for the Deaf the average number of\npupils to a teacher is five; in our special rooms for backward children it is eleven, and in\nungraded rooms, nineteen. The maximum number of seats in an elementary room\nshould not exceed forty, if the average teacher is to know something about individual\npupils. With forty pupils established as the maximum number, I can see the teacher\nwith time for an occasional long breath, with time to regain her elasticity, with an opportunity to retain her poise. The incorrigibles and insubordinates — these being but relative\nterms — have already begun to disappear.\nIn the second place, teachers should avoid helping to make incorrigibles of average\nchildren. A case in point may make this clear. John, six years old, was brought to\nschool by his elder brother, but could not be kept there except by force and had to be\nsent home. His sister brought him back, but John cried to go home. He would give no\nreason for his attitude. It seemed impossible to pacify him and he was allowed to go home\nagain. Then his brother and sister told the principal that their mother wanted John to\nbe whipped in order to compel him to remain in school. Finally, after several days, the\nmother came with John and reiterated the demand that he be whipped. The principal\nreplied that John would be made welcome at school if he came but he added, \"I will not\nwhip John.\" When John heard this he said, \"Will you for sure not whip me ?\" Upon\nbeing assured that he would not be whipped, he volunteered the remark that he would come\nto school, and so he did regularly from that time on. School had been represented to him\nas a place of punishment and if the teacher had fallen in with this view John might have\nbecome incorrigible like some of his older brothers. The principal's action was guided\nby some knowledge of John's environment.\nThe importance of physiology and of environment cannot be overestimated in dealing\nwith children who are physically and mentally normal. In deahng with those who for\nvarious reasons are unable to profit by ordinary schoolroom instruction, such knowledge\nis absolutely indispensable. Some children are bom into this world so handicapped that\nthey require for their salvation the wisest and the kindest treatment. And yet those who\nneed such treatment most are often least likely to receive it.\nIn Detroit our aim is to study the environment of each child, and his physical peculiarities and deficiencies receive special consideration.\nIt is often found that what has appeared to be incorrigibleness in a boy has\nresulted from causes which a Httle investigation has served to remove. To illustrate:\nA boy, fourteen years old, in the eighth grade of an elementary school, had long been a\ntrial to his teachers. One day when the boy had been sent to the principal for disorderly\nconduct it came out in the course of questioning that being a late riser he frequently left\nhome without breakfast. The result showed that the boy's nervous irritability and\ntendency to sulks and tantrums were largely due to this cause. For some time he was\nallowed to go home to reUeve his hunger when a recurrence of his trouble seemed imminent,\n\n"} {"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nbut he himself was anxious to overcome the difficulty, and with the aid of teachers and\nparents finally succeeded. Certainly such treatment of the case was preferable to expulsion.\nThis case is merely cited as a type of so-called insubordination. Eye strain and\nsHght difficulty in hearing are also prolific sources of irritability and teachers should be\nobservant and considerate in discovering and allowing for such slight physical defects in\npupils.\nThat there is a close relation between insubordination and arrested mental development is axiomatic. Before special provision was made for just such cases, it sometimes\nhappened that a child entered school at five or six years of age and remained for two or\nthree years in the same class, without yielding to ordinary educational methods. For this\nclass of children found in the kindergarten and lower elementary grades, special rooms for\nbackward children were established in Detroit some years ago. Insubordination is considered as incident to deficiency. The rooms are not established for the permanent care\nof cases of arrested development but for the sole purpose of bridging over a certain period\nin the lives of those children who need individual assistance which cannot be given in\nregular classrooms.\nThe Day School for the Deaf is another factor in relieving the regular grade-rooms\nof a class of pupils, who under ordinary conditions are a great worry to teachers. This\nschool is established under a state law by which the city receives a certain amount from\nthe state for each pupil attending the school. The law extends the same privilege to all\nschool districts establishing schools of at least three pupils.\nThe time and effort given by a superintendent to secure such laws -as the one under\nwhich our Day School for the Deaf is organized may seem to some of you a dissipation of\nenergy; it does not seem so to me. We are thus enabled to remove a class of pupils whose\nposition has been heretofore pathetic. Attending the regular schools as they did, they\ntvere looked upon by other children as \"queer,\" and many were classed as incorrigible.\nThis probably seems a tame old story to many of you, but I claim that when those\npupils with physical defects have been sifted out, the greater part of the old-time incorrigibles disappear. The teacher now has opportunity to look more carefully after the\nneeds of the remaining pupils and is able to supply the very bright ones, mischievous\nbecause of lack of proper employment, with work suited to their needs and abilities. If\nshe happens to have in her room a child ordinarily quite normal, but subject, at intervals,\nto a volcanic flaming-up of what can only be described as \" cussedness, \" she is able to\nstudy his case and to get hold of him through a systematic strengthening of his better\nimpulses.\nAlthough I beheve that no child properly trained is incorrigible, I realize that the\nproper method of training is not always easily discoverable, and that segregation is unavoidable inlarge city systems.\nThere remain now to be considered those actually classed as incorrigible and insubordinate. Inaddition to these, there is an unclassified contingent who, for various reasons,\nare dissatisfied and ready to avail themselves of the first opportunity which offers relief\nfrom the restraint of the schoolroom. This last class includes boys who have left private\nschools either before or after completing the courses offered there; boys who have gone\nto work but have not found work so attractive as they had pictured it and have no alternative but to. return to school; and boys whose \"occupation in the streets\" has been\nterminated by the law and who are compelled to return to school.\nTo all these boys the regular school routine is dull and uninteresting. They create\na problem difficult of solution. They like action and physical activity. Being older\nthan their fellows in the regular classes, they rebel against prevaiHng methods. Their\nvery natures seem to cry for emancipation from the grind. For this class of pupils we\nhave established, in different elementary schools, seven rooms, known as \"Ungraded\nSchools.\"\nWith fewer pupils than the regular grade teacher, the teacher of the ungraded\n\n"} {"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n325\n\nschool has more opportunity to study his pupils.\nThe ungraded teacher also has more\nopportunity to work out his individual ideas in assignment of work.\nWhile manual training is a part of the assignment in the regular grades, in our\nungraded schools organized games and manual training are special features. Indeed,\nmethods involving a great deal of physical activity have been found peculiarly serviceable.\nIt is a remarkable fact that boys never play truant when they are on their way to a manualtraining \"center.\"\nDetroit, I believe, was one of the first cities in this country to establish an ungraded\nschool. This school was in a central location and was for incorrigible and insubordinate\npupils. Of the seven now maintained, five are in charge of men; two are in charge of\nwomen. Each ungraded school is a \"center\" for a district comprising adjacent elementary\nschools. Each district has its own attendance officer. The district attendance ofiicer\ncalls each morning at his \"center,\" turns in his reports of the previous day and receives\ninstructions. Should a boy be absent under circumstances not satisfactory to the teacher,\nthe attendance officer goes at once to the home of the absentee. Very often the boy is in\nhis seat within a few minutes.\nA special supervisor is in charge of the Ungraded Schools, Evening Schools, Public\nPlaygrounds, and Vacation Schools. This supervisor also passes upon the necessity for\ngranting working-papers. A state law provides that boys and girls who work in certain\npublic places must be at least sixteen years of age. Boys and girls of fifteen years of age\nare allowed to work under ordinary conditions. Those from fourteen to fifteen receive\nworking-papers only upon certification by the Supervisor of Ungraded Schools that their\nservices are necessary to the support of the family. Investigation of such cases is made by\nthe district attendance officers.\nThese details are given to show how closely the Ungraded Department is in touch\nwith the home life of the boys and girls. We have not in Detroit, I believe, the desperate\nconditions prevailing in some large cities. This is due to constant and long-exerted vigilance. However, we have our problem.\nI must add that as insubordination is a relative term, care must be exercised in order\nthat pupils may not be \"railroaded\" from the regular grades to the ungraded schools,'\nand that when conditions warrant, transfers be made from the ungraded schools back to\nthe regular grades. By returning the delinquents who have become members of these\nungraded schools to membership in their home schools, when good conduct and attention\nto duty warrant a return, the segregation becomes a matter of reform with a premium\nupon good behavior. The return of a boy is not upon his request nor upon the soHcitation\nof friends vouching for his good conduct, but upon his own showing of good intention.\nThough I speak of returning a boy to his home school this is not exactly correct, for more\noften the deHnquent is retiirned to an adjacent school where he has an opportunity to\nbegin his school work anew.\nI wish to recur a moment to the matter of holding boys and girls in school through\ninterest and through an appeal to their own felt needs. The problem of making the work\nof the seventh and eighth grades flexible and interesting enough to secure the willing\nattendance of those boys and girls who become very restless at this period, has its proper\nplace in this discussion. I cannot go into details, but can only say that some changes and\nexperiments we have tried in the Detroit schools have this purpose in view and that results,\nso far, in increased attendance and interest, are most encouraging.\nLet me sum up briefly then the means which seem most effective in reducing the\nnumber of incorrigible and insubordinate pupils in the public schools and in retaining as\nmany as possible through the elementary grades.\n1. The number of seats in any one classroom should not exceed forty (40).\n2. A thorough physical examination of all pupils should be made as to sight, hearing,\nadenoid growth, and other physical defects which may be causes of insubordination.\n3. The defects discovered should be remedied as far as possible through treatment\n\n"} {"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\n4. Backward pupils, deaf pupils, and others who need special methods of instruction\nshould be temporarily or permanently segregated in special rooms of the regular elementary schools.\n5. Ungraded schools should be estabHshed as suggested in the body of the paper.\n6. Manual training and other subjects of study more profitable and interesting than\nsome of those now pursued should be introduced into the elementary grades.\n7. For every new subject introduced some subject, now ta-ught, should be curtailed\nor omitted.\nIn all of our special departments, as I have already indicated, methods involving\nmuscular activity of pupils play a most important part. Many of the methods which are\njustified by science have first been discovered by a sympathetic insight. There is as much\nin knowing children as in scholarship; the blending of the two makes the ideal teacher—\nthat firm and sympathetic guide and companion who has the sixth sense of divination\nand whose personality pervades and permeates the very air of the school. Such should\nbe the teacher of any room; such must be the teacher placed in charge of special and\nungraded rooms.\nDISCUSSION\nW. N. Clifford, superintendent of schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa. — In schools, as\neverywhere else, the good and the bad are mingled together. It is not easy to tell who are\nreally bad, that is bad by purpose or intention, and who are accidentally bad. By accidentally bad, I mean those who thoughtlessly do things which would be wrong in school\nand not necessarily wrong elsewhere.\nOf course, there are some pupils who get into the schools who are not willing to respond\nreadily to the good influences, and who ought to be separated from the rest of the school.\nBy the separation of these pupils into small groups they can be brought more directly\nunder the influence of the teacher and often saved. As a result, in many of the larger\ncities, and no doubt it will spread to the smaller towns, separate rooms are established for\nungraded pupils and pupils who are incorrigible in conduct.\nThe ungraded or special room for pupils who are behind in their studies ought not in\nany way to be confused with the rooms that are established for the purpose of correction.\nIt would be a most excellent plan if in every system of schools it was possible to establish an ungraded room to help the children who have been out of school and are not able\nto keep up with their class. It is not so necessary in the small town as in the large city to\nestabhsh the school for the incorrigibles, and it would not be necessary to estabUsh these\nschools anywhere if the size of the rooms could be reduced to a maximum of thirty pupils\nwith a daily attendance of from twenty to twenty-five. At present forty is maintained as\nthe average assignment to each room and oftentimes the rooms are larger. It would be\nmuch to the advantage of the teacher and children if the actual attendance never exceeded\ntwenty-five, and there is no doubt that the patrons will recognize this fact in the coming\nyears.\n• Nearly all the large cities, like Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and others,\nhave the incorrigible school. In one of the recent educational magazines there was\nprinted the report of a school of this kind at Roxbury, Mass. To this school was\nassigned the very best teacher in the city. Not more than twenty desks were placed in the\nroom, and the actual attendance was about ten or twelve boys. These boys came from\ndifferent parts of the city. They brought their lunch and stayed in session from nine until\nabout two o'clock. The major part of the time was given to manual training and\nphysical exercises.\nOne reason .why so many children become incorrigible in school is due to the fact\nthat schools are not made interesting and many pupils do not appreciate and enjoy studying. If they could have a variety of emplo3anent and the practical application of their\n\n"} {"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n327\n\nlessons there is no doubt that they would do their work well. They take the regular class\ninstruction something in the same way as Nicholas Nickleby took his sulphur and treacle,\nbut nevertheless they would do the work and learn to enjoy it from the pleasure they\nwould get out of doing the work in the manual-training department.\nThe establishment of the industrial arts has come slowly in the public schools. All\nthe larger cities have done a good deal along this line, and when the smaller towns realize\nits importance and provide the money for the establishment of such schools, there will be\nless trouble about the failure in school work and in attendance and in discipline than now\nexists.\n\n"} {"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nCONSTITUTION\nPREAMBLE\n\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\nformulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational questions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting\nits discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the\nsubject under consideration, and secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds\nand reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of diflferences in opinion,\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual diflferences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall\ninvite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions.\nAny member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the\ngrounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council.\nIt shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Education Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year,\nand placing before the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall\nembody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any\naction on the part of the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number,\ncommittees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the\nexchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of\nthe profession or of the public.\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from\nthe membership of the National Education Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after\nthe first election, such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members\nfor six years, two for four years, and two for two years, and the Council shall elect eight\nmembers — five members for six years, two for four years and one for two years; and\nannually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five\nmembers, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (sec. 5), to serve\nsix years, or until his successor is elected.\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\nthe annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\n329\n\n"} {"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first\nelection shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE II— QUALIFICATION\nFOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducation Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as\nthe meeting of the National Education Association, and at least two days previous to\nthis meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary,\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National\nEducation Association, or\nany of its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT\nOF SPECIAL\nAND\nEXPERTS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— OFFICERS\n\nAt the annual election of officers in 1904 the president of the Council shall be elected\nfor a term of three years, the vice-president for a term of two years, and the secretary,\nfor a term of one year; and thereafter annually the vacancy caused by the outgoing officers\nshall be filled by the election of one person for a term of three years.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance and\napproval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall\nrealize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and exists.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— STANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\n\n"} {"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "CauncU]\n\nOFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n331\n\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report on any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Association or its departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may\nbe filled every year, beginning with 1899.\n5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next\nmeeting, a report on \" Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey\nof the important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given.\nThis committee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each\nyear, beginning with 1903. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal\nhas been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Education\nAssociation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\"\ncharacter.\nARTICLE\n\nIX— AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council by\na two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular\nmeeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of\nthe Council.\n\nOFFICERS, STANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES,\n\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR 1907-8\n\nJOSEPH SWAIN\nJAMES M. GREEN\nJOHN W. CARR\n\nSwarthmore, Pa\nTrenton, N. J\nDayton, O\n\nW. T. Harris\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nJames M. Greenwood\n\nThe President, ex officio, chairman\nWashington, D. C\nWashington, D. C\nKansas City, Mo\n\nEXECUTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in 1909\nTerm expires in 1908\n\nCOMMITTEE\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in 1909\nTerm expires in 1908\n\nCOMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP\nThe President, ex officio\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nE. Oram Lyte\nW. T. Harris\nJ. F. MiLLSPAUGH\nLrviNGSTON C. Lord\nI. C. McNeill\n\nKansas City, Mo\nMillersville, Pa\nWashington, D. C\nLos Angeles, Cal\nCharleston, 111\nMemphis, Tenn\n\nTerm expires in 1908\nTerm expires in 1908\nTerm expires in 1909\nTerm expires in 1909\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in 1910\n\n"} {"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\n332\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nNicholas Murray Butler\nF. Louis Soldan\nWilliam H. Maxwell\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nJ. H. Phillips\n\nAND\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nNew York, N. Y\nSt. Louis, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nKansas City, Mo\nBoston, Mass\nWashington, D.C\nAlbany, N. Y\nMenomonie, Wis\nBirmingham, Ala\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1908\nexpires in 1908\nexpires in 1908\nexpires in 1909\nexpires in 1909\nexpires in 1909\nexpires in 1910\nexpires in 1910\nexpires in 1910\n\nMEMBERS\nNote. — The letter \"A\" following a name denotes that the member\nciation; the letter \"C,\" by the Council.\nTerm expires\nXO. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont\nJDavid Felmley, Normal, 111\n*John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo\nXD. B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C\n\nA 1908\nA 1908\nA 1908\nA 1908\n\n*J. F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal\nW. M. Davidson, Omaha, Neb\nMartin G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa\n\nA 1908\nC 1908\nC 1908\n\n*L. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex\nJames E. Russell, New York, N. Y\n\nC 1908\nC 1908\n\n*OUver W. Westcott, Chicago, 111\nC1908\n*W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C\nA 1909\nifBenjamin Ide Wheeler, Berkeley, Cal\nA 1909\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N.Y\nA 1909\n♦Edwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111\nA 1909\nHoward J. Rogers, Albany, N. Y\nA 1909\nMiss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind\nC 1909\nLewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich\nC 1909\n♦Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Washington, D. C. C 1909\n♦W. H. Black, Marshall, Mo\nC 1909\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y. .C 1909\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, 111\n.A 1910\nF. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo\nA 1910\n♦Lorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis\ntR. H. Halsey, Oshkosh, Wis\n♦Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis\nAnna Tolman Smith, Washington, D. C\nJosephine Heermans, Kansas City, Mo\n\nA 1910\nA 1910\nA 1910\nC 1910\nC 1910\n\n♦James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo\n:}:Brown Ayers, Knoxville, Tenn\n\nC 1910\nC 1910\nC 1910\n\nis of the class elected by the AssoTerm expires\n\n♦W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky\n♦Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass\n♦I. C. McNeill, Memphis, Tenn\n♦E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa\n♦J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo\n♦Frank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash\n♦Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa\n♦Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa\nLewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo\n\nA 191 1\nA 1911\nA 191 1\nA 191 1\nA 1911\nC 1911\nC 1911\nC 191 1\nC 1911\n\n♦Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo\nXT. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind\nJ. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala\nLivingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111\n\nC\nA\nA\nA\n\n♦James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo\n♦C. C. Van Liew, Chico, Cal\n$Ella F. Young, Chicago, 111\n♦J. N. Wilkinson, Muskogee, Okla\ntW. O. Thompson, Columbus, O\n♦J. W. Carr, Dayton, Ohio\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass\n♦James M. Green, Trenton, N. J\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y\n:t:George B. Cook, Hot Springs, Ark\nJStratton D. Brooks, Boston, Mass\nE. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky\n♦William E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass\nBettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio\n♦Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn\nAndrew S. Draper, Albany, N. Y\n^Clifford W. Barnes, Lake Forest, 111\n\nA 1912\nA 1912\nC 1912\nC 1912\nC 1912\nC 1912\nC 1912\nA 1913\nA 1913\nA 1913\nA 1913\nA 1913\nC 1913\nC 1913\nC 1913\nC 1913\nC 1913\n\n♦ Present at the council session at Los Angeles, July, 190\nt Died July 25, 1907.\nX Elected to membership at Los Angeles meeting.\n\nHONORARY\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va.\nEarl Barnes, Montclair, N. J.\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D.\nD. Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nRichard G. Boone, Yonkers, N. Y.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nGeorge P. Brown, Bloomington, 111.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\n\nMEMBERS\nJohn T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nJames H. Canfield, New York, N. Y .\nOscar H. CooiJer, Abilene, Tex.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio ,\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Maine.\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y.\nRobert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn.\nJohn Dewey, New York, N. Y.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\n\n1911\n1912\n191a\n1912\n\n"} {"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHONORARY\n\nAND\n\nDECEASED\n\nRobert Allen\nIsrael W. Andrews\n\n1894\n1888\n\nJoseph Baldwin\nHenry Barnard\nWilliam N, Barringer\nNewton Bateman\nReuben S. Bingham\nNorman A. Calkins\nAaron L. Chapin\nClara Conway\nJ. L. M. Curry\nN. R. H. Dawson\nJohn W. Dickinson\nLarkin Dunton\nJohn Eaton\nW. R. Garrett\nSamuel S. Greene\nJohn M. Gregory\nGeorge T. Fairchild\nDaniel B. Hagar\nR. H. Halsey\nJohn Hancock\nWilliam R. Harper\n\n1899\n1900\n1907\n1897\n1902\n,. . 1895\n1892\n1904\n1902\n1895\n1901\n1899\n1906\n1903\n1883\n1898\n1901\n1896\n1907\n1891\n1906\n\n333\n\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls, Wis.\n\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam K. Fowler, Lincoln, Neb.\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.\nR. B. Fulton, Miller School P. O., Va.\nCharles B. Gilbert, Englewood, N. J.\nDaniel C. Oilman, Baltimore, Md.\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nW. N. Haihnann, Chicago, 111.\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nJames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorge H. Howison, Berkeley, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Champaign, 111.\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\nE. S. Joynes, Columbia, S. C.\nCalvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind.\nDavid L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn.\nWilliam F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa.\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nLillie J. Martin, Stanford Univ., Cal.\nCharles A. McMurry, DeKalb, 111.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\n\nDECEASED\n\nMEMBERS\n\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nJosiah L. Pickard, Brunswick, Maine.\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, DanviUe, Ky.\nFrank Rigler, Portland, Oregon.\nWilliam D. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa.\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nH. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nEdgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nCharles R. Skinner, Watertown, N. Y.\nEuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\nJ. Lancaster Spalding, Peoria, 111.\nHomer D. Sprague, Newton, Mass.\nJ. W. Stearns, San Diego, Cal.\nLucia Stickney, Cleveland, Ohio.\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb.\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nA. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111.\nW. R. Thigpen, Savanah, Ga.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nH. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb.\nC. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nWiUiam D. Henkle\nEdwin C. Hewitt\nElnathan E. Higbee\nFrank A. Hill\nBurke A. Hinsdale\nIra G. Hoitt\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N. James\nH. S. Jones\nThomas Kirkland\nAlbert G. Lane\nMerrick Lyon\nAlbert P. Marble\nJames McCosh\nCharles D. Mclver\nThomas J. Morgan\nLemuel Moss\nM. A. Newell\nBirdsey G. Northrop\nEdward Olney\nGustavus J. Orr\nFrancis W. Parker\n\n1882\n1905\n1889\n1903\n1900\n1905\n1892\n1901\n1901\n1900\n1898\n1906\n1888\n1906\n1894\n1906\n1902\n1905\n1893\n1898\n1886\n1888\n1902\n\nW. H. Payne\nS. S. Parr\nSelim H. Peabody\nWilliam F. Phelps\n\n1907\n1900\n1902\n1907\n\nJohn D. Philbrick\n1885\nMatilda S. Cooper Poucher. .1900\nWilliam B. Powell\n1904\nZalmon Richards\n1899\nAndrew J. Rickofif\n1899\nCharles C. Rounds\n1901\nEdward R. Shaw\n1903\nWilliam E. Sheldon\n\n1900\n\nJames A. Smart\nR. W. Stevenson\n\n1900\n1893\n\nThomas B. Stock well\n\n1906\n\nEli T. Tappan\nHorace S. Tarbell\nCharles O. Thompson\nH. S. Thompson\nArnold Tompkins\nJames P. Wickersham\nS. G. Williams\nEmerson E. White\n\n1888\n1904\n1885\n1904\n1906\n189 1\n1900\n1902\n\n"} {"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, July 8, 1907\nThe Council met in Berean Hall, Auditorium Building, Los Angeles, Cal., and was\ncalled to order by Elmer Ellsworth Brown, President.\nThe minutes of the Asbury Park meeting were approved as printed.\nAn introductory statement of the purpose of the work of the Council was made by the\nPresident.\nThe following persons took part in the discussion of the topic, \"Public School Finance;\nWhat Next?\" Jesse D. Burks, principal Teachers Training School, Albany, N. Y.;\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick; James M. Greenwood; WilHam T. Harris; George C. Pardee,\nex-governor of Cahfornia, Oakland, Cal.; Edwin G. Cooley; Carroll G. Pease; F. B.\nCooper; J. W. Carr.\nVacancies in the Committee on Membership were filled for the current session of the\nCouncil by the appointment of J. F. Millspaugh and I. C. McNeill to take the places\nmade vacant by the death of Albert G. Lane and Chas. D. Mclver.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Monday\n\nEvening, July 8\n\nAt 8 o'clock Monday evening a joint session of the Council and the General Association\nwas held.\nThe part of the program under the direction of the Council consisted of a\n\"Report on Educational Progress during the Past Two Years,\" by Ella Flagg Young, of\nChicago, 111.\nTHIRD SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 9\nThe Council was called to order in Berean Hall by the president at 9:30 A. M.\nA committee consisting of Joseph Swain, L. E. Wolfe, and Carroll G. Pearse was\nappointed to consider the suggestions made by the President of the Council in his address.\nThe President announced that the Committee on Membership would also act as the\nnominating committee of the Council.\nJames N. Greenwood of the Executive Committee was called to the chair as President\nBrown was on program of one of the departments meeting at the same hour.\nThe first topic for general discussion was \"Provisions for Exceptional Children in\nthe Public School System.\" The following persons took part in the discussion: WilHam\nE. Hatch, James H. Van Sickle, J. F. Millspaugh, L. E. Wolfe, Frank A. Fitzpatrick,\nJohn T. Prince.\nA discussion of the \" Report of the Committee on Instruction in Library Administration in Normal Schools \" was presented by Frank F. Bunker, assistant superintendent of\nschools, Seattle, Wash.\nDiscussion followed by J. M. Green and L. E. Wolfe.\nL. D. Harvey presented a report of progress of the \"Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communities.\" A written report was submitted by the committee\nand the chairman asked that a new committee be appointed to continue investigations on\nthis subject and to report to the Council from time to time.\nJames M. Green introduced the discussion of the subject, \"Shortage in the Supply\nof Teachers.\" A paper on the same subject was presented by I. C McNeill. Discussions followed by Oliver S. Wescott and Carroll G. Pearse.\nThe discussion of the topic, \"Moral Education,\" was introduced by Clifford W.\nBarnes, chairman of the International Committee on Moral Training, Lake Forest, 111.,\nwho was followed by James H; Baker; W. H. Bartholomew; J. W. Carr; J. L. McBrien,\nstate superintendent of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Neb.; I. C. McNeill, Joseph Swain;\nW. T. Harris, and Oliver S. Westcott.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 11\n\nThe Council met in executive session in Children's Hall, Auditorium Building, at\n9:30 A. M., President Brown presiding.\n\n'^^-\n\n"} {"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n335\n\nThe resignation of N. C. Dougherty as a member of the Council was accepted.\nA letter was read by the Secretary in which Elmer Ellsworth Brown tendered his\nresignation as President of the Council and asked that someone be chosen in his stead.\nThe resignation was accepted.\nThe report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations was submitted\nby the chairman of the committee, J. M. Greenwood, as follows:\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nAND\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations submits the following report on\nsuch matters as have been regularly brought before it, and recommends that investigations\nbe made on each subject mentioned below. The Committee also recommends that the\nBoard of Directors be requested to appropriate the amount of money asked for in order to\ndefray the necessary expenses of each of the several committees recommended.\n1. That the sum of five hundred ($500) dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary,\nbe appropriated to make a preliminary inquiry into the contemporary judgment as to\nthe culture element in education, and the time that should be devoted to the combined\nschool and college courses, and that the President of the Council appoint a committee of five\nto make a report at some future time to the National Council of Education on this subject.\n2. That the sum of five hundred ($500) dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary,\nbe appropriated to defray the expenses of a committee to be appointed by the President\nof the Council to investigate and submit a tentative report on a system of teaching morals\nin the public schools of the United States.\n3. That the sum of five hundred ($500) dollars, or so much thereof as maybe necessary, be appropriated for the use of the Committee on Industrial Education for Rural\nSchools, and that the present committee of five be reduced to three to be appointed by the\nPresident of the Council.\n4. That a committee be appointed by the President of the Council to consider and\nmake a preliminary report on the shortage of teachers — conditions, causes, and remedies—\nand that the sum of five hundred ($500) dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary,\nbe appropriated to defray the expenses of this committee.\n5. That a committee be appointed by the President of the Council to consider and\nmake a preliminary report on provisions for exceptional children in the public schools,\nand that the sum of five hundred ($500) dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary,\nbe appropriated to defray the expenses of. this committee.\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman.\n^\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown.\nLorenzo D. Harvey.\nOn motion, the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations was\nadopted.\nThe special committee appointed to consider the address of the President was submitted byCarroll G. Pearse, as follows:\nTo the President and Members of the National Council:\nYour committee, appointed to consider the address of the President of the Council\nhas examined the same and desires to report the agreement of the members of the committee with the views expressed by the President of the Council. They call particular\nattention to the following items:\n1. Membership in the National Council confers an honor and brings a duty — a\nduty so important that the work of the Council should find a most important, if not the\nfirst, place in the attention and effort of each member of that body.\n2. The investigations of this Council should be as thoro and exhaustive as those conducted by universities or by the scientific departments of governments. And to this end\nthe membership of investigating committees appointed by this Council should be selected\nwith the greatest care; in some cases the investigation should be placed in the hands of\nexperts employed and paid for that purpose. These investigators may sometimes need,\nin prosecuting their investigations, to travel, either in the United States or abroad — perhaps\nboth.\n3. When reports of value have been made to the Council this body should place\nbehind those reports the full force of its influence and should in all practicable ways seek\nboth to bring to the attention of the educational forces of the nation the valuable subjectmatter contained in the reports and also to secure the adoption and carrying into effect\nof such recommendations for action or procedure as the report may make.\n\n"} {"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. That a committee of five be appointed by the President of the Council of which\ncommittee our world-honored leader, William T. Harris, shall be chairman and the United\nStates Commissioner of Education and the President of this Council, shall be members,\nwhose duty it shall be to consider and report to this Council what steps may be possible\ntoward securing the co-operation of the various organizations for the promotion of education and the consideration of its problems, which may exist in the various civihzed countries\nof the world.\nRespectfully submitted,\nCarroll G. Pearse. Chairman\nJoseph\nSwain.\nLloyd E.\nWolfe.\nOn motion, the report of the Special Committee on the address of the President was\nadopted.\nThe Com.mittee on Membership submitted the following report :\nTo the National Council of Education:\nYour committee on nominations of new members would submit a report as follows —\nthat the following-named members, whose terms of office have expired, are hereby reappointed with terms as follows:\n1. Jasper N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kansas, term to expire 191 2.\n2. Geo. H. Martin, Boston, Mass., term to expire 1912.\n3. J. W. Carr, Dayton, Ohio, term to expire 191 2.\n4.\nE. A.\nHatch,\nNew Cleveland,\nBedford, N.\nJ., term\nto expire\nexpire 19\n19 13.\n13.\n5. *W.\nBettie\nButton,\nOhio,\nterm to\n6. Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn., term to expire 1913.\n7. Andrew S. Draper, Albany, N. Y., term to expire 19 13.\n8. Nicholas Murray Butler, New York City, term to expire 1909.\nThe following persons are recommended for appointment to fill vacancies for the\nunexpired terms of the following named persons who have been by the provisions of the\nconstitution transferred to the list of honorary members by reason of their absence from\ntwo consecutive annual meetings of the Council.\n1. Mrs. Ella F. Young, of Chicago, to fill the place of Miss Lucia Stickney, of Ohio,\nthe term expiring in 191 2.\n2. W. O. Thompson, of Columbus, Ohio, to fill the place of Aaron Gove, of Colorado,\nthe term expiring in 19 12.\n3. CHfford W. Barnes, of Lake Forest, 111., to fill the place of William K. Fowler\nof Nebraska, the term expiring in 1913.\n4. Brown Ayers, of Knoxville, Tenn., to take the place of Newton C. Dougherty,\nresigned, the term expiring in 19 10.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nElmer Ellsworth Brown.\nW. T. Harris.\nJ. F. MiLLSPAUGH.\nI. C. McNeill.\nE. Oram Lyte.\nOn motion, the report of the Committee on Membership was adopted and the Secretary of the Council instructed to notify each person mentioned above of his election to\nmembership in the Council.\nThe Committee on Membership acting, as per instructions of the Council, as a\nCommittee on Nominations made the following report:\nJ. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala., to succeed Edwin A. Alderman, term expiring in 1910.\nTo the National Council of Education:\nThe Committee would recommend for officers:\nFor President, Joseph Swain, for the term of three years.\nFor Vice-President, James M. Green, for the term of two years, to fill vacancy.\nTo fill vacancies in the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\nJ. M. Greenwood, to succeed himself, term expiring in 1909.\nF. A. Fitzpatrick, to succeed himself, term expiring in 1909.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, to succeed himself, term expiring in 1909.\nAugustus S. Downing, to succeed himself, term expiring in 1910.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, to succeed himself, term expiring in 19 10.\nJ. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala., to succeed Edwin A. Alderman, term expiring in 1910.\nF. Louis Soldan to succeed N. C. Dougherty, resigned, term expiring in 1908.\nWiUiam H. Maxwell to succeed William R. Harper, deceased, for the term ending 1908.\n\n"} {"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n337\n\nIt is recommended that the vacancies occurring on the committee on membership\nbe filled as follows:\nW. T. Harris, to succeed himself, term expiring in 1909.\nLivingston C. Lord, to succeed himself, term expiring in 1910.\nJ. F. Millspaugh, to succeed Albert G. Lane, deceased, term expiring, 1909,\nI. C. McNeill, to succeed Chas. D. Mclver, deceased, term expiring, 19 10.\nTo fill vacancies in the Executive Committee.\nThe President, ex officio.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown to succeed Anna Tolman Smith, term expiring in 1909.\nW. T. Harris to succeed Howard J. Rogers, term expiring in 1910.\nOn motion, the report of the Committee on Nominations was adopted and the persons\nnamed therein were declared duly elected to fill the respective offices named.\nAfter thanking the Council for courtesies shown him during his term of office, the\nretiring President appointed Carroll G. Pearse, and W. H. Bartholomew to escort Joseph\nSwain, president elect, to the chair.\nOn motion, the committee on the affairs of the office of United States Commissioner\nof Education was discontinued.\nThere being no other business, the Council adjourned.\nJ. W. Carr, Secretary.\nThe following special committee has been appointed in accordance with resolution\nNo. 4 (see above), on Co-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries :\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D.C.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, Washington, D.C.\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nIrwin Shepard, General Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nINTRODUCTORY\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nSTATEMENT\n\nELMER ELLSWORTH\nTHE COUNCIL\n\nBROWN,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nThe National Council of Education has been constituted as a permanent\nworking committee of the National Educational Association. Permit me at\nthis time to emphasize its character as a working body.\nIt has become clear that the National Educational Association, with its\nlarge resources, can make some substantial contributions to the technical and\nprofessional literature of education. The ability carries with it the responsibility. But an educational literature of lasting value can be made only on the\nbasis of difficult and laborious investigations. In order that such investigations may be properly conducted, it is necessary that some members of the\nAssociation should devote to this undertaking an unusual amount of time, and\nsevere and intelligent attention to the business in hand.\nElection to the Council is a very high honor, one of the' highest honors\nwhich the National Educational Association can bestow; but as is the\nordinary practice in a democracy and should be the ordinary practice in a\ndemocracy, the honor is bestowed not as a decoration but as a call to service\nand an opportunity for service. The view of membership in the Council\nwhich is emphasized here may be expressed in other words as follows: The\nspecial duties devolving upon the Council of Education are of so delicate and\ncritical a character that they can be properly performed only by those whose\n\n"} {"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmain activity, so far as the National Educational Association is concerned,\nis concentrated for the time being upon the business of the Council.\nIt is in harmony with the main business of the Council that it should,\nfrom year to year, present a general survey of educational progress. Such a\nsurvey is a means of getting, from time to time, a new perspective among the\nlarge educational needs to which the Council has to minister.\nWhat is the field in which special investigations may most profitably be\ncarried on by the National Educational Association? It seems desirable\nthat some special consideration should now be devoted to this question. A\nlarge and important part of our standard literature of education is imported\nfrom other English-speaking countries and from the continent of Europe.\nAnother large and important part is provided by the contributions of individual\nwriters, put forth in the ordinary course of the publishing trade. These two\nsources of supply can be depended upon continuously. They will be very\nuneven in their contributions, but we may leave them out of consideration at\nthis time for the reason that they are beyond any sort of control or influence\nwhich we can exercise. For the rest, we have these three large sources of\nsupply: First, the education offices of the national and state governments;\nsecondly, the departments of investigation and publication of our greater\nuniversities; thirdly, our state and national educational associations. Without attempting any forced or artificial distribution of function among these\nthree agencies, I think it is worth our while to consider what would be the most\nnatural and useful division of labor among them. Upon such division of\nlabor we can, in this body, exercise a very considerable influence, and if we\nundertake to do so in view of a comprehensive survey of the educational field,\nit seems not unlikely that we may, in the course of a few years, bring about\narrangements which will greatly economize the efforts which are put forth in\nthe production of an educational literature, and will render those efforts more\nfruitful. Let us limit the discussion to investigations the results of which are\nembodied in theses for the higher degrees in the graduate schools of our universities, the investigations and publications of the national Bureau of Education, and the investigations and publications of the National Educational\nAssociation.\nThe doctor theses in education, prepared in our universities, are generally\nthe work of comparatively young men, who have, however, already seen\nenough of the actual work of teaching to enable tHem to give somewhat of\nthe touch of actuality to their productions. Such a thesis must necessarily\nbe of limited extent, and in the nature of a monograph. The range of subject\nmay be very great: The history of education, educational theory, experiments\nof a psychological character having a bearing upon education, together with\nthe interpretation of such experiments, statistical studies in American education, based either upon published statistics or upon information gathered\nby use of the questionnaire, and the comparison of American with foreign\neducational systems.\nTo some extent first-hand studies of the working of\n\n"} {"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n339\n\naccessible institutions and the results of experiments in educational method\ncan be embodied in such publications.\nThe National Bureau of Education presents as its pihce de resistance an\nannual report, embodying the statistics of a very wide range of educational\ninstitutions in this country, and accounts of educational progress in many\nfields both American and foreign. It has published also a large number of\nhistorical monographs in the form of circulars of information, and is undertaking the issuance of a bulletin embodying timely papers with reference to\ncurrent educational procedure.\nThe chief publications of the National Educational Association, issued\nunder the general supervision of this Council, have been the two historic\nreports on secondary education, those of the Committee of Ten, and the\nCommittee on College Entrance Requirements; the comprehensive report\nof the Committee of Fifteen, relating chiefly to elementary education; a general\nreport on normal schools; two reports on the financial aspects of public\neducation, that relating to salaries, etc., of public school teachers, and that\non taxation as related to public education; two reports relating to rural schools,\nthat of the Committee of Twelve, and the preliminary report on industrial\neducation; and a report on instruction in library administration in normal\nschools. It is a notable and influential list of publications, altho far from\nuniform in character and excellence.\nWhile these three classes of publications overlap, and no sharp line of\ndemarcation between them is desirable, I think that a general distinction of\na somewhat useful sort may be stated about as follows: The university thesis\nmust concern itself with a subject which can be treated within the limits of a\nsingle monograph. • Generally speaking, it cannot be expected to embody\nany ripe or comprehensive judgment. It should, however, show a clear\napplication to a comparatively narrow subject of some thoroly mastered\nmethod in the collection and organization of materials. In some instances,\nsmall and well-defined portions of a large inquiry may, to good advantage,\nbe worked out as special investigations by graduate students in a university.\nBoth the Bureau of Education and the National Educational Association\nshould at times undertake investigations of a larger sort, such as must extend\nover a period of years, involving the bringing together of results of various\nspecial inquiries, and, in some instances, involving also the employment of\nspecial agents to make personal observations in various parts of this country\nand of foreign countries. Such investigations may on occasion even call for\nthe conduct of special educational experiments, extending over considerable\nperiods of time.\nThe Bureau of Education may properly lay especial stress upon statistical\ninquiries; and upon comparative studies in the field of educational legislation\nand educational reports in this country and thruout the world, which its great\ncollection of such documentary matter and its well-established system of\ncorrespondence should enable it to carry on to good advantage. While it may\n\n"} {"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbe able to offer individual contributions to the sum of educational doctrine,\nits work will mainly deal with those facts relating to educational institutions\nand processes which can be objectively presented and in large part reduced\nto some form of measurement. In the long run it should be able to do something worth while in the direction of the standardizing of American systems of\neducation.\nThe National Council of Education is not so favorably situated with\nreference to the making of comprehensive and accurate comparative studies\nof educational facts, but it is in a peculiarly favorable situation as regards the\ngathering up and digestion of current educational opinion.' By collating the\njudgments of the most successful teachers and school administrators it can\nrender that most important service — the determination of widely approved\nstandards of educational practice. It can, moreover, exercise a great influence\non the development of educational doctrine, out of which the standards of\neducational practice are to proceed, by bringing together into direct and suggestive comparison the best formulations of educational doctrine which can\nbe had.\nBy such presentation and comparison it can facilitate that wholesome\nprocess in the development of all educational doctrine which is represented\nby the scriptural saying, ''Prove all things, hold fast that which is good.\"\nWhile no field of education is foreign to the interest of the Council, its best\nwork will undoubtedly be done for the most part in those inquiries in which\nit deals with education as represented by the teaching profession, and with\nthose appHances and processes with which the teaching profession has most\ndirectly to do.\nThese suggestions are offered not with any thought of an immediate and\ncomplete reorganization of educational research in this country, but rather\nwith a view to promoting a broad consideration of available agencies. Thru\nsuch consideration, we may hope, within the next few years, a more effective\ndivision of labor and co-operation of agencies may be brought about. There\nis urgent need of a professional literature of education. In its beginnings it\nhas already appeared. It is for us to take counsel as to the ways in which the\ndevelopment of such a literature may be carried forward, without waste of\neffort, to substantial results. To make a more scientific literature of education, and particularly a more scientific literature of the teaching profession;\nand thru such literature to set higher standards of educational practice and\nmake those standards more definite — these are the ends we have in view.\nNow a few words as to methods and means:\nThe investigation of the Council must be as rigorous as those of the universities or those of the scientific departments of the national government.\nThey cannot otherwise hold their place and justify their cost. When an\ninvestigation is carried on by a committee of several members the more scientific\nportions must needs be conducted by those members who are experts in the\nmatters considered. Or. if the committee does not have such experts in its mem-\n\n"} {"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n341\n\nbership, competent specialists should be employed to do the work, as was done\nin the case of the report on teachers' salaries. In some cases it will undoubtedly\nbe better to lay the full responsibility for the investigation upon some one\ncompetent person, giving him the help of an advisory committee and empowering him to employ expert assistance where it may be needed. Work may\nbe divided up between the Council representatives on the one hand and such\nother agencies of research on the other hand as may be in a position to do\ncertain parts more thoroly and economically. On occasion, competent agents\nshould be employed to travel from one place to another, in this country or in\nforeign countries, making such personal studies of actual educational institutions and processes as may add to the value and usefulness of any given report.\nAll of these things should be done with the utmost care to avoid the w^aste of a\nsingle dollar of the resources of the National Association. But there should\nalso be care to make every report as valuable and as useful as possible, and\nany wise expenditure which may be necessary to that end should be recommended by the Council to favorable consideration by the directors of the\nAssociation.\nWhen a good report has been published it should be followed up, that the\ngood that is in it may not be lost. In some cases it should be followed up by\nfurther investigations in the same field. In other cases, or it may be in the\nsame, the good report should be followed up by bringing its recommendations\nto the notice of those who can put them into effect, and, if need be, by urging\nthat such recommendations be carried into effect. The co-operation of the\nCommittee on Resolutions of the Association should be sought to this end.\nThe program for this meeting of the Council has been prepared with the\nidea in mind that is here presented — that more and more the Council is to be\nan effective working body, and that its work is to result in a literature which\nshall make for positive improvements in education. An advanced student of\neducational doctrine, who is also a teacher of long and varied and successful\nexperience, will this evening present the annual, or as it happens this time,\na biennial survey of educational progress. At this first session the two important reports which have already been published by the Association on certain\naspects of public-school finance are to be followed up by a discussion of the\nnext steps to be taken toward improvement in our public-school finance. In\nthe session of tomorrow the two reports already published on instruction in\nlibrary administration and industrial education in schools for rural communities are to be followed up in a somewhat similar way. At the same\nsession, three additional topics, relating to provision for exceptional children,\nthe shortage of teachers, and moral education, are to be considered with a\nview specifically to the question : What steps shall be taken in the premises by\nthe National Council ? Every member of the Council has been requested to participate insome of these discussions. Of the fifty-six members now living, thirtyone have expressed their intention to be present at this meeting; and of these\ntwenty-five have named the topics on which they will speak and their names\n\n"} {"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^\n\n[National\n\naccordingly have been placed upon the program. The other members present\nwill undoubtedly speak on such topics as they may choose. Finally, these\ndiscussions are all intended to be preparatory to a consideration by the committee on Investigations and Appropriations, and later by the Council as a\nwhole, of the practical question: What shall the Council do about these\nthings ? and the correlated question, What action shall it recommend to the\nNational Association ? Let us enter upon these discussions in the hope that\nfrom them shall emerge some action which shall count for the positive betterment of American Education.\nIt is with deep sorrow that I have to announce the death, since the last\nmeeting of the Council, of three of the most honored and useful of its active\nmembers: William R. Harper and Albert G. Lane, of Illinois, and Charles\nD. Mclver, of North Carolina; and of three of the most venerated of its\nhonorary members: John Eaton, of the District of Columbia, Albert P.\nMarble, of New York, and William H. Payne, of Michigan. In place of\npublic exercises of commemoration, notices of the life and services of these\nmen, our brothers, will be found in the Anniversary Volume recently issued,\nexcept that the memorial of William H. Payne will appear in the published\nproceedings of this meeting. We cannot forget their works nor the strong\nuplift of their personal character and influence. Our membership in this\nCouncil has been greatly enhanced in value to us all because those six great\nteachers have been members here with us. So great indeed have their\nservices been that the whole history of American education has been\nimmeasurably enriched thru their lives. We pause here to speak our few\nwords of appreciation — of friendship and remembrance — and to gather from\nthe mention of their names new courage for the work before us, new devotion\nto its loftiest spirit and purposes.\nThere is one more suggestion that I venture to make in closing. In many\nways, provisional and previsionary as yet, the nations are making comparison\nof their educational standards and practices. From such comparisons there\nrnust ultimately issue some world-standards in education. Such worldstandards will not only make for the uplift of education ; they will make for a\nspirit of union among the peoples ; they will make for world-peace and a nobler\ncivilization. Already the great army of teachers thruout the world halfconsciously are working for this common end. Their national differences\nare of great price and of lasting significance, but their unities are greater than\ntheir differences. Has not the time come when they may profitably enter\ninto more direct co-operation for these common ends ? And may not measures\nlooking toward such co-operation profitably be taken here, at this meeting of\nteachers and friends of education, on the eastern edge of the Pacific, at a time\nwhen representatives of the nations are met in that second great conference\nfor peace, on the eastern edge of the Atlantic ? It is greatly to be desired that\n\n"} {"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n343\n\nAmerican teachers do their full part in this matter, even if their part be to\ninitiate a movement that shall be world-wide in its influence.\nI would accordingly propose that a committee be appointed by this Council,\nof which our world-honored leader, Doctor Harris, should be chairman, to\ntake this matter under consideration, and that if it seem good to such committee a conference be had with the officers and directors of the National\nEducational Association with a view to extending, on behalf of the Association, an invitation to the teachers' associations of other lands to co-operate with\nus in whatever ways such co-operation may be found desirable; the chief end\nof such united effort being the strengthening of those educational influences\nwhich work for the common good of all peoples that on earth do dwell.\nI trust this plan may seem to you worthy of serious consideration. But\nthat no hasty action be taken, I would respectfully ask of the Council that\nthis and the several other suggestions offered in this paper be first referred for\norderly consideration to a special committee who shall report to the Council\nat one of the earlier sessions of this meeting.\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\nJESSE D. BURKS,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nFINANCE\nI\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nWHAT\nTRAINING\n\nNEXT?\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nALBANY,\n\nN. Y.\n\nThe many desirable or necessary next things in public-school finance provide a wide field for such a discussion as the present one. Before any important step in administration can be taken, however, and before the problems\ninvolved can be discussed to the best advantage, we ought to ascertain some\ngeneral and definite administrative standards by which to measure the effectiveness and economy of various financial policies that may be proposed or\nadopted from time to time. It is to the need and the value of such standards\nthat this part of the general discussion will direct special attention.\nThere has been a marked tendency for each community in the United\nStates to develop its own standards in the conduct of its educational system\nwithout much regard to what other communities have been doing. To a\ncertain extent this is necessary and proper. Local conditions as to wealth,\ncommercial and industrial activities, cost of living, and the like, modify very\nmaterially the needs and the resources of communities. There has no\ndoubtbeen much wasteful experimentation that might have been avoided\nby a little comparative study of administrative problems. The situation is\nnot unlike that under which the early geographical explorers undertook their\nvoyages. The new-found shores were uncharted, the trackless ocean held\nmen back by its terrors, safe retreats and harbors were unknown. It was not\nuntil these hindrances were removed that commerce and free intercourse\nbetween the Old World and the New were found safe and easy.\nThe remarkably wide variation in administrative practice among the\ncities of this country is in itself sufficient evidence of the need for comparative\n\n"} {"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nstudy as a basis for the more intelligent and effective administration of our\nschools. The following tabular statement concerning the financial administration ofthe city-school systems of this country shows at a glance the striking\nvariation. The available data for all cities above 25,000 in population are\nincluded in the table:\ncity\n\nTABLE\nFACTS\n\nCONCERNING\n\ncity\n\nCITY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIvOwest\n\nPer-capita expenditure for all mu\nnicipal purposes\nPer-capita expenditure for current $\nschool expenses\nPer cent, of total expenditure devoted to schools\nExpenditure\nper pupil for teachers'\nsalaries\nExpenditure per pupil for other current expenses\nSalary of superintendent\nMaximum salary of principals\nInitial salary of teachers in elementary schools\n\n$\n\nI\n\n6%\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n26%\n\n4.00\n0.50\n\n$\n\n9.00\n20.6%\n2.20\n\nI 2 . 00\n\n$\n\n17.20\n\n$\n\n$\n\n12.00\n\n20 . 00\n\n$\n\n$\n\n3.00\n\n1. 00\n\n6.20\n\n1,500.00\n\n2,375 00\n\n500 . 00\n225 00\n\nHighest\n\n25% of cities 50% of cities\nbelow\n75% below\nof cities\n\n1,170.00\n\n$\n\n5-75\n39.00\n48%\n\n3.60$\n\n3 2 . 00\n\n15.00\n\n31%\n22.50\n\n2,600 00\n1,450.00\n\n7.80\n\n1,875.00\n3,400 00\n\n10,000.00\n23.00\n\n950\n\n3,500.00\n700 00\n440 00\n00\n7.\n38\nIn order that administrative standards may be established\nit is, of course,\n325 00\n\nfirst necessary that an appropriate body of facts be ascertained. Each of the\nsix special studies upon which the present discussion is based rests upon a\nlarge body of facts specially collected by the person who undertook the investigation involved in the study. These studies are excellent examples of the\nkind of work that must be carried much farther if school administration is\nto be made a matter of exact knowledge rather than of individual opinion.\nThe point to be emphasized just here is that such studies might be made with\nmuch greater ease and, therefore, with greater frequency if the many school\nreports now periodically issued were so modified as to meet not only local and\ntemporary needs, but to serve the purposes of general comparative study as\nwell.\nThere is an immense body of data in the annual school reports of cities,\nin the state reports, in the reports of the United States commissioner of education, and elsewhere, which might easily be made to furnish the basis for the\naccurate study of many important educational problems. In the school\nreports of a random twenty-one cities, for example, were found 1,462 different\nheadings under which statistical data are given. Of this large number of\nheadings, however, over 900 are found in but a single one (that is, some one)\nof the twenty-one reports. Over 200 of the headings are found in but two of\nthe reports; 100 are found in but three; and 90 per cent, of all the headings\nare found in fewer than five of the reports. It is obvious that while there is\na great mass of data available, there is a notable lack of agreement as to what\n\n"} {"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n345\n\nfacts it is worth while to include in school reports. This makes it almost\nimpossible to utilize these reports as a basis for comparative study.\nLack of uniformity in reporting, then, constitutes the first obstacle in the\nway of a comparative study of school administration. Another serious obstacle\nis the fallacious statistical method that characterizes most of the school reports.\nThe two most conspicuous and most general fallacies are: first, the fallacy\nof averages; and, second, the fallacy of mixed species. It will be well to\nconsider examples of these errors.\nThe fallacious use of the average may be illustrated by the statement of\nper-capita expenditure for schools given in the report of the commissioner\nof education. This statement consists of a series of averages, first for the\nUnited States as a whole and then for each of the five geographical divisions\nand for each state, separately. For the state of New York, for example, the\nexpenditure per pupil of the forty-nine cities of the state is given as $28.15.\nWhen we calculate the per-pupil expenditure of each of these cities separately,\nwe find the following remarkable variation:\nTABLE\n$13\n\nExpenditure per puPil\nNumber of cities. . .\nExpenditure per puPil\nNumber of cities. . .\n\nI\n$11\n\n2\n$23\n$12\n\nI\n$22\n\n1\n\n3\n\nII\n\n$19\n\n$14\n$25\n3\n\n8\n\n3\n\n2\n\n$24\n0\n\n$17\n\n$15\n\n$27\n2\n\n5\n\n$29\n4\n\n8\n\n3\n\n2\n\n0\n\n$t8\n0\n\n0\n\n$20\n0\n\n$21\nI\n\n$16\n0\n\n$26\n$28\n\n$32\nAll of the cities except one, it will be seen, are below the average;\n$31 most\n$30\nof them far below. The one city above the average is so far above and has\nsuch an immense preponderance in expenditure and in school attendance as\n\nto counterbalance all of the other forty-eight cities of the state. The average\nfails to give an adequate idea concerning the expenditure per pupil in this\nstate, because the deviation of the individual cities from the average is a\nfactor as important as the average itself. Similarly, the averages for the\ngeographical divisions are undoubtedly misleading, and could not be used to\ngreat advantage as a basis for a comparative study of administrative problemsThe fallacy of mixed species is almost invariably found in school reports.\nIt is a common practice, for example, to compute expenditure per pupil by\ntaking the gross expenditure for all of the schools of a city and dividing by the\nwhole number of pupils. Expenditure for \"teaching and supervision\" or\nfor '^ current expenses,\" however, may include expenditures for kindergartens,\nelementary schools, high schools, truant schools, trade schools, manualtraining schools, mechanic-arts schools, teachers' training schools, vacation\nschools, recreation centers, schools for Wind, deaf, and other defective children,\nrecreation piers, city colleges, and day nurseries. It is evident that a bare\nstatement of ''cost per pupil\" not only must frequently fail to convey an\nintelligible meaning, but must often actually misrepresent the essential facts.\n\n"} {"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n346\n\nWhen we compare the per-pupil expenditure, calculated in this gross\nway, with the expenditure computed separately for night schools, kindergartens, elementary grades, high schools, and special schools, we see at once\nthe misleading character of the gross figure. The following figures were\ncalculated from data given in the school reports of the cities named:\nTABLE\nEXPENDITURE\nCity\n\nBoston\nCambridge\nChicago\nNew Bedford.. . .\nWashington\nSyracuse\n\nGross\n\nNight\nSchools\n\n$36.51\n32-47\n34-31\n\n$12.00\n\n25-75\n\n31.28\n30.21\n\n6.00\n4.00\n\nIII\nPER PUPIL\nElementary\n\nKindergartens\n26.00\n$24.00\n24.00\n20.00\n10.00\n30.00\n\nHigh\nSchools\n\nSchools\nSpecial\n\n$27.00\n18.00\n27.00\n\n$85.00\n60.00\n\n$225.00\n121.00\n\n22.00\n25.00\n\n50.00\n\nGrades\n\n17.00\n\n50.00\n\n79.00\n\nA comparison of the items for any one of the six cities in this table will\n38.00\n34.00\n30.00\nshow that each of the several kinds of school is a type by itself.\nTo say36.00\nthat\nthe cost per pupil for current expenses in New York city and Paterson, N. J.,\nis $40 and $25, respectively, is not altogether unlike stating that the average\nvalue per head of the live stock on two neighboring farms is $40 and $25,\nrespectively — the live stock on one farm consisting of a few thorobred horses\nand a large flock of domestic geese; that on the other, of a number of ordinary\nwork horses and a flock of Angora goats. As arithmetical results, the averages\nin all of these cases may obviously be true; but as statements of significant\nfacts they are clearly inadequate.\nThe elimination from the reports of the two fallacies referred to would\nremedy most of the positive errors of method, and make it possible to give\ndefinite and intelligible interpretation to any item. If provision could then\nbe made for something approaching uniformity and accuracy in accounting,\nwe should have at hand a mass of material upon the basis of which standards\nof administrative practice might be ascertained.\nWith a system of accounting following modern business principles, and a\nproperly organized plan for measuring educational results, it should be possible\nin schoolwork, as it already is in well-conducted commercial enterprises, to\ncompare varying expenditures for a given purpose with the corresponding\ndegrees of excellence in results. It should, furthermore, be possible to\nascertain the educational advantage, if any, of high salaries for teachers or\nprincipals; to determine the most advantageous distribution of expenditure\nas between primary, grammar, and high-school grades; to find what is a\nreasonable expenditure per capita of population for school purposes, and\nwhat percentage of total city expenditures may economically be devoted to\nschool purposes. These and hundreds of similar problems must constantly\nbe solved by school officers if the next steps in public-school finance are\nto be in a permanently right direction.\nWithout scientific experiment,\n\n"} {"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n347\n\ncomparison, ^nd verification, there is no possible basis for the determination\nof such problems except that of mere tradition or of individual opinion.\nExpenditures for school purposes, which are now classified according to\nmost varied and often inexact systems, should be reported in accordance\nwith a perfectly definite, exact, and uniform system. No unclassified heading\nsuch as \"miscellaneous expenditures\" should be introduced, but the specific\nnature of expenditures should, in every case, be indicated. The expenditures,\nclassified under proper general headings such as capital outlay, decrease of\nschool debt, salaries, educational supplies, and maintenance of plant, should\nfurthermore be distributed in such a way as to give separately the expenditures\nfor high school, elementary school, kindergarten, and other grades of school\nwhich, as we have seen, constitute distinct species for purposes of accounting.\nUntil we have put into practice such some scheme of classification as this,\nwe shall be unable to speak with definiteness concerning public-school finance,\nand shall find it impossible to make comparisons that can serve as safe practical\nguides in administration.\nBy lack of co-ordination and co-operation and for other reasons, school\nadministration has thus far failed to take the place that it should oc upy\namong the directive activities of the world. It can take this place only when\nit comes to recognize the value and the necessity of expert scientific knowledge\nand of exact method. Superintendents and other school officers are in positions to provide a body of facts covering a wide range of educational experience.\nThis can be made useful only by properly organized co-operation. A definite\nand intelligent plan, pursued by even a small number of men working consciously toward a common end, would soon enable a school superintendent\nto face his problems with a body of established facts, rather than with a mass\nof conflicting opinions.\nTo settle educational questions by adequate tests would mean immeasurable advance in educational practice. The random and ill-controlled work\nof many of our schools could be as far surpassed as the conventional devotion\nto authority in mediaeval Europe is surpassed by modern experimental\nmethods. Under such conditions no one need mistake even experienced\njudgment for proof, and the number of questions in regard to which men will\nplunge into controversy instead of resorting to investigation will have been\nreduced to a minimum. The social significance of education and a widely\nrecognized demand for a reorganization of education emphasize the importance\nof co-operation, on the part of all students and directors of education, in an\neffort to establish, at every possible point, a scientifically verified basis for\npractice.\nII\nGEO. C. PARDEE, FORMER\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF CALIFORNIA, OAKLAND,\n\nCAL.\n\n\"Public School Finance — What Next?\" is the subject we are asked to\ndiscuss in this symposium.\nI shall consider it from the standpoint of the\n\n"} {"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nstate. In order to come to any sort of conclusion as to what the \"next\"\nshall be, it is necessary, first, to know what the present conditions are. That,\nfortunately, has been set before us in the very able investigations covering the\nschool finances of the various states. An attempt to summarize these investigations would be a task of supererogation. At any rate, I shall content\nmyself by saying that it appears from these investigations that there is no\nworking-plan of school finances that seems entirely s^-tisfactory. ''What\nnext ? \" therefore, might be answered by saying that some plan ought to be\ndevised which would be entirely satisfactory. What that plan shall be, no\nman or woman can, I think, assert, with any degree of a priori certainty.\nFor the best-laid theoretical plan would be found to have many flaws, imperfections, and inequalities, when put to the test of actual practice. Then, too,\nthe conditions surrounding educational matters differ so radically in different\nstates and even in different parts of the same state, that it would be a very\ndifficult matter for this, or any other similar, body to evolve a plan which\nwould fit all the conditions in all the states.\nThe best that can be done, it seems to me, is to keep up a persistent, insistent\nagitation of the question of school finances, an unsparing exposure of such\nbad conditions as may exist, in order that, being brought to the attention of\nthose who are directly and by law intrusted with the solution of such problems,\nbetter and more satisfactory results may be gradually obtained. For, with\nall deference, it appears to me that here in California, at least, quite an\nappreciable percentage of our school people, both lay and professional, are\ntoo much disposed to say that, because a certain condition is, it ought to continue to be.\nSome little time ago the governor of California had occasion to examine\ninto the manner of the distribution of the school money of the state. He\nfound, much to his surprise, that the teachers employed in the various counties\nof the state were receiving, under the then governing law, varying amounts of\nthe state's money. For instance, each of the three teachers in one of the\nsmaller, poorer, mountain counties was receiving only $275 per annum of the\nstate's money, while each teacher in the richest and largest city of the state\nwas receiving something over $700 per year of that money; while between\nthese two extremes the teachers of the other counties were receiving varying\nsums from the state treasury. Now, as the state school money in California\ncan be used only to help pay teachers' salaries, the governor referred the\nmatter to the school people and wanted to know why this unequal distribution of the state's money was made. The answer was to the effect that it was\nthe law; that it had been the law for many years; that it had received the\ntacit, if not the active, approval of all school people since it was enacted, and,\ntherefore, being the law, and being ancient, and being with the consent of the\nschool people all these years, it must be right and proper.\nThe investigation was continued, and it was found that, altho the state's\nmoney was distributed to the counties on the theory that it was to equalize\n\n"} {"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n349\n\nthe educational burdens of the poorer counties, one of the poorest counties in\nthe state was compelled to levy a county school tax of fifty cents on the hundred\ndollars, the limit allowed by law, in order to maintain her rather inadequate\nschools; while the richest county in the state, in order to support its very\ngood schools, was compelled to tax herself but six cents on the hundred dollars.\nThis condition appeared to be absurdly, if not wickedly, unfair; and it was\nalso referred to the school people to be met, as before, with the reply that it\nwas the law; had been the law for many years; had received the support of\nschool people all these years, and, therefore, because it was the law, was\nancient, and had been approved by successive corps of school people, must,\nof course, be right and proper.\nThese answers were not satisfactory, and a campaign of agitation and\neducation was inaugurated looking to the amendment of the law by the legislature. And, rather to his surprise, the governor found that there was considerable opposition from some of the school people, who, quite good-naturedly,\nseemed to think that a layman ought not to attempt to interfere in a matter\nwith which the professional school people were satisfied, because it was, had\nbeen for a long time, and, therefore, ought to continue to be.\nThe problem, however, was worked out. It was found that the vice of\nthe law lay in starting with the daily average attendance, and not with the\nteacher, as the basis for the distribution of the state's school money. In other\nwords, the state paid a certain sum for each child attending school; and this\nmoney went to help pay the teachers' salaries. In San Francisco, where it\nwas possible to have one teacher for every forty pupils, the state's money went\nfar toward paying the teachers' salaries; but in little Alpine County, for\ninstance, where, because of the dispersion of the sparse population, it was\nnecessary to have three teachers, in as many schools, to teach forty pupils,\nthe state money, paid for the use of forty pupils, had to be divided among three\nteachers and was, therefore, nowhere near enough to pay their salaries. The\nresult was that Alpine County, one of the poorer counties of the state, was\ntaxed very heavily to maintain comparatively poor schools, while San Francisco,\nthe richest county in the state, was enabled, with the state's aid, to carry on\ngood schools at a very slight cost to herself. The legislature, however, greatly,\ntho not entirely, reformed this inequality; and every California teacher now\nreceives nearly the same amount of the state's money for the support of the\npublic schools.\nYou will, I hope, pardon me for this somewhat lengthy account of the difficulties encountered in the attempt to right what seemed to be a great wrong\non the country teachers and the country children of this state. It appears to\nme, however, that it will serve as an illustration of what I meant when I said\nthat in order to ascertain what the \"next\" shall be in school finances, it is\nnecessary, first, to ascertain what present conditions are. Those conditions being ascertained for each state, they may be bettered, as a preliminary\nstep, without the imposition of any heavier burdens of state taxation.\n\n"} {"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "350\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nTo illustrate: We all know that the teachers of California, especially the\ncountry teachers, were (and, for that matter, still are) poorly paid. To\nreform this condition it was proposed by some of the school people to increase\nthe money raised by state taxation for the payment of public school teachers.\nOne-half of the net income of this state being annually paid out for education,\nand the state paying 46 per cent, of the cost of the public schools, while the\naverage state pays only 16 per cent, of that cost, any increase of state taxes\nfor school purposes, before the existing evils had been remedied, would have\nadded another burden to the taxpayers' already heavy one, but it would not\nhave achieved the desired result, viz., the equalization of that portion of the\nteachers' salaries paid by the state.\nI take it that you will agree with me that, even tho ''the whole state is\ninterested in the education of the children of the state, \"^ that education should\nbe so bestowed as not to add any unnecessary burden to those already so\ncheerfully borne by the taxpayer, and that the first step toward the \"next\"\nshould be the proper and economical use of the finances already placed at the\ndisposal of the school people. By \"economical\" I do not mean \"niggardly,\"\nbut a proper, fair, and equal use of the money appropriated, so that every\nchild of the state, whether he be in a big school or a little one, whether his\nteacher has a class of forty or one of ten, shall receive from the state an equal\namount of educational advantages from the money of the state. In other\nwords, I mean that the teacher, and not the pupil, should be the unit upon\nwhich the state school money should be apportioned. I mean that a teacher,\nin a sparsely settled county, where, because of the sparse population, a dozen\nchildren constitute a school, should receive just as much of the state's money\nas does the teacher of a class of forty in a densely populated city. The natural\nadvantages of the wealthy cities will easily enable them to add enough to the\nstate's money to enable them to pay their teachers larger salaries than the\nsparsely settled and, therefore, poorer districts can pay theirs, by adding to\nthe contribution of the state. The state will be giving every teacher a \"square\ndeal \" when it provides that, so far as it is concerned, the teachers with country\nschools of a dozen pupils shall be paid as much of its money as the city teachers\nwith classes of forty. For the state to thus look after the pecuniary interests\nof the teachers is equivalent to looking after the educational advantages of\nthe children. For, after all, good teachers require, and ought to have, good\npay, while poor teachers ought to have no pay at all. Cubberly says:\nIn a majority of the states of the Union the methods in use for distributing state funds\nfor schools are not based on the best principles, and do not afford the relief which should\nbe given; and, further, that the adoption of a better method of distribution would enable\nmany states, with no material increase in the funds at their disposal, to relieve the burdens\nof those communities least able to bear them and to increase materially the length of\nschool term, and to do this without unduly increasing the burdens of local support on any\ncommunity. I\n» Cubberly, School Funds and Their A pportionment, p. 19.\n\n"} {"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n351\n\nWith these conclusions of my distinguished fellow-Calif omian I heartily\nagree. The experience of this state well bears out the statement of Professor\nCubberly. And these results, I am convinced, ought to be the first ''next'*\nto be striven for in each state where these things have not yet been achieved.\nAnd bearing in mind the former experience of the teachers of this state, I am\nconvinced that one of the first steps should be so to arrange the school finances\nof the state that, no matter how large the classes in the cities, because of their\nlarge populations, nor how small in the country, because of the sparse population, each and every teacher in each state should receive an equal amount\nof that state's school funds. In other words, the teacher, rather than the pupil,\nshould be the unit on which the state's money should be distributed. The\nmoney may be collected on the basis of the child; but the teacher should be\nthe unit of distribution. For the teacher, rather than the number of pupils,\nis the true basis of a public school.\nIt is objected to this that the neglecting of the element of \"daily average\nattendance\" in the distribution of the state's money will greatly lessen, if not\nremove, the incentive for the local school authorities to induce or compel\nmaximum school attendance. In other words, it is claimed that if the various\nschool districts can get more money from the state by securing a larger attendance at their schools, they will, in practice, make greater efforts to secure that\nattendance than they would on a teacher basis without any reference to the\nmatter of daily average attendance. Assuming for the moment that this is\ntrue and that it is necessary to offer some inducement to school authorities,\nin order that they may do their full duty, let us see if there be not a more\nefficient, because more direct, method of so stimulating the school authorities\nto increase and keep up the daily average attendance to the greatest possible\npractical maximum.\nIf it be a fact that the local school authorities of the state can be induced\nto attend to the matter of daily average attendance only by the giving of\nbonuses out of the state treasury to the local school treasuries, is it not probable\nthat the efforts of these same school authorities will slacken so soon as their\nschool treasuries have received a sufficient sum from the state to enable them\nto conduct their schools with an adequacy sufficient to satisfy them and the\ncommunities in which they have official being? To illustrate: In the large\nand congested cities, it may be that a daily average attendance of 75 per cent,\nof the children of school age will, on a daily average attendance basis, enable\nthe school authorities of those cities to get from the state treasuries enough\nmoney to practically run their schools; in which case, the incentive to increase\nthe daily average attendance would be removed, for the reason that an increased\nattendance would call for more teachers and more schoolhouses, the increase in\nwhich would not be met by the increased attendance money from the state.\nIn the sparsely settled country, however, it is necessary to get and keep as\nlarge a daily average attendance as may be possible, in order to secure enough\nstate money to ease up the burden of local taxation.\n\n"} {"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nI take it that it is the desire of the state to see all, or as many as possible,\nof its children in attendance on the public schools. If this be so, ought not\nthe state to arrange its daily average attendance bonus, if it feels called upon\nto give one, in such a manner that it will accomplish its desire ? Ought not\nthe state to say to the county school authorities :\nIf only a state daily average attendance bonus will induce the county school\nauthorities to work for an increase in daily average attendance, the state will give you a\ndaily average attendance per-capita bonus, in addition to a very liberal per-capita\nteacher bonus, if you, on your part, will see to it that your daily average attendance is\nmade to equal or exceed 95 per cent, of the school census children in your counties. If,\nhowever, your daily average attendance does not equal 95 per cent, of your children of\nschool age, but does equal or exceed 90 per cent, thereof, then the state's daily average\nattendance per capita bonus shall be only one-half that which is paid to those districts\nwhich secure and maintain a 95 per cent, daily average attendance. But if your daily\naverage attendance falls below 90 per cent, you shall receive no aid from the state\ntreasury.\n\nCalifornia now pays, in addition to the teacher per-capita bonus, a bonus\non daily average attendance, no matter whether that daily average be large or\nsmall. In the large cities, where the children of school age are massed, the\ndaily average attendance, while large in numbers, is not what it should be.\nAnd because of this congestion of population the state's per capita for daily\naverage attendance, being paid without any reference to the ratio of that\nattendance to the total number of children of school age, the state school funds\nfurnish such a large sum to the city school treasuries that the city schools can\nbe conducted with only a small tax upon the city people; while the country\nschools require high taxes to supplement the state's money. Therefore, with\nan unrestricted daily average attendance per capita from the state, the very\nobject of a state contribution, viz., the aiding of the poorer school districts is,\nto a very great extent, defeated, and the children of these poorer school districts are deprived of their just shares of the benefits of the state's money.\nIf, however, it were decreed that only when its daily average attendance\nshall equal or exceed 90 per cent, of its school-census children, shall any\ncounty receive any state aid, and that only when that attendance equals or\nexceeds 95 per cent, of its school census, shall that state aid be a certain maximum— in that case, I think, the school authorities of the large cities would Ke\nstimulated, if any stimulation be needed, to increase and keep up their daily\naverage attendances. In the large cities, I take it, most of California's 75,000\nchildren who attend no schools are to be found. And these city children, it\nappears to me, are just as dear and just as much objects of solicitude to the\nstate of California as are the children of the country-school districts.\nIn such a scheme it would be necessary, of course, to credit to the pubhc\nschools, as per-capita recipients of state aid, those children who attend private\nschools. But as these children are confined almost entirely to the large cities,\nand as the state desires to see all its children attending some school, public\n\n"} {"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n353\n\nor private, no injustice of any very great moment would be done to the country\nchildren, certainly none to the city children.\nSuch a scheme would so regulate the distribution of the state's school\nfunds that the teacher would be, in effect, the prime basis upon which the\nstate school moneys are distributed; while, if the theory be correct that daily\naverage attendance, as a partial basis for state aid, does encourage school\nattendance, it would also spur on the local school authorities to increase and\nkeep up that attendance to the greatest possible practical maximum.\nUnder this scheme we would find, I think, that the country school taxes\nwould not differ so radically as has been the casein this state, where the poorest\ncounty, in order to support its short-term, rather poor schools, with poorlypaid teachers, was compelled to levy a county school tax of fifty cents, the\nlimit allowed by law; while the richest county of the state was able to run its\nmuch better schools more weeks in the year and pay its teachers much better\nsalaries, on a county school tax of six cents. It is true, of course, that the\ncities, because of their congested populations and their greater wealth, will\nalways be able to run their schools cheaper than the poorer, more sparsely\nsettled country counties can run theirs; but, under the scheme here proposed,\nthe difference would never be that between a tax of fifty and one of six cents.\nAs the prime basis of state aid would be the teachers this scheme would\ntend to equalize teachers' salaries thruout the state, not by decreasing those of\nthe city teachers, but by increasing those of the country teachers. And this,\nI take it, is a consummation devoutly to be wished, along with a number of\nother things which would also tend to improve our public schools.\nI freely admit that this paper is neither a scientific nor a complete answer\nto the question, \"Public School Finance — What next?\" Nor ought you to\nexpect, from an educational layman, a scientific, an elaborate, or a complete\nanswer to that question. The above is the notion of an earnest lover of the\npublic schools — one who desires, with all his heart, to see them bettered in\nevery possible way — one who, altho a layman in the practical operation of\nschool matters, yet has had some little connection with the practical side of\nschool finances. And my conclusion is that the best thing that the National\nEducational Association can do toward the \"Next\" is to see to it that, if\npracticable, in every state of the Union, a commission, official if possible, nonofficial if necessary, be organized to go over the constitution and laws of each\nstate, to ascertain in what way the state, county, city, and district school\nmoneys are distributed and used, and, applying to those methods the corrections deemed necessary by the most advanced and scientific school financiers\nof the country, endeavor to have those constitutions and laws properly amended.\nIn other words, I believe that the answer to the question, \"What Next?\"\nconsists in agitation looking to the reformation of school finances in each\nstate, for the people, by the people of each state; and that the first thing to be\naimed at is the proper, equitable and economical use of the state's money\nalready set aside for the use of the public schools, rather than any attempt to\n\n"} {"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nincrease the amount of state money so used. An increase of state aid will be,\nI think, a proper subject for another ''What Next?\" after this one has been\nproperly dealt with.\nDISCUSSION\nF. A. FiTZPATRiCK, Boston, Mass. — The Committee on Taxation, in investigating\nthis matter, found an interesting state of affairs. They found that the teachers* salaries\nranged from about 70 to 75 per cent, of the entire school-fund appropriation, except in\nthose localities where they had little, or comparatively little, fuel to buy. Where the teachers'\nwage fund was proportionately larger. We also discovered that fifty years ago the teachers'\nwage fund amounted from 90 to 94 per cent, of the entire school fund, which, I think,\ndemonstrates a very essential fact, to be borne in mind when talking with taxpayers; and\nthat is, that the teachers are not getting a larger percentage than formerly, of the entire\nschool appropriation, but, in fact, a very much smaller percentage.\nI take it that when a school board has plenty of money, there is little trouble in getting\nadequate salaries for teachers. So the teachers' salary question resolves itself into the\ntaxation question.\nIn the West where they build their school buildings from the proceeds of sales of\nbonds, and do not have to take care of that immense expenditure immediately but can\nspread it over a series of years, the effect of that expenditure is very different from that\nin a city where they are compelled to pay all of this money at once out of current funds\nraised by taxation for the year. If all of the departments of the city are following a like\ncourse, you are going to push the taxation rate very high, and make it difficult to secure\nadequate remuneration for the teaching force. It is a singular fact that this margin of\ntaxation is pressing closely upon the margin of production, not only in the United States,\nbut in France, Germany, and England as well. The result of this pressure, of course,\nis very apparent and need not be mentioned here.\nI think that- our public-school expenses are bound to increase. Our building expenses\nare bound to increase because the public demand is for better and better schoolhouses.\nBut, at the same time, our schoolhouses are no better than the residences which we are\nbuilding, and in most cases they are not nearly so good as the prisons, the penitentiaries,\nthe courthouses and the city halls. Naturally you cannot have children going from the\naverage homes to school buildings that are inferior in every respect to their homes. Then,\ntoo, in most cities it is now the policy to build the best schoolhouses in the poorer residence\nsections of the city.\nIn any wise administration we must be prepared to show people that we are not\nwasting money. The question of economy and retrenchment must be carefully considered. Itis not wise administration to plunge into expenditures which cannot be maintained upon the same plane; expensive buildings which will cost thousands and thousands of dollars to equip and maintain them. If school expenditures are pushed beyond\na reasonable point it is ahnost inevitable that the teachers' wage fund will eventually be\naffected. And these excessive expenditures can grow in many ways. They can grow by\nthe estabhshment of kindergartens and primary schools, exceeding requirements. They\ncan also grow by the expense attending too much supervision; and too much supervision\nis just as bad educationally as too little supervision.\nAnother point to be noted in this matter of teachers' salaries is the difficulty of securing and holding competent teachers unless the salaries are adequate. If the salaries are\ninsufficient, a large number will avail themselves of better opportunities in other directions.\nIn this regard, however, we are no worse off in school administration than the managers\nof street railways and of other commercial enterprises; for just as there is a great shortage\nof competent teachers to fill vacancies, there is a shortage in every other line of commercial\nactivity.\nAnd this is for the very same reason — the prosperity of the country.\nWhen the\n\n"} {"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n355\n\ncountry is prosperous, the better grade of labor is being sought out, and is being pushed\ninto other and higher and more remunerative employment. Today we are experiencing\nthis condition of things in this country to an unparalleled degree. We want to have our\nteachers paid more, or at least as much as the street-sweepers of the city, and we want\nto have them able to live in the society in which they rightfully belong.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Public Schools, Kansas City, Mo. — There\nis just one thing on this subject to which I wish to call your attention for a few moments,\nand that is, how much money can cities and towns put into their schoolhouses and\nstill retain the confidence of the people. I think that school boards generally who\ninsist on putting up such expensive buildings, ought rather to make their buildings\nsolid, substantial, very plain on the outside and very attractive on the inside.\nWhen I Wfent to Cincinnati two or three months ago I saw a building that cost $220,000,\na twenty-two-room building with a large hall in it as wide as a street, and they spoke of\nhaving other new buildings that would cost about $8,000 per room. The question is:\nwhere are they going to get all the money, and will the people be content to supply it ?\nWhen the Moseley commission was in this country they wondered at the great display\nof buildings and the large expenditures entailed and the comparatively small amount of\nthe total expenditure that went to teachers' salaries. Here is a question for us to think\nabout. There is hardly a city in the United States today that is not piling up a debt and\nincreasing it rapidly. I am not quite sure that school expenditures are not being pushed\ntoo far in many localities. I think the real thing in the school is not the equipment of the\nbuilding, but the teachers. We want good buildings, substantial buildings, buildings that\nwill last for a long time, but with the kind of buildings I have in mind the pupils would\nadvance just as rapidly in their studies. We have not solved everything by any means.\nIn ventilation we are still experimenting. It is a question whether there is not some danger\nof going too far in the way of magnificent structures similar to club rooms and other buildings of that sort, while we are paying our teachers meager salaries. Of course, I know\nthat in many of our cities, and in many of the states, money can be raised for school purposes readily.\nThe §uperintendent should be a kind of financial expert who would save the board\nfrom itself at times.\nThere should be a far-seeing policy in erecting new buildings, purchasing sites, and\nreplacing old buildings by new ones. We should see to it that they are made comfortable,\nthat they are sanitary, that they are pleasant places in which the children can do their\nwork. But there are two important elements, and I agree with Mr. Fitzpatrick in this:\nerecting buildings, furnishing them adequately, but not extravagantly; and the other\nis in paying the teachers adequate salaries.\nCities grow in different directions. When I was here five or six years ago the Los\nAngeles that I saw was entirely different from the city that I see today. Probably the\nBoard of Education, all practical business men, with all of the experience that they then\nhad combined with the wisdom of the superintendent could not tell when they built a\nschool house in a certain portion of the city that the time would soon come when that part\nof the city would be business property. We find such problems as these coming up everywhere in all cities.\nIn the town in which I live, where a few years ago were the largest schools, today\nthe attendance has fallen off very decidedly. Some of these schools have only 50 per\ncent, of the enrollment that they had ten years ago — due entirely to the way in which the\ncity has grown.\nOne thing that I would insist upon is this, and it may be simply a word of caution:\nThe men who compose school boards generally serve but a short time and many of them\nnever get a clear conception of the system as a whole nor an understanding of certain\nthings which should be done, to such an extent that it enables them to say with confidence\nthat some things should be done and that other things should not be done\nI would not\n\n"} {"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfeel that it was safe to use eight or ten thousand dollars for each schoolroom unless in a\nvery wealthy city, a city with plenty of money, where the people would not feel the expenditure to be a heavy burden. It may be, in the time to come, that we can afford things\nof that sort in all cities, but it is better to be careful and to build upon a safe financial\nbasis. While prosperity reigns it is all right, but we do not always have prosperous times\nand it is far better to be on safe ground all the time.\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D. C. — Assume that each state in our nation provide\nfor public education in schools, making not only as states a general tax for education,\nbut re-enforcing the general tax by local taxes in cities and villages, in counties and townships, intowns and districts — as the case may be. Assume this and you will assume your\npublic-school finances.\nNow, what should you do with the vast sum of money raised for schools\" in this country ? You should build new buildings and improve their plans. You should select\nbetter lots and have larger playgrounds. You should have more and better furniture,\nbetter outhouses, better provision for light, heat, ventilation, and the general health of\nschool children.\nYou should pay better salaries to the teachers.\nThe United States pays 260 milHons a year for its public schools, a sum equal to 26\ncents on each $100 of true valuation of its wealth. The amount collected from each dollar\nhas been increased from year to year at a rate of about 4 cents each decade since 1880.\nWe should increase this expenditure by an equal or greater amount each decade\nbecause the more accumulated wealth there is the better able it is to spare for\nschools a larger tax on the dollar.\nThe per capita of wealth increases from decade to decade. For the United States\nit had reached $1,036 in 1890, more than three times what it was in 1850. This mere\nincrease per capita would alone cause vast increase of revenues for schools without raising\nthe tax on each dollar. But as a fact all sections of our country have increased not only in\nwealth but in the tax rate per dollar devoted to schools.\nThe north Atlantic states, for instance, have been accumulating wealth for the longest\ntime and have the largest accumulations, and yet they have increased the amount collected\nfor schools on each $100 from 16 cents in 1880 to 27 cents in 1903. In 1880 their to.tal valuation of property was seventeen and one-half billions; in 1903 it was more than double,\nbeing nearly thirty-seven billions. The south Atlantic and south central states increased\ntheir rates per $100, the former from 14 cents to 23 cents and the latter from 13 to 24 cents.\nThe north central division increased its pro rata on each $100 from 22 to 28 cents for schools\nand the western division from 19 cents to 21 cents. The pro rata for the western division\nfor schools has always been high. California was paying 21 cents on the $100 in 1880\nand has raised this pro rata to 23 cents in 1903.\nAs wealth increases the amount pro rata for schools has been increased so that publicschool finances are doubly augmented, deriving an increment directly from the increase\nin taxable property and a second increment from the higher rate of taxation.\nIt was vastly easier to pay a school tax in 1900 with an average per inhabitant of $1,235\nof wealth than it was in 1850 when the wealth was only $308. The greater the wealth the\ngreater the ability to pay high rates of taxation. The United States citizen of 1900 is\nrepresented by four times as much realized wealth and therefore can bear a burden of taxation equal to four times that of 1850 with greater ease, because the larger the income\nfrom vested property, the greater the tax possible, without stinting the individual in his\nnecessities.\nThe property that goes down from one generation to the next consists mostly of the\nmachinery of production, of improved farms, of city buildings and lots on graded and\nsewered streets, of railroads and steamships, of mines, of mills for textile goods and for\niron and steel.\nSupposing therefore that we have our finances for public schools, it remains for us\nto make a wiser and wiser use of them so as to increase the efficiency of the school system.\n\n"} {"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n357\n\nOne of the important matters which concern the economy of resources is the twofold\ngrading of salaries so as to recognize, in the first place, the improvement of the teachers\nthru experience and length of service, and secondly, the improvement of teachers that\ncomes from assuming greater responsibilities and making extraordinary efforts to master\ndifficulties. There should be a grading of salaries according to mere length of service\nwith increase of fifty or one hundred dollars a year. In some cities salaries for the lowest\ngrade of assistants begin at $500 or even $400, and increase at the rate of $50 or $100 up\nto the maximum, which may be as high as $600, $700 or even $800 a year.\nIf this graded increase is continued too long it brings with it a salary too high for\nthat quality of teachers' work which does not improve beyond the stage of mere routine\nand which commonly reaches its highest level in the fourth year of service. After this\nperiod mannerisms begin to creep in, and in some cases an affected style of behavior, such\nas has been caricatured in literature as belonging to the pedagogue.\nMore important, therefore, is the second grading of salaries, based upon difficulty\nof work, upon high skill in teaching, or upon superior learning. At least one-fourth of\nthe corps of teachers should stand out above the stratum of teachers who are graded merely\nby length of service. They should form a class apart which preserves the traditions of\ngood teaching and continually purifies them.\nThe second grading of salaries starts with promotions from the time-graded lowest\nclass and rewards the teachers of earnest character, skill, and successful instruction by\npromotion from rank to rank up to the directive power in the schools and the highest grades\nof salaries.\nWhile according to length of service there may be a range of salaries from $500 for\nthe first year to $700 for the fourth year — an annual increase of $50, the salary of this grade\nof teachers may range from $550 to $1,000 or $1,200. The first promotion may change\nthe rank of ordinary assistant (perhaps called third assistant) to that of second grade\nassistant, receiving a salary of $100 a year higher than the rank and file, and with annual\nincrease of $50, beginning at $600 and rising year by year up to a maximum of $860.\nNext higher in rank would be a first assistant, beginning at $700 and rising to* $900,\nand after that a head assistant with advances of salary of $100 each over the next grade\nbelow, beginning at $Soo or $900 and rising to $1,000 or $1,100.\nThere should be no promotion except to an actual vacancy existing in the schools.\nThere should be marked out in the beginning the important places: In the lowest primary\na first assistant's place; then, next, a second assistant's place; and after that four third\nassistant's places; and then a second assistant; then four third assistants, and then for\ntwelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth teachers, respectively, a second assistant, a first assistant,\nand a head assistant, and over all these a principal of the school. This is an example of\na graded school of fourteen rooms.\nThis second grading of salaried teachers, that is based on skill and learning, saves the\nschools from losing their best talent by promotion to better salaries in other cities. The\nreaction of this class of teachers on the class of teachers who rise only by time of service\nis very wholesome in preserving the professional spirit of the schools; and their good\ndevices of instruction and discipline become the possession of their less progressive\nneighbors.\nF. B. Cooper, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash. — I have just two points\nto raise, one in regard to the position taken by Mr. Greenwood, who is such good\nauthority with me that I am almost inclined to hesitate over my own judgment when I\ndiffer with him. This is whether those cities which are spending the money necessary\nto secure good and well-equipped school buildings do not also pay their teachers salaries\nproportionate to their expenditure for buildings. I don't mean to say that any cities\npay their teachers enough. While I do not know that such a comparison has been made\nI think it would be found that generally a fair proportion of the gross expenditures is for\nteachers' salaries.\n\nI believe it is a fact, that cities that are spending the most money for\n\n"} {"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nschool buildings in order to have them rightly meet the needs of the school children, are\nalso paying the best salaries for teachers.\nOver-economy in equipment is wasteful of teaching energy. In our city an eightroom building costs about $30,000. If it were necessary to spend $4,000 more than\nthis for a building in order to make every dollar spent for teachers' salaries worth one\nhundred cents, by giving the teacher everything that she needs to work with, to provide\nthe ordinary sanitation and light and everything necessary to make the children do their\nbest work, it would be an economical investment. This would mean that an outlay of\nthe interest upon four thousand dollars at 4 per cent., or one hundred and sixty dollars\na year, would give full value to the six thousand dollars a year paid as the salaries of eight\nteachers. That is an argument, I think, that no reasonable school-board member can\nwithstand. When once the fact of building and equipment in its true relation is clearly\nunderstood then it is more likely that the teacher in her true relation will be understood\nand her salary will be the more fairly adjusted.\nThere is another thing which has been pointed out here this morning, and which ought to\nbe figured out and published so that assessors and taxpayers may know it. I refer to a\ncomparison of the increase in our wealth with the increase in the cost of school maintenance.\nA great disproportion will be found here. Why, this country has increased in wealth many,\nmany fold, but it can easily be shown that the increase for school maintenance has not been\nat all proportionate to the increase in the country's wealth. And this, for the reason that\nso much of our wealth in this country is not touched by taxation — and the more wealth that\nis produced, the greater the proportion that is not so touched.\nA corporation that I know of was formerly assessed for seventy thousand dollars.\nThis year the assessor, who afi5rms that he must assess it righteously because he has taken\nan oath of office to perform that duty, assessed that corporation for five hundred and sixty\nthousand dollars. In this single city, the assessed valuation has gone from seventy millions\nup to one hundred and twenty-five millions in a single year not merely because there has\nbeen an increase in wealth, but because a just assessor has brought more wealth to view\nupon his books. This makes it easier for schools to enjoy a proper and legitimate support.\nEdwin G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. — Commissioner\nBrown has explained that we are to discuss the question \"What Next?\" as a supplement to the investigations of teachers' salaries of some three or four years ago. He\nbelieves that the matter collected then should be put into more definite form that it\nmight lead to definite action.\nI am not familiar with the situation in the country schools. I can speak for a city\nlike Chicago. There, as in other large cities, we are struggHng with deficient revenues.\nWe have been increasing the demands upon the schools from year to year, accompanied by\nthe dislike on the part of the taxpayers to submit to a higher rate of taxation. The taxpayers go to the legislature from year to year to fight every attempt to increase the taxation\nfor the schools and for other city purposes. In Chicago they have had the best of us\nup to date.\nIn our large cities we are laboring with crowded rooms, with insufficient supplies of\nmaterials to work with, with salaries lower than they ought to be — certainly too low for\ncapable teachers.\nThere is one thing that should, I think, receive attention. That is the increased\ndemands made upon the common schools today. Twenty-five years ago the people paid\nfar less than they do now for school purposes, and many of them cannot see why they should\npay more at the present time. They fail to realize the tremendous increase in the demands\nmade upon the schools. They fail to appreciate that the public is demanding better\nteachers, better buildings, better equipment, and a very much larger list of subjects must be\ntaught. Some of the people seem to expect all of these things with an expenditure of\nthe same amount of money that was formerly adequate.\nOne important line of work for us in the future is to educate the taxpaying body as\n\n"} {"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nFINANCE:\n\nWHAT\n\nNEXT?\n\n359\n\nto the needs of the schools, as to the reasons why we must have larger revenues. We must\npoint out that with the departure from the purely academic scheme of education there\nmust go increased expenditure. The business man and the manufacturer of today are not\nsatisfied with the old scheme of education. While we are somewhat uncertain as to just\nwhat the future will expect of us, we are sure that the day of the Three R's is over. Industrial and commercial education has come to stay.\nThese increasing demands cannot be met by mere manipulation of the finances of our\ncities. They cannot be met by changes in methods of supervising and handling the schools.\nThey can only be met by larger expenditures of money. We must pay larger salaries, we\nmust continue to equip our schools better and better, and we must do this in the face of\nprotests against increased expenditures.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — I wish to say in\nconnection with the remarks made by the gentleman from California, that I believe some\nregulation will be necessary if the basis of payment by the state is to be made on teachers\nand not on pupils. The problem of the consolidation of the schools, and the question of\nthe conditions under which they ought to be consolidated, especially in the smaller communities, must be carefully considered if the basis of, or the distribution of, the state appropriations should come to be the number of teachers.\nI agree entirely with what Mr. Cooley and others have said, that we do not have enough\nfunds for the purposes of our schools. Teachers do not receive adequate salaries, and\nthere are other things for which we do not have enough money. But, on the other hand,\nthere are some things for which we expend too much money; and it seems to me that these\nmatters should be looked into. Some classification should be made of the various kinds\nof expenditures similar to that made by the committee that went into this matter some years\nago and those reports should be studied carefully by those charged with responsibility for\nschool finances.\nIn some cases there is a waste of money on schoolhouses. Sometimes thousands of\ndollars are spent on elaborate balustrades and the decorations for the buildings, which\nadd nothing whatever to their actual value for school purposes, but result from the fancy\nof the architect, or are suggested by someone without any real knowledge of the necessities\nof a schoolroom or of a schoolhouse. Very likely by concerted effort we might gain accurate\nknowledge of the needs of the schoolhouse; we might determine clearly the demands (5f\nthe schoolroom in furnishings and equipment; we might \"standardize\" the schoolroom\nfor the United States; we might \"standardize\" the schoolhouse. We might learn what\nare the standard essentials of a school building and how these mightbe had for the least\nexpenditure of money; we might include every necessary thing that a schoolhouse should\npossess; and thus we might settle what a schoolroom should contain, and about what it\nshould cost.\nThere is another point that is important in this connection. I refer to the varying\nproportions of money raised for school purposes, compared with money raised for other\npublic purposes. This makes it incumbent upon those of us who have something to do\nwith determining the amounts to be raised for schools and how this money shall be expended\nto inform ourselves by means of comparison between different cities. A few superintendents have been engaged in this work, and have gathered facts concerning the different\nsources from which the school money comes and the methods of raising the same. In\nsome cities the money used for the schools is raised exclusively by taxation. The proportion devoted to this purpose varies in different places; in some 50 or 60 per cent, of\nwhat is raised by taxation is expended for the public schools, while there are other towns\nin which the proportion is only 20 per cent. Part of this variation is due to varying in.\ncome from licenses and other sources. Where funds come from these sources, a less\namount of the necessary money is raised by direct taxation.\nThese things need careful study by all who have to do with the collection or expenditure of school moneys.\n\n"} {"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSome years ago the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational\nAssociation made some such inquiry and an investigation of the various lines of expenditures in city schools, and embodied the results in a form for financial reports that was\nintended to be of assistance to city superintendents of schools in comparing the expenses\nof one city with those in another. It is a wise saying of the old scientist that \"all science\nis comparison,\" and it is well that this be remembered so far as city schools are concerned\nand in the comparison of the expenditures of one city with those of another.\nIn order to compare expenditures a common basis must be had and it seems to me\nespecially desirable that those of us who are connected with city schools should look up\nthis report. It is in the proceedings of the National Educational Association, and can be\nobtained through the Secretary of the Association. Every city superintendent's office\nshould contain a copy of this report, and whatever else can be had on classification of expenditures to enable him to see how the expenditures and the revenues of one city compare\nwith those of another.\n\nTOPIC— PROVISIONS\nTHE\n\nFOR\nEXCEPTIONAL\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOLS\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIN\n\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam E. Hatch, superintendent of schools, New Bedford, Mass. — It seems to\nme that this is one of the most important topics of the whole convention program. It\nmay seem more important to me than to many, because I come from a district of New\nEngland, where we have a very large proportion of foreign people — people who are coming\nhere every day by the thousands, and settling in our cities, especially in our textile manufacturing cities, in one of which I live. Their children furnish a problem which many of\nyou who live in cities more remote from the coast do not meet, since, as I understand from\nthe reports of the immigration commissioners, a large proportion of immigrants to this\ncountry, who have come here recently, are settling east of the Mississippi River, and in\nour cities.\nMiss Julia Richman, assistant superintendent of schools in New York City, speaking\nof the great problems she has to meet in the schools there, said to me, \"We\nSave one problem that you haven't in Massachusetts.\" I said, \"What is it?\" She\nanswered, \"We have children of a great number of different nationalities to deal with.\"\n\"But,\" I said, \"in my city, we have children of at least fifteen or twenty different nationalities to deal with, who cannot, many of them, speak the English language at all.\"\nThey are exceptional children.\nBut I imagine that the children who were in mind when this topic was placed on\nthe program were those who were defective either in mind or body, rather than foreign\nborn. Without considering illiterates, exceptional children may be placed in two classes.\nOne class includes those who stand above the normal child — the. exceptional in ability;\nthe exceptional in mental acumen; those who are physically strong, who have a great\nvitality, who have great home advantages.\nThese children are as important a consideration as those who are deficient. From\nthese children are to come the leaders of our country; and if any nation has not a large\npercentage of intellectually strong, morally strong, and physically strong people, that\nnation must degenerate. The percentage of strong. Christian leaders determines the\nposition of a nation in the world, and that nation which has a small percentage in\nrelation to its mass must certainly become bankrupt morally, physically, politically,\nand economically.\nJ. H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md. — Without in any way\nseeming to undervalue the training of the delinquent and the defective, I wish to speak\nbriefly of the training of exceptionally capable children.\nIn well-developed graded school systems, the needs of the ordinary pupils have been\n\n"} {"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n361\n\npretty well looked after. We have ceased handling the pupils in masses and are dealing\nmore and more with individuals; but exceptionally capable individuals are so few that it\nit is exceedingly difl&cult to deal with them in an adequate way in any graded public-school\nsystem. Pupils here and there who might, without jeopardizing health, accomplish far\nmore than their classmates, being able, with comparatively little effort, to keep pace with\nthe rest, are satisfied and fail to develop the powers which are latent in them. While the\naverage and the less capable pupils are gaining the ideal of hard work, these few are gaining\nthe idea that all things can be had without effort, or with little effort. This idea is apt to\nfollow them through life, and to make them really less effective than some of those of smaller\nnatural gifts who have gained the habit of intense application.\nFor the last six or seven years, in Worcester, Massachusetts, and for the last five\nyears in the city which I represent, there have been selected here and there, from the sixth\ngrammer grade, pupils who show unusual capacity. With the consent of their parents,\nthese pupils have been gathered together into convenient centers, and under teachers more\nthan ordinarily capable, these few picked pupils have been allowed, while continuing the\nregular grammar-grade work, to begin some of their high-school studies two years before\nthe ordinary time of entering a high school. They go to the high school with one year\nof Latin, with a year of either French or German, and with a year of English to their\ncredit, and accordingly they finish the four years' high-school course in three years. The\nsaving of a year's time is important, but the most important consideration, to my mind,\nis that they learn to exercise their exceptional powers instead of settling down into contented mediocrity.\nJ. F. MiLLSPAUGH, president of State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal. — Theoretically, there is an average child. Those in every way better endowed than the average\nwe call bright children; those less happily endowed we call dull. To thus classify children\nwould be proper enough, if we used a fair standard in making it; but we do not. We\nassume a number of particular qualities as desirable, group into a class the children who\npossess them, and call that class the standard by which to measure other children. We\nhave inherited a belief in the efficacy of a certain curriculum of studies. These studies were\noriginally selected because they were adapted to the needs of the one class of children —\nthe other classes were not supposed to be worth choosing studies for. For generations\nwe have been using this curriculum as a means of standardizing our children. Now this\nis just as sensible as it would be to adopt trotting as the sole standard of worth in a horse.\nWe should then be obliged to condemn as worthless the heavy Clydesdale because he cannot trot as fast as Maud S. The truth is that the Creator has a place, a useful, honorable\nplace, for every type of human being that he has created, and we have no right to use an\noffensive term in classifying any individual because he differs from some one else whom it\nis the fashion to think more worth while. The test of worth should be : how well does one\nperform the part for which he was created, not how well can he perform the part for which\nsomeone else was created. We have been trying for some years to give the so-called exceptional child a chance; but we have not ceased to try to make something out of him for which\nhe was not created. The exceptional child that we call dull has been forced to take a\nprogram suitable for the exceptional child that we call bright. The result has been ruinous\nto the dull child and harmful to the bright child.\nWhat we need to do is squarely to face the facts. Let us differentiate our school\ncurriculum in such a way as more nearly to meet the needs of all classes of ability. We\nare doing this to some extent in high schools; we have classical high schools, English high\nschools, manual training high schools, commercial high schools, polytechnic high schools.\nLet us carry the plan down into the grades in a still more thorogoing fashion. Is it impracticable to have schools built upon the truth that some children have a native endowment\nof one kind; others of another kind ?\nThis would not mean educational neglect of any department of the being, though\nit might shatter some of our notions of an all-around training. We could reasonably hope\n\n"} {"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthat it would give us a larger number than we now have of well-trained men representing\nall types.\nIt would not cheapen education, but enrich it.\nL. E. Wolfe, superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Tex. — -I like very much what\nMr. Millspaugh has said. When you say that a certain pupil is dull, and that a certain\nother pupil is bright, you should base your statement upon something fundamental. We\nhave been accustomed to base our statement upon the traditional course of study. In\nthis traditional course of study the great thing is to interpret the printed page; but is\nthere not something more fundamental than this abiHty; namely, the ability to render\nservice to society ? It seems to me that the most fundamental thing is service to the social\nunit. This service may be in various fields — in the field of books, in the professions, in\nbusiness, in mechanical construction, in agriculture. When we make the course of\nstudy as many-sided as the capabilities of the pupil and the industrial demands of life,\nwe find that many pupils classed as dull under the traditional course of study cannot be\nso classed under this modern course of study. The traditional course of study has been\nshaped largely to prepare pupils for the professions and for leadership in business, and\nnot for a many-sided social service.\nIf this question be looked at from the standpoint of humanity, society owes to each\nindividual an opportunity to develop the best that is in him — to prepare himself for a\nmaximum of social service. If the question be looked at from the standpoint of enlightened\nself-interest, it is the highest interest of society to train each of its members for a maximum\nof social service. The solidarity of society is so fixed and the laws governing this solidarity\nso inexorable, that society cannot escape responsibility for the shortcomings of any one\nof its members any more than this natural body can escape responsibility for the weakness\nof any one of its organs.\nNot only is the traditional course of study peculiarly adapted to a comparatively\nsmall number of pupils, but the teaching force of the past without exception, and of the\npresent with few exceptions, has been composed of those who were adapted to the mastery\nof the book course of study, and therefore lacked appreciation of those natural gifts in the\npupil which make for achievement in the field of practical endeavor rather than in books.\nIn fact, . the great army of women teachers so excelled in books during their school days\nas to be relieved by their mothers almost wholly from domestic duties. Is it likely that\nwomen thus brought up would have a due appreciation of talents that do not go to the\nmastery of books ? In like manner, the boys who have become school teachers are usually\ninferior to other members of the family in mechanical skill.\nF. A. FiTZPATRiCK, Boston, Mass. — If I interpret these remarks correctly, the impression that I get is, that it is very difficult to tell whether these exceptional children are\nvery exceptional or not. We don't want to exclude any of them. We don't want to bar\nout the child who is a botanist, or the child who is a baseball player; we want to get out\nthe best that is in them just the same. Without doubt, at its present stage, this is a very\ndifl5cult problem, of which we are just entering upon the threshold of discovery.\nWe know that the difference between men and women in this world is not a difference\nin intellectual power; it is more largely a difference in will-power, and this is especially true\nwith children. We know too, that school tasks are so small that any child can accomplish\nthem, provided he has the right stimulus. In other words, the work of the eight grades\ncan be completed by any child of eleven or twelve years in two years; and there are many\ninstances of boys of twelve or thirteen, of fifteen or sixteen years who have done this work\nand graduated from college in seven years.\nWhat we want, as Mr. Wolfe and Mr. Van Sickle have indicated, is to see that\nthese children have the stimulus which will react upon them. Of course you can't always\ntell about that. Phillips Brooks was an ordinary scholar at Harvard. He had no love for\nathletics; he had no fondness for the prescribed study; he did not enter into the literary\nsocieties with any interest; he had no record of excellent scholarship. He did haunt the\nlibrary.\nHe made few acquaintances.\nWhen he was graduated from college, according\n\n"} {"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncQ]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nLIBRARY\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n363\n\nto a time-honored custom in Boston, his friends secured for him a position in the Boston\nLatin School. Within a few weeks, complaints began to arise about him — that he could\nnot hold the boys; his disciplinary powers were weak. He was forced ultimately to resign\nbecause he was incompetent to handle that school. Yet he became one of the greatest\nleaders of men of his generation. Now, of course we could not predict what Phillips Brooks\nwould become.\nWhen you begin to compare people, you cannot tell whether one will enter the\ngreat world-life from the standpoint of poetry, or whether he will enter from the standpoint\nof mathematics, or whether he will enter it from the side of a novelist, or from the side of\nthe engineer, or from the side of the orator. Who could have said that Michael Angelo,\nor Victor Hugo, or George Eliot, or Homer, would be greater than others ?\nWhat we want to do is to avoid, by our routine and our prescriptive ways, the destruction\nof this budding capacity. The hope of a democracy is in its leaders. Leaders are of such\nvalue to any community that their worth is inestimable. It has been said that in England,\nif fifty thousand people were to be taken out of the ranks of the best literary people, the\nleading statesmen, the leading physicians, the leading lawyers, merchants, engineers, inventors and transplanted to Australia, that England would drop in fifty years to a third-class\npower; and conversely, Australia would develop in a corresponding degree.\nJohn T. Prince, agent for State Board of Education, West Newton, Mass. — Thus\nfar in the discussion, we have confined ourselves to the intellectually exceptional child.\nI would like to ask some members of the Council who have had experience, to tell us what\nhas been done v/ith the morally exceptional child, or the physically exceptional child.\nThese defects are quite as important as the other, however important that may be. In\nregard to the treatment of delinquents in Massachussetts, I think we are as far advanced\nas they are in any state in the country; but I am convinced that we are working on wrong\nlines. We have good truant schools, and we are sending our children to them. But we\nare not getting hold of the right children, nor all of the children, nor are we getting hold\nof them in the right way. I believe if the school men would give more attention to this\nquestion, directing the charitably disposed people who are inclined to take up this question\nwithout the knowledge that they should have, we should do very much more than we are\ndoing.\n\nA DISCUSSION OF THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\nINSTRUCTION IN LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION\nIN NORMAL SCHOOLS\nFRANK\n\nF. BUNKER,\n\nASSISTANT\nSUPERINTENDENT\nLOS ANGELES,\nCAL.\n\nOF\n\nCITY\n\nON\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThis report of your committee clearly was written in the spirit of a desire\nto bring about a closer relationship between the public school and the public\nlibrary. With this objective I am in the most hearty accord. There are two\nreasons why I want greatly to increase the interdependence of these two\ninstitutions.\nOur textbooks, good as' they are — and they never were so excellent as now —\ncan never be more than compendiums of the facts and general notions which\nthe writers consider essential. The space limitation of any text is such that\nit is impossible to include that wealth of detail and picturesque incident which\nis essential to interest as well as to a clear comprehension of the point under\nconsideration. For instance, to put a pupil in any sort of sympathetic touch\nwith a foreign country, with its agricultural, industrial, and climatic conditions;\n\n"} {"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwith its picturesque and historical features; with its modes of life, it is necessary that the child should receive his impressions in concrete form, and chiefly\nin mental pictures which he can clearly visualize. It is not necessary, neither\nis it desirable, that the pupil should remember all the details which have to be\npresented in order to get a given picture ; indeed, with most of us, in time, such\ndetails fade from consciousness, leaving in their stead only a general feeHng,\na sense of perspective. But since concrete pictures are the only materials out\nof which generalizations are fashioned, it follows that a mass of concrete and\nrelated detail is necessary if we would have the child understand the general\nstatements which he finds in his text. It is true that one cannot put a general\nconception, a vague term, an abstract definition, an abstract idea or notion,\ninto a child's mind, and have him hold this until he gets old enough or gets\nexperience enough to clothe it in its proper image. If he holds it at all, except\nthru verbal memory, he holds it because it is an image. The range of information inany field of knowledge is so vast and so varied that a textbook which\nwould include the concrete material necessary to creating essential images\nclearly cannot be less than a library of books. Our texts are attempts to\nencompass this mass of detail within two covers. Of necessity they can be\nlittle more than a convenient outline of principles and generalizations, so\nabstract that picture-thinking from them is impossible. That schoolroom\npractice, which does not go beyond the text, can be nothing more than a\nsystem of memorizing words and phrases, because the body of material which\nis necessary to the understanding of the given generalization lies outside the\ntext. The chief source of the supply of such material is found, obviously, in\nthe public library, and the teacher who does not use the library freely for her\nown help and inspiration, as well as to secure material for the use of her\nclasses, is without uplift. Permit me to say that in this I am speaking from\nexperience, for the course of study for the grades in geography and history,\nwhich has been introduced in the Seattle schools during the past year, is based\nalmost entirely upon material which is to be found only in magazines, in books\nof reference, and in the children' books supplied, most liberally, by the public\nlibrary of that city. The results, in increased interest, thru the introduction\nof a fresh content coming to the children from outside the text, have been\nremarkable, as testified to, not alone by principals and teachers, but by parents\nwho, with satisfaction, have recognized the vitalizing effect on their own\nchildren.\nThere is another reason why our schools should lean heavily upon the\npublic library. Our work is weak indeed if it fails to inspire the student\nwith an eagerness to extend his study beyond the limits of the particular school\ncourse selected. I believe it possible, thru readjusting the content of our\ncultural courses, and thru changing the methods of schoolroom practice, so to\nlay the foundations of culture as to irresistibly impel the young person leaving\nthe public school to seek to broaden his education along the lines of the interests\nwhich he has already estabHshed.\nThe school that does not bring the student\n\n"} {"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nLIBRARY\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n365\n\nto the realization that education is a continuous process, with no break when\nhe leaves school, falls far short of its high purpose. In short, the pupil should\nbe brought to see in the public library an institution where he can continue his\neducation thruout life — a place to which he can go for intellectual and spiritual\ninspiration. The school is remiss if it does not prepare the pupil for the\nprocess of self-education, and stimulate him to desire it.\nAs to the desirability, then, of close accord between the public school and\nthe library which I take to be the end sought by your committee, I am in the\nclosest sympathy. In my own work I have tried earnestly to get the teachers\nand children into the library, and the library into the schools.\nIn attempting to secure the relationship which I want to see brought about,\nI have met two serious difficulties, both relating to the teacher's preparation,\n^ one having to do with her lack of familiarity with library machinery, the other\ngrowing out of her ignorance of children's literature, its nature, scope, and\nfunction.\nI thought it impossible, in this day of progressive educational practice, to\nfind any recent graduate of our normal schools in ignorance of the use of\nPoole's Index or the card catalogue; yet I find many who have never seen\neither. One would think it natural that, inasmuch as our normal schools\nare preparing their teachers to go out and educate children, about the first\nthing they would do would be to see that their students get a clear survey of\nthe literature which has been written for children, and to develop in them\nstandards of discrimination in the same. I am a graduate of one normal\nschool. I was a member of the faculty of another. I know intimately\nthe work of several others, and superficially that of many more. I have\nyet to hear of any normal school, either East or West, attempting to give its\nstudents any systematic work in the very field wherein the teacher ought to\nexercise her greatest influence. The San Francisco State Normal School\nis doing most along this line of any school with which I am familiar.\nHowever, the work there is limited to a training in the use of children's\nbooks which are supplementary to school subjects. But where I find one\nteacher who knows so little about library routine that it is to her incomprehensible,find\nI\nmany more who have no notion what books children are\ninterested in, or what to suggest when the parent asks for advice, or what kind\nof reading is available and should be secured to supplement the classroom\nwork, in such subjects as science, history, geography, literature, and general\nreading. There are two difficulties, then, growing out of the lack of proper\npreparation on the part of our teachers, which must be met before the library\ncan be used to its maximum\n\nby the school — the lack of how to use the library,\n\nand the lack of a comprehensive knowledge of the field of children's literature.\nBeyond some four and one-half pages, chiefly a bibliography, the report\nof your own Committee on Instruction in Library Administration in the Normal\nSchools deals with the first of these only. The report is an excellent handbook of the elements of library practice.\nIt is well arranged and clearly\n\n"} {"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwritten. A commendable feature is the selected lists of reading which it gives.\nI have read many of the references therein cited, and in most cases I find them\nselected with discrimination. As a convenient summary of valuable suggestions,\nto one who finds herself in charge of a library of whatever size, it is admirable.It also ought to be in the hands of every teacher. However, valuable as is the\nreport in this connection, and as much as I am in sympathy with training\nteachers to use the library, I am opposed to the whole idea of introducing a\nsystematic and formal course in library administration in the normal schools,\nbecause I believe, the end can be reached in a more economical and natural\nway.\nThe suggestions embodied in the report, in the main, can be grouped about\ntwo ideas: how to use the library and how to procure and care for the books\nwhich comprise it. As to the first, the only way a prospective teacher can\nlearn to use a library is thru using it. It cannot be accomplished by a course\nof lectures on indexes or the card catalogue. Every normal school worthy\nthe name has a considerable equipment of magazines, books on general and\nspecial subjects, and reference works. If the work of the school is conducted\nin anything like a rational fashion, the students will have many topics to search\nout. Thru the real demands of the school, then, a working knowledge of a\nlibrary will easily and naturally come. The securing of ability to use the\nlibrary machinery in finding the thing wanted can be expedited somewhat\nthru an occasional talk given by the librarian or by some experienced person.\nBut a series of lectures, or even a series of formal meetings, for discussion, if\ncarried on without work in a library, would be hopeless; on the other hand,\nif the work of the school requires the use of the library, such a course would be\nunnecessary, I feel.\nAs to the training in the care of books, normal schools should in no wise\nattempt to duplicate the work of the library training-school. A library of any\nconsiderable size should be administered by a trained librarian. All the\ninformation which the care of a small number of books would demand can be\ngiven, I am sure, without a formal or long-continued time being set apart for\nit. A few talks by the librarian of the school, together with an examination\nof an organized library, and supplemented by placing a copy of the report under\ndiscussion in the hands of the student, will surely give all that general information about this phase of library work that any normal school would be\njustified in requiring, inasmuch as the function of the normal school is not\nthat of training librarians, and inasmuch as only a small percentage of its\ngraduates will ever have occasion to assemble a library beyond that containing\na few dozen books. In short, the lack of familiarity with library routine\nwhich I have noted in regard to my own teachers, I fully believe can be\nadequately met thru the regular work of the normal school, supplemented\nby occasional talks by the school librarian, and without the necessity of\nsetting apart a regular time for a formal course in the matter.\nThe other lack in the teacher's training to which I have referred presents a\n\n"} {"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN LIBRARY\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n367\n\nmore serious problem. It is a problem which can be met only thru continuous\nand systematic work, well organized and continued thruout the entire normalschool course. Such a course in children's literature as I would have given in\nthe normal schools is beginning to be shaped up by those training-schools which\n^ prepare students to take charge of children's departments in public libraries.\nMiss Frances J. Olcott, who superintends such training in the Carnegie\nLibrary, Pittsburgh, is doing a work which offers many suggestions for a\ncourse in children's literature in the normal school. Indeed, most of the\ntopics which I shall enumerate as deserving a place in such a course were\nsuggested to me thru an examination of the notes of one of Miss Olcott's\nstudents. Miss Blanchard, now in charge of the children's department of the\nSeattle Public Library.\nSuch a course should comprehend:\n1. A general survey and discussion of children's fiction, with an examination of such\ngroups as, children's classics; standard books of fiction; popular fiction, comprising\nbooks which can be used to guide boys and girls who have been reading trashy books, to\na better class; the \"yellow\" class, comprising weak, sensational stories, those thoroughly\nbad, those low and vile, and the trash for girls which, for the most part, is founded on\nadult emotions.\n2. An examination of children's nature books to form an acquaintance with the chief\nt3rpes, such as those which are true and will last, and hence with educational value; those\nwhich are neither true nor beautiful, such as Jack London's; those which are simply\nromances, but yet which teach children to treat animals kindly, as Ernest- Thompson\nSeton's books; and those which are untrue, but harmless, because not vicious, as perhaps\nthe stories of Dr. Long.\n3. A general survey of the field of folklore, mythology, and fairy tales, in the light of\ntheir treatment for children.\n4. An examination of the adaptations of the classics which have been made for children,\ntreating particularly those coming from the Greek, Roman, Hebrew, and Anglo-Saxon\nliteratures.\n5. An examination of technical books, written for boys and covering such fields as\nchemistry, electricity, astronomy, geology, and shopwork.\n6. An examination of the books on history and geography written for children. There\nis in this field a rich lot of material. The teacher who is not familiar with it and who has\nnever considered its scope and the uses to which it can be put in the classroom has not\nonly missed a great opportunity for vitalizing her work in these subjects, but also for bringing her children in working touch with the public library.\n7. A consideration of poetry for children, along some such lines as, folklore in verse;\nstandard poetry; collections of poetry for children; and prose renderings of EngUsh\npoems.\n8. An examination of the magazines which are published for children, together with\na discussion of the lists of such magazines, which are used in the children's department\nof various libraries.\n9. A discussion and examination of books which are written for very little children,\nsuch as, fable and animal stories; fairy tales and legends; Mother Goose rhymes; customs\nof different peoples; biographical accounts; and one-syllable books, and books which have\nbeen rewritten.\n10. A consideration of what books a child under twelve should have in his own\nlibrary.\n\n"} {"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n11. A discussion of what books and stories all children under fourteen should read,\nand also with what literary classics every child leaving our schools should be familiar.\n12. Determining a small list of books suitable for girls and women, covering such\ntopics as, general counsel, science, fine arts, literature, history, travel, biography, fiction,\nand the household and its activities.\n\nUndoubtedly there are other topics equally as valuable as these which I\nhave suggested. I have not meant this enumeration to be exhaustive, but\nrather suggestive, and I have given it to show you what kind of training, in my\njudgment, the normal schools should be giving, in order to satisfactorily meet\nthe difficulty which I have pointed out. If every teacher leaving the normal\nschool could get such a familiarity with children's literature as a course of this\nkind would give, I am sure the pupils of such teachers would get a tremendous\nimpulse toward self-education and would see in the public library a means\nfor satisfying it. A teacher so prepared would be able to recommend wisely\na course of private reading for each child in her school, she would be appealed\nto by the parents of her pupils for suggestions regarding books to be purchased\nfor the home, her advice would be sought by the less well-prepared librarians\nof her community, as well as by boards of school trustees; if need arose she\nwould be prepared to take the initiative in establishing a village or community\nlibrary, and besides, her own schoolroom work would be vitalized thru the\nfresh content which such a teacher would inevitably introduce. Thru some\nsuch course as this she would prepare herself to exert an influence for good\nwhich would extend far beyond the walls of her school. A course of this\nkind, tp my mind, would be of far greater value to the prospective teacher\nthan one limiting instruction to the ordering, accessioning, classifying, labeling,\nbinding, and charging of books. Indeed, in such a course as I have suggested,\nthe really necessary information on these points could well be worked in\nincidentally, and yet naturally.\nIn asking me to discuss the report of the Committee on Instruction in\nLibrary Administration in Normal Schools, the commissioner of education\nexpressed the purpose of this discussion in the following words:\nThe special object which we have in view in these discussions is to determine, not only\nthe intrinsic value of the report, but what steps should be taken next by the Council or\nthe Association, to continue the same investigation, or to carry into effect any good recommendation which the report may contain.\n\nFrom what I have said, you will see that I believe the report to be one of\ngreat value as a summary of the elements of the best library practice. I\nbelieve a copy should be in the hands of every normal-school librarian, and also\nin that of every actual and prospective teacher. I would earnestly recommend\nthat the Council or the Association take some definite action to secure the\naccomplishment of this. I would not, however, favor urging the report on\nthe normal schools as an outline of a formal and systematic course of instruction, to be given by them in library administration, not because I would criticize the report, but because I do not believe that such a method offers the best\nplan for securing the results desired.\nI would further urge, in line with the\n\n"} {"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSHORTAGE\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n369\n\nobjective, as expressed by the president of the council, that steps be taken by\nthis body to secure a report, made with the same care as the one under consideration, on a course in children's literature for normal schools.\nDISCUSSION\nJames M. Green. — I would like to ask the gentleman who read the paper if he will\nexplain what he means by \"pupil.\" I think the relation between the school and the\nlibrary depends very much upon the age and grade of the pupil.\nMr. Bunker. — The only point I was discussing in the report was in the way of suggesting that a course in library administration be given in the normal schools, for the use of\nthe student teachers and the people who are in the normal schools preparing to become\nteachers. I was discussing the problem from that point of view. It seems to me, in view of\nthe great weakness of Hbrary education in the normal schools, that if some certain course\nas I have suggested, dealing with the general field, as children's literature, were adopted,\nit would be far more practical and more valuable. Some such training as this, it seems to\nme, it is necessary that the teacher should have in order that she may give the best advice\nwhen she gets into her own schoolroom, and that she may intelligently direct the reading\nof her pupils along those lines that she herself has selected from a careful and rational\nsurvey of the whole field of children's literature.\nA Member. — My experience with children, especially boys, is that they do not like\nto read the books which the library directors and other people select for them. They\nlike books of a dififerent kind. Many of them won't read the books selected for them\nexcept under compulsion.\nMr. Bunker. — That is because most of the librarians who are now selecting books\nfor children are doing so along the lines of the mechanical administration, and have not\nhad that general survey of children's literature which will enable them to make selections\naccording to the various stages of the children's development.\nMr. Green. — I think that one other reason is that librarians never read books.\nL. E. Wolfe, superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Tex. — I have felt for a number\nof years that it would be a great thing for the National Council, or the National Educational\nAssociation, to undertake a systematic examination of books for children, in the light of\nthe best scholarship in various departments. List after list has been prepared, but when\nyou come to examine the books that deal with astronomy, that is, attempt to make it\nelementary, or with geology, you frequently find that the books that are excellent and are\nin conformity with the best scholarship are not selected. The recent discussion of the\npresident of the United States and others has brought forward that idea somewhat prominently in regard to nature-books.\n\nTOPIC— THE\n\nSHORTAGE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSUPPLY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nDISCUSSION\nJames M. Green, Principal, State Normal and Model Schools, Trenton, N. J.—\nThe subject as announced implies that there is a general shortage in the supply of\nteachers. In the part of the country from which I come, this is distinctly true, and has\nbeen true ever since the standard of teaching has been raised.\nAt one time a person might become eligible to teach in any position by passing a very\nsuperficial examination in a few subjects, mostly of an elementary character, before a\ntownship, county, or city board of examiners. While this was true, there were more appUcations for positions to teach than there were vacancies. But the leading educational\ninfluences took the ground that teachers' certificates should be tentatively graded, as the\nschools were graded; a high-school certificate to cover the common pedagogical subjects\nand at least the high-school subjects; an elementary certificate to cover at least the elemen-\n\n"} {"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntary subjects; that a permanent certificate should cover at least the full scope of publicschool subjects; and that all persons who taught should have a good general education, and\nthat those who taught in the high schools should have a college education or the equivalent;\nthat the examinations should be set by the state, and should be fairly uniform; that persons\nto enter normal and training-schools should be high-school graduates. Nor was this all.\nThe teachers were asked to make their teaching practical. Their chemistry must be the\nchemistry of the factory, their physics must be the physics of the machine shop, their\ndrawing must meet the demands of the architect and of the arts and crafts, and their bookkeeping must be the bookkeeping of the counting-house. This proved to be popular ground\nand prevailed, but with its establishment the number of applicants to teach began to fall\noff relatively, particularly for the higher positions.\nWhile our theoretical standard is the trained teacher, we are still obliged to maintain\nour tentative system and admit to teaching thru the elementary examinations about twothirds of our teachers; about one-third coming through our normal and training schools\nand colleges.\nThe number of qualified applicants for the higher grade of positions has become so\nsmall that it is not an uncommon thing for the superintendents and principals of the larger\nschools to spend from one to two months of the year making inquiries and traveling about\nin quest of teachers. This demand has called for the building of additional normal schools,\nbut even this does not promise certain relief, as the number of applicants for admission to\nthe normal schools is falling off relatively. Particularly is this true of men. The normal\nschool of my state has about ten men in an enrollment of five hundred students. This\nproportion is about one-tenth of what it was a few years ago. What is true of my state\nis true of the other states similarly situated.\nThere seem to be two apparent reasons for the growing shortage of teachers: first,\nthe long and difficult preparation necessary to meet the standard, and the consequent\nexpense; second, the readiness with which young men living near our large centers of\npopulation can secure more lucrative positions. Many of our business schools and departments are now offering comparatively short courses of study, the graduates of which can\nreadily secure positions in the cities and towns at a fairly tempting beginning salary with\npromise of promotion. It would seem almost self-evident that the remedy is the increase\nof the pay of the teacher. Our salaries have not been adequate to the cost and the old\nlaw of supply and demand is asserting itself and it must be met on a financial basis.\nThe compensation for teachers has no doubt been influenced by that of Germany\nand the older countries of dense populations, also by dependence upon the missionary\nspirit. This, however, is America. The conditions of the denser populations do not\nobtain here, and there is no just call for missionary service. The age is enlightened.\nThe man who wants his child educated must bear his full share of expense.\nI have no fault with the high standard of teaching I hail and welcome it, but I\nbelieve if it is maintained educators must thoroly promulgate its economic requirements.\nThese must be acknowledged and met by the people, both by increasing the salaries\nof teachers and by further decreasing the cost of higher education for teachers by additional\nstate aid.\nAccording to our old political economists there are three elements that influence the\nprice of labor — the respectability of the employment, the permanency of the position, and\nthe wages. The high standard of the teacher insures his respectability and will promote\nthe permanency of his employment, leaving the raising of the salaries as the one thing\nneeded.\nI. C. McNeill, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tenn. — ^It is the experience of\nschool executives in all sections of this country that there are not enough good teachers\navailable to meet the demand. In every system of public education the problem of\neliminating weak teachers is met by another very serious question: Where can boards\nof education secure well-trained, thoroly equipped persons, with the graces of character\n\n"} {"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSHORTAGE\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n371\n\nand executive qualities the service of education demands, to take the place of the\nnegative, inefficient, or poorly trained who should be excused from service ?\nThe honorable president of this Council has felt the need of a study of the question\nof the shortage of teachers, and so have other members of this body who occupy executive\npositions in the administration of school afifairs. I am inclined to think that steps will\nbe taken to bring about a comprehensive study of a topic of such vital interest to the life\nof the nation. The work of the teacher is with intellectual and moral forces. Because\nof the slowness of the processes of mental and physical growth and development, the real\nworth of one who stimulates, guides, and controls the activity of children and youth is not,\nin many instances, quickly discovered. In time, however, the efificient teacher who builds\nfor the life that now is, and, in my belief, for a life to be, is recognized but too seldom in\na way to encourage others to render the fullest measure of service which they have the\ncapacity to give.\nThe profession of teaching is not attractive to many men who know too well that the\nschoohnaster is not generally held in high esteem in a worldly sense by business men.\n\"He views the question in the schoolmaster's narrow way,\" is said so often that many a\ncapable young student, wishing to be thought \"a person of affairs\" and a \"man among\nmen,\" turns away from the preparation for teaching and seeks equipment for other lines\nof effort. The argument which has come down as a persistent element from the Greek\nphilosophy that we grow to be like the things with which we are brought in sympathetic\ncontact makes its appeal and turns the ambitious young man away from a profession that\ncompels the closest association with the immaturity of childhood.\nThe American people are thoroly aroused on the scholastic and professional training\nwhich the teacher, regardless of sex, should have. The interest of the home is the most\nvital one. No teacher with all the graces of a personality which attracts and charms,\neven with a college training, is held fit to teach unless he or she is able to stimulate,\nguide, and control boys and girls so that they will like school and put forth persistent\neffort to do and to he. The pay the people, as a rule, are willing to give for such expert\nservice, the only kind of service profitable in a school-room, has not kept pace with the\nprofessional standards erected. Consequently, a comprehensive and adequate professional .training does not offer the same attractive returns to the teacher that many\nother lines of technical education present.\nIn many sections of the nation^ especially in the South, women belonging to the oldest\nand most aristocratic families become teachers. They hold their places in the social life\nof the community and very often live at home. Their splendid womanhood makes\nappeal to the good sense and affections of single men. The story is too well known to be\ntold here. Splendid teachers, noble and beautiful women, often lay aside work of\nthe schoolroom to grace a home and assume the duties of wifehood.\nOther considerations, I regret to admit, are far reaching in causing a shortage of\nteachers. The uncertain tenure of position has influenced many a noble teacher to turn\nfrom the most important work of the age, that of public education.\nThe baneful workings of machine politics and politicians put many splendid teachers\nout of business. They become disgusted with the unfairness and uncertainty of the outcome where the interests of the children are counted as naught against the interests of\nparties or party leaders. We have seen some of America's noblest educators belittled\nand besmirched because they would not bow to the dictates of \"gangs without a\nconscience.\" Many have been compelled in order to save their self-respect to seek labor\nin other fields of human endeavor. There is hardly a man of prominence in the work of\neducational administration who at some period in his professional history has not felt the\nforce of political organizations standing against the highest interests of America's future\ncitizens. But some politicians are noble men who stand for children's rights. Such men\nguide political movements aright and insist that the American public schools shall be free\nfrom all elements that tend to destroy their usefulness.\nThere are great centers in the\n\n"} {"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nUnited States where public sentiment insists that the best teachers, the best schools, and\nthe heartiest good-will toward education are to be permanent. God speed the time when\ngood teachers with professional training and character will feel secure in their positions\nand reap deserved earthly rewards for duties well performed !\nIf this body, by any means at its command, can bring more fully into the active consciousness ofthe American people the tremendous importance of educational service, the\nshortage in the supply of teachers will gradually grow less and less.\nOliver S. Westcott, principal of the Robert A. Waller High School, Chicago, 111. —\nThere seem to be a good many complaints of shortage in the supply of teachers, but I\nhave not heard any suggestions as to remedying the difficulty, except to make the\nwork attractive by raising salaries. It strikes me that method would be a round-about\none, and likely to produce results only after considerable difficulty. I should like to\nmake another suggestion, and that is, that you take out of the examinations for teachers,\nthe immense amount of stupidity that now characterizes them. As an illustration, I have\nin my mind a man who went into an examination on the subject of Latin. He is a\nman who can write Latin accurately, write letters in Latin, he has an S. D. T. degree in\nthe Catholic Church. He was taught all his Latin, and received his instruction in theology\nentirely in Latin. He goes into an examination, and he makes mistakes in not writing the\nright mark over an a or an e — some of you may remember that there should be a mark\nover the final a in the ablative case, first declension. He is marked down in Latin. He\ncould instruct the examiner. A person is ashamed to go before such people as those who\nconduct and regulate the examinations in this country. Superintendents ought to get\ntogether and stop the practice. A teacher having earned a degree from a reputable college\nand having successful experience should not be subjected to the humiliation of passing an\nexarnination too often supervised by persons greatly his inferior in experience, scholarship,\nand executive ability.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — ^While there is a\nshortage in the supply of competent teachers, there is in every other line of employment\na shortage of competent employees as well. In this respect, we are not so very much\nworse off than other people. There always was a shortage in the supply of first-class\nteachers; there never were enough of these teachers to go around; there are not now, and\nit is not likely that there ever will be. So, while we bewail our fate, we ought not to feel\nthat we are so very much worse off than people in other lines of employment. We cannot\nnow get, and probably during your life and mine, Mr. Chairman, will not be able to\nget, enough thoroly trained teachers. One of the essential methods for getting better\nteachers is to have in positions of responsibility superintendents and principals who can\ntrain teachers. If that art, the gentle art of training teachers, is adopted by more of our\nsuperintendents and more of our principals, we will have a much higher average of welltrained and efficient teachers than we now have.\nOne other suggestion for our normal-school people : There is a strong temptation for\nthem to put the hall mark of their approval on all of the product of their training. If the\nnormal schools will throw out some of the least promising of their applicants for training,\nwe shall have better results in our schools. Some of the normal schools do cull their product and their diplomas are presumptive evidence of good preparation and the required\nability; but there are some which ought to do a good deal more separating of the fit from\nthe unfit than they do.\n\n"} {"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nCLIFFORD\n\nW.\n\nTHRU\n\nTHRU\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nTHE AGENCY\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBARNES,\nCHAIRMAN\nOF THE\nEXECUTIVE\nCOMMITTEE\nINTERNATIONAL\nCOMMITTEE\nON MORAL\nTRAINING,\nLAKE\nFOREST,\nILL.\n\n373\n\nPUBLIC\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIt was a well-deserved tribute which President Roosevelt paid to the teachers\nof America when he said:\nThe most characteristic work of the republic is that done by the teachers, for whatever\nour shortcomings as a nation may be, we have at least firmly grasped the fact that we\ncannot do our part in the difficult and important work of self-government, that we cannot\nrule and govern ourselves, unless we approach the task with developed minds, and with\nthat which counts for more — with trained characters.\n\nIn placing this emphasis on character development in education, no organization has taken a more prominent stand than the National Educational Association, and especially this Council. Quoting from a few of your own leaders,\nwe read: \"The end and aim of all education is the development of character;\"\n\"Education is growth toward intellectual and moral perfection;\" \"We wish\nto lift into prominence the moral character building aim as the central one in\neducation;\" \"No school is efficient that fails to stimulate right conduct, the\nissue of which is character.\"\nThere was a time when to teach the three R's with exactness and skill\nwas to do the full work of a public school, for the home, the church, and the\nwholesome atmosphere of community life could then be trusted to complete\nthe circle of a child's education. But those days were long ago, before the\ncities began to swallow up the country, and the great corporations the small\nproducers, and the closepacked tenements the cottage homes; before the\nfierceness of competition robbed men of their strength and deadened their\nsouls, and transformed the pursuit of commerce into one of industrial war.\nMacaulay once said: \"The Huns and Vandals who will destroy our civilization are being bred, not in the wilds of Asia, but in the slums of our great\ncities.\" But Macaulay never dreamed of a condition fraught with such peril\nas that of one nation receiving into its midst, by yearly immigration, more than\na million of the poorest and least educated of foreign lands. The teacher,\nstanding in daily contact with the pupil, has seen, as few others could, these\ngeneral changes in social and economic conditions by reason of which parental\nauthority has been weakened, religious influence lessened, and the child been\nforced more and more to become a ward of the state. It is not surprising,\ntherefore, that with ever-increasing earnestness teachers, the world over, have\nendeavored to broaden the scope of school activity, and have discussed in all\nits phases this question of moral training and the development of good citizenship.\nThe result has been in some ways very gratifying. In America the ordinary\nrules of school life, such as obedience to authority, punctuality, good behavior,\nconsideration for others, and the like, are being enforced with a new and higher\n\n"} {"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmotive; there is a growing inclination to give incidental instruction in rights\nand duties; and several noteworthy attempts at student self-government have\nbeen introduced for the purpose of training in citizenship. The other day, in\none of these self-governing schools, a ''tribune\" had occasion to correct some\nfault in a fellow-classmate. He called to his assistance two other officers,\nand together they soon brought the culprit to a state of proper contrition.\nFinally the \"tribune\" was heard to say: ''Well, I want you to know that our\nclass won't stand for that sort of thing, and if you do it again, you will have to\ngit.\" Evidently there had been developed here something more than a proper\nsense of responsibility, more than obedience to authority, or wise judgment in\ncorrecting a fault; there had been developed an esprit de corps of the highest\norder, which could be used as a powerful agency for righteousness and moral\ntraining.'\nI had an experience, not long ago, which gave me a new realization of the\nextent to which music might be used for this same general purpose. Three\nhundred children from a single school had been so thoroly trained that\nthey rendered with absolute accuracy and perfect expression the most diflScult\nselections. Among others was the \"Pilgrim's Chorus,\" from Tannhauser,\nand when to the thrilling chords of this glorious harmony they sang the words\nof a national hymn, one's very soul was stirred to reverent devotion and\npatriotic enthusiasm.\nAs the principal, who stood near me, remarked:\nThat helps to form good citizens, and when they leave here to make homes for themselves afew years hence, there will be in most of those homes the attractive influence of\ngood music.\n\nDecorative art as an agency for moral training is being brought more\nconstantly into use, and good pictures on the schoolroom walls, by their visions\nof beauty, their appeals to ambition, and their outlook into a larger and\nfuller life, are having no small influence in the development of character. We\nhave ample evidence that flowers, and vases, and a hundred other simple\ntouches of artistic decoration are finding their reproduction in many homes\nwhich sadly need adornment. There was something to be proud of in this\nreport which a principal gave me recently: covering a period of ten or twelve\nyears, he had raised thru school entertainments, in order to buy pictures and\nworks of art, something like six thousand dollars, and that, too, in a neighborhood of working-people.\nManual training, domestic science, and other so-called innovations in the\ncurriculum of a modern school have received high praise for their practical\nutility, but when we note how well these studies serve to develop self-reliance,\nsteadfastness of purpose, concentration of thought, constructive ability, and\nthe like, together with a true sense of the dignity of labor, we are inclined to\ngive them a new valuation on account of the good they accomplish in moral\ntraining. This sort of industrial activity has also a recreative value, which\nbrings with it new power of application to bear upon the regular studies.\nOne principal reports that by slightly lengthening the school day he has been\n\n"} {"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n375\n\nable to give each class an average of ten hours' manual work every week, and\nyet cover with excellent result the usual curriculum.\nHere and there systematic attempts are being made to give instruction in\nhygiene, the care of the body, and such simple methods of helping the sick as\nmay prove of use in the home. It is easy to see how clearly all this is related\nto the problem of good citizenship, and we are certainly coming closer to its\nwise solution when we recognize the relation which exists between truancy and\nmalnutrition, bad behavior and defective vision, inattention and poor ventilation.\nThe architect is beginning to do his part, as never before, in making the\nschool a powerful agency for the promotion of moral training and the development of good citizenship. Besides taking care that his building is sanitary,\nwell lighted, and of attractive appearance, he is adding spacious halls, assembly\nrooms, gymnasiums, baths, and playgrounds, by means of which the school\ncan readily become the social center of the community. Such conditions make\nit easy for the wise teacher to organize clubs among the students, which shall\nbe both protective and inspirational, foster parental associations, which shall\ninstruct and delight, and by these and other means develop a wholesome\nsocial life which shall bind the neighborhood to the school by a thousand ties.\nIt was once said of our greatest Teacher, that \"The Word was made flesh\nand dwelt among us,\" and with a full recognition of the importance of this\npersonal factor in education, many teachers of today are earnestly seeking to\nembody in themselves that knowledge, culture, and moral strength which they\nwish to impart to their pupils. Reading circles, travel classes, lecture courses,\nand other organized means of attaining this end are being utilized, but, most\npromising of all, the demand is steadily increasing for that kind of normalschool preparation which acquaints the teacher with child-nature, and familiarizes him with the various methods of moral training.\nGenerally speaking, systematic moral instruction may be said to have no\nplace in our American school system, for it has only been tried to a very limited\nextent in a few small places; but some use is being made of the ethical syllabus,\nsuch as that issued by the New York schools, which affords the teacher a\nsuggestive commentary on the whole subject of moral training.\nPassing now to the other side of the water, and going in and out among\nthe schools of Europe, one is immediately impressed with the fearless directness of moral and religious instruction. In Great Britain the first hour of the\nday is always devoted to the religious lesson, and teachers and pupils alike\nregard it with a pleasure surpassing that of any other period. This was the\nuniversal testimony to my oft-repeated question, and the reasons assigned\nfor this feeling were generally these: ''Keener interest in the subject,\" or\n\"Closer sympathy between teacher and student.\" The work was never\nshiftless, and the atmosphere of reverence was always marked. A Catholic\npriest, a member of the school board in one of the largest Scotch cities, said to\nme that not for the world would he take the Bible or the religious lesson out\n\n"} {"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof the public schools; that it was the only teaching of the kind which many\nchildren ever received, for some of the Catholic parents were not good church\nmembers, \"but,\" he added in conclusion, \"I should like to cut out the Westminster Catechism.\" Since that conversation a catechism has been prepared\nby a joint committee of all the Reformed churches of Scotland which very\nlargely does away with such just and natural criticism.\nThe recent upheaval in ParHament, incident to the Educational Bill, was not\nmore indicative of denominational jealousy than of an intense desire on the\npart of the English people to make the Bible more effective for direct moral\nand religious instruction. Certainly the best work along this line which I\ndiscovered was done in the board schools, where the program favored by the\nLiberal party had long been followed. In these schools, selected portions of\nthe Bible are committed to memory, such as the Commandments, certain of\nthe Psalms, the Lord's Prayer, the Sermon on the Mount, the Parables of\nChrist, and with this as a basis, ethical lessons bearing on everyday student\nlife are made the subject of joint discussion. In some schools this method is\nbeing reversed, and systematic moral instruction is being given with the Bible\nas the textbook. Either of these plans would have received the ardent support\nof such a man as Huxley, who, though an agnostic, always said that the best\nbook in the world for the teaching of morals was the Bible. The great public\nschools of England have long been celebrated iox developing character through\nthe agency of the playground, but today some of the county council, or board\nschools, deserve almost equal praise for what they have been able to accomplish\nalong this line. One of these schools, located in a slum district of London, has\nsolved a truancy problem of the most aggravating nature by the skilful manner\nin which the teachers, who are all men, have made use of athletics.\nIn Germany one notes the large number of men teachers, the autocratic\nmilitary spirit pervading the schools, and the separation, where possible, of\nboys and girls, all of which has a direct bearing on the subject under discussion. But that which is especially significant in the present situation, is the\nslow but steady movement towards greater freedom from church domination,\nwithout doing away with biblical teaching. Against the dogmatism of ancient\ncreeds there has been a literal strike among the teachers, those of Bremen\nleading the way, and in various sections strong associations have been formed\nto further, or to introduce, systematic moral instruction. It seems to me that\nthe ultimate outcome of this unrest will be a more unified school system, in\nwhich the Bible will be used, without sectarian bias, to teach those vital truths\nof religion and morality which our own Washington claimed to be \"the indispensable supports of political existence and prosperity.\"\nDespite my best endeavors the Magyar tongue was beyond my comprehension, but one day in the schools of Budapest, as I listened while a student led\nher class in prayer, with the heads all bowed and the eyes all closed, and not\na sound to be heard but the voice of the leader, somehow the strangeness of\nthat language disappeared and in my heart I understood.\nNo child in the\n\n"} {"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n377\n\nschools of Hungary or Austria is permitted to be without religious and moral\ninstruction, for at least two hours each week are set aside for this purpose, and\nthe various denominations are paid to provide skilled teachers. A few weeks\nago in one of our own public schools the principal pointed out an exceptional\nstudent. He had entered the second grade at the beginning of the year, because\nhe could not speak the English language, but at the time mentioned he was\nleading his class in the sixth grade, and, stranger still, had been chosen by his\nclassmates to the highest office in their student organization. On questioning the lad I found that he was a modest, self-possessed young Magyar, some\nthirteen years of age, who had been in the schools of Budapest when I was there.\nAnd then it all came back to me again — the prayer, the Bible study, the spirit\nof reverence pervading every classroom during the hour of religious instruction\n— and I could not help feeling a sense of regret that our American schools were\nnot doing more to provide a moral safeguard for these children of the foreigner.\nHere they are in the midst of strangers, surrounded by unfamiliar temptations,\neager to imitate us in language and customs, and in many of our largest cities,\nthey see that great school system, which is for them the highest and best\nexpression of the nation, make no use of the Bible, sanction no word of prayer,\nand afford no place in its broad curriculum for even the simplest kind of moral\ninstruction.\nGodless France, as it is sometimes called, turbulent Italy, and even the\nfree-thinking cantons of Switzerland, do not consider it safe, and much less,\nwise, to get along without the direct and positive teaching of morality and\nthe rights and duties of citizenship. Nowhere did I find existing any fear lest\nto teach a boy how to do right would act as an incentive for him to do wrong*\nThere seemed to be an impression that, while the moral act was the great thing\ndesired, a fair understanding of the reason for such an act was of positive value,\nand made it more simple for the pupil to properly adjust his future conduct\nto other conditions of life.\nIn the twenty-five years of ethical instruction which France has required\nin her schools, there has been much that was dogmatic, philosophical, and\nbeyond the understanding of ordinary children. But since 1900 a marked\nchange for the better has occurred; the teachers have turned to this work with\nthe zeal of religious enthusiasts, and by means of legends, biography, patriotic\nhistory, and the like, they are beginning to so vitalize the subject of morals\nthat it not only instructs but inspires. From the primary grade to the Lycee\nI saw this subject taught, and no one could ask for keener interest than most\nof the classes displayed. In explanation of this new spirit, a principal of\none of the Paris schools said to me: \"The church is lost to the nation. In the\nschools and their influence for moral training lie our only salvation.\" France\nurges her teachers to make use also of the indirect method of moral instruction,\nand to press into service for this purpose every incident and every lesson as\noccasion permits. But she goes further than this, and very wisely gives such\ntraining in the normal schools as to make it more possible for the ordinary\n\n"} {"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nteacher to perform this difficult task. In the use, too, of student organizations and graduate associations for promoting good fellowship and mutual\nassistance, our sister republic has much which deserves favorable consideration.\nIn this very hasty sketch I have tried to remind you of the growing emphasis\nplaced upon moral training and of the most distinctive methods employed by\nthe public school for its development. You will have noticed that the record\nis one showing immense diversity, with haphazard attempts along different\nlines, and with a complete absence of harmony or directness of aim. There\nis much to commend, but not a little to condemn, in the various experiments\nwhich are being tried in this and other nations, and the situation, as a whole,\nhas been well described by our honored Commissioner of Education, as\n\"beyond question unsatisfactory.\" In the same address, however, from which\nthese words are quoted, he has said in a more hopeful vein, \"We know that in\nthis very field we must do a work and reach results which to the present day\nwould appear almost impossible.\"\nIt was exactly this feeling of mingled hope and dissatisfaction which led\na number of educators and public spirited citizens, representing different\nnations, to meet in London last September for the consideration of the moral\ntraining problem, and eventually to organize what is known as the International\nCommittee on Moral Training. With the aid of strong advisory councils\nand the support of school authorities, it hopes to unite in closer fellowship the\nteachers of the leading nations; to advance the cause of education by a comparison ofprograms, methods, and estabHshed results; and especially to promote moral training as the supreme purpose of the public school. It plans\nto hold conferences of an international character, and to collect and pubhsh\nexact infornjation relative to the best methods employed to promote moral\ntraining and the development of good citizenship, thru the agency of the public\nschool. With this knowledge as a basis, it will endeavor to formulate certain\nprograms which seem especially adapted to the needs and character of different schools, and will then do what it can to recommend their adoption.\nThe committee will endeavor to so influence school boards, city councils,\nlegislative assemblies, and public opinion, as to obtain for the schools those\nenlarged grants and privileges which the changing social and economic conditions are beginning to demand. Mindful, too, that juvenile criminahty\nincreases in inverse ratio to school attendance, it will strive to make more\ngeneral a longer school year and to have altered those defective laws which\nrelate to truancy and compulsory attendance. And last, but not least, it\nwill earnestly foster whatever brings to the teacher a better preparation, a\nfairer position, and a higher reward, for, after all has been said and done, the\nfinal solution of this subtle problem lies with the one who teaches.\nDISCUSSION\nJames H. Baker, president, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. — I will refer\nto a few ways of aiding the moral instruction of youth: First, let us help in every possible\nway to create a strong public opinion and endeavor to purify the political and commercial\n\n"} {"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n379\n\natmosphere. This is being done under the leadership of some of our great national ofl5cials, who have come to believe that public office is a public trust; let us help create a\nrespect for law by suggesting the increased enforcement of law in this country. Second,\nreligious teachers, ministers and laymen, and teachers in the public schools should study\nmore carefully and completely the pedagogy and psychology of their subjects, in order\nthat they may approach the human soul in a less bungling manner. And I would also\nsuggest that we give a free, (i.e., absolutely free from church or state control) use of the Bible\nin the public schools of this country, as a basis of ethical and literary instruction. Reference\nhas been made to what is done in other countries. Germany is doing much, but the\ntremendously formal religious instruction is not altogether satisfactory there. The very\nformal moral instruction in the French schools today is not altogether satisfactory. The\nfreedom in England in the public schools and the private schools — I am using those terms\nas we use them in this country — is valuable, and much excellent moral instruction is being\ngiven, but it is often too formal to be everywhere most efficient. Now, in the American\nschool, we have much freedom, and we must give more attention to the subject, formalize it\nmore, and understand better the scope and methods of moral instruction. We have now\na happy-go-lucky method; you may have something or nothing — something good or\nsomething bad. I believe we should formalize moral instruction more in this country*\nwithout losing the vital method that alone can give results. Absolutely indispensable in\nour schools is a reverential attitude in religion, an atmosphere of ideals. Next, I would\nsay that the personality of the teacher must be powerful enough to make beautiful and\nstriking pictures of the dignity of human life, of the excellence of good character, and of\nthe beauty and dignity of truth and justice and honesty; such pictures as will make pupils\nsee and feel that they must have \"an enormous longing for the highest and best in all\nthings.\" Formal instruction in ethics, unless it is vitalized, is not worth anything. Next\nwe should give a sense of law. Into character-making, law as well as love must always\nenter, else you are casting your pearls before people who are unappreciative. Besides,\neducation must make people efiicient. Now, some people go through our grades and\nour high schools and colleges and come out without a strong sense of duty, a certain percentage ofthem without any power to accomplish anything definite, without any conception of purpose in life, without power to take up a piece of work and carry it to a finish\nand clean up the job. Now one of the greatest moralizing influences in the world is the\npower to be efiicient, to do something, and I believe the highest use today of the manual\ntraining schools is not commercial or practical, but the fact that it calls forth a fellow's\ningenuity, interests him in something, teaches him to show his power, to carry a job to a\nfinish. I am going to recommend a reference book, and then close. I have the same\nview, probably, of this author that you have, and I don't believe in his religious and philosophical attitude, but you read Zola's last work, namely, TriUh, and get a picture of the\nawful condition in France which finally led to the overthrow of the teaching congregations\nin that country, and finally the overthrow of the church as a state church, and see the ideal\npicture painted, the consciousness and perception of the beauty and dignity of truth and\njustice, and the success of the effort in some of the public schools through the freedom\nand power of the teacher, and the final result upon the community, and you will have a\nfine ideal of the possibility of the teacher in vitalizing moral instruction in our public\nschools, in giving the kind of instruction that Frenchmen today claim will save the Republic\nof France, and the kind that may purify and save our own republic.\nW. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky. — In moral training, the recognition of authority lies at the foundation, authority which is invariable and always right. Not only the\nrecognition of said authority but the prompt performance of any requirement which may\nbe embodied in its commands. Excellence in moral character is made possible when\nconformity with this principle is conscientiously observed.\nThere is a growing disposition among the youth of our country to disregard authority,\nand this charge may too often be lodged against the teaching force.\nIt is the duty of the\n\n"} {"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "380\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ninstructor to the youth of the nation to enforce, by precept and example, this indispensable\ncondition of moral excellence. I wish to say now and here that the man or woman in the\nteaching profession who does not recognize and practice this principle is a blind leader\nof the blind and that eventually both will fall into the ditch of ruin. Success in any calling\ndepends upon the conscientious fidelity with which one performs the responsibihties which\nmay be imposed upon him in that calling. If persistent disobedience is practiced it results\nin anarchy and as such it stands in the way of progressive moral excellence. The disobedient person not only becomes a heavy weight to the success of the cause in which he should\nbe a trusted agent, but he eventually destroys the confidence placed in him by those with\nwhom and for whom be labors. We cannot change natural laws. The benefits of moral\nlaw are made possible only by prompt and cheerful obedience. We receive the benefit\nof light by obeying the law of light; of color by obeying the law of color. Nature closes\nher doors against the disobedient, but she opens them wide to those who regard her requirements. Itis also to the obedient that she confides her secrets and upon whom she lavishly\nbestows her benedictions.\nThe teacher should embody this principle in his daily life and when this essential agent\nenforces it by consistent practice, the conditions of a pure moral atmosphere are present\nas well as the recognition of obligation to conform the daily life thereto.\nIf this tendency to disregard authority is not checked this country will be called upon\nin the near future to bare its arm of power to enforce obedience to its constitutional demandsThe schoolroom apparatus, and even the teacher, are only means to an end and\nthat end, which was emphasized in the paper of the morning, is character. Character is\npower. Mental character is mental power, and moral character is moral power. The\nstrength of moral character is determined by the degree of resistance one has in the midst\nof temptation. The teacher should make use of every circumstance in school life to\nstrengthen the moral character of the child.\nBoys and girls should be led to realize that they are members of a community.\nTherefore selfishness should be reduced to the minimum. Power, knowledge, and skill\nshould be acquired that one may be the better prepared to be helpful when an occasion\narrives which may demand it.\nOur schools should produce men and women who have faith in the right, love for the\nbeautiful, and an obedient spirit of loyalty to constituted authority, and these to be exhibited\nin every walk of life.\nThe school is a miniature world, members of which are swayed by the passions and\nemotions which generally influence mankind; therefore the instructor will find numbers of\ninstances when lasting moral impressions may be made. If thoughtful training is exercised at opportune times the student will be put into the way of happiness and contentment.\nJ. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio. — In the three minutes allotted\nme I can emphasize but two points in this discussion on the subject of moral education.\nThe first of these points is this: In my opinion, the most important thing to foster and\nencourage in the public schools of our nation is the moral development of the children in\nthose schools.\nIf you will study the signs of the times, you will find that our society is f aiHng, not on\naccount of intelligence, not on account of scholarship, no, if failure there be, it is because\nof the lack of moral fiber on the part of the people. It is more important that our pupils\nbe taught truth and honesty and justice and obedience, than that they should be taught\nthe principles of arithmetic and grammar, though these things are important.\nIt is worth while, Mr. President, to teach our children to speak and write the English\nlanguage correctly, but it is more important to teach them self-control and righteousness\nand to deal honestly and justly with their fellowmen !\nI beUeve in culture studies. I believe that we should teach children art and music\nand introduce them to the great literary productions of the world, but these things should\nonly be made a means of developing the moral fiber of our people.\nAll these things should\n\n"} {"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n381\n\nbe subservient to the highest aim— and that highest aim is the development of right\ncharacter.\nThe second point I wish to make is this that we should train the pupils in our public\nschools in right habits of Hving and morality. Precept is not enough. The teachers in\nthe public schools will have to solve the problem of how this is to be done. We must\ntrain the pupils, train them to speak the truth; train them to act justly; train them to\nobedience; train them to respect the law; train them in the simple elementary virtues that\nare the very foundation of society.\nNow, how is that to be done ? Members of the Council, I believe that the working\nout of a workable scheme of teaching the principles of morality, of laying the foundation\nfor morality in the lives of the children in our public schools, would be the highest work\nthat this Council could undertake !\nI believe that the course of study should contribute its part to this end. I believe that\nthe course in reading should contribute a part; I believe that the playground has a place in\nthe work; I beheve that the association of the children should have a part; I beheve that\nthe public has a part; I believe that the American home has a part. And, while I plead\nfor the public school, I want the public school to do its full share, and at the same time\nwe should never forget that the home must do its share, and the pulpit its share, and society\nits share. We must have less dogmatic, and more practical teaching. We must have\nfewer billboards in our cities that contaminate and inflame the minds of youths. We must\ndo away with gambling dens in the rear of cigar stores. There must not be so many kindergartens ofvice in this country, and there must be more agencies for the upbuilding of righteousness. And I believe, Mr. Chairman, that the public school teachers of our country\nshould band together and work out this problem, as we would work not a course in literature or in nature-study, or in any other subject, and see if we cannot evolve a workable\nplan for the moral upbuilding of the children in our schools.\nAnd I believe with the gentleman who has previously spoken, that after all has been\nsaid and done, that the personality of the teacher is the most important thing to be considered; that all the other things that I have mentioned are not to be compared with the\ninfluence of the teacher whose heart is in her work, and who sees in her child the image\nof God.\nWith that kind of teachers in the schoolrftoms, the age of miracles is not yet past.\nShe speaks to dumb Hps and they break forth in song; she speaks to deaf ears, and they\nhear wonderful harmonies; she unfetters shackled hands and they perform deeds of mercy\nand kindness.\nShe, by her magnetic power, can even exorcise evil spirits, she can command the demon\nof stubbornness to come out, and it comes forth; she can rebuke the devil of lying,\nand it is gone. With such teachers in the schoolroom, the good in every child will blossom\nand bear fruit. She will be the idol and inspiration of the children. She will lure them\nto brighter worlds and point the way.\nI wish to say, that while some of the children may not have the advantage of moral\nand cultured homes, while some of them do not have the Christianizing influence and\nuplift of the church, yet it should be the privilege of every American child to be taught\nby a noble Christian teacher.\nJ. L. McBrien, state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Neb. — Instruction\nin moral education must take into consideration that knowledge does not comprise all\nthat is contained in the broad term Education. The feelings are to be disciplined, the\npassions restrained, true and worthy motives inspired; a profound religious sentiment\nmust be instilled and pure morality inculcated under all circumstances. Let us, therefore,\nteach our pupils that integrity and industry are the best possessions that can ever come\nto young men and young women in this life. Teach them that obedience to established\nlaw is a typical American virtue, and that every true American will always lend a hand to\nthe proper enforcement of the laws of the school-district, the city, the county, the state,\n\n"} {"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand the nation. Teach them the difference between the consent of the governed and the\ndissent of the ungovernable. Teach them that Hberty is not license, and that a republic\nis not anarchy.\nTeach our boys that\nevery man who falls below his highest harms not only himself, but lowers the standard of\nhis country; that every man who values wealth more than honesty, rank more than character, amusement more than improvement, ease more than reform, to that extent falls\nshort of the perfect citizen.\nTeach them that manhood means more than gold, and that the man who sells his vote\nand the man who buys the vote are equally undesirable citizens. Yes, teach them that\nsuch men are scoundrels, that they should be prosecuted as scoundrels and punished as\nscoundrels.\nTeach our girls that\nevery woman who abuses the freedom of American womanhood by unfaithfulness lends\nthe powerful incitement of her personality to the slavery of the past and to the failure of\nthe republic; that every woman who leaves the duty and decorum of her native land and\nprostitutes her American home to the scandals, the vices, the social immoralities and\nmoral impurities of foreign cities, not only compasses her own shame, but mars the fair\nfame and name of all Columbia's daughters.\nTeach our boys and girls that it will sometimes be hard to know what is best to do,\nand that the best thing to do will oftentimes be the hardest. Teach them that a life of\nease means nothing done; that no labor, no sacrifice, no anxiety, means no burdens raised\nor carried. Teach them that those who do things must always meet responsibilities that\nnever come to those who fail to see their obligations as doers. Teach them that grave\nproblems come in the life of every individual as well as in the life of every nation; that\nthey come without being sought, and cannot be avoided; that the person, the generation,\nthe nation on whom these problems are forced must strive honestly and earnestly for their\nright solution.\nWe must teach our boys and girls that\nit is only by surpassing the world in all chivalry and dignity, in all modesty and purity,\nin the integrity of our business, in the virtue of our homes, in the rectitude of our intelligence, in the aspiration of our intellectual life under the absolute control of moral righteousness, that we can meet the responsibilities of American citizenship.\nI. C. McNeill, superintendent of city schools, Memphis, Tenn. — It seems this\nmorning as tho there is much for us to hope for in the moral education of the boys and\ngirls of this great country of ours. I see, in the international movement that has\nrecently been inaugurated, an opportunity for men and women to formulate some simple\nthings that may be brought down to the boys and girls to cause them to follow moral\nideals so that they may grow to be like them. The organization headed by our distinguished friend who read the paper a few moments ago has for one of its principal\nobjects the assembling of certain simple, fundamental, ethical truths, that may be\nbrought within the comprehension of boys and girls, so that they may realize them and,\ntherefore, habitually act upon them.\nNow, I have in mind, suggested by the presence of one man in this room, the teaching of ethics in a practical way in the Normal University of Illinois. The principal ethical\nteaching that has been handed down in that school from year to year is the multiplication\nrule, Kant's multiplication rule — \" Make each act worthy to be a universal act.\" Professor\nWilkinson, who sits here, could tell you that this is tested by the number of acts possible\nin the school. I hold in mind now the picture of the president of that school coming\nbefore the students one day with a simple illustration. That illustration went home to\nthe hearts of every person there. The moral idea that seemed to impress students most\nas being of the highest value was this one thing — put the test of the universal to the individual act.\nThe author of the paper just read suggested another thing that has come into\nthe experience of many. We have heard of \"group psychology;\" we have heard of\n\"mass psychology;\" we have heard of \"mob psychology.\" In some way we are now\ncomprehending that there are masterful spirits whose wills dominate the group, and that\n\n"} {"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF TWO\n\nYEARS\n\n383\n\nwhen we can put into the minds of the ones who are to lead the groups the right ideals,\nthen the groups will become right also.\nJoseph Swain, president of Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. — I accept the\ndoctrine of those who say that formal religion cannot be taught in our public schools, but\nI believe the things which are essential in religion should be taught at least by example by\nevery true teacher everywhere. The finest fruit of religion is morality and high character.\nWhat the world needs now and ever will need is more men and women of high character.\nThe question is how to secure them.\nOne way to secure them is thru the cultivation of the scientific spirit. This spirit\nassumes that there is such a thing as truth; that it is the duty of every human being to\nsearch out the truth; that he approach every problem with an open mind; that he be\nnot satisfied short of the whole truth and nothing but the truth, and, knowing the truth, he\nadjusts his Hfe to it. A greater gain to the world perhaps than all the gain of scientific\nknowledge is the growth of the scientific spirit, with its courage and serenity, its discipline\nof conscience, its intellectual morality and its habitual response to any disclosure of the\ntruth. This spirit can be acquired in the study of any subject taught in the schools or in\nany of the relations of the life of the pupil, whether it be in the classroom or on the playground or elsewhere. I am confident that the process by which we ascertain the truth in\nscience is the same by which we ascertain the truth in morals. Science says to those who\nlove her: \"Know the truth and follow it.\" What can morals say more ?\nMoral truth is only one phase of truth. If our teaching is such that we inspire a love\nof truth and hatred of error, character will be cultivated, which is the goal to be reached,\nOliver S. Westcott, principal of Robert A. Waller High School, Chicago, 111. —\nThe statement that example is vastly more powerful than precept will never lose its truth\nby persistent repetition. You lady teachers will have far less trouble in convincing the\nboys in your charge of the harmful effects of tobacco upon the human system when the\nprincipal will practice more self-denial and forsake the error of his ways. The boys know\nfull well that even though the law says smoking on the s€hool premises is strictly forbidden,\nthe principal instead of lunch takes his quiet smoke in the schoolhouse basement. The\nsame difficulty exists in inculcating the truth with regard to the use of alcoholic beverages.\nIf the boys see a principal or male teacher stop at his favorite saloon daily on his way to\nschool the precepts of all the lady teachers in the faculty will be unavailing.\nThe application of the Golden Rule, not a mere rehearsing of its form, the words and\nphrases of which are already familiar, will go far toward influencing youth in the direction\nof morality and uprightness.\nThe doctrine of meum and tuum, so well illustrated and elaborated by Dr. Harris\nin his description of the growth of the community, is also a fundamental element in moral\neducation. The individual must be made to realize that he is but a unit of a whole and\nthat he must be on his guard lest even inadvertently he may be trespassing upon the rights\nof his fellow-units. This doctrine, the Golden Rule, and a wider self-denial constitute\na foundation of moral instruction on which a superstructure can more philosophically and\nsuccessfully be raised than upon any compilation of moral precepts that ever has been or\never will be devised.\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL\nELLA\n\nFLAGG\n\nYOUNG,\n\nPROGRESS\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nOF TWO\nCHICAGO\n\nYEARS, igos-1907\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe two years just ended present much that is suggestive of the present\ntrend in education. To report all the material aright is in the nature of things\nimpossible; for to report accurately is to interpret, to judge the intent, and\nto predict the outcome of events. Each one who stands before you, as the\n\n"} {"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nyears go by, with the report of educational progress makes some misinterpretations. Doubtless I shall pass judgments in which you will not concur, but\nI must give judgment on my own behoof.\nSo worked the predecessor ! now, my turn.\n\nThe data for this report, collected from many sources, separate into two\ngroups: one pertaining to people, the other to movements in social institutions.\nAltho when an individual plays a great part in the drama of life, it is a\nprinciple that is the mainspring of his activity, yet our interest centers about\nhis personality. We ask, what was he or she as a man or woman among men\nand women while doing the great things ? It is because of the personality of\nWilliam Torrey Harris, but recently the commissioner of education, that\nwe speak of him as \"our Doctor Harris.\" Nevertheless, in reviewing the\nconditions under which he withdrew from active participation in the conduct\nof a public office, we can have no feeling of regret. Dr. Harris had spent a\nhalf -century in education, filling successively the positions of teacher, principal,\nassistant superintendent, superintendent, lecturer in philosophy, commissioner\nof education. In all of these positions he was distinguished, for the reason\nthat in addition to meeting the demands of an executive office, he never failed\nto follow his chosen vocation. He has always been, and will continue to be,\na teacher. No other man has encouraged so many men and women to resume\nthe student life and take up the study of psychology and philosophy while\npursuing their daily round of duties. This remarkable influence upon the\nteaching body of this country has been due to several causes. In the fifties\nand sixties of the nineteenth century, the universities in this country were\ndoing little suggestive, original thinking. They had no such brilliant independent thinkers as are some of the professors in psychology and philosophy in the\nAmerican colleges and universities of today. The people's professor of philosophy, Emerson, with his transcendentalism, ennobled the thinking of those\nwho were just beginning to ponder on the questions of life; but transcendentalism was not a definite philosophy. It did not meet the demands of mature\nminds ready for a discussion of the ultimate problems of nature and of\nlife. William T. Harris, a superintendent of schools, entering in the early\nsixties a practically clear field, introduced that fraction of the reading public\nto the philosophy of Hegel and Kant. Neither the clear field nor the knowledge of German philosophy, however, would alone have sufficed to arouse\nthe teaching body of this country to an interest in philosophy. Superintendent\nHarris had the qualifications necessary to make conditions effective: an\nabiding interest in the intellectual, social, and religious advancement of\nhumanity; alertness in detecting indications that a mind is striving to reach\nhigher and broader levels of thought. While attending closely to the duties\nof a public office. Dr. Harris has never been so much absorbed in them as to\nmiss any opportunity to correspond or converse with anyone who directly or\nindirectly reveals an interest in the larger and deeper affairs of life. One's\nsocial station in life does not concern him. Mr. Brockmeyer was at the\n\n"} {"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Counc ].\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n385\n\nforge in a blacksmith shop in St. Louis when the Harris-Brockmeyer friendship in philosophy began.\nAt about the date of the forming of this friendship, Dr. Harris began the\npublication of the Journal oj Speculative Philosophy. From that time to the\npresent day he has never ceased publishing in philosophy and education;\nand his many friends are now looking forward with eagerness to the use that\nhe will make of the happy leisure brought by his retirement.\nYet it is not only as an author, a teacher, and an inspirer of men and\nwomen that Dr. Harris has been active in the educational world. Forty\nyears ago, in the famous reports issued by him as superintendent of the public\nschools of St. Louis, objections were foreseen to the organization of elementary\nand high schools on the plan of annual graduations, and the method of semiannual promotions was introduced into the St. Louis schools. It is a sad\nreflection on the slowness with which the mind pedagogic grasps social conditions that one finds today the majority of superintendents and principals\nstill clinging to the annual plan of promotion. An organization of schools\nwhich this philosophic mind saw should be made seems to minds of less\nbreadth a troublesome matter of detail, which, by rules and regulations, can\nbe forced for a time into the background. The result has been, of course,\nthat the lack of interest on the part of children who have been absent a month\nor two months, or who have not been quite equal to the demands of the year's\nwork, becomes apparent thru the large number of withdrawals from the\nschools — withdrawals made because the obligation to repeat a year's work is\nfelt to be a waste of a large part of the year. This is far from being the only\nquestion in the organization of the school system discussed in these reports\nbefore it had surged into the public consciousness. No others, however, can\nbe considered, or even mentioned specifically here.\nIn the Bureau of Education, we find the colossal work of seventeen years\npermanently recorded in the annual reports that have been prepared under\nDr. Harris' direction as commissioner. They consider the educational conditions thruout the world ; they recognize every form of institution that contributes to the education of men. These reports have also presented from time to\ntime groups of essays which made plain the fundamentals in the great educational movements that have today become assured accomplishments. Ng\nother man has had Dr. Harris' opportunity to make such continuous additions\nto the theory of education and to the practical situation in a great system of\ncity schools and in the country at large; he made those opportunities.\nThe history of the severance of his connection with the Department of\nEducation must be briefly told. In May, 1906, Dr. Harris received the\nfollowing letter from the president of the Carnegie Foundation :\nCarnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Education, MAy 26, 1906.\nWilliam T. Harris, 1360 Fairmont Street, Washington, D. C:\nDear Sir: I am sending to your address a copy of the rules adopted by the trustees\nof the Carnegie Foundation for the granting of retiring allowances, together with a copy\n\n"} {"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof the act of the incorporation. The Executive Committee of the Foundation desires in\nits first step to show that such grants as it may make are in recognition of honorable service, and not acts of charity. It has seemed to them that they could best serve this\npurpose by tendering to a few men who have rendered a great service to education places\nat the head of what they wish to make a roll of honor. There is naturally no other name\nconnected with American education which is so identified with its progress for the last\nthirty years as yours. We should like in the best way possible to show our appreciation\nfor what you have done for education and philosophy.\nIf it is agreeable to you, therefore, we should be glad to confer on you as the first\nman to whom such recognition for meritorious service is given an annual income of $3,000,\nof which, under the rules, one-half would be paid to Mrs. Harris, should she survive you.\nI beg that you will inform me of your wishes in this matter. In communicating to you\nthis wish of the executive committee I am commissioned to express at the same time\ntheir hope that you may accept this action as indicative of the highest appreciation and\nesteem which they can express.\nI may add that this action is taken in virtue of the following rule, adopted by the\ntrustees April 9, but not included in the published rules:\nMeritorious service. — Retiring allowances may be conferred for meritorious services\non teachers who have served not less than twenty years as professors, who have rendered\nunusual or extraordinary service to education, or who have in other posts served education in a conspicuous or unusual manner.\nEach case must be considered on its merits.\nVery faithfully yours,\n(Signed)\n\nHenry S. Pritchett.\n\nTo this letter Dr. Harris replied, accepting the honor conferred upon\nhim, and the following month he received a cordial letter from Hon. E. A.\nHitchcock, secretary of the interior, expressing regret at his resignation and\nhigh appreciation of his services. The incident was closed by the following\nletter from the President:\nThe White House, Washington, June 19, 1906.\nMy dear Dr. Harris : In accepting your resignation as commissioner of education\nit is due to you to express not merely my regret at your feeling obliged to leave the service of the government, but my keen realization of the gain that has come to the United\nStates from your presence in Washington and from your identification with the cause of\neducation. I think it is a safe thing to say that all the people of our country who are\nmost alive to the need of a real and thorough system of education have felt a peculiar\npride and confidence in you.\nWith hearty good wishes.\nBelieve me, sincerely yours,\n(Signed) Theodom:\nDr. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C.\n\nRoosevelt.\n\nThe present commissioner of education, Elmer Ellsworth Brown, needs\nno suspended judgment as to his fitness to command the situation. He is a\ngraduate of the Illinois State Normal University, one of the leading normal\nschools in the Middle West and the oldest state normal school west of New\nYork. This course he supplemented with study in one of the best of the\nstate universities, the University of Michigan, and in German universities,\nreceiving the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from Halle- Wittenberg. He\nhas filled the chair of education, first in the University of Michigan, then in\nthe University of California. The familiarity given by this experience with\n\n"} {"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n387\n\nthe aims of both the normal school and the departments of education in the\nuniversities has produced in both quarters a sense of confidence in his judgments. The normal schools believe that in questions of difference in educational standards of normal school and university — affecting such matters as\nthe preparation of new members and the offering of advancement to old members of the teaching corps — the quality of their work will not be undervalued.\nThe university professors of education know that he is in full sympathy with\ntheir desire to introduce laboratory methods into their schools of education.\nFinally, in the schools of the country, whatever their kind, there is a universal\nsense of reliance upon his profound and abiding interest — to quote his own\nwords — \"in the development of a sound theory of education in connection\nwith a sound theory of the modern state.\"\nTurning now to educational conditions. Only a few years ago the thing\nthat seemed to impress us most about our schools, colleges, and universities was\ntheir wonderful growth in size. The problem of the relation of the institution\nto the individual may not have been unrecognized, but there was little or no\nstress laid upon it. Today it is this to which everybody is keenly alive: the\nright of the individual to demand that the process of his education shall\nminister to his fullest development.\nThe lines along which this problem has been directly attacked by the\ncolleges are, roughly speaking, two. In the reports issued since 1905 from\nthe older colleges, the experiments center about the relation of student and\nfaculty adviser; those from the coeducational institutions of the Mississippi\nValley and the West add to this the development of the functions of men and\nwomen deans, it being a clearly-defined idea in this section that the deans\nshall hold a close personal relation to the student, altho the intellectual element\nis not necessarily included in that relation. The term and the office of student\nadviser have been in a certain sense long established in eastern colleges. At\nHarvard and elsewhere members of the faculty have been regularly appointed\nto exercise personal supervision and influence over the students in regard to their\nsocial and moral needs. The special interest attaching to the question at present\nis the shift in the view-point from which this relation is regarded. The change\nis best illustrated by the Princeton experiment, known there as the preceptorial system, in which emphasis is thrown upon the fact that while we send our\nyoung people to college that they may acquire a larger view of life, our more\nimmediate intention is that they shall acquire scholarship which shall be an\norganic part of that life. In the words of President Wilson, the object is to\nget the college instruction into the lives of the undergraduates. In each\ndepartment of study each undergraduate who chooses the department is\nassigned to a preceptor, to whom he reports and with whom he confers upon\nall of his readings in his courses. To inaugurate this system Princeton added\nover fifty to its instructional corps. The results of the first year's test have\nbeen summed up as follows: it has produced more and better work; it has\nsystematized and vitalized study; it has begun to make reading men, and it\n\n"} {"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nhas brought teachers and pupils into intimate relations of mutual interest\nand confidence.\nIn the autumn of 1905, the University of Chicago inaugurated a plan which,\ndevised early, had been held in abeyance since the founding of the new university. Princeton's plan involves a program which is fundamentally educational; Chicago attempted a larger reach, which should include the student's\nsocial life as well. The educational element of such a system is, however,\nexpensive, and Chicago, thru lack of the necessary funds, \"broke down\" —\nin the words of one of the faculty — in putting into effect this side of the experiment. The fact invites the remark that the lack of appreciation in America\nof the need of a greater outlay of money in advancing the intellectual and\nspiritual side of education is the cause of the uneasiness extending over the\ncountry concerning the results of our educational system. In connection with\nnormal colleges, high schools, and elementary schools, both the town and the\nneighborhood can see much more readily the necessity for a fine school building than for a fine school. The school building should be planned along\nartistic and sanitary lines, but the ornate should have no place in it; the\nschool should be planned along lines that will deepen and enrich the powers\nof the children and students, but crow^ded classes and overworked teachers\nshould not be found in it. It is not alone in Princeton and the great universities that money must be expended freely in order that students shall receive\nthat individual help and guidance which they need in pursuing their studies.\nMoney is quite as essential in the lower schools, in which, by a strange twist\nin the conception of educational life, the ideal seems to be the evolution of\nmeans by which the young can be trained in the largest possible masses.\nPopular education, like university education, is expensive. If we are to have\neither or both, let us insist upon an education that educates.\nIn connection with the problem of expense, the attention is perforce directed\nto the subject of the recent enormous gifts of money to the cause of education.\nThough probably not so intended, these gifts are performing the part of a\nmental ferment, out of which one truth, at least, emerges, namely, that these\ngifts, particularly with such conditions as that leaving the direction of the\nexpenditure almost wholly to the giver, are a menace, because the giving\nseems much like a controlling of public opinion thru bribery of judgment and,\nultimately, thru education.\nThat interest in England is concentrating on popular education and the\npractical means of obtaining it tho the expression of this interest takes form\nother than ours, is shown by a report on educational conditions in that country\nkindly furnished by the Bureau of Education and prepared by Anna Tolman\nSmith. The great event in education during the year 1906 was the introduction ofthe Birrell Bill in the House of Commons. Reduced to its briefest\nterms, this was a bill to establish popular control of schools supported by\npublic funds, and it was carried in the final reading in the House of Commons\nby a majority of 192 in a total vote of 546. Notwithstanding this overwhelm-\n\n"} {"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n389\n\ning expression of the will of the lower house, the bill was sacrificed in the\nHouse of Lords, but the wrecking amendments of the upper house were\nrejected in toto by the Commons when the bill was reported back for their\naction. The new year saw the enactment of only a single measure that had\nbeen embodied in the bill — a brief measure which came into operation\non the twenty-first day of December, 1906. It gave to local education\nauthorities, for the first time, legal power to supply or to assist in the supply\nof meals for children attending public elementary schools. One cannot be\nquite sure whether this measure was due to a full recognition of the principle\nof a sound mind in a sound body or to a determination to come to something\nupon which all could agree — the necessity of something to eat. Nevertheless,\nthe bill, with other measures not acted upon, shows very plainly the drift of\npublic sentiment with reference to the care and training of the rising\ngeneration.\nThe establishment at Harvard and Yale of the degree of Bachelor of\nScience on even terms with that of Bachelor of Arts illustrates both the difference inpoint of view that has obtained in the past between the East on the\none hand, the Middle West and the West on the other, and the progress we\nare now making towards merging that difference in a single standpoint. For\nmany years in the West the requirements of the Bachelor of Science and the\nBachelor of Philosophy degrees have been on even terms with those of the Bachelor of Arts, the newer section naturally responding more readily to the demands\nof a practical situation. Experience has convinced the eastern colleges that\nthere is a discipline to be obtained thru the union of scientific and cultural\nstudies which is equal in value to that which is obtained thru the cultural\nstudies only. On every hand we are reaping the fruits of the approach, frpm\nthese two different points of view, to the requirements for the degree of\nBachelor of Science.\nIn all its departments science is differentiating the pure and the' applied\ninto simply the general principle and the application of that principle. Biology,\nfor instance, no sooner gets at the question of life than it develops along the lines\nof sanitary science and public health. Commercial geography is one of the\nsubjects especially influenced by this new point of view, tho not in this country\nwith such comprehensiveness as in Germany, where, as the report from the\nBureau of Education prepared by Mr. Barrows shows, the German universities\nhave been keeping practical ends before them more and more, and have even\ncome to the aid of commerce by adding to the ancient regular courses\nleading to degrees, special courses in oriental and modern languages, history,\nand economics, with a view to preparing special students for commercial\ncareers in South America, China, Japan, and elsewhere in the East. German science, too, is being invoked to help carry out Germany's commercial\nmanoeuvres, with the same patient, careful preparation of men trained for\nstepping into positions in distant lands with whose language, history, and\ncommercial customs they have become familiar beforehand. This departure\n\n"} {"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "39©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin higher education, taken in conjunction with the estabHshment of technical\nuniversities and higher commercial training, is the most significant feature of\nGerman education in recent years. It shows that the ablest educational\nguides have taken part in the enormous commercial and industrial\ndevelopment of the nineteenth century.\nThe requirement of the colleges of a higher standard of preparation for\nscientific study is making for the same result — the interdependence of the\nscientific and the cultural subjects. In Yale, while the college degree is\ndesired in preparation for the medical schools, it is not required; but emphasis\nis cast on proficiency in lines \"suited to subsequent medical study.\" From\nia medical school in one of the largest universities comes the statement that\nthe past year has been one of great significance and importance in medical\neducation because of the decision of nearly fifty of the medical schools of the\nUnited States to advance their requirements for admission to include at least\none year of college work, especially in physics, chemistry, and biology, in\naddition to the existing prerequisite, the completion of a four years' highschool course. Moreover, some of the medical examining boards, whose power\nin these matters is supreme, have announced their intention to refuse recognition to medical schools which do not exact this requirement. As to the\nmethods of instruction in the medical schools, laboratory, practical, and\nclinical courses are more and more replacing the purely didactic methods\nformerly in vogue. This necessitates the subdivision of the classes into\nsmaller and smaller groups, and finally, the fundamental branches have in all\nthe better medical colleges been placed in the hands of instructors who devote\ntheir whole time and energy to instruction and research, each in his chosen\nline, and soon a considerable part of the teaching in the clinical branches must\nbe placed on a similar footing. Much progress has been made in this direction in the last two years.\nIn some states, the relation between the state and the medical department\nof the state universities is close. In Colorado, a state hygienic laboratory has\nbeen recently established in the medical school of the university.\nIt is interesting to compare with these conditions those now existing in\nFrance. The deepest problems engaging the attention of French statesmen\nand educators at the present time relate to higher education. The extreme\nspecialization that has characterized the universities and the higher schools\nof France has been fatal to the maintenance of that philosophic spirit which is\nessential to the best results of research and extended study in any direction.\nThe same specialization has resulted also in separating certain branches of\nstudy from the professional training to which they are most intimately related.\nThis is particularly noticeable with respect to the profession of medicine. An\neffort was made several years ago to increase the scientific training of students\nintending to pursue the study of medicine, by obliging them to spend a year,\nafter receiving the bachelor's degree, in special work in physics, chemistry,\nand natural science; but this experiment has not proved adequate to the\n\n"} {"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Coundl]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF TWO\n\nYEARS\n\n391\n\ndemands of the time, and it is generally recognized that medical students in\nFrance have neither the attainments nor the equipment for study which will\nenable them to compete with their compeers in Germany. At this moment,\nit may be said that the chief problem in respect to higher education in France\nis that of the reorganization and strengthening of medical faculties, and this\neffort is related also to the more general effort for co-ordinating isolated institutions and diffusing thruout the domain of higher education the spirit of\nphilosophic unity. It may be added that French educators appear to be\nmore deeply impressed with the importance of studies that make for culture\nthan is generally the case in our country.\nThe method of instruction in all departments of America is coming to be\naffected by the larger and clearer vision which science has developed. One\nof the most hopeful changes in method that is found anywhere is embodied in\nthe report from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where the work\nin mathematics has been entirely remodeled. Instead of taking up algebra,\nanalytic geometry, differential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations, in successive courses, they now give one continuous course in general\nmathematics, extending over a period of two years, the various topics above\nmentioned being introduced and developed at whatever points are most\nnatural and whenever a particular principle is needed for further progress.\nIn this way time is saved, repetition of ideas avoided, and the student acquires\na useful command of mathematics as a tool at an earlier period in his course.\nThe principle involved in the case of mathematics is one applicable not to\nmathematics alone, but to all subjects. It is to be hoped that future reports\nwill show in every department the working of the scientific spirit.\nFrom different parts of the country, New York and Illinois, come reports\nof state action empowering the State Normal College of Albany and four of\nthe state normal colleges in Illinois to confer degrees. This action will influence\nlargely the preparation of teachers for secondary schools; and tho complications will necessarily arise between the state university and the state normal\ncollege, it indicates an advance in the estimation in which preparation in the\nnormal college is held by the commissioner of New York and the state superintendent ofIllinois. In some quarters the prophecy is made that the granting\nof degrees and the fitting of teachers for either secondary or elementary work\nwill increase the percentage of men students in the normal colleges of the city\nand state. A larger way of looking at the matter would be that which sees a\nstrong, better-equipped, and better-paid teaching body in the elementary and\nsecondary schools. Very generally the courses in normal schools are taking\non more and more the fundamental characteristics of good college courses,\ninstead of continuing the cast-iron system which prepared all teachers on the\nsame narrow basis. The normal school, state and city, now has required\nand elective courses. If the subjects of manual training, construction work,\nnature-study, and school gardening are ever organized so as to meet the\nrequirements which we lay upon them in educational theory, this organizing\n\n"} {"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwill be done by the normal school. The evolution of the method of the arts\nwill come not only thru the intelligent effort of normal-school instructors,\nbut also thru specialization by normal-school students in those subjects.\nToo great stress cannot be laid upon the life-giving influence of recognizing and developing the talents of the future teacher.\nThe practice work in the normal schools shows a tendency to take on a\nless evanescent character. Students are teaching the same children a longer\ntime instead of teaching many groups of children for a short time each. Under\nthis system they learn that it is not method alone that makes a teacher; they\nwrestle individually with the problem of \"the child and the curriculum.\" In\nIllinois a remarkable decision, made in 1906 by one of the judges of the Supreme\nCourt, has construed the elementary practice school as outside the limits of\nthe law governing appropriations for elementary schools. The chief point\non which the decision rests is to the effect that normal students are learning\nthe science of pedagogy when they are teaching in the practice school, and,\ntherefore, since pedagogy is not enumerated among the subjects to be taught\nin the elementary schools, the payment of critic teachers from the elementaryschool fund is in violation of the state constitution. At first it seemed to the\nfriends of the State Normal University, Normal, Illinois, that a death-blow\nhad been given to the practice school. The University immediately took steps\nto make the practice school one of its departments, and invited the parents\nof the children in the public school of the town to send them to the practice\nschool. It is to the credit of the practice school that the parents of two-thirds\nof the children in the town elected to send their children there.\nIndiana has taken a step which Superintendent Cotton says is the greatest\nstep forward ever made in the school affairs of that State, by passing a bill\nwhich invests the state board of education with power to make teaching in\nIndiana a profession. This act makes the board a state teachers' training\nboard and authorizes it to arrange for a regular system of normal school\ninstruction thruout the state. This it is to do by determining conditions\nunder which certain schools in this state may be ''accredited\" in the system.\nIt provides that the work done in these accredited schools shall be recognized\nby the state normal school; that these accredited schools may establish twoyear courses open to high-school graduates, the completion of which will be\naccepted in lieu of the license and will entitle them to teach in the district\nschools and in the grammar schools in small towns for three years without\nexamination. It is believed that the premium of teaching without license\nwill appeal to many well-prepared young people who will be glad to teach in\nthese schools while working their way thru the normal schools and colleges\nby attending the spring and summer terms. If so, this feature of the law will\nprovide trained teachers for many of the district and small town schools, the\nschools that suffer most from lack of trained teachers. All the colleges and\nnormal schools in the state, both state and private, may be authorized to\nmaintain courses for the preparation of teachers.\n\n"} {"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n393\n\nThe tendency towards consolidation of country schools has extended\nbeyond its original limits. This consolidation not merely provides a better\nclass of teachers but is resulting also in the erection of buildings with improved\nmeans of heating, and with better sanitary conditions than have been peculiar\nto the country schools. It is interesting to note the decision with which independent men have met the obstinacy of legislators in refusing to permit the\ntransportation of children in these consolidated districts. Superintendent\nBlair of Illinois says that tho the legislature has repeatedly refused to enact a\nlaw legalizing the expenditure of money for the use of wagons for this purpose,\nhis predecessor, Mr. Bayliss, gave a ruling that the law allowing boards of\ndirectors to spend money to cover any \"necessary expenses\" would cover\nthis need. If the people of certain districts vote to consolidate their districts,\nand such consolidation places the school at such a point that certain children\nof the district cannot walk to school, then it becomes necessary for the directors of the consolidated district to furnish transportation for these pupils.\nThe use of these wagons in the John Sweeney consolidated district, he adds,\nwill probably be contested in the courts, but it is the beginning of a new era\nin the country school administration of Illinois. In order to assist in the more\nthoro supervision of the country schools the Department of Public Instruction has appointed an assistant who gives all his time to counseling the county\nsuperintendents, visiting country schools, and assisting in every way possible\nin their management.\nThat the modem rural school building contains a manual-training room is\none more testimony to the barrenness of our ideals of manual training at the\ntime of its introduction into high and elementary schools. One of the standard\narguments then was that the city boy needs an outlet for his activities, which\nthe city does not furnish. The opportunities of the country in comparison\nwith those of the city boy were shown to be many. Almost every head of a\nnormal school who has written about the progress of that school within the\npast two years has mentioned either manual training, or school gardening, or\nboth, as subjects in whose instruction there has been a marked degree of\nprogress. Here we find the argument based not upon the need of opportunity\nfor manual activity, but upon the need for a development of appreciation of\nsimplicity in design and harmony in color. The teacher of manual training\nlongs to reach the home, or the farm, or the village far distant from the influence of art — an influence which extends over a small proportion only of the\nhomes in the city. To refine the taste of the children thru their efforts to make\nthat which is useful or to beautify the immediate vicinity of the home with\nflowers and shrubs, is one of the definite objects of manual training and school\ngardening in normal schools. Some think that the aesthetic element may\nrelieve the crudity and monotony of the farm life which has had so depressing\nan effect on the farmer's wife, and that in this way the school will reduce the\npercentage of insanity but recently so alarming in the farming section of the\ncountry.\nAnother object is to open the minds of the boys and girls to an\n\n"} {"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ninterest in the quality of foods and fibers which may become the productive\ncrops of the farm. The normal school is doing pioneer work in preparing\nteachers who will carry to the rural schools knowledge and love of that which\nwill give play in the children to emotional expression — the fundamental in\nappreciation of the beautiful.\nIn the School Review for April, 1906, there is an analysis of ten\nyears' influence of the report of the Committee of Ten. It seems but\nyesterday that this report and that of the Committee of Fifteen were commanding the attention of all interested in education. And now the questions\nare raised : How fully has the report of the Committee of Ten been followed ?\nDo we accept it sufficiently to warrant the expenditure of time and labor\nnecessitated by the preparation of such a report ? The replies run as follows:\nIn regard to Latin, the recommendation of the Committee seems to have had\nweight; in regard to English, not; in regard to modern languages, the trend\nis in opposition to the recommendation; in regard to mathematics, it would\nseem as if the Committee's recommendation had carried weight, tho the great\nincrease in solid geometry in the fourth year was not suggested in the report;\nin regard to physics and chemistry, it would seem as if the minority report of\nProfessor Waggener was more nearly prophetic than was the general report;\nin regard to botany and zoology, there was slight compliance with the recommendations, and the course in physiology is contrary to the recommendations\nof the Committee; in regard to history, the schools are not yet ready for the\nintensive study urged by the Committee; in regard to geography, there is a\nmaterial lessening in the number of schools offering any work whatsoever in\nthe subjects covered by the recommendation of this sub-committee. Professor\nDexter concludes his study by saying that the report seems not to have influenced directly to a marked degree the curriculum of the public high school;\nthat more of the specific recommendations of the Committees have been\nactually violated by the trend of high-school organization, or have proved\ninert, than have been followed; that we teachers as a class are not apt at\ntaking advice — even good advice.\nThere is an element in the high-school situation not mentioned by Professor\nDexter which has tended, if not to sidetrack many recommendations of the\nCommittee, at least to obscure them. I refer to vocational training, which,\nwhile not recognized in the curriculum of the old high school, has been more\ndisturbing there than in the manual-training and commercial high schools.\nAt about the time of the reports by the Committees of Ten and of Fifteen, the\npublic mind had become clarified with regard to the necessity of preparation\nin the high schools for productive work that should enable the graduate to\nbecome immediately self supporting, or that should fit him for work of a high\ngrade in technology or the arts. The academic idea was beginning to lose\ncommand of the whole situation in the high school. The manual training and\ntechnical courses for high school boys are generally given in schools set apart\nfor public manual training, or in preparatory schools for institutes of tech-\n\n"} {"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nCouncfl]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n395\n\nnology. The ideal plan is exemplified in the construction and organization\nof the Yeatman High School in St. Louis. The cores about which the work\nin that school centers are manual training for the boys and various forms of\nthe industrial arts for the girls. The cultural work is done under the same\nroof. That a woman, to be educated, must know something of the humanities is generally admitted; and so we find that any tendency to break away\nfrom this recognition of the needed influence of cultural subjects in a woman's\nintellectual development arouses protest, as in the case of the Girls' Technical\nHigh School in New York. In the last report of educational progress presented before this body, Mr. Howard J. Rogers called attention to the fact\nthat this school had been established outside of the general educational trend,\nwhich is to make a common ground on which courses in practical and in\ncultural subjects shall rest. It is a matter of gratification to learn from Principal McAndrew of the Washington Irving High School in New York that\nsince Mr. Rogers wrote that report the board of education has brought the\nschool into line with this general principle. The Girls' Technical High\nSchool has been reorganized as the Washington Irving High School, with\nfull college preparatory courses as well as all the technical courses; and\nthe same tendency to combine has reached the technical schools on private\nfoundations. The result has been that hundreds of girls in the academic\ndepartment have taken up hand-work, hundreds in the technical department,\nthe academic. The superintendent's last report disproved the argument that\nwork of this kind can be better done if apart and specialized; it showed that\na larger per cent, of the graduating class of this school passed the academic\nexamination than in the two purely academic high schools for girls in Manhattan and the Bronx. Economy of funds, it is said, also results from combination. In short, from every standpoint there is confirmation of the opinion\nexpressed by President Schurman of Cornell that the board acted wisely in\nkeeping the academic and the technical courses in one institution.\nNew York City has seemed to grasp the problem of technical training for\ngirls as well as that for boys. There are the two lines of work^ technical and\nacademic, in eleven high schools for girls in that city, while Chicago, the city\nnext in size, has just begun to attempt a limited line of technical high-school\nwork for them. If the next report of progress can show a broader grasp of\nthis question in our large cities, it is probable that the city normal school will\nnumber in its clientele fewer whose gifts should turn them into other lines of\nservice than that of teaching.\nThe same condition of unrest and experiment in secondary schools is to\nbe noted in the reports of France and England. In England the development\nof secondary education is called the most important educational question of\nthe present day, the pivot of the whole situation, since it affects the efficiency,\nintelligence, and well-being of the nation — yet its present condition is described as chaotic. This statement, made last December, remains true today;\nbut it is equally true that great progress has been made, especially by local\n\n"} {"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nauthorities, in ascertaining the exact condition of secondary education in the\nareas under their control. The most important outcome of these efforts is a\nseries of reports by Dr. Sadler, who has been engaged by the authorities of\nseveral cities and towns of England to investigate this subject and advise\nthem as to the best means of meeting the urgent demands for adequate provision of secondary schools in their respective areas. The services of Dr.\nSadler were first secured by the education committee of Sheffield, from which\ncity he proceeded under a similar engagement to Liverpool. His reports of\nthe conditions in these two cities were reviewed with copious extracts in the\nreport of the commissioner of education for 1904, Volume I, pages 840-57.\nThe same report contains a summary of a similar investigation made in London\nby Mr. Sydney Webb. These summaries set forth conditions which are\ncommon thruout England, as is indicated by later reports by Dr. Sadler. The\nefforts made by the local authorities to carry out the recommendations of Dr.\nSadler are, in the opinion of the Bureau, the most hopeful signs of progress,\nin respect to public education, offered by England at the present time. They\nbear out the declaration of Rt. Hon. A. H. Acland, that \"municipalities are\nthe only powers competent to deal with this problem.\" What is wanted, he\nsays, is municipal day schools in counties and towns everywhere within reach\nof the people. The movement for increasing the provision for secondary\neducation is in fact a part of the general development of democratic ideas in\nEngland.\nShould anyone ask where the unification of the schools of this country is\neffected, the Bureau of Education having no authority and membership in the\nNational Educational Association being voluntary, the answer could be found\nin letters received from superintendents of city-school systems in widely\nseparated sections in response to requests for data upon which to base this\nreport. In these letters emphasis has been thrown on the same subjects, new\ndepartures have been made along the same lines. A review of the special\n\"subjects referred to important committees in years past and of statistics pubiished in the annual report of the commissioner of education would show that\nthis homogeneity of interests is developed largely thru the Bureau and the\nNational Educational Association. Some of these lines of special interest,\nwhich, tho not opened up from the foundation, have been developed within\nthe last two years, relate to the physical education of children; games and\nplaygrounds; the management and instruction of the backward, the subnormal, and the vicious; the care of children in the tenement districts in\nlarge cities thru the organization of vacation schools; the salaries and qualifications ofteachers.\nIn the high schools the question of athletics has been, and still is, one of\nthe most serious questions with which the faculties have been called upon to\ncope. In the elementary schools, gymnasiums give a new aspect to the whole\nsubject of physical education. The old calisthenics will some day be replaced\nby a method of physical education that educates the body.\nIt looks as if\n\n"} {"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n397\n\nNew York City, under the influence of Dr. Gulick, is going to handle the\nsubject of athletic leagues in so educative a way that athletics will eventually\nbe no more a source of difficulty than any other department of work in the\nschools. Superintendent Maxwell writes that these public-school athletic\nleagues under the lead of a director of physical training have done a great\nwork in toning up the physical condition of boys and girls; and that the public\ncontests of pupils of all grades in warm weather at the parks, and in the cold\nseason at the armories, have brought new life to the young people. The\nnormal schools, with their advanced systems of physical education, will\nprobably influence the great mass of public schools more positively thru their\nrequired courses in gymnastics than will the schools of education in the universities, which often excuse their experienced teacher-students from participation in the work of the gymnasium.\nWhat the outcome will be of the attempt to organize the play activities of\nchildren will appear in some future report of educational progress. That the\nwork of the schools should be grounded in the activities of the children goes\nwithout saying, but that the school teacher shall organize and direct all the\nplay activities of the children, making them subsidiary to the work of the school,\nis entirely a different question. It is the old pill of work with a chocolate\ncoating.\nNaturally the large cities are giving more attention to the supervision of\nthe health of the children in the school than are the towns and rural districts.\nNew York and Boston are in the lead in this matter. Boston has its appropriation for the maintenance of school nurses and a school commission authorized to take charge of the playgrounds the year round. New York is considering the question of supplying eye-glasses at public expense to all pupils with\ndefective eyesight. Reference has been made to the fate of one education bill\nin England. Another was no more fortunate, tho two of its provisions \"commanded a majority support even in the House of Lords.\" These two provisions were for the medical inspection of children in the public schools and\nfor vacation classes and playgrounds.\nThe concentration of attention on the backward children shows an attitude toward the problem of individual instruction similar to that which has\nculminated in the preceptorial plan at Princeton. It quickens the heart-beat\nto find a great teaching body, extending from the kindergarten thru the college,\nopening eye and heart to a discovery of the conditions which hinder the child\nor the youth in his development and seeking the means by which these conditions can be improved. That education is admitting such variations of\nmethod — such variations in the selection of lines of subject-matter — is a\nsignificant fact — significant of nothing less than this: that we are reading\ninto education on its practical side the idea of the development of the soul.\nThe vacation school is not a recent organization in the great cities, but,\nlike all other movements that have in them a vital spark, its aim and value\nare taking on a different meaning from that attached to them in the early\n\n"} {"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ndays of the movement. Some of the bizarre elements that at first were prominent have been properly subordinated or have been dropped out of the program. In some cities, as in St. Louis, the whole expense of the vacation school\nis now borne by the public school fund.\nThe teaching in the evening schools, noticeably in Chicago, has advanced\nvery positively in the past two years. It has become an established truth\nthat good teaching will bring about the same results in an evening school as in\na day school. Under a carefully organized system, the earnestness and grip\nof the classes are increasing steadily. A course of study in which the experience of teachers in the day and evening schools has been incorporated has also\nbeen a means of definite progress and effectiveness in the schools.\nThe work in the Indian schools is improving thru the emphasis thrown\nupon the importance of studying the characteristics and the environment of the\nrace. In these schools, as in those for children of our own race, there is\ndifficulty in finding teachers who work from the endowment and environment\nof the children instead of attempting to impose their own characteristics and\ntheir own narrow environment upon the children whom they teach. The\nsuperintendent calls attention to the fact that in many schools there is a failure\nto recognize the necessity of industrial training for the girls as well as the boys.\nHere again we find a striking similarity between conditions obtaining in\nIndian schools and in our own. In regard to language the same procedure\nis followed with the Indian children as with the children of foreign-speaking\npopulations in large cities and various sections of the country. They are\ntaught the English language, it being a generally accepted theory of education\nthat a common language will unify different peoples more quickly than any\nother means that can be adopted for this purpose.\nIt seems appropriate in this connection to call attention to a method of\ncorrelation introduced at the Tuskegee Normal School; for altho in this case\nthe introduction of the system referred to was made in a normal school, yet\nthe system itself covers a condition in regard to which there are questions\nbeginning at the time when children in the elementary schools write their first\ncomposition. Mr. Washington explains that at the opening of the present\nyear a system was put into operation which has worked very successfully.\nBy this system each student receives full credit in the academic department\nfor all the work he does in English in the industrial department, just as if the\nwork were done for a teacher of English in the academic department. For\nexample, when a student in one of the shops is required to write a composition\nfor his industrial instructor, this instructor examines the paper and marks it\nas to its correctness in subject-matter; the paper is sent to the English division\nof the academic department, where it is examined and marked for the form.\nThe student, therefore, receives credit in the academic department for each\ncomposition written for an industrial instructor; whereas heretofore the\nndustrial papers were marked by the industrial instructor primarily as to\ntheir correctness in subject-matter and the student received little or no credit\n\n"} {"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n399\n\nfor the form. Now the student does his very best in English in writing industrial papers. The system is working admirably and correlates very effectively\nthe academic and industrial departments so far as English is concerned. This\nsystem of special correlation has thus far been extended only to English in\nTuskegee, but they are working upon the matter of applying it in mathematics\nat the opening of the next term in September. They hope to extend it until\nit covers, as[far as possible, all the subjects taught in the academic department.\nIn regard to education in the Philippine Islands, the director says that the\npast year has undoubtedly been by far the most successful in the history of the\nBureau in the accomplishment of substantial results. More pupils have been\ntaught than ever before and the instruction has been much better. The\nregularity of attendance, especially as the higher grades are reached, argues\nwell for the establishment of new habits and for the solidity of the instruction.\nThe number of new schools opened is naturally not so great as in the two\nprevious years, when the work of the Bureau was undergoing a rapid development, but the growth is evident, and these last schools have been established\nwith particualr reference to permanency. Among the native teachers advance\nis noticeable. The system of classification introduced among them has been\nfollowed by a greater definiteness in their instruction. They continue to gain\nin reliability, strength of character, and moral purpose. The development\nof such a force, numbering as it now does over six thousand, including apprenticed teachers, still impresses one as the most striking result effected by the\nBureau of Education. American teachers must necessarily come and go, but\nthis force of Filipino teachers, continually gaining in learning, maturity, and\ncharacter, understanding more and more clearly the character of their nation,\nand becoming continually more devoted to it, promises to be Ihe best and most\ninfluential means for good in the life of the islands. The great mass of public\nschool pupils are children of the poor or poorest classes. What will public\ninstruction do for them ? Will it make them independent producers, skilled\nworkmen, intelligent citizens of their towns; will it free them from debt, raise\ntheir standard of life, and elevate their moral character ? As to all this, the\ndirector admits that it is not yet possible for him to speak definitely. He is\nof the opinion that it has already been satisfactorily shown that the public\nschools in the Philippines can turn out competent teachers, clerks, and aspiring\nstudents, but that whether they can make the masses intelligent, industrious,\neconomical, and upright is a question which will take some years of further\nprogress to demonstrate, and that argument either for or against such hopes is\nat the present time practically futile.\nIt is not within the confines of the school only that steps have been taken\nto insure the progress of education along the line of increasing care for the\nindividual. In June, 1905, a commission on industrial and technical education was appointed by Governor Douglas of Massachusetts in accordance with\nan act of the legislature of that state. In August, 1906, a second commission\nwas appointed by Governor Gill. To analyze the reports of these commis-\n\n"} {"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsions before this council would be a work of supererogation. They show a\ngreat change in industrial conditions in the old Bay State as well as the need\nfor readjustment of the theory of public education. It is to be hoped, however, that there will not eventuate a system of industrial education founded on\nthe theory that the child of the working-man needs training in the industries\nonly. The public schools of America must never forget in their theory and\npractice of education that every little one starting on his earthly career is\nmind-body.\nFollowing the presentation of these two epoch-making reports was a\nmeeting at Cooper's Union, New York City, to effect a permanent organization of a society for the promotion of industrial education. The names of the\ncharter members of this society and the tenor of the addresses there made give\npromise of a broader and deeper view of industrial education than can be\npossible from amid the practical conditions of the schoolroom.\nIn December, 1906, there was held in Chicago a large conference on the\nquestion of truancy. Physicians, judges, teachers, and club women from\ndifferent parts of the country took part in its discussions. Altho nothing\ndefinite was planned as a result of the addresses, yet the general contribution\nmade by people representing different interests was valuable. Noteworthy is\nthe statement from Superintendent Moore, of Los Angeles, that in the three\nspecial-day truant schools in operation thruout the year the attendance is\nhigher than in the other schools of the city. This, he thinks, is due to the\nsuperior teachers in charge. Everywhere, in every branch of the service,\ncomes testimony to the influence of excellent teachers. Why, then, do we\nstill stand querying how to get along with poor ones ?\nIn the latter part of June, 1907, the Playground Association of America\ncarried out in Chicago the first program which combined the theoretical and\npractical interests to which it owes its existence. The theoretical phase was\npresented in a series of meetings in the city, at which there were many addresses.\nThe practical side was illustrated in a play festival lasting thruout a day. In\nthat festival there were exhibited in Ogden Park games, dancing, and every\nform of physical and athletic sports suitable for children and youth.\nAnother line in which social workers on the outside have accomplished\nfor childhood what it would have been impossible for the teaching body\nto accomplish,. is that of agitating for, and achieving the passage of laws controlling child labor. Not only have laws been placed upon the statute books\nof many of the states, but provision has been made for what are called scholarships, ranging from one to three dollars a week, which are paid to the parents,\nparticularly widowed mothers, who need the earnings of the children. In no\npart of the country has the rousing to the problems of society been more\nmarked than in the South. Following its awakening and advance along\nindustrial lines has come an educational awakening; and here the schools\nfind again the question of education becoming much more complex. Sometimes the committees organized to protect children who have been altogether\n\n"} {"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n401\n\nsubmerged in the industrial and commercial stream are disappointed to find\nthat the school is not competent and ready to take these children at any point\nand advance their growth. While the public school is not for those children\nonly whose opportunities for right living have been saved by legislation, yet\nit comes far short of its responsibility if it does not supplement the work done\nby those whose strenuous efforts have succeeded in securing the adoption of\nintelligent laws and their enforcement.\nThe governor of Illinois has been authorized by the state legislature to\nappoint a commission of leading educators to report upon educational conditions in this state. The appointment of commissions by the governors of\ndifferent states is significant of the growth in the public mind of appreciation\nof the complexity as well as the importance of the question of the education of\nthe young. Valuable as are the investigations and conclusions of men and\nwomen outside the school, yet it should remain a fundamental principle with\nus that the superintendent of any city or state system of schools must be an\nexpert in education, and that, in co-operation wdth the teachers, he must be\nleft free to command the situation from an educational standpoint.\nIn 1905 a large committee appointed by the National Educational Association reported on the question of salaries of teachers. Closely knit everywhere\nwith this question is that of the promotion of teachers and other questions no\nless essential to their welfare. In Miss Smith's report for France the statement isfound that the state has recently shown its interest in the welfare of\nteachers by a slight increase in their salaries and also by appropriations\nincreasing the retiring fund and providing for more rapid promotions than\nheretofore. From several home cities there comes the report that salaries\nhave been increased thruout the teaching body in those cities. In New York,\nin the recent battle of the women teachers for pecuniary recognition from the\nstandpoint of service only and not that of service and sex, victory was turned\ninto defeat by the veto of the governor, on the ground that the bill violated the\nprinciple of home rule for the city of New York. The results of the agitation\nare somewhat conflicting: a sharp line of cleavage between the board of education and the contesting teachers, and a division within the ranks of the\nteaching corps, accompanied by much antagonism and bitterness; but a\nrenewal of discussion of the value of w^omen's work, which some have supposed\nhad closed with the nineteenth century. Under the new regulations of the\nschools of Boston, any teacher may, after seven years of service, be given a\nyear's leave of absence on half pay for the purpose of study and travel. A\nteacher to whom this leave is granted files an agreement to serve the city three\nyears on her return or to refund a proportional amount of the money which\nhas been paid her during her absence. This leave may be repeated after\nseven years of service. Also, any teacher having completed twenty-one\nyears of service in the public schools of Boston may be given leave of absence\non half pay, for one year, without any obligation of either study or travel.\nMany leaves have already been granted on both of these provisions.\nThe\n\n"} {"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsubject of old-age pensions for teachers is attracting attention in many of the\nstates. In New Jersey the pension law has been established by the legislature. Illinois has just passed a second bill better than its first, but still insufficient. Since the teaching body is composed, from highest to lowest, of salaried\npersons, the possibility of accumulating a capital, the income of which will\nafford an adequate support after the years- for active labor have passed, is\nimpossible. This makes the question of pensions for teachers one for the\nstate, as in the case of other questions of civil service.\nIn some cities, notably Chicago, advancement in salary and evidence of\nthe pursuit of study in classes in accredited schools have been linked together.\nThe promotional examination plan in Chicago was in 1906, upon the recommendation ofthe superintendent of schools, so modified as to offer teachers a\nchoice between examination and the presentation of a given number of credits\nobtained in normal extension, university, or college courses. This plan was\noverthrown at the close of the year 1906, and for it was substituted a requirement that each and every teacher in the elementary schools should give evidence of attendance, alternate years, upon a class organized for a meeting of\nan hour and a half once a week for ten weeks, either within or outside of school\nhours. If the teacher preferred to attend a class within school hours, the\nboard undertook to arrange for the care of her pupils during the time of her\nattendance upon the class. At the last moment it was decided, on account of\nthe lack of funds, that the principals of schools must themselves teach the\nchildren in the room left by the teacher, one teacher only being absent from a\nschool at any one time. This decision raised a storm of opposition from the\nprincipals, more bitter, if possible, than that of the teachers who objected to\nforced attendance, under the former rule, on classes outside of their school\nhours. The question of advanced salary and evidence of growth in scholarship\nwill be discussed at full length in the general meeting of the National Educational Association by Superintendent Cooley. It would not be mentioned\nhere were it not that it is bound up closely with conditions that in the course\nof the coming years will profoundly affect the public school system of this\ncountry. These conditions date back to the early part of the last half of the\ncentury. Partly they originated in the narrow ideal of organization and systemization which at some time or other has dominated every school system.\nThis ideal is mechanical rather than of that highly intellectual form which,\nsensitive to the need of t:hange in any part of a system, is able immediately to\nadjust conditions and people to the change needed. Partly they proceed\nfrom the personnel of the teaching corps; the majority being inarticulate in\nthe civic organization, has perforce been inarticulate in the organization of\nthe school. It is highly probable that the agitation attending such difficulties\nhas reached in Chicago an intensity greater than would be suffered elsewhere. In any event, we may remember that the symptoms of fever sometimes reveal the sources of a malady that would have escaped detection in\na condition of dullness and lassitude.\n\n"} {"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n403\n\nIf the public-school system is to meet the demands which twentiethcentury civilization would lay upon it, the isolation of the great body of teachers\nfrom the administration of the school must be overcome. A partnership that\npermits a lot of sleeping partners, in regard either to their fitness or to their\nactual participation in the conduct of the business, is one in name only. In\nthe universities and colleges there has been worked out an organization of\nstudents which acts in co-operation with the faculty. From Oberlin comes\nthe statement that the general result in college legislation has been to increase\nthe liberty of students, throwing upon them more responsibility and giving them\nmore occasions for their own initiative. A student senate has been organized —\na representative body, drawn from the men and women of the whole institution,\nwho have no executive or judicial authority but with whom the appropriate\nofficers of the faculty can consult freely and with whom they can discuss\nmatters of interest to both students and faculty. Much is hoped from the\npromotion of a common understanding between these two bodies. Yale\nreports \"the establishment of an alumni advisory council, to which alumni\nassociations in all parts of the country should elect representatives and which\nshall give the uniH^ersity the benefit of organized discussion of its problems by\nthose who see them from a different side from any which it is possible for the\nfaculties fully to appreciate.\" Can it be possible that the teachers in the great\npublic-school system have not that poise of mind and that interest in education which would make them valuable counselors? Or, on the other hand,\ncan it be true that teachers are stronger in their work when they have no voice\nin the planning of the great issues committed to their hands? It is not a\nspecious recognition, similar to that which student organizations receive in\nsome colleges — a recognition that makes them the means by which the faculty\nsecures what it desires, and places on them the onus of the measure — which\nthe teachers want. It is in the nature of their chosen profession that teachers\nshould be loyal to the principles of right and order. They should not be\ntrained to answer to the crack of the party whip. The responsibilities they\ncarry are fraught with too deep meaning to be so juggled with. It is a function\nrecognized as organic in the public-school system which they should perform\nin the bodies known as school councils. That some have gone astray, following the vagaries of an independence that is simply isolation, is no objection to\nthe councils; that some have failed to distinguish between socialism and\neducationalism and the social ideal in education is no objection to them. An\nhostility that is not founded upon a clear understanding of what is meant by\nschool councils may for a time crush the councils in Chicago; but one is safe\nin predicting that when the effort to make the present issues personal shall\nhave lost its vitality and the principles that are at stake in a great organization have been clearly defined. Superintendent Cooley will make the school\ncouncils an efficient aid to the public schools.\nThe output of educational literature during the past two years has been\nexcellent. While there has been nothing strikingly original, there has been a\n\n"} {"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nclarification of ideas and an effort to make certain that theory and practice\nmay go hand in hand. There seems to be a tendency to go back over the\nfield traversed during the latter part of the nineteenth century and restate\nconditions and conclusions so clearly as to guard against misreadings. This\nis especially noticeable in such books as Thorndike's latest, as O'Shea's\nDynamic Factors in Education^ and Home's Psychological Principles of\nEdtccation. The non-productiveness of the normal schools is noticeable, there\nbeing almost no contributions from them, with the exception of Kirkpatrick's\nFundamentals of Child Study, and Mr. Bagley's books. This is due doubtless\nto the pervasive influence of the old idea that dominated the first normal\nschools in the country — the idea that a normal-college faculty should teach\nmore hours in a day than the faculty of any other college finds it feasible to\nteach. It is not strange that the departments of education in universities can\nattract strong teachers from the normal school to the university work with its\nhours for study, research, and book-making. An octavo book made up of\nselected articles written by Mr. Dewey before 1905 has been compiled recently\nby Professor Findlay and published in England under the name of The School\nand the Child. The book is full of suggestive material. The subjects included\nrange from the underlying basis of the kindergarten to the psychology of the\nelementary curriculum and, like all of Mr. Dewey's writings on education, are\nat once philosophical and thoroly practical. While it might seem inappropriate to speak here of the cost of a book, yet if the best method of teaching\nthe theory and art of education is thru a varied bibliography instead of a\ntextbook, instructors would be aided greatly if there were published more\ndesirable books which, like this, would be within the reach of students with\nonly modest means at command. In the field of social science, there is being\npublished a class of books that teachers cannot safely neglect. Spargo's\nBitter Cry of the Children, Jane Addams's Newer Ideals of Peace, Hall's Immigration are but a few books of the great library that has introduced us to social\nconditions but recently developed in this country.\nIn regard to the subjects in the course of study there has been a revision of\nthe method of presentation. Diluted extracts of subject-matter are still in the\nfield and are used by too many teachers. But the summer terms of normal\nschool and university have contributed toward a general awakening of the\nteaching corps in the elementary schools to the delights of genuine scholarship. A letter recently received contains a glowing account of the wonderful\ninterest and enthusiastic activity of the teachers in the monthly meeting for\nthe schools of which the writer is the superintendent. This happy condition\nis attributed by the superintendent to the program provided, which, he says,\nalways gives something new to the teachers, the only thing under the ban\nbeing -''anything pedagogical.\" His analysis of the situation is good, as far\nas it goes. A full analysis would detect the evidence not only that teachers,\nlike other men and women with trained minds, like mental food that\nnourishes; but also that they weary of trite commonplaces about teaching —\npap that nauseates.\n\n"} {"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTWO\n\nYEARS\n\n405\n\nThere is much crudeness and wasted effort in modern education, and yet\none cannot fear for the future. An army of workers is in the field. That\narmy is striving to give in the school those genuine experiences that make\nfor the development of the possibilities of the child and the youth into the\npowers of the man or woman; that make for a strong and sympathetic\ncharacter; that make for an understanding of the meaning of life.\n\n"} {"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "IN MEMORIAM.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nHAROLD\n\nPAYNE\n\nWilliam Harold Pa)nie, professor of the science and the art of teaching in\nthe University of Michigan, a member of the National Council of Education\nduring the years 1882 to 1891 and again during the years 1895 to 1897, died\nat Ann Arbor on the eighteenth day of June, 1907. The following memorial\nwas presented to the senate of the University of Michigan by Professor Isaac\nN. Demmon and adopted by that body on the twenty-fifth of June:\nFor the second time during the academic year just closed death has invaded\nour ranks and carried off one of our number. Amid the festivities and felicitations ofcommencement week we were arrested by the sad intelligence that Professor Payne had answered the final summons that sooner or later must come\nto each one of us. In the early morning hours of Tuesday, the eighteenth\ninstant, he slipped peacefully away, and at the solemn evening hour of Thursday, the twentieth, his mortal remains were laid to rest in Forest Hill. The\nman of quiet and unobtrusive mien whom to know was to love, the accomplished\nthinker, the profound scholar, the skilful administrator, the warm-hearted\nfriend, after a half-century of distinguished service in educational work has\nclosed his career and passed forever from mortal view. We who are left have\ncome together, as our custom is, to do honor to his memory, to make some\nbrief record of his virtues and his achievements, and to express our sense of\npersonal loss.\nWilliam Harold Payne was born at Farmington, Ontario County, New\nYork, May 12, 1836, son of Gideon Riley and Mary Brown (Smith) Payne.\nHe was educated in the common schools and later in the Macedon Academy and\nin the New York Conference Seminary at Charlotteville. His career as a\nteacher was begun in the country schools, from which he passed to the headship of the public school at Victor, New York. In 1858, at the age of twentytwo, he came to Michigan to take the principalship of the Union School at\nThree Rivers, where he remained six years. For the next two years he was in\ncharge of the schools at Niles, Michigan. In 1866 he was called to Ypsilanti\nto take the principalship of the Union Seminary, then the leading preparatory\nschool of the state. Three years later he accepted the superintendency of\nschools at Adrian, Michigan, where during the next ten years he greatly\nextended his reputation as an administrator and educational writer. In 1879\nhe was appointed to the newly established chair of the science and the art of\nteaching at the University of Michigan. Eight years later, on the death of the\nchancellor of the University of Nashville (who was also head of the Peabody\nNormal College), the trustees of the Peabody Education Fund turned to Michigan for a successor; and Professor Payne was induced to leave a place to which\nhe was deeply attached, for the more arduous task of carrying on the great\n\n"} {"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "IN MEMORIAM.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nHAROLD\n\nPAYNE\n\n407\n\nwork begun by his predecessors at Nashville. This position he continued to\nfill with marked success for the next fourteen years, bringing the institution up\nto higher standards and extending its beneficent influence into every corner of\nthe South. On the death of Professor Hinsdale, his distinguished successor at\nAnn Arbor, he was at once invited to return to his former chair. This, after\nsome hesitation, he consented to do; and thus the heavy burdens of administration were again laid aside for the more congenial work of the classroom.\nDuring his long career as a teacher and organizer, he found time to make\nvaluable contributions to the literature of his subject. From 1866 to 1870 he\nwas editor of The Michigan Teacher. In 187 1 he published an address on\n''The Relation between the University and Our High Schools,\" which had its\ninfluence on the question of certification by diploma then under discussion.\nIn 1875 appeared his ''Chapters on School Supervision,\" and in the spring of\n1879, \"A Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on the Science and the Art of\nTeaching.\" His later works are: Outlines oj Educational Doctrine (1882),^\nContributions to the Science oj Education (1886), and The Education oj\nTeachers (1901). Besides these he pubHshed translations of Compa)n-e's\nHistory oj Pedagogy (1886), Lectures on Pedagogy (1888), Elements oj Psychology (1890), and Psychology Applied to Teaching (1893); also, of Rousseau's\nEntile (1892). In 1872 the regents of the University of Michigan conferred\nupon him the honorary degree of Master of Arts, and in 1888 the degree of\nDoctor of Laws. In 1897 the Western University of Pennsylvania conferred\nupon him the degree of Doctor of Letters.\nHis singularly sweet and quiet manners were no doubt due in some measure\nto his Quaker birth and upbringing. He was always and everywhere a gentle\nman. This need not imply that he lacked spirit or courage or force of character; for he had all these in abundance. He was a perfect disciplinarian. In\nthe difficult field of school administration he was tried in a great variety of\npositions and he met every responsibility with full resources and with mastery.\nBy a happy combination of gentleness, kindness, and firmness he had his own\nway without seeming to command it. Wholly without bigotry, he was a strict\nmoralist both in theory and in practice. He was a man of strong religious\nfaith, and clung eagerly to the good. He believed in the great disciplinary\nvalue of a rightly conducted school, and that the school had important functions besides the mere conveying of information. His modesty and self-poise\ncoupled with clear thinking and deep feeling gave him remarkable power\nover the young who came under his instruction. No teacher was ever more\ngenuinely loved and respected by his students. Not only from Michigan where\nthe larger part of his life was spent, but likewise from the warm-hearted southern country, comes abundant testimony to this powerful uplifting personal\ninfluence for all that is lovely and true.\nSoon after his return to the university in 1901 disease laid its heavy hand\nupon him and he gradually became incapacitated for work in the classroom.\nThis grieved him greatly, but he did not lose his interest in the university nor\n\n"} {"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin the work of his special department. His mind was clear and his faith serene,\nand his face ever brightened with the old cheer in welcoming the visits of his\nfriends. He wished to live, but he was not afraid to die.\nWhile he was not the originator of the idea of making formal instruction in\nthe science and the art of teaching a part of the university curriculum, he was\nquick to seize upon the suggestion when made and to urge its adoption. Bygood fortune he became the first occupant of the first chair of education established in America. The movement was everywhere heralded as a ''new\ndeparture\" and its success eagerly watched. By his tact, and intelligence,\nand strength of character, he won his way amid some open opposition and\nmuch silent distrust, to a complete victory; and when he was called South, he\nturned over a highly prosperous department to his successor. He lived to see\nhis ideas embodied in the courses of study of nearly every higher institution of\nlearning in this country.\nThe man is gone; but his work remains, his influence abides; and in taking\nleave of our theme we may recall the striking appositeness of the noble lines of\nWordsworth with which he concluded the Duddon series:\nStill glides the stream and shall not cease to glide;\nThe form remains, the function never dies;\nWhile we, the brave, the mighty, and the wise,\nWe men, who in our morn of youth defied\nThe elements, must vanish — be it so !\nEnough, if something from our hands have power\nTo live, and act, and serve the future hour;\nAnd if, as toward the silent tomb we go,\nThrough love, through hope, and faith's transcendent dower,\nWe feel that we are greater than we know.\n\nThe only enduring monument to any man is the one the man builds himself, the impression he makes on the world.\nWe may safely leave the fame of\nour departed friend to the thousands of hearts he has touched thruout his long\nand beneficent career.\n\n"} {"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\nIN SCHOOLS FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES\n\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nTO REPORT\n\nSUBMITTED\n\nTO\n\nSUBMITTED AT THE\nJULY,\n1905\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMEETING\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nJULY\n\nIN ASBURY\n8,\n\nPARK,\n\nI907\n\nINTRODUCTION\nL. D. HARVEY,\nCHAIRMAN,\nSUPERINTENDENT\nTHE STOUT TRAINING\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOF\nPUBLIC\nMENOMONIE,\n\nSCHOOLS\nWIS.\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nMr. Chairman and Members of Council:\nI have brought here the material which your committee has organized.\nAn explanation of the brief report to be submitted at this time is due to the\nmembers of the Council, and probably to the members of the committee. As\nyou are aware, in 1905, this committee made a report on the subject of\nindustrial education in schools for rural communities, in which it undertook\nto set forth the argument for that kind of work, the scope of the work, and a\nbrief statement of what was being done in the different types of schools in\nwhich a beginning had been made in industrial education, and the necessity\nfor a new type of secondary school distinctively industrial in character, and\nadapted to the needs of children in rural communities. These matters\nwere discussed quite fully in that report.\nThe committee was continued, and asked to make a report in 1906. As a\npreliminary step to the actual work of investigation, the committee corresponded\nwidely to determine the kind of information most desired by those who were\ndirectly interested in the phase of industrial education under consideration.\nThis correspondence disclosed the fact that what was most wanted was a\ndefinite and authoritative statement of what was actually being done in different\nparts of the country in providing facilities for industrial education in rural\ncommunities.\nA meeting of the committee was held and it was decided to undertake the\nwork of gathering this information. A number of states were assigned to each\nmember of the committee as his particular field for investigation. The general\nlines of inquiry pursued by each member of the committee were the same.\nThe investigation was undertaken chiefly thru correspondence, tho supplemented bysuch direct personal knowledge as individual members of the\ncommittee might secure incidentally in their regular lines of work.\nThe committee was seriously hampered by the fact that but $300 was\nappropriated for its use in making the necessary investigations, which was\npractically exhausted in paying the expenses of two meetings of the committee.\nNo money was available for securing personal investigations, where such investigations would have been profitable in enlarging or modifying the reports\n409\n\n"} {"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nobtained thru correspondence. From the large mass of correspondence, reports\nwere received covering, more or less fully, the entire country. These reports\nshowed a great awakening of interest in industrial education in rural communities, especially in the field of agriculture, and indicated that experiments of\nvarious kinds were being undertaken in many parts of the country, for the introduction ofinstruction in industrial subjects in the rural schools, and in schools\norganized with special reference to furnishing facilities for industrial education.\nIn a number of states instruction in agriculture had been made compulsory in\nthe country schools, by statute. In others, teachers were required to pass an\nexamination in the elements of agriculture in order to obtain a certificate to\nteach. A considerable number of the state normal schools had begun to offer\ncourses in elementary agriculture for their students, and in some states numbers\nof high schools were giving it a place in their courses of study.\nOur investigations showed conclusively that much discussion of the subject was going on, that experiments were being tried, new schemes of work\nwere being organized, but all in a tentative way. Of what was actually being\naccomplished in the way of results but little could be learned thru correspondence, and yet the committee decided to submit at the 1906 meeting such a report\nof the progress of the movement as could be prepared from the data obtained.\nThe report was well in hand when the announcement was made of the\nabandonment of the San Francisco meeting. Further work on the report was\ndiscontinued.\nMuch of the material gathered last year possessed but little value as the\nbasis for a report to be made this year, as many of the experiments then reported\nas in progress had proved unsatisfactory and disappointing, while others had\nled to enlargement and modifications of plans of work.\nThe committee was without funds to prosecute its work further and what\nwas done was by the personal efforts and at the personal expense of its individual members. We were unable to get what we felt the committee would\nlike to stand by as an authoritative statement of what is actually being done.\nFor that work — and it is an important work — it would require an appropriation\nthat would enable the committee to put into the field, for a time, a competent\nperson, to go where this work is being carried on in different states, and to\ninvestigate on the ground, definitely, the precise work that is being done, and\nfrom such investigation to state with some authority what is being done, and\nwhat results are being accomplished.\nThe committee, recognizing its inability to prepare such a report as, in its\njudgment, would most fully meet the demand for information, has, nevertheless, prepared a report covering certain phases of the subject assigned to it.\nThe matter presented in the report has been prepared by Dr. L. H. Bailey, a\nmember of the committee, and by the chairman of the committee, under the\ngeneral direction and authority of the committee as a whole.\nDr. Bailey has summarized the purposes and values of industrial education\nfor the children in rural communities, thru the work possible in the small rural\n\n"} {"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n411\n\nschool, in the consolidated school, in the rural high school, and in the agricultural high school. He has also described three rural-school buildings planned\nand constructed with reference to providing facilities for industrial education.\nThe school in each building is distinctively a rural school but is in a way connected with and under the control of a higher educational institution. One of\nthese schools is connected with the agricultural department of Cornell University; one is connected with the State Normal School at Macomb, Illinois, and\nthe other wfth the State Normal School at Kirksville, Missouri. Each presents a phase of organization different from the others, and shows the possibilities in the rural school under proper organization and with adequate support.\nDr. Bailey also discusses school gardening and manual training in the rural\nschools and presents a summary of the best obtainable information as to what\nis being attempted in the eastern, central, and southern states in the field under\nconsideration.\nThat part of the report prepared by the chairman of the committee discusses the preparation of teachers for work in the field of industrial education.\nHe considers the scope and character of preparation necessary for teachers of\nindustrial subjects in the small rural school, in the consolidated school, in the\nrural high school, in the industrial high school, of which we have a number of\ntypes in this country, and in the agricultural college. The conditions under\nwhich this preparation can be secured at the present time and desirable modifications of.these conditions are pointed out. This part of the report was\nelaborated somewhat, because of a suggestion made by the United States Commissioner ofEducation while its preparation was in progress, to the effect that\nat this time there is a wave of enthusiasm on this subject of industrial education\nsweeping over the country, creating a demand for teachers of industrial subjects which it is impossible to supply, and that unless the supply is rapidly\nincreased, disastrous results will follow the inauguration of this phase of\neducational effort under poorly prepared teachers.\nI should say in justice to individual members of the committee that since\nit was appointed, three of its members have been called to new lines of work;\nMr. Hays, from the Minnesota Agricultural College, to the office of assistant\nsecretary of agriculture, and Mr. Bayliss and Mr. Carrington, each from the\nstate superintendency to the presidency of a state normal school. In each\ncase, their new duties have made such demands upon them that they have\nfound it impossible to give the amount of time to the work of the committee\nwhich they would have been glad to give and which the other members of the\ncommittee would have been glad to have them give.\nI have no apologies to make for the failure to prepare such a report as we\nhad hoped to prepare, but simply can say that we have done the best we could\nunder the circumstances, and believe we have made some progress. We\nhope that the Council will deem it wise to appoint another committee who shall\ntake up this matter, and carry it on, and shall have sufficient funds to do\ndefinite and valuable work, and shall present, from time to time, the results of\ntheir investigations to the Council for its consideration.\n\n"} {"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nNo funds were available for the publication of this report and it is submitted\nto the Council without being read, for such disposition as may be decided upon\nby^the proper authority.\nRespectfully submitted for the committee,\nL. D. Harvey, Chairman.\nI. DISCUSSION OF THE GENERAL PROBLEM\nEducation should articulate with the activities of life. This statement\nneeds no explanation and no defense. The only question is one of the means\nto be employed to reaHze it.\nThe rural school does not articulate with the activities of life. It does not\nteach the essentials. Yet the rural school' affords the only school-training that\nthe great majority of the rural people ever receive. Probably less than five per\ncent, of the pupils in rural schools ever go beyond those schools. In most\ncases, the years of schooling are few even then. The compulsory education\nlaws usually do not apply to pupils above fourteen years of age who have other\nemployment. Moreover, the school period is often short, ranging from three\nmonths to nine; most farm boys of working age do not attend school in summer.\nIt is evident, therefore, that the rural school is not meeting the needs of the\npeople, altho the people themselves may not know it. City schools have\nchanged radically within a generation. Rural schools are changed only in\nincidentals here and there; they are in a state of arrested development.\nThe rural school must continue to afford the training for the greater part\nof the rural population. It is neither possible to supplant it, nor desirable to\ntry to do so. In some regions, present school districts may sometimes be consolidated to advantage, but they will still be rural schools; in other large\nregions, consolidation is not to be recommended. While the rural schools should\narticulate with the schools above them or beyond them, they shpuld be complete\nin themselves as far as they go, and should exist for themselves. They should\ntrain for life as well as for high school or college. Of the pupils who enter the\npublic schools in the United States (statistics of 1902) only 11 per cent, reach\nthe high school and 2 per cent, or less go to college. How to revive and advance\nthe rural school is now the greatest problem in educational policy.\nInterest in the rural school is now active and widespread. The investigations of the committee show that every state and territory and every Canadian\nprovince is alive to the question. Not one of them, however, has worked out\nanything like a complete plan or system, let alone putting it in actual practice.\nThe whole subject is in the experimental and formative stage. The greatest\nwisdom is required to direct this new interest.\nThe discussions of the problems of the rural school are not confined to the\nmain agricultural regions nor are they most active there. They are equally\nkeen and progressive in states that are dominated by other industrial interests.\nThis indicates that the present interest is founded on real educational sentiment\nand needs, not merely on the demand of a particular occupation or profession.\n\n"} {"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n413\n\nSo far as the official attitudes of states and state departments of education\nare concerned, the interest in the rural school problem expresses itself chiefly in\nsix ways: (i) the adoption of syllabi in nature-study, agriculture, or domestic\nscience — one or all; (2) the making of mandatory laws compelling the teaching of these subjects in the common schools; (3) the adopting of a textbook;\n(4) the holding of institutes or summer schools in which these subjects shall\nbe taught to teachers; (5) plans for increasing the efl&ciency of supervision of\nrural schools; (6) general propaganda work by means of lectures, leaflets, and\ncorrespondence. In one or another of these ways practically every state in the\nUnion has taken official action.\nThe existing institutions in which teachers may be trained for the industrial\nwork in rural schools are chiefly seven: (i) the regular normal schools, which\nare more or less effective for this work in the Middle West; (2) county trainingschools for teachers, of the type of those in Wisconsin; (3) normal departments\nin colleges of agriculture, of which one has been in operation in the College\nof Agriculture at Cornell University for two years, and another one of which is\nnow provided for at the Massachusetts Agricultural College; (4) normal institutes; (5) summer schools; (6) training-classes in high schools; (7) correspondence courses. These institutions will supply the present demand; but\nit cannot be long before a more definite and concrete effort will be needed.\nPerhaps a new kind of normal institution will be forthcoming. It would seem,\nhowever, that strong normal departments in a few of our agricultural colleges\nwould be able to set the problem before the people and to prepare the way for\nthe organization of effective agencies to meet the necessities. In the meantime,\nnormal institutes and correspondence work can be of great service. The\nformer has been demonstrated in Minnesota and Wisconsin, and the latter at\nCornell.\nHow far the regular education departments of colleges and universities can\neffectively aid in this work is very problematical. Their point of view is\nusually such that they cannot readily adapt themselves, and they are removed\nfrom land and are not possessed of the requisite technical knowledge.\nTeachers College in New York City is now making an arrangement with the\nCollege of Agriculture at Cornell University whereby the pedagogical and\nagricultural sides may be brought together. Most pedagogical departments\nare aware that they are under the necessity of dealing actively with industrial\neducation in rural communities.\nIn the teaching of these industrial subjects to children, the work must\nbegin with the concrete. It must be practical and have direct relation to the\nlives of the pupils and the affairs of the community. It is a common practice\nto approach the subject from the point of view of its evolution, and to follow\nits gradual development thru the centuries or else to build up a scheme of\nclassified knowledge concerning it. This may interest the teacher, but it is not\nnaturally interesting to the pupil, and it does not lead him to an understanding\nof himself or his environment, nor fit him for the insistent duties of life. If\n\n"} {"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nan example is wanted, it may be taken from the common practice of teaching to\nchildren the idea of the evolution of dwellings, beginning with the structures\nerected by savages and coming down to present times, whereas the child ought\nfirst to be taught how to build a comfortable, sanitary, artistic, and durable residence; or, from the practice of teaching the plant environment by trying to\ngive the pupil a complete and classified view of the vegetable kingdom; or\nfrom the old custom of beginning geography by an account of the universe\nor the solar system. The natural and useful method is to have the child begin\nwith the real things of his life; if he continues in school long enough he may\nlearn the classified science and the evolution of the subject. The primary\nobject of school-teaching is to develop the child, not to develop the subject.\nIn a rural community, all the customary activities should find some expression in the school as a means of putting the pupil into touch and sympathy\nwith his environment: (i) the natural objects in the region and the character\nof the country; (2) the means by which the people in the community live;\n(3) the household or domestic affairs; (4) the civic affairs, or the way in which\nthe human activities are organized and governed. All this is nature-study in\nits best and broadest sense. These subjects may be taught in separate periods\nor classes; but the fundamental means is a complete re-direction of the school\nactivities so that vital experimental work will be a very essential part of the\nschool life. This re-directing of school-teaching, in both country and city, is\ntaking place at the present time, altho silently and unobtrusively.\nEven with the present funds and the present equipment, very much may be\ndone to put the rural schools into touch with local life and problems. This can\ncome about by establishing a new point of view, a new intention on the part of\nthe teacher, a new philosophy and method of education. This, however, is not\nall that the rural schools need. They must have more money for teachers,\nequipment, and maintenance. In some cases, funds can be combined to\nadvantage by consolidating two or more districts, but this is not a fundamental\nor universal method. In the great majority of cases, rural school districts are\nnow large enough if local interest and sentiment are to be developed or maintained. Given better supervision, then the states can well afford to appropriate\nmore money to these schools, always on the condition, however, that the communities respond and co-operate. It is more necessary for the commonwealth\nto maintain effective rural schools than to maintain canals and highways, or to\nengage in reformatory and eleemos)mary enterprises for the benefit of those\ncommunities.\nA NEW\n\nKIND\n\nO^ SCHOOL\n\nBUILDING\n\nNot only must the school programs be re-directed, but the facilities themselves must be reorganized and extended. Land should be as much a part of\nrural schools as the building is. This land should be used for outdoor laboratories inthe form of school garden and demonstration grounds. The building\nitself should be reconstructed or added to, in order that at least one workroom\nmay be added.\nOne type of building exists in practically all the rural school\n\n"} {"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "415\nCouncil]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\ndistricts in the northern states, showing that new or local ideas have not yet\nworked themselves out into these schools. Moreover, these houses are of the\nsame kind as those erected when public education first came into existence. As\na suggestion of some of the new ideas in rural school buildings, the following\naccount is submitted of a new strux:ture on the grounds of the First District\nNormal School, Kirksville, Mo. (President John R. Kirk). The details given\nbelow (which are a part of a printed circular) do not show the attic or second\nstory arrangement. The stairway leading up from the manual-training shop\nturns just over the front entrance and leads into the upper story. In this\nupper story is a good room, eleven feet square, well warmed and ventilated,\nthe distance from the floor to ceiling being seven feet. To the north of it are\ntwo other rooms, each seven by twenty one feet. The square room has an\nabundance of light from the south, but two long, low windows are now\nbeing inserted a little below the middle of the roof on each side so as to give\nboth forenoon and afternoon light. This room is easily heated. It will be\nfurnished with well water from the pressure tank. It is proposed to call this\n''the agriculture room\" and to encourage the establishment of a department\nof agriculture.\nA MODEL\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCAMPUS\n\nThis model rural schoolhouse has been designed and constructed to show that a\nrural school in any part of Missouri can, for the investment of about $350 in addition to\nthe usual cost of a good building, have all the conveniences and comforts that can be\nsecured in any city schoolhouse.\n\nI\n\nBASE\nFOR\nFLUES\n\nFoundation\n\nPlan\n\nIt is the intention to have in this schoolhouse, within the near future, a model rural\nschool, the children to be transported in covered vehicles to and from the school. This\nis to be a model school, not a practice school. It is to exemplify the best things which a\nschool board and a good teacher with good facilities can do in and for a rural school.\nThis building is the culmination of a long-cherished hope.\nThe designer while state\n\n"} {"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n4i6\n\n[National\n\nsuperintendent of schools in the '90's traveled widely thruout the North and East in search\nof the best models. The ideal and practical could not be found in one building. Hence\na long series of experiments in working out this model.\nFOUNDATION\n\nPLAN\n\n1. The foundation is rectangular in form and 28X36 ft. outside measurement.\n2. Outer foundation, of concrete, extends two feet below and two feet above surface\nof ground.\n3. Inner lo-inch concrete wall encloses cellar, 6 X 14 ft.\n4. Cellar can't freeze.\n5. Cellar is ventilated into smoke flue.\n6. Cellar has concrete floor, with drain into sewer.\n7. Cellar is reached through trap door in boys' hallway.\n8. Cellar contains pneumatic pressure tank 3X8 ft., working capacity 350 gallons.\n9. Cellar contains forcepump connecting tank with well thru pipes below frost line.\n10. Cellar contains soil pipes, water pipes, and drain pipes reaching to and from toiletrooms above.\n11. Cellar contains sewer connections.\nSewer enters city system.\n12. In a rural community sewer may enter cess pool, old or new, at rear or side of\nlot; or a tile may conduct sewage into neighboring slough or creek.\nFLOOR\n\nPLANS\n\n1. Floor plan, 28X36 ft., same as foundation plan.\n2. School room, 27 ft. 2 in. by 21 ft. 6 in. — 12 ft. from floor to ceiling.\n3. Door at rear on right side leads to girls' toilet-room, porch, and playground.\n4. Furnace in alcove at side of room distributes pure air and equalizes temperature.\n\nCROursD Class /\n\nRear\n\nFor Flowers\n\nFire Place\nVErsTlLATOR\n\nSmoke\nTuRWCE\n\nSchool Room\n\n23'» 27\n\nTront\nMODEL\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHOUSE\n\n28'- J6'\n\n5. Pure air enters furnace thru asbestos-covered duct under floor.\n6. Ventilating flue is 13X21 inches in the clear.\n7. Opening into ventilating flue is made into a neat fireplace.\n8. Smoke flue, 13 X 13 inches in the clear, helps heat ventilating flue.\n9. Cupboard in wall at side of vent flue has a neat unfolding leaf for teacher to write\n10. Manual-training shop is 6X8 ft. in the clear and has abundant light.\n\n"} {"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "417\nCouncil]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nII. Fuel room, 4JX6 ft. in south east corner, capacity six tons of coal.\n1 2. . Stairway to attic starts in corner of manual-training room, runs over fuel-room\nand entrance.\n13. Schoolroom lighted thru six large windows on north side.\n14. Children face the east. Light comes from their left.\n15. Halls leading to toilet-rooms contain hooks for hats, clothing, etc.\n16. Schoolroom receives direct sunlight on floor at southeast and southwest corners\nthru glass in doors.\n17. Ground-glass window on west side near northwest corner, for window garden,\nprevents glaring light, admits chemical rays for flowers and for sanitation.\n18. Toilet-rooms are ventilated into smoke flue. They have no bad odors.\n19. Toilet-rooms have hot and cold water, wash bowls and toilet bowls.\n20. Toilet-rooms have glazed cement wainscoting and cement floors.\n21. Toilet-room floors are drained into cellar, thence into sewer.\n22. Toilet-rooms inclosed and separated by double walls to deaden sound.\nNoise of\ntoilet fixtures not heard in schoolroom.\n\nMODEL\n\nRURAL SCHOOLHOUSE\n\n23. Toilet-rooms can not freeze, except by gross negligence long continued.\n24. Position and construction of walls, doors, and hallways give toilet-rooms an air of\ncomplete privacy.\n25. Each toilet-room has direct sunlight at noon thru outer window and glass in door.\n26. Small plate-glass in each toilet-room floor admits direct sunlight to basement.\n27. Each room of this schoolhouse has direct sunlight, yet the children's eyes are\nprotected.\nChildren study by abundance of mild light from the north.\n28. This schoolhouse is built upon the popular rectangular foundation.\n29. Undue appearance of width is overcome by form of roof. Flue may seem a Httle\nlow. It is yet to have a six-inch concrete top.\n30. This schoolhouse is, in all respects, built out of the best available material and .\nin the best possible way. It is therefore thought to be a model in every essential particular.\nIt was not built by contract. The regents directed the president of the school to purchase\nmaterial, employ laborers, and build. Cost can therefore be given in detail. With ordinary\nmaterial and labor such a schoolhouse should be built in almost any rural district of Missouri for about $1,200. Full specifications will be furnished to Missouri school boards\nfree of cost.\n\n"} {"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nA rural schoolhouse of a very different type has recently been erected on\nthe grounds of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University\nIt is a one-teacher building designed to serve as a suggestion in schoolhouse\narchitecture and also to provide a real rural school as a part of the nature-study\ndepartment of the college. The following statement (by Professor L. H. Bailey)\nof the purpose and construction of this little building was recently issued.\nTHE CORNELL\n\nEXTERIOR\n\nOF MODEL\n\nRURAL\n\nRURAL SCHOOLHOUSE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE ON CAMPUS\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\nOF CORNkuL\n\nCOi^i^EGt\n\nThe prevailing rural schoolhouse is a building in which pupils sit to study books.\nIt ought to be a room in which pupils do personal work with both hands and mind. The\nessential feature of this new schoolhouse, therefore, is a workroom. This room occupies\none-third of the floor space. Perhaps it would be better if it occupied two-thirds of the\nfloor space. If the building is large enough, however, the two kinds of work could change\nplaces in this schoolhouse.\nIt has been the purpose to make the main part of the building about the size of the\naverage rural schoolhouse, and then to add the workroom as a wing or projection. Such\na room could be added to existing school buildings; or, in districts in which the building\nis now too large, one part of the room could be partitioned off as a workroom.\nIt is the purpose, also, to make this building artistic, attractive, and homelike to\nchildren, sanitary, comfortable, and durable. The cement-plaster exterior is handsomer\nand warmer than wood, and on expanded metal lath it is durable. The interior of this\nbuilding is very attractive.\nSchool-gardens and playgrounds are being made at one side.\n\n"} {"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "419\n\nCouncil]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nThe cost has been as follows:\nContract price for buildings complete, including heater in\ncellar, blackboards, and two outhouses with metal drawers\n. $1,800 . 00\nTinting of walls\n25 . 00\nCurtains\n'\n.\n.\n.\n16.56\nFurniture and supplies\n141.75\n$1,983.31\nIn rural districts, the construction might be completed at less cost. The average\nvaluation of rural school buildings and sites in New York State in 1905 was $1,833.63.\nThe building is designed for twenty-five pupils in the main room.\nThe foldingdoorS and windows in the partition enable one teacher to manage both rooms.\n\n3\n\ni\n\nir^\n\n^\n\nte^^i.\n\n.\n\nr '■■' ■ ■ , '■ '»\n\n2 is\ni\n\nmm ^^r_\n\n1\n':! i\n1\n\n1\n\n■1\n•\n\n<^H ^\n\ni\n^^\n\n• ^ *\n\n•\"\"\n\n;^\n\ni\n]\n\ni\n\n1\nT*i\n\n_\nINTERIOR\n\nOF\n\nMODEL\n\nRURAL SCHOOLHOUSE ON CAMPUS OF\nOF AGRICULTURE\nCONSTRUCTION\n\nCORNELL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nDETAILS\n\nIn working out the problem it has been the aim to accomplish a maximum of accommodation combined with an artistic appearance and a minimum of cost. The materials used\nare such as may be readily obtained and easily handled.\nThe building is placed on a concrete foundation composed of gravel or broken stone,\ncement, and sand in the proportion of one part cement, three parts sand, and five parts\ngravel.\nThe foundations under the schoolroom proper are carried down below frost only,\nwhile under the vestibule the walls are of sufficient depth to form a small cellar for the\nheating-apparatus.\nThe superstructure is of ordinary frame construction as follows:\nJoists\nStuds for inside walls\nStuds for outside walls\nRafters\nHips and valleys ...\n\n2'X8', 16 ft. on centers;\n2^X5', 12 ft. on centers;\n2^X5', 12 ft. on centers;\n2'X6', 16 ft. on centers;\n2^X8'.\n\n"} {"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe entire exterior walls are stuccoed with cement mortar, rough-cast on metal lath\nnailed directly on the studding, the stucco being returned in all openings, thus doing away\nwith outside casings wherever possible. The roof is shingled over sheathing laid open in\nthe usual way, and is designed (as shown in sketches) with low and broadly projecting\neaves with the windows cutting up thru them.\nThe interior is plastered on plaster-board with patent plaster, two-coat work, trowelled\nsmooth and decorated in simple gray-green for side walls and pale yellow for ceilingsThe floors are of ^ matched pine, and the standing trim is yellow pine natural in finish.\nThis trim has been used as sparingly as possible and is not molded. Wherever possible\ndoor and window casings have been omitted, the plastering returning into jambs with all\ncorners rounded.\nAll doors are stock pine. Inside doors if thick. All sash is if glazed with good\nquality double-thick glass.\nThe openings between schoolroom and workroom are fitted with glazed swing sash\nand folding-doors, so that the rooms may be used either singly or together, as desired.\nThe workroom has a bay window facing south and fitted with shelves for plants.\nSlate blackboards of standard school heights fill the spaces about the rooms between doors\nand windows. The building is heated by hot air; vent flues of adequate sizes are also\nprovided so that the rooms are thoroly heated and ventilated.\nOn the front of the building and adding materially to its picturesque appearance, is a\nroomy veranda with simple square posts, from which entrance is made directly into the\ncombined vestibule and coatroom and from this again by two doors into the schoolroom.\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\nThe school must have an active laboratory connected with it if it is to do\nthe most effective work in subjects that relate to its environment. One of the\nbest laboratories is the school garden. Such a garden is not designed for looks\nalone, nor merely for the teaching of gardening, but it should be a real laboratory or workroom in which children can handle plants and soils and tools, and\ncome into contact with actual problems. The school garden must be distinguished from a mere ornamented schoolground. Every schoolground should\nbe attractive with interesting and practical planting of trees, shrubs, and\nother plants; but aside from this, the school-garden laboratory is fundamentally important.\nThe two great difficulties in the maintaining of a school garden in rural\ncommunities are, (i) the lack of available land, (2) the fact that there is no one\nto care for the premises during the long summer vacation. Whenever it is\nimpossible to organize a school garden on the school premises, it is not difficult\nto interest the children in making gardens of their own at home and to make\nreports on their work to the school. These gardens should not be too large,\nbut should be definite and so planned as to work toward a fairly concrete set\nof problems. It is important to emphasize the fact that these gardens are not\nmade for looks. Sometimes the poorest garden will teach the best lesson if\nonly the laboratory spirit pervades it. It is a question whether it is not worth\nwhile to make spring gardens on the schoolgrounds even tho they must be\nneglected during the summer.\nThe school-gardening movement is now well established in many parts of\nNorth America.\nIt provides an additional room, and the laboratory materials\n\n"} {"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n421\n\nare the soils and the plants, together with the birds, insects, weather, and whatever objects may be associated with it. The plants to be grown in the school\ngarden are to be chosen with reference to soils and other local conditions. In\nmany cases it is advisable to grow the common agricultural crops of the neighborhood, along with garden vegetables and flowers. The aim of the school garden isto put the child in touch with common realities, and by means of them to\ntrain the mind and the hands.\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIn very many places the manual training can be provided for in the school\ngarden itself. All the customary repairing and work about the buildings, as\nthe painting, mending of locks, and the setting of glass should really be performed bythe pupils of the school. It is always advisable, however, to have\na special room set aside for the manual training. This will provide occupation\nin inclement weather and at seasons when the children cannot work in the\nschool garden. A basement-room can often be utilized; or sometimes an\nattic or second story can be adapted to the purpose. In districts in which\nthe school population has decreased there may be sufficient space on the main\nfloor to allow a partition to be thrown across and a workroom provided. The\nbest plan, however, is to accept the situation frankly and to provide a regular\nworkroom as large as th^ ordinary recitation room.\nUndoubtedly the early work in manual training should deal with some of\nthe fundamental concepts of shape, proportion, and manual dexterity, but there\nis no reason why the practice-work should not soon extend to the making of\nsimple apparatus and supplies for the school premises and also to the construction and repair of simple tools and utensils used in the home and on the farm.\nMany of the principles of physics can well be illustrated by means of agricultural implements and machines.\nThe school garden and the manual-training room should be complementary\nlaboratories, one supplementing the other thruout the year. They should\nprovide for a continuing, articulating series of activities on the part of all the\npupils. These two sets of laboratories can provide training adapted to either\nboys or girls. In the case of girls the manual training can be given a distinct\nhome-making phase, bringing into it many of the kinds of problems which\nin our more advanced schools we know under the name of domestic science and\nhome economics. The point is that the schooling for both boys and girls should\nbe related directly to the affairs of life.\nSPECIAL\n\nOR\n\nSEPARATE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWhile all schools must put themselves in position to relate themselves to\ntheir environment and to meet the essential needs of the people, it may nevertheless benecessary to establish special secondary schools of agriculture. Such\nschools are now established in Wisconsin, Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, New\nYork, and probably elsewhere. These schools cannot meet the needs of all\nthe people, unless they become so numerous as to duplicate the present school\n\n"} {"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsystems; but they can become leaders in putting the subjects into pedagogic\nform, in arousing interest, and in demonstrating the possibiHties of the new\neducation; and even when the common pubKc schools shall have put themselves into line with the new and vital education, these special schools will\nremain active centers of helpfulness to agricultural interests.\nThe recent movement in Georgia for the organization of separate industrial\nand agricultural schools has attracted much attention. By act of the last\nlegislature all fees received from the inspection of fertilizers, oils, and other\ninspection incomes by the department of agriculture of the state over and\nabove the expenses of such inspection, shall be used as a fund for the purpose\nof establishing and maintaining such schools, one to be organized in each of the\neleven congressional districts of the state. The location of these schools is\ndetermined by the interest of the community in the enterprise. The government isauthorized to receive donations of tracts of land in any community of\nnot less than two-hundred acres, together with additional gifts in the way of\nbuildings and money. It is most significant of the present interest in secondary\nagricultural education to know that these district schools were speedily located\nwith large contributions of land, money, and other privileges. The total\nvalue of bids from the accepted localities was nearly $850,000, and the bids that\ncould not be accepted amounted to about the same figure. The land in\nconnection with these schools ranges from 240 to 300 acres, and the gifts in\ncash, electric light, water, and other privileges run from $30,000 upwards.\nThese Georgia industrial and agricultural schools are to be branches of the\nState College of Agriculture which is a department of the University of Georgia.\nThe general board of trustees of the university is authorized to exercise such\nsupervision as in their judgment may be necessary to secure uniformity of plan\nand efficiency in the schools. Joseph S. Stewart, professor of secondary education in the University of Georgia, has issued a tentative course of study for the\nschools. It is expected that these schools will be put into operation as soon as\nsuitable buildings and equipment can be provided.\nA movement for agricultural high schools in the province of Ontario has\ntaken a somewhat different form, and a brief record of it may be suggestive and\ninteresting as expressing a kind of organization that does not obtain in the\nUnited States. It may be said in passing that distinct progress is being made\nin the other eastern Canadian provinces in the introduction of nature-study\nand similar work in the schools. This sketch of the work in Ontario (information fiurnished by J. W. Gibson) is inserted because of its bearing on the movement for the establishment of separate secondary schools for agriculture.\nIn the regulations respecting public schools, in Ontario, published in 1896,\nagriculture is classed as an optional subject for the highest grade of the public\nschool. The only remark concerning the course is ''The course in the authorized textbook.\" Very little attention was given to the subject in those days.\nIn \"Amendments to Regulations for 1900\" the following appears:\nThe public school course of study is amended so as to include agriculture among the\n\n"} {"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n423\n\nobligatory subjects in all rural schools for forms iv and v (grades 7, 8, and 9), for the latter\nform the textbooks are to be used by the pupils, but for the former the instruction is to be\nhy conversation only.\n\nIn common with similar legislation and recommendation elsewhere in\nCanada and the United States, these early efforts produced results only here\nand there. A textbook written by C. C. James, the deputy minister of\nagriculture for the province of Ontario, was prescribed. With the aid of\nthis book and other agencies, a few teachers were able to make the teaching of\nagriculture practical and interesting and they endeavored to supplement the\nindoor class instruction by experiment and direct observation. Their influence\nhas had much effect.\nIt is now about ten years since nature-study began to be discussed by a few\nenthusiasts at teachers' conventions in Ontario. About five years ago it came\nmore into prominence, received recognition as a pedagogical ideal in the normal\nschools, and thru them is now being widely introduced in the public schools of\nthe province. Its introduction was almost simultaneous with that of manual\ntraining and both owe much to the philanthropy of Sir William Macdonald,\nwhich was made effective by the genius and keen insight into the educational\nneeds of the country of Doctor James W. Robertson, then commissioner of\nagriculture for the dominion.\nWith the exception of one or two children's gardens, which were the result\nof individual enterprise, the first school gardens to be established in Ontario\nwere arranged for in 1903 under the Macdonald Rural Schools Fund administered byDoctor Robertson and, during his absence, by H. H. Cowley, M. A.,\nnow inspector of continuation classes for the province. Five gardens were\nlocated at suitable points in the county of Carleton in connection with five\npublic schools, and a large garden at the Macdonald Consolidated School at\nGuelph, Ontario. This marks the beginning of experimental agricultural\neducation in connection with pubHc schools in Ontario. These gardens have\nbeen maintained for a period of three years by the Macdonald fund. This\nfund also provided a traveling instructor who directed the work in person.\nDuring the time since the Macdonald school gardens began, a number of country\nschools have established experimental plots for flowers, grains, or vegetables,\nand the movement is slowly but surely winning its way wherever the people\nhave been directly influenced by it. This year the school gardens received no\nfinancial support from the Macdonald fund and could not have been continued\nbut for the moral support of the people and the necessary grants for expenses\nmade by the trustees. As it is, the gardens are in full swing at the present time ,\nthe teachers in charge are enthusiastic about the work and are sparing no\namount of effort to make it a success and the pupils and parents are pleased\nthat the gardens are likely to be continued. Speaking of the benefits of the\nschool garden, the principal of the Carp public school writes as follows:\nIt is impossible to overestimate the value of school gardening on our boys and girls.\nInstead of being detrimental (as at first supposed) to their advancement in the other\nbranches of learning, it has had the opposite effect. Since engaging in the work my boys\n\n"} {"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand girls have been first in all examinations, competing with children from other schools*\nincluding city schools. The whole tone of the school has been improved morally, socially,\nand esthetically. Our boys and girls have now a reverence for life unknown before and\nit has awakened in them, as nothing else could do, a deeper interest in all life around them.\nIt has helped to make school life a pleasure. Now the boy makes the excuse to get to school\ninstead of the excuse to remain at home. It has aroused the interest of the entire community. The parents take a pride in \" the work of our boys and girls in the school garden,\"\nand never fail to bring their visitors to see the work that is being done there. The pupils\nlearn practical gardening and already their advice and assistance is often sought by parents\nand others interested in the cultivation of plants. Its influence is seen also in the homes of\nthe pupils. Every home has its collection of houseplants inside and its plots and flower\nborders outside. Our school board has come to realize the value of this work and is\nanxious to have it continued.\n\nIn the Regulations of the education department of Ontario issued in 1904,\nthere will be found a very comprehensive course in nature-study and in elementary agriculture. Provision is also made for establishing rural-school gardens\n\"for the purpose of encouraging agriculture and horticulture and also for the\npurpose of increasing the attractiveness of rural schools.\" An initial grant of\n$100 and subsequent annual grants of $10 are given, payable on the report of the\ninspector, to every school board that provides one acre of land, in addition to\nthe regular school grounds together with the necessary tools and implements\nfor gardening. These regulations will no doubt be revised from time to time\nas changing circumstances may seem to warrant. As yet, but few school\nboards have availed themselves of the opportunity offered by the above regulations.\nOne of the difficulties in introducing this work in Ontario, as elsewhere,\nhas been the great scarcity of teachers who have had any special training for\nthe work. During the last three years a few teachers havejtaken special training\nin nature-study work at the Macdonald Institute which is afl&liated with the\nOntario Agricultural College, at Guelph. Each of the teachers who took the\ncourse received a bonus of $100 and traveling expenses, paid, part by the provin.cial government and part by the Macdonald fund. Altho the number\nof teachers taking this course has been comparatively small, yet much good\nhas resulted from it and more will result from it for years to come.\nThe provincial normal schools are now in the process of reorganization.\nThere are three such schools and four new ones are to be added with a substantial increase in the staff of lecturers. It is the purpose to have the science\nmaster in each of these training schools qualify for the teaching of agriculture\nand nature-study. It is expected that instruction in school gardening will be\ngiven to all teachers in training. It is hoped that this will mark the beginning\nof a new era in public-school agriculture in the province.\nAt the last session of the legislature provision was made for establishing an\nagricultural department in each of six collegiates or high schools in the province.\nThe grant of $1,000 to each of the six schools is to be supplemented by an equal\ncontribution from the county or county's council in whose jurisdiction the agricultural school is situated.\nThe school board is to provide the necessary\n\n"} {"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n425\n\ngrounds, accommodation, and equipment. The subjects to be taught are\nsuch as are usually taught in agricultural colleges and will be so comprehensive\nthat a two-years' course will count as one year toward graduation in the agricultural college at Guelph. It is the intention of the government that the\nteacher of agriculture will serve the community directly, as well as indirectly.\nHe will have an office in the town in which the school is situated and will distribute literature to the farmers of the district. He will also, from time to time,\nvisit different parts of the district and give lectures on agricultural subjects.\nIf this experiment proves to be successful, it is hoped that in due time every\ncounty in the province will have at least one secondary school in which scientific\nagriculture will occupy a prominent place.\nTHE\n\nNATIONALIZING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nThe desire to redirect the educational enterprises in agricultural regions has\ngained such headway in all parts of the Union that it is beginning to find an\nexpression in Congress and in governmental bureaus. The Davis Bill, for\nexample, introduced into the House of Representatives this past winter, is\ndesigned to provide an annual appropriation for industrial education in agricultural high schools and city schools, and also for branch agricultural experiment stations in the states. The bill provides that there shall be paid to each\nstate and territory for the maintenance of instruction in agriculture and home\neconomics in agricultural high schools of secondary grade and for instruction\nin mechanic arts and home economics in city high schools of secondary grade a\nsum equal to ten cents per capita of the population of the state or territory.\nThe bill provides that the number of such agricultural high schools which\nshould be entitled to receive the benefits of the act in any state or territory shall\nnot exceed one school for ten counties. The bill also provides for an appropriation toeach state and territory of $2,500 for each branch experiment station\nestablished by such state or territory. The state or territory is obligated in\nsuch case to expend annually for equipment and maintenance of such stations\na sum at least equal to $2,500.\nThe United States Department of Agriculture thru its office of experiment stations is interested in furthering the work of agricultural education in\nthe public schools of the country. To that end it maintains an expert and issues\npublications.\nThe Department of the Interior through the bureau of education is also\nactively interested in agricultural education as a phase of our industrial development and is proposing to issue bulletins that have specific bearing on some of\nthe practical problems at issue.\nThe subject of agricultural and other industrial training in schools is\nreceiving increased attention from teachers' conventions and also from educational conferences of all kinds. It was noticeable that more attention was\ngiven to industrial training in rural schools at the last Southern Education\nConference than to any other single phase of education. These facts are\nconcrete expressions of the trend of public opinion; this trend is an expression\n\n"} {"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof the feeling that education should be related directly to the affairs and necessities oflife, preparing a person to live more effectively while pursuing his daily\noccupation.\nTHE SMALL RURAL SCHOOL\n\nIt is probably impossible, or at least impracticable, to introduce separate\nindustrial subjects as such, especially agriculture, in the rural schools at present,\nparticularly in the one-teacher district schools. Here and there a consolidated\nschool employing two or three teachers will be able to have a special teacher of\nscience or agriculture, but such instances will be few for many years to come.\nIt is practicable, however, to make local applications of the customary\nschoolwork to sufficient extent to meet all present demands. Let us suppose\nthat fundamental subjects are reading, number, geography, manual training.\nAll of these subjects can be given distinctly local and agricultural application.\nGood and direct application can be given in the number work and the geography\nwork for example. After the pupil has learned the principles of arithmetic,\nwhich really are few, the remaining practice can be given just as well by means\nof local and agricultural number work as by means of co-partnership, middleman, and theoretical problems which now^ form the chief part of our textbooks.\nMany problems of soil fertility, soil moisture, the feeding of animals, combating\ninsect pests, handling and marketing produce, accounting of farm enterprises,\nare essentially mathematical in their nature. One year's work in arithmetic\ncould be given such an agricultural trend as, in the course of a generation, to\nredirect the agriculture of any state.\nGood geography teaching now begins with the local environment and works\nout toward the universe. In former days it began with the universe and worked\nin toward the earth. The old methods reversed the natural processes. Now,\nthe local environment in the agricultural country is made up very largely of\nfarms. The principles of geography can be taught in terms of the affairs of\nthe community in such a way as to satisfy all the requirements of agriculture\nin the one-teacher rural schools for the present time.\nManual training may be very largely school gardening (as already suggested), with exercises in making and caring for tools, making labels, painting,\nbuilding fences, and doing a thousand and one other things that have direct\napplication to the daily life. To be sure, many or most of the pupils in the\nrural schools already have manual training at home in the customary chores\nand other farmwork; but in order to make the home handwork educational,\nit should in some way be touched by the teacher. It is perfectly possible to\ndiscuss this ordinary labor in the school, to suggest better methods and to\ndignify it. We must distinguish between manual labor and manual training.\nIN WHAT\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nMAY\n\nBE TAUGHT\n\nIn every state there should be one strong, central agricultural college which\nis well enough equipped to conduct the highest and best type of work in all\nagricultural lines with ability and enthusiasm.\nThis college, however, cannot\n\n"} {"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n427\n\nbe expected to carry all the rural educational activities of the commonwealth.\nAt present, the agricultural college is called on to do primary and secondary\nschoolwork in the way of nature-study propaganda, winter courses, and otherwise. In time, some of this work will be done by other institutions, altho it is\nprobable that the agricultural college, if it rises to its full opportunities, will\nalways be the capstone of the movement for education for country life. What\nsome of these other secondary educational enterprises may be we may now\nconsider:\n(i) The first purpose in all primary and secondary instruction should be to\nutilize to the fullest the general educational system of the state. All schools of\nthe state should be open to nature-study, agricultural and other industrial work\non the same conditions and terms that they are open to literary and traditional\nsubjects. It does not follow that the industrial work should be mandatory.\nThe reasons for utilizing the existing school system are obvious. The systems\nare already organized and are completely established in public opinion. Again,\nindustrial work in the common schools should be looked on as a broad educational enterprise and not as mere training or technical or apprenticeship work.\nIt should be recognized as such by being placed in the public schools along with\nother subjects. Industrial education would gain immensely in its general purpose and effect and its intention if it is thus associated with other subjects'. It\ndoes not follow that because a pupil is studying a subject that pertains to the\nfarm, he is to be a farmer. The subject is introduced in order to educate\nhim broadly, to widen his sympathies, and interest him in the problems of\nlife.\nIt is probable that the public-school system cannot meet all the demands\nfor agricultural education ; but even if it cannot do so its influence will have a\ntremendous effect in arousing an interest in country-life subjects and in\nelevating the general tone of industrial education. If the common-school\nsystems cannot handle the agricultural work efl&ciently, then we shall need to\ndevelop other agencies, and some of these agencies may now be mentioned.\nThese other agencies ought to be connected in some way with the general educational system. and not be separate or parallel and competing systems. All\neducational work should be related and unified and made consistent.\n(2) While desiring to associate the agricultural work with existing institutions, we may next consider the feasibility of introducing it in the normal\nschools. We are at once met with a difficulty in the fact that the phrase ''normal school\" does not designate the same kind of institution in different states.\nThese schools have differentiated during the past generation until they may not\nbe strictly comparable in different regions. What may be found to be practicable\nin one region, therefore, may be impracticable in another. In parts of the\nwest the normal schools find it possible and advantageous to associate agricultural work with the traditional curriculum. In the east this is less possible,\nlargely because of the great population of the cities which demands more teachers\nthan the normal schools can supply.\nThese normal schools, having their\n\n"} {"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncapacities taxed to the utmost in the accustomed work, may or may not find it to\ntheir advantage to add new departments of a wholly original character.\n(3) Another class of existing institutions comprises the colleges and universities of many different grades and kinds. There is a distinct tendency in\nmany parts of the country for even denominational colleges to introduce agriculture and other industrial work. In some states it is possible that the establishment ofsuch departments in these colleges will, in part, satisfy the needs\nof the state.\n(4) Finally, a wholly new kind of school may be organized for the explicit\npurpose of teaching agriculture, domestic science, and related subjects (as\nwe have already discussed). Such schools are represented by the schools in\neach of the nine congressional districts of Alabama and by the county schools\nthat are organized and yet to be organized in the state of Wisconsin. These\nschools have many advantages. They can devote all their energies concretely\nto one line of effort. They are single and therefore conspicuous, and are not\nbound by tradition. They have a definite territory in which to work, the\nboundaries of which they can fill with good extension work. These schools\nusually have land and, being set aside for a specific object, they develop a first\nclass equipment which enables them to carry the work with great efficiency.\nThe* disadvantage is that they are segregated from other educational enterprises and therefore are likely to become somewhat narrow. They cannot be\nexpected to serve all the persons of the county or district needing country-life\neducation, for relatively few of the children in the district can attend this\nschool without sleeping aw^ay from home ; and children fifteen years and under\nwould better sleep at'home. They are likely to become largely a local school\nfor the town in which they are situated.\nNone of these agencies, with the exception of public schools, meet the needs\nof training for children in the primary and intermediate grades. Whether a\nspecial kind of school will be developed in time for industrial training for the\nyounger children is a question. It would seem that everything should be left to\nthe existing public-school system until that system proves its inability to meet\nthe demand; as fast as that inability develops, new agencies of one kind or\nanother must be evolved to cover the need.\nThere is another way whereby agricultural work can be brought to the\npeople, and that is thru the training-classes and training-schools. In New\nYork State, for example, there are 102 training-classes and a number of trainingschools. These training-classes are to be instructed in the entire elementary\nsyllabus and this syllabus comprises nature-study and agriculture. The pupils\nin the training-classes are the ones that are likely to go directly into the rural\nschools. In New York State, and in many other states the normal-school\nteachers do not become rural-school teachers to any extent. The teachers\nof these training-classes are normal-school graduates. It would be better if\nthey could have their training in agriculture and nature-study in the normal\nschools themselves; but whether they have school training in these subjects\n\n"} {"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n429\n\nor not, they will be obliged to prepare for the work if they are forced to teach\nit to their training-classes.\nThe general conclusions of the commission on Industrial and Technical\nEducation of Massachusetts, 1906 (the whole report is a most valuable contribution to the discussion of industrial education), are as follows:\nThere seem to be two lines in which industrial education may be developed — thru the\nexisting public-school system, and thru independent industrial schools. In regard to the\nformer, the commissioner recommends that cities and towns so modify the work in the\nelementary schools as to include for boys and girls instruction and practice in the elements\nof productive industry, including agriculture and the mechanic and domestic arts, and\nthat this instruction be of such a character as to secure from it the highest cultural, as well\nas the highest industrial, value; and that the work in the high schools be modified so that\nthe instruction in mathematics, the sciences, and drawing shall show the application and\nuse of these subjects in industrial life, with especial reference to local industries, so that\nth» students may see that these subjects are not designed primarily and solely for academic\npurposes, but that they may be utilized for the purposes of practical life. That is, algebra\nand geometry should be so taught in the public schools as to show their relations to construction; botany to horticulture and agriculture; chemistry to agriculture, manufactures,\nand domestic sciences; and draMdng to every form of industry.\nThe commission would also recommend that all towns and cities provide by new elective industrial courses in high schools, instruction in the principles of agriculture and the\ndomestic and mechanic arts; that in addition to day courses cities and towns provide evening courses for persons already employed in trades; and that provision be made for the\ninstruction in part-time day classes of children between the ages of fourteen and eighteen\nyears who may be employed during the remainder of the day, to the end that instruction\nin the principles and the practice of the arts may go on together.\n\n//. INDUSTRIAL WORK IN RURAL SCHOOLS IN NEW ENGLAND, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, AND NEW YORK\nAll the states in the above group are interested in the introduction of\nindustrial work into the rural schools but in no one of them is such work now\nestablished as an organized plan or system. The official departments of\npublic instruction, the agricultural colleges, and the- enlightened constituency\nof the states all feel the need of work that is adapted to the country pupil.\nThis sentiment is rising rapidly, but it is not yet crystallized. No person seems\nyet to have devised any system or scheme whereby these subjects can be introduced with any great degree of satisfaction.\nThe industrial training-work that seems to be possible in the rural schools\nis of four general categories: (i) manual training of all kinds; (2) naturestudy work; (3) agricultural work; (4) some form of household or domestic\nwork applicable chiefly to the girls.\nA discussion of these subjects may properly fall under three general heads :\n(i) what these states officially are doing thru their departments of public\ninstruction; (2) what individual persons or schools are doing in an independent\nor unattached way; (3) some conclusions or personal opinions drawn from\nthe foregoing and other facts.\nDefinite statements have been secured of the attitude of state departments\nof education.\n\n"} {"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe eighteen inquiries suggested by the chairman of the committee of a\nyear ago were sent to the departments of pubHc instruction or education of\nthe nine states comprising the above group, excepting New York. The\noflScial attitude of these states may now be briefly expressed.\nI.\n\nMAINE\n\nThe state of Maine has adopted an extensive syllabus for nature-studies\nfrom the first grade thru the nine grades. This syllabus is very largely agricultural. The state law requires teachers in rural schools to pass an examina4;ion in agriculture. The state law has required industrial education for some\nfifteen years. The course of study, including the nature-study and its agricultural bearings, is generally adopted in the country schools and some results\nare beginning to be obtained. There are no special schools in the state designed\nto train teachers for this particular kind of work. A number of cities in the\nstate have given special emphasis to the industrial work but apparently none\nof the rural districts have given great attention to it. The superintendent\nof public instruction for Maine thinks that school gardening is the most feasible\nand valuable part of the work for the present. The School Improvement\nLeague of Maine does much work in the line of agricultural and other industrial training. The five normal schools also do regular work in agriculture.\n2.\n\nNEW\n\nHAMPSHIRE\n\nThe State Program of Studies has outlines of work in both nature-study\nand elementary agriculture. This document has been published about\neighteen months, and either it or its equivalent is in use by about 75 per cent,\nof the enrollment of the state. A considerable proportion of these schools\nfollow the course of nature-study substantially as it is here laid down. Generally speaking, however, much better work in this subject is done in the\ncities than in the country towns, owing to the generally superior quality of\nthe teachers in the urban sections.\nThe course in elementary agriculture is being adopted tentatively here\nand there about the state, largely depending upon the personal interest and\nambition of the teacher. It is impossible to say just how extensive this work\nis, or how well it is taught. I have not very much confidence in the quality\nof the teaching as yet.\nAt the State Normal School and in several of the cities and larger towns\ngood work in school gardening is done, and in most places the same is made\nan integral part of the work of the school, being closely correlated with arithmetic, drawing, nature-study, and so on.\nThe central control of the common-school work is at a minimum in New\nHampshire; it could scarcely be less. The local school board is supreme in\nall matters relating to the common schools, and the function of the state\nsuperintendent is, in the main, purely advisory.\nIn the case of secondary schools it is different. All secondary institutions, in order to be recognized as public institutions, must be approved\n\n"} {"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nCouncil]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n431\n\nby the state superintendent as being of college preparatory grade, or the\nequivalent. When so approved, each institution can legally collect tuition\nfrom towns not having similar schools, to the extent of forty dollars a year for\npupils attending from such towns. This gives an excellent opportunity for\ndevelopment along the lines of secondary education, and the development has\nbeen rapid and thorogoing. The attendance at secondary schools increased\nabout one-sixth in the last two years.\nThe state department will approve any curriculum deemed to be the\nequivalent in educational values of the curricula generally accepted for college\npreparation. For instance, during the present year one city high school has\nbeen approved for a thoro mechanic-arts curriculum, several for commercial\ncurricula, and two schools for agricultural curricula. In each of these schools\nit is a condition of approval that the equipment shall be sufficient and the\ntraining of the teachers adequate for substantial and thoro iijstruction in the\nsubjects approved.\nTwo institutions, one a high school and the other an academy, have adopted\ncurricula in agriculture for the current school year. In both cases, these\ncurricula are under the direction of trained agriculturists, and are approved\nas the full educational equivalent of the other curricula in the program of\nthe same school.\nThe case of the academy named is typical of what ought to come to pass in\na large number of our rural secondary schools, and what probably will. This\ninstitution, Gilmanton Academy, situated in a good farming region, has had\na history of over one hundred years as a strictly classical institution. As such, it\nhas in years gone by educated many students for Dartmouth and other colleges.\nIn recent years the section of the state in which it is located had become\ngreatly depleted in population, and interest in the school had greatly diminished.\nAt the beginning of the current school year, the trustees laid out a two-curriculum program, one curriculum being the typical Latin-scientific course and\nthe other the course in agriculture. A competent agriculturist was employed\nas principal, and, altho it is the day of small things, the situation is promising. The school is hampered by lack of endowment, its former substantial\nendowment having been lost thru unfortunate investments; but new funds\nare slowly being established thru interest of the alumni of the institution.\nThe school is entitled by law, as above indicated, to forty dollars per pupil,\nthe same to be paid by the towns from which there are pupils attending the\ninstitution.\nIt is hoped and expected that next year some land may be taken up for\npractical fieldwork.\nIt is the aim of the trustees of the institution, of whom Professor J. W.\nSanborn is a prominent member, to furnish an education which will meet\nthe farm boy on the line of his estabHshed interests and seek to keep him\nin the country rather than encourage him with false hopes of professional\nsplendor in the city.\n\n"} {"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION- ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe state department of public instruction is interested in the movement\nfor industrial and agricultural education, and it is the belief of the present\nhead of the department that the industrial future of the eastern states depends\nin a very large degree upon the ability of the public-school system to turn out\nhighly intelligent farmers, mechanics, and other workers.\nThe New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts has been\nof invaluable assistance to the department of public instruction and also to\nthe institutions interesting themselves in this line of work.\n3.\n\nVERMONT\n\nNo organized official effort has yet been consummated in the state looking\nto agricultural education in the rural schools. There is a decided awakening\nall over the state, however, in the subject, especially in the Grange, which is\nvery strong in Vermont. Mason S. Stone, superintendent of education, presents the subject at all teachers' meetings and he expects that within a very\nfew years a distinct, systematic movement will be under way.\nHe writes,\nWe are engaged in a campaign for the awakening of a larger interest in industrial\neducation in Vermont. It is not our purpose in any way to direct what shall be done until\nwe have an organized public sentiment. I am confident that the state is alive to the need\nof a more practical education, especially along the lines of agriculture.\n4.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nNo systematic movement is yet under way in Massachusetts, but a commission on industrial education has been appointed and is formulating plans\nfor agricultural and other industrial schools. There is a very general interest\nin nature-study and school gardening in Massachusetts and some of it has\nagricultural bearings. Some slight advantages are offered in normal schools\nfor the preparation of teachers for these subjects. The agricultural college\nis expecting to organize a department of rural education, including normaland summer-school work.\nThe normal work in the agricultural college is authorized by an act of the\nlegislature of 1906,\nFor the purpose of giving instruction in the elements of agriculture to persons desiring to teach such elements in the public schools, as provided in sections three and four;\nprovided, that the cost of such department shall not exceed the sum of five thousand\ndollars in any one year, and that at least fifteen candidates present themselves for such\ninstruction.\n\nThe state of Massachusetts has just established a commission on industrial education, composed of five persons, with the following duties:\nThe commission on industrial education shall be charged with the duty of extending\nthe investigation of methods of industrial training and of local needs, and it shall advise\nand aid in the introduction of industrial education in the independent schools, as hereinafter provided; and it shall provide for lectures on the importance of industrial education\nand kindred subjects, and visit and report upon all special schools in which such education is carried on. It may initiate and superintend the establishment and maintenance\nof industrial schools for boys and girls in various centers of the commonwealth, with the\nco-operation and consent of the municipality involved or the municipalities constituent of\n\n"} {"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n433\n\nany district to be formed by the union of towns and cities as hereinafter provided. The\ncommission shall have all necessary powers in the conduct and maintenance of industrial\nschools, and money appropriated by the state and municipality for their maintenance\nshall be expended under its direction.\nAll cities and towns may provide independent industrial schools for instruction in the\nprinciples of agriculture and the domestic and mechanic arts, but attendance upon such\nschools of children under fourteen years of age shall not take the place of attendance upon\npublic schools as required by law. In addition to these industrial schools, cities and\ntowns may provide for evening courses for persons already employed in trades, and they\nmay also provide, in the industrial schools and evening schools herein authorized, for the\ninstruction in part-time classes of children between the ages of fourteen and eighteen\nyears who may be employed during the remainder of the day, to the end that instruction\njn the principles and the practice of the arts may go on together; provided, that the independent schools authorized in this section shall be approved as to location, courses, and\nmethods of instruction by the commission on industrial education.\nTwo or more cities or towns may unite as a district for the maintenance of the indus\"\ntrial schools provided for in the preceding section, but no such district shall be created\nwithout the approval of the commission on industrial education.\nWhenever any city or town or any district, as provided in the preceding section,\nshall appropriate money for the establishment and equipment and maintenance of independent schools for industrial training, the commonwealth, in order to aid in the maintenance\nof such schools, shall pay annually from the treasury to such cities, towns, or districts a\nsum proportionate to the amount raised by local taxation and expended for the support\nof schools for each thousand dollars of valuation, as follows: cities and towns expending\nmore than J5ve dollars for each thousand of valuation for the support of public schools to be\nreimbursed by the commonwealth to the amount of one-half, those raising and expending\nbetween four and five dollars per tH?)usand to the amount of one-third, and those raising\nand expending less than four dollars per thousand to the amount of one-fifth, of the cost\nof maintaining industrial schools; provided, that no payment to any city or town shall\nbe made except by special appropriation by the legislature.\nThe commission on industrial education shall make a report annually to the legislature\nrelative to the condition and progress of industrial education during the year, stating what\nindustrial schools have been established and the appropriations necessary for their maintenance, inaccordance with the preceding section, and making such recommendations as\nthe commission on industrial education may deem advisable; and especially shall the com\"\nmission consider and report at an early date upon the advisability of establishing one or\nmore technical schools or industrial colleges, providing for a three- or four-years' course for\nextended training in the working-principles of the larger industries of the commonwealth.\n5.\n\nRHODE\n\nISLAND\n\nNature-Study has been generally introduced into the schools of Rhode\nIsland. Manual training and domestic arts have a place in many schools.\nNothing definite has been done in elementary agriculture except the propagandist extension work which is issuing from the agricultural college at\nKingston. The fact that there are only 197 ungraded schools, out of a total\nof 1,635, shows a small number of rural schools and a relatively small interest\nin agriculture. The state commissioner of public schools is in favor of industrial work in the schools and the subject is being agitated.\n6.\n\nCONNECTICUT\n\nThe state board of education of Connecticut is making an organized movement to introduce natural science into the rural schools.\nIt is expected that\n\n"} {"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthis will afford a foundation for nature-study and agriculture and domestic\nart. The distinctly rural schools are generally small, ranging from six to\ntwenty-five scholars under one teacher. The state board is circulating books\nand scientific apparatus to the rural schools, all pointing toward agricultural\ninstruction. It is felt that the essentials of education need more attention at\npresent rather than specific industrial training. There is a general interest in\nthe subject of agriculture in the schools but no systematic movement is on foot.\nAll the normal schools in Connecticut are emphasizing agriculture under the\nhead of botany but in connection with other subjects in the science department that\n;\nis to say, they make agricultural applications of their work so far\nas they can.\n7.\n\nNEW\n\nJERSEY\n\nThe state law of New Jersey provides that any school district that establishes byspecial tax or subscription or both a department or school for industrial or manual training shall receive a like sum for original equipment and\nalso for subsequent maintenance from the state, providing the sum is not less\nthan $250, nor more than $7,500. In carrying out the above provision it is\nheld by the superintendent of public instruction that work in agriculture is\nincluded. The present act was amended in 1903. As early, however, as 1881\na similar act was passed with the lower limit of money to be raised by the community, $3,000. Thus far no district in the state has ever taken advantage\nof this help for providing instruction in agriculture. The superintendent\nhas done much to encourage the teachers of the state to interest the schools in\nthe study and pursuit of agriculture by means of pamphlets on school yards\nand school gardens.\nThe county superintendents of the state are engaged in formulating a\npractical course in elementary agriculture to be taught in their respective counties.\nThe Department of Agriculture in connection with the state agricultural\ncollege is co-operating with the Department of Public Instruction with a view\nto popularizing the work of agriculture directly in the interest of the improvement\nof rural schools. It is further intended during the coming year to maintain\nsummer schools at the state college and at other convenient points in the state\nin order that teachers may qualify themselves to teach this branch.\nIt is also the purpose of the state board of education within a reasonable\ntime to add the additional subject of elementary agriculture to the subjects\nnow required in which a teacher must be examined in order to be licensed to\nteach in the schools of New Jersey. There seems to be thruout the entire\nstate a general awakening in regard to wants and needs of the rural schools.\n8.\n\nPENNSYLVANIA\n\nThere is a strong feeling in Pennsylvania that systematic instruction in\nagriculture, manual training, and domestic science is hardly possible in the\nrural schools, according to the superintendent of public instruction. The\nreal trouble is found in the fact that the salaries in the rural schools are not\n\n"} {"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncD]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n435\n\nlarge enough to attract teachers who are qualified to adapt this kind of instruction to the pupils. Moreover, there are very few teachers who are qualified.\nNature-study is not included in the curriculum as a separate branch of instruction. Three summer schools have attempted instruction in botany, zoology,\nand nature-study for the distinct purpose of enabling teachers to give this kind\nof information to their pupils in an incidental way. The Pennsylvania State\nCollege once issued nature-study lessons, but because of insufficient funds the\npublication of them has been suspended.\n9.\n\nNEW^\n\nYORK\n\nA distinct organized movement looking toward the introduction of agriculture into the schools of New York is now under way. The state education\ndepartment has adopted a syllabus for nature-study and agriculture running\nthru all the first eight grades. It has also adopted a syllabus on agriculture for\none year, preferably the second, in the high schools. In the elementary syllabus nature-study runs thru the first five years. At the sixth year distinctly\nagricultural work begins, but it is a natural consequence of the nature-study\nwork and follows the nature-study method. Nature-study and agriculture\nare not mandatory in the schools. However, the training-classes, of which\nthere are more than one hundred in the state, are obliged to cover the entire\nsyllabus, including nature-study and agriculture. The teacher of the trainingclass, therefore, is obliged to prepare on the nature-study and agricultural\nwork.\nAll of the training-class graduates go directly into the rural schools.\nThe education department of the state has three lecturers who are continuously with the farmers' institutes speaking on education, for the purpose\nof elevating the general tone of the schools and preparing them for industrial\nand other work. The farmers' institutes themselves, which are very efficiently\nmanaged, are well organized in respect to the schoolwork. The state Grange,\nwith more than 70,000 members, has also taken definite action looking toward\ninteresting schools in local education. The State College of Agriculture, at\nCornell University, has also in hand many enterprises having the same end in\nview and has published more literature in the line of nature-study and similar\nsubjects than any other agency in the United States.\nAs yet there is no institution in which teachers are definitely trained for\nthe rural-work except the special nature-study course of two years' duration\nin the College of Agriculture. The teachers in the training-classes are normalschool graduates, but the normal schools are not introducing agriculture.\nAs soon, however, as the training-classes begin to work over the elementary\nsyllabus the demand for some specific means of training teachers for the rural\nschools, and especially for the training-classes, will be felt. At the summer\nschools held under the auspices of the education department, of which there\nare two or three each year, the nature-study work is ordinarily emphasized\nparticularly at Chautauqua. Some hundreds of teachers in New York State\nare enrolled with Mrs. Comstock of the College of Agriculture in a home correspondence course; many thousand children are organized into junior\n\n"} {"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nnaturalist clubs, each club being under the general guidance of a teacher;\nand many thousand children are enrolled in a campaign for gardening.\nThe beginnings of a normal department have been made in the State\nCollege of Agriculture, at Cornell University. This is a special two-years'\ncourse designed for the training of teachers in nature-study and agriculture.\nThe work is in two parts: the regular academic or subject-matter in the biological sciences; the practice-work with children. This practice-work is\nconducted in the public schools of Ithaca which are accessible for this purpose.\nThere are also rather extensive school gardens in the City of Ithaca which are\nunder the joint managership of the College of Agriculture and the public\nschools. In these gardens the teacher-students may receive instruction. The\nCollege of Agriculture recently erected a rural-school building on its campus\nand it is the purpose to organize a regular rural school with children coming\nfrom the adjacent farming-country. School gardens and playgrounds are\nbeing established in connection with it. It is the plan of the College of Agriculture to organize a summer school (with the expectation that it may be open\nin 1908) for teachers in agriculture and country-life subjects.\nA crystallized movement is now on foot in New York looking toward the\nbetter supervision of rural schools. Two bills are before the legislature outlining plans of reorganization. The general purpose is to establish an educational qualification for supervisory officers; to remove the election of such\nofficers, so far as possible, from political influences; to provide that such\nofl&cers shall devote their entire time to the work of supervision; so to\nreorganize the districts that they shall be small enough to enable the supervisory officer to inspect the work of each school at least once each month.\nIn 1906 the legislature of the state appropriated $80,000 for buildings for\na school of agriculture at St. Lawrence University, at Canton, in the northern\npart of the state. Buildings will be erected in 1907.\nThe Belleville Academy, in Jefferson county, has a small endowment\nfor the teaching of agriculture. The subject is taught in connection with\nthe natural sciences.\n///.\n\nEXPERIENCES AND\nTEACHERS IN THE\n\nOPINIONS OF INDIVIDUAL\nPRECEDING TERRITORY\n\nIt will be impossible to assemble all the experiences in any one state.\nMany teachers have tried industrial training of one kind or another and with\nvarying degrees of success ; but no record may have been made of it. Teachers\ncome and go. In the course of a large correspondence, however, a number\nof experiences and opinions have accumulated, some of which may be recorded.\nMAINE\n\nW. M. Munson, professor of horticulture in the University of Maine, is of\nthe opinion that the teachers must first be aroused and equipped to the end\nthat they may introduce informal exercises. We are now overloaded with\ntextbooks.\nThe agricultural colleges and superintendents of public instruction\n\n"} {"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n437\n\nmay do a work of untold value by issuing schedules and suggestive leaflets\nfrom time to time and by making such work prominent in summer schools\nand at teachers' institutes. Personal contact rather than textbooks or scheduled courses must be relied on to awaken an interest in young children. Three\nor four teachers in the state have had definite experience in this kind of work\nand have made more or less of a success.\nMrs. V. P. DeCoster, Buckfield, writes as follows:\nMy work has not been systematic, and the results are diflScult to know. I am a farmer's\nwife, with a family of children, and have had a nature-class at home, and at the nearby\nrural school, using as aids the Cornell and Kingston leaflets. Have also given lectures\nbefore Granges, clubs, pomological and horticultural meetings, teachers, etc., and thus\norganized some nature-classes and interested others. I notice everywhere the interest\nis spreading, but find little practical work in our rural schools. The teachers are mostly\nignorant or indifferent and overworked along other lines. Our normal schools and colleges\ngive them only superficial training. There is better work done in our cities. I do not\nknow if it would be practical or whether the money could be raised, but it seems to me that\na specially trained teacher could do fine work by having a central manual-training school\nin a village high school and also supervise school gardens and agricultural work in quite a\nnumber of rural schools. I find that lessons amount to little unless the scholars do personal work. I have tried giving them seeds and found they did not take half the interest\nthat they did when they earned them and made their own garden. One little girl even had\na tooth pulled without gas that she might save the extra cost with which to buy tulip bulbs-\n\nMr. Irving D. Bragg, principal of the Aroostook State Normal School, at\nPresque Isle, writes as follows:\nThe normal schools of Maine have taken up work in agriculture this year. The\nschools have been left to work out courses as seem best adapted to the particular locality\nIn this school the subjects of zoology, geology, bird-study, nature-study, chemistry, and\nbotany are treated with special reference to agriculture. In the last term a textbook is\nused as a guide. This is, of course, only a beginning, and as soon as possible the scope of\nthe work will be enlarged to meet the demand for work of this kind. Manual training\nhas not been introduced into this school yet. Owing to the seasons in this part of the\ncountry, school gardening cannot be carried on very successfully during the school year.\nConsequently, little is done along this line. It is the policy of this school to introduce the\nabove subjects as rapidly as. possible, considering the needs and demands of the section\nof the state in which we are located.\nNEW\n\nHAMPSHIRE\n\nThe State Agricultural College is co-operating with Hon. H. C. Morrison,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, in suggesting curricula for the public\nschools in which agriculture is introduced. The outline of studies for the\ngrammar grades has already been published and the college is now working\non an agricultural course for high schools. There are probably no high schools\nin the state in which the work is actually being carried on. Thru the influence of Professor C. M. Weed (who has now left the state) much interest was\naroused in many schools in the subject of nature-study.\nProfessor G. H. Whitcher, of Berlin, at one time introduced local work\ninto one of the rural schools and continued it until he removed to a city. He\nexpresses his experience as follows:\n\n"} {"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nI fully believe the country is the place to start this rather than the city, because it\nis there that the child becomes a systematic observer of farm operations; the dairy, etc.,\nharvesting operations, planting, etc., all afford opportunity for \"laboratory\" work and\nobservation and schoolroom experimentation then comes in to supplement and explain\nthe things observed.\nMy plan commenced with the first grade with modeling, drawing, and coloring farm\nproducts, e. g., potato, apple, beet, etc., and developed up to pot experiments in the\neighth grade with fertihzers, etc. I do not think this work is attractive to city pupils because\ntheir \"experience\" is inadequate to interpret results observed. The Herbartian view of\nthe \" apperceiving mass\" of ideas as essential to the proper assimilation of new sense\nmaterial seems to justify the belief that country children are best provided with this \"mass.\"\nMore than ever I believe that rural schools ought to utilize the home industry as a\nmeans of awakejiing the young minds. It seems strange that our theories of education\nshould be based on the notion of utilizing the environment and yet our practice in the\ncountry seldom utilizes the one great industry, agriculture.\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nMuch excellent nature-study and school-gardening work is being conducted\nin various schools in Massachusetts. There are few places apparently in\nwhich it is given a distinctly agricultural aspect in the rural elementary schools.\nProfessor W. A. Baldwin, principal of the State Normal School, at Hyannis,\nmade the following suggestions for an industrial high school to the commission appointed by Governor Douglas to investigate the question of the establishment oftrade schools in Massachusetts.\nThe following plan seems to me to be feasible for adoption in the near future:\n1. I would like to see the state of Massachusetts establish a school in the country\nadapted to the needs of the children of the country.\n2. It should receive children of high-school age from the town in which it is located\nand from neighboring towns.\n3. It should teach boys and girls how to make a success of farming, gardening, fruitgrowing and poultry-raising in Massachusetts. This industrial training should be supplemented bysuch training in science, literature, and sociology as the ordinary farmer needs.\n4. The school should start on a large tract of abandoned farm land.\n5. The improvement of land, construction of buildings, etc., should be done by the\nstudents.\n6. The school should from the first be in close touch with the community, both\ngiving and receiving suggestions and encouragement.\nSome of the reasons why such a plan as the above seems to me a good one with which\nto start this movement are as follows:\n1. The need for such work exists in the country \"as well as in the city.\n2. Such a plan will not meet with opposition on the part of labor leaders.\n3. It would not be an expensive experiment.\n4. It would serve as a pattern for the various towns of the state.\n5. Towns desiring to follow this example might be granted stateaid for the maintenance\nof similar schools.\n6. If the plan works out satisfactorily it will be easy to modify it, applying the same\nprinciples to different forms of work adapted to the needs of one manufacturing city.\n7. Time will be given for the careful study of the problem and for the conversion of\nlabor leaders to the trade school idea.\n8. Such a school would be full of valuable suggestions for public schools of grammar\nand high-school grade.\n\n"} {"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n439\n\nMr. Baldwin adds the following suggestion:\nI believe myself that the nature-study and school -garden work which is being done\nin the lower grades of some of our schools is much more far-reaching in child development\nthan the work suggested for pupils of high-school grade. Is there not chance in the present\ndemand for industrial training of neglecting the work which is appropriate for children\nof the primary and grammar grades ? In these grades agriculture must be conducted at\na loss financially, but the effect upon the developing soul is not to be computed. On\nthe other hand, no other point in our public-school system is now so weak as the high\nschool.\n\nProfessor E. F. Howard, superintendent of schools, East Northfield, Mass.,\nwrites as follows:\nI have thought about this matter much, with special reference to my own district.\nMy towns are all rural, and the children are from farmers' homes for the most part. I have\nthought that it is hardly possible to do work in the rural schools that could properly be\ncalled agricultural; we do nature-work, and that is a good preparation for the other work\nwhen the pupils are old enough to undertake it with some prospect of making a success of\nthe study. The principles involved are so difficult, and considerable knowledge of chemical actions so necessary to a thoro understanding of agriculture, and so much judgment\nis required in applying the knowledge acquired that it seems to me the whole subject\ndemands more intellectual power than is found outside of the high schools. The difficulty\nwith which we should be able to obtain teachers who have the knowledge required, and\nwho have the enthusiasm absolutely indispensable for success in this line of work, is so\ngreat that I do not think we shall ever have more than an occasional success in our rural\nschools as now organized.\nI am handing you some pamphlets that will indicate a line of work in which I am\ninterested. The course in sewing is being wrought out in some of my schools, and I am\nplanning a course of work in wood and one in blacksmithing that can be wrought out by\nboys at home either with or without the supervision of the school. It is my thought that\nmuch may be done under the inspiration of the school even though it be not directly under\nits supervision. These particular courses are to be presented by the Valley Fair, but I am\nhoping to make the fair my ally in getting the work started in my schools. I have feared that\nalmost any course that we should find published would be too heavy for my schools. We\nneed the simplest things to start with, always having in mind the fact that the work must\nbe made to appeal to the parents, who look with doubt upon any new thing in the way of\nschoolwork. I have tried to get into my courses useful things and things that would appear\nvaluable almost every day of a farmer's life. I have models of my course in blacksmithing,\nbut not in woodwork.\nI do not think much work is being done in this county — Franklin — in the study of\nagriculture at present. Superintendent G. A. Grover, Charlemont, has made use of a\nbook somewhat, just how much I do not know. Superintendent E. W. Goodhue, Haydenville, has had some experience with home gardens, for which he has furnished seeds.\nSuperintendent A. L. Hardy, Amherst, has had some experience with the ordinary school\ngarden. I do not favor the school garden for rural schools. The care of it in summer\nwhen school is out would be fatal to success — the boys have too much work at home. I\ndo favor the home garden under school inspiration, but most of the homes have good\ngardens, and the boys get all the work they want in them under parental supervision. I\ndo not think there is much education in the work, however. If we could get the boys\nstarted in agriculture in such a manner that they would be made to see the dignified and\nscientific side of it, and if it could be so conducted that they could escape the laborious\nand slavish toil of it, there would be some hope for their future choice of this\ncalling.\n\n"} {"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nG. Alvin Grover, superintendent of schools at Charlemont, writes:\nI have used, for the past two years, in the intermediate and grammar grades of my\nmixed country schools, Burdet, Stevens, and Hill's Agriculture for Beginners, Ginn & Co.\nThis has been used as a supplementary reader with the information side made very prominent. Children have been urged and encouraged to put in practice in their own home\ngardens and about their premises, the suggestions made in this volume, and to report\nresults at school. They have voluntarily done this to a gratifying extent. In some instances\nwhen conditions were favorable, school gardens have been started and experiments made\ntherein. Some of the pupils have concluded from these experiments that they know more\nthan the authors of the book. All seem to enthuse over the subject, and the interest is\nmarked. The only opposition comes from those parents who are \"Grand-daddy blind.\"\nThe coming spring we expect to make more definite requirements. I am planning a corn\ncontest. The boys are to plant the corn at their own homes, and in the fall enter not less\nthan six ears in competition for a suitable prize at our Agricultural Society Fair. I have\nalso arranged for the judges (adults) when awarding premiums on all kinds of stock, to\nbe accompanied by a committee of boys, who shall make their awards independent of the\njudges. I am not an ardent advocate of school gardens. I rather think it better that\neach pupil should have a garden of his own at home. I know of no more eflfectual way of\nuniting the school and the home.\nIn regard to industrial training, it is my belief that the day is far off when we can\nput manual training into our rural schools, as a separate and independent addition to the\ncurriculum. I do think that the pupils can profitably be encouraged and required to make\nboth at home and school those things of which they read and study in their regular textbooks, or at least models or representations of the same. For instance, boys in the fifth\ngrade, when they read of Eli Whitney's cotton gin, are required to make at home, a machine\nthat will illustrate the principle. I could show you Lincoln's log cabin, the pyramids of\nEgypt with the Sphinx, maps of all kinds molded in relief, a logging camp, the Clermont\n(Fulton's first steamboat), and so on. We have done some basketry and embroidery,\nbut in no case is it allowed to interfere with the regular work. We find that the work is\ndone more quickly and in a better manner, when we hold the manual training out as an\ninducement.\n\nWriting a year later, Superintendent Grover says :\nOur corn contest referred to last year was a complete success, more than 70 per cent.\nof the boys voluntarily entering the same, and over half of that number actually making\nan exhibit. At the same time the girls entered a flower contest conducted in the same\nmanner and with equally good results.\nBecause of lack of co-operation on the part of the adults, it has not been possible to\ncarry out the plan of instructing the boys in livestock. We are going to try again this\nyear, and keep on trying until we meet with success.\n\nE. W. Goodhue, superintendent of schools at Haydenville, writes as\nfollows :\nLast year all towns in this district united in attempting some instruction in the rudiments of scientific agriculture. Textbooks for reference were placed in nearly all schools\nand seeds furnished the pupils at a fraction of actual cost. Blanks on which were to be\nrecorded by the pupil his observations of plant growth, effects of different soils and fertilizers, together with a statement of final results were also supplied. These, when filled,\nwere returned to me. The results, while not fully up to our expectations, were good and\nthere was abundant evidence of careful cultivation of the gardens and thoughtful observation. We are greatly encouraged and shall continue the work this year. One boy, of\nabout ten years of age, who purchased fifteen cents' worth of seeds reported that he had\nsold from the crops three dollars' worth for cash besides retaining suflScient for family\n\n"} {"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n441\n\nuse. For some reason there appears to be less interest manifested in the matter in the\nstrictly farming communities than in the larger manufacturing places.\n\nFollowing is the blank on which the pupils' records were made.\nPlease answer the following questions as fully as possible and return this sheet to your\nteacher after harvesting the crops.\n\nWhat varieties of seeds did you receive ?\nAt what time did you plant them ?\nIn what kind of soil were they planted ?\n(Soil may be designated as clayey, sandy, ordinary loam, or mixed.)\nWere the seeds planted on newly ploughed greensward or on land under cultivation\nthe previous year or for several years ?\nWhat fertilizer, if any, did you use ?\nWere the plants attacked by worms, bugs, beetles, or other pests ?\nIf so attacked, by what, and how did you rid the plants of them ?\nDid you plant seeds in hills or drills ?\nDid you keep plants well hoed and cultivated ?\nWas the season unusually wet, dry, cold, or warm ?\nAt what date or dates did you harvest the crops ?\nWhat amount of each variety was harvested ?\nCan you give an idea by measuring the plot planted of the yield per acre ?\nRemarks :\nAnything you can say relative to growth, cultivation, and habits of the plants, or the results\nof experiment with fertilizers and methods of cultivation, etc., will be of interest.\n\nName.\nGrade,\n\nSchool,\nAge,\n\nProfessor Clarence M. Weed, State Normal School, Lowell, writes:\nI think there are a good many schools in New England that are teaching agriculture,\nor nature-study from an agricultural point of view. I presume you know of the work that\nis being done in the Boston schools and vicinity, especially in Mr. Henry L. Clapp's school\nand in connection with the Boston Normal School; also the special stress which is laid upon\nthe school-gardening work at Hyannis and Bridgewater; and I doubt not practically all\nthe Massachusetts normal schools are doing much in this direction. I am laying special\nemphasis upon it in our work with the normal pupils and am developing it in the practice\nschools at Lowell and Lawrence as fast as circumstances will permit. I presume the\nreport of the school-garden exhibit and conference held at the Massachusetts Horticultural\nSociety last fall would give you fuller data in regard to New England conditions than you\ncan get in almost any other way. In our own city work we are as yet devoting our attention chiefly to raising plants for the home gardens, encouraging each pupil so far as possible to have a home garden, and we are concentrating our main attention at present upon\nthe fourth grade, which, under our conditions, where so many children leave to work in\nthe mills before reaching much higher grades, seems desirable. The recent modification in the factory laws may make it desirable to put more of the work in the fifth grade.\n\nA school-gardening movement has developed at Amherst, under the general\ninspiration of the agricultural college at that place. At the Mt. Hermon\nSchool, at Mt. Hermon (founded by the late Dwight L. Moody), there is a\nthoroly equipped department of agriculture of a secondary school grade.\nThe pupils are mostly from the country. The equipment is as good as in\nmany of the agricultural colleges and excellent work is done.\n\n"} {"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nNEW\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nYORK\n\nA number of cities and larger towns are taking up the school gardening\nwith energy and efficiency. The Oswego Normal School is also conducting\nschool-garden work. There are no high schools or academies in the state,\nso far as I know, that are now carrying agricultural work, but a great many\nof the high schools are carrying manual-training work of one kind or another,\nand nature-study work is well spread. The Belleville Academy, in Jefferson\nCounty, has an endowed department of agriculture, but the endowment is\nso small that it has been impossible to secure a teacher. For three or four\nyears scientific work has been handled with special reference to agriculture\nand there have been two or three classes in agriculture itself. Many schools\nare making local applications of their customary work.\nHow far it is possible to introduce nature-study and similar work into the\none-teacher district schools is expressed in the following quotation from Miss\nMarguerite Cook, one of the Cornell nature-study pupils who is now teaching\nin such a district.\nNature-study has done this in my teaching: (i) established discipline; (2) led to\nquiet habits of investigation; (3) been a common point of interest with pupils and teachers;\n(4) an unfailing source of pleasure and comfort to both rich and poor children. I have\nnever found it necessary to \"get the children interested\" in gardening and plant-growing.\nThey are interested, and after the manifestation of a little sincere interest on the part of\nthe \"grown ups,\" they prove it in lively and practical ways. The districts in which I\nhave taught have not been favorable to agriculture, so I cannot speak with assurance on\nthat. I believe the rural schools need more thoro work in reading and writing; more books\nto read; more practical work in arithmetic (the keeping of accounts and common business\ntransactions). History and geography should be related more closely to their own environment at first. The girls should have practice in sewing, and the boys in \"making things\"\n(manual training).\nI have found correlation successful only when natural.\nThe idea of exhibitions has taken firm hold in some parts of the state. The following\naccount of a high-school \"show\" indicates the character of some of these enterprises.\nIt is from Mr. Frank E, Henn, the teacher at Walworth.\nThere were over three hundred exhibits, all very fine. There was a fine line of rabbits,\nbantams, hens, guinea fowls, doves, and cats. These were in the entry of the school\nbuilding. Within the schoolroom we had placed long boards upon the desks, transforming\nthem into long tables. These were covered with papers. The exhibits were unusually\nfine and varied. Two sets of judges did the prizing, the prizes ranging from five\nto ten cents. The fair was held both afternoon and evening, but owing to the stormy\nweather, numbers were deterred from coming. As it was we had all we could easily handle.\nThe admission was ten cents. The receipts were ten dollars. After deducting expenses,\nwe have seven dollars and seventy-five cents left which will go toward our library. This\nfair was much talked of by the people, being something unusual. Everyone was surprised\nat the fine showing made. I find this work a great help in school. They feel that Uncle\nJohn is a friend. Pride is taken in bringing natural products to the schoolroom for\nstudy and for school decoration. Last. spring we tried raising cotton but were unsuccessful. However in the effort valuable lessons were learned.\n\nSome of the local fairs are much interested in the work of the children and\nparticularly in the things that they grow in their gardens. The most marked\nexample of this is in Steuben County, in the southwestern part of the state.\n\n"} {"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n443\n\nThe reason for this lies in the fact that Mr. H. L. Drummer, gardener of the\nSoldiers' Home, at Bath, has organized the public schools in the interest of\nnature-study and gardening. The general movement is now known as the\nSteuben Nature-Study Workers of the Public Schools. This work is conducted under the auspices of the county agricultural society, which also holds\nthe fair. The children's exhibit and children's day have become one of the\nfeatures of this fair, which is becoming known afar and wide for this kind of\nwork.\nThe following is a statement from Mr. Drummer of the work:\nAlthough the club of the Steuben Nature-Study Workers had a very modest beginning,\nyet it has a history, and the seed sown in 1900 sprang up, grew lustily, brought forth blossoms and fruit and promises to become a landmark in nature-study work. Six years ago the\nflorist of the New York State Soldiers' and Sailors' Home and the promoter and manager\nof the club, Mr. H. L. Drummer, tried to interest some of the young folks of his acquaintance to sow some flower and garden seeds, which he gave them, in a nook of their garden\nand watch the process of growing plants. When the youngsters asked him for a flower,\nhe gave them a cutting from the plant desired and told them to take care of it and to grow\nflowers for themselves. It was something new for the children and the boys and girls\nenjoyed the gardens of their own planting. This was done in the spring of 1900. During\nthe summer months he interested the business men of Bath, N. Y., in his work and he was\nin his appeal for prizes so successful, that $150 partly in valuable presents, partly in money,\nwere contributed. A premium list, with a greeting to parents and children and some rules\nfor the government of the children in their competition for prizes, was prepared and\ndistributed. When the time for the Steuben County Fair was approaching, the children\nwere told that they should have an exhibition all by themselves and that their efforts in\ngrowing flowers and vegetables and in making collections of woods, minerals, bugs, and\nbutterflies would be judged by competent and impartial judges.\nFor childrens' day at the Steuben County Fair, September 26, 1900, the school children\nof Bath, N. Y., had made 127 entries and their exhibits were neatly arranged in the main\nbuilding, in a space allotted for the exhibition thru the courtesy of the Steuben County\nAgricultural Society, which three years later paid all premiums in money for the prizewinners. Forty-six prizes were awarded the first year, having a value of $89.50. The\njudges were Professors M. V. Slingerland and C. E. Hunn of Cornell University, Ithaca,\nN. Y. Professor L. H. Bailey encouraged the children and their parents in an address\nthat made a deep and lasting impression upon his hearers. Judges and speakers unanimously commended the good work done by the manager of the exhibition and gave unstinted\npraise to the fine and carefully grown objects on exhibition.\nJuly 17, 1901, the first picnic and field day was arranged for the children in the grounds\nof the N. Y. State Soldiers and Sailors' Home. W. H. Jordan, director of the New York\nScience Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y., addressed a meeting of about 3,000 people on\nthe \"Value of Modern Education,\" while Dean I. P. Roberts, of Cornell University, spoke\non the \" Preparation and Qualification of the Children for Life's Duty.\" The field day\nwas a great success, and since then every midsummer the people gather from near and far\nto this annual outing in the ground of the Home.\nAlthough well pleased with this first attempt, it was evident to the manager that the\nwhole undertaking was yet in its experimental stage and that only study and experience\ncould advance the club to a healthy and stable existence; and when the second exhibition\nwas held, September 25, 1901, he had learned a good lesson, so that this second exhibition\nproved still more successful than the first. Still Mr. Drummer was not yet satisfied. He\nwas persuaded that the educational movement in nature-study should be the cardinal point\ntoward which everything pertaining to such a study must be directed, in other words, that\nhe must have the co-operation of the teachers. These teachers, who until now had been only\n\n"} {"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\npassive admirers of the children's progress in gardening, became more interested and thru\nthe unceasing efforts of Mr. Drummer began to work in harmony with his plans. That\nthe training of the senses for quick and accurate observation must be of the greatest importance and that the reasoning faculties must likewise be educated simultaneously in proportion with the age of the pupil, was clear enough to the teacher. A new departure in\nnature-study was therefore reached, when a separate catalogue was issued in 1903 for\ngradework in the public schools. In this gradework a great progress has been made and\nthe teachers deserve all praise for the interest which they now manifest in nature-study\nwork. The teacher of drawing in Haverling High School, Bath, was the first to present\nobjects from life, a plant with roots, foliage, and flowers to her pupils for drawing, discarding the conventional copies, and she had the satisfaction to notice that the children\nreceived not only a lesson in drawing but also one in botany. Other teachers of the same\nschool encouraged the pupils to infuse their dry essays with new life, and since then, topics\ntreating the phenomena in nature, which require study and close observation, are furnished\nin abundance. In the rural districts, with few exceptions, less interest is shown by the\nteachers in nature-study, and this must be attributed chiefly to the methods of engaging\nteachers not by the year, but by the term. Cohocton, Hammondsport, Rheims, and a\nfew neighboring country schools make a noteworthy exception; but the summer teacher,\nhired for a few months only, lets the grass and weeds grow in the school yard and then\ndeparts in June, while the succeeding teacher has generally no heart to prepare for an exhibition as late as August.\nThe influence which the nature-study workers have on a better cultivation of private\ngardens in the villages and on the farms is very pleasing and noticeable. Lawns and yards\nare better kept, flower beds are laid out and cared for, and farmers that formerly thought\nthe garden plat a nuisance and loss of ground, became interested in the work of their children\nand are very proud of the success these have in being awarded a prize.\nIn summing up, it will be found that the club of Steuben Nature-Study Workers has\naccomplished a good many things during the six years of its existence and that it has done\nmeritorious work in every department. The floral exhibition was always admired by the visitors to the fair, while the agricultural department opened the eyes of the farmer when he\nsaw the many varieties of potatoes, the fine corn, and large rutabagas. Worthy of mention\namong many others, was the exhibition of 149 varieties of potatoes grown by Master Earl\nDaniels, of Bath, aged seventeen years. At the universal Exposition at St. Louis, 1904,\nthe international jury of award has conferred the Gold Medal upon the Steuben NatureStudy Workers for exhibit of vegetables.\nThe following is a recapitulation of the annual exhibitions:\nExhibition September\nExhibition September\nExhibition September\nExhibition September\nExhibition September\nExhibition September\nOf the entries in 1905 were\n\n26, 1900,\n127 entries\n$ 89.50 prizes\n25, 1901,\n405 entries\n272.00 prizes\n24, 1902, 1,200 entries\n196.50 prizes\n30, 1903, 2,095 entries\n239. 25 prizes\n28, 1904, 2,989 entries\n537 -40 prizes\n26, 1905, 3,200 entries\n547 .45 prizes\n1,300 plates of potatoes of 186 varieties.\n\nMr. H. H, Lyon, teacher in a real rural school in Chenango County, New\nYork, has been successful in interesting his pupils in various experiments and\ntests that have relation to farming. He gives all the pupils including the younger\nones, nature-study work. Suggestions are had from books, from the New\nYork State syllabus, and perhaps quite as frequently from something that\nhappens for the time to be interesting the school or the community. He is\nintroducing practical local problems into the arithmetic work. He suggests\nthat if ten or twenty-five schools could work together in harmony in arithmetic.\n\n"} {"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n445\n\ngeography, and other subjects, thereby making it worth while for examination questions to be asked on these new lines of work, the results would be\nvery marked. Some of the problems that have been more or less used by\nMr. Lyon are as follows:\nAir —\nTest for moisture.\n\nTest for carbonic acid gas (lime-water, etc.).\nTests for ammonia (in schoolroom and in cow stables).\nSeeds —\nGermination (find per cent., etc.).\nManner of growth (monocotyledons, dicotyledons).\nPlants —\nWater taken from soil (use scales).\nTranspiration (collect H2O).\nExamination for nodules on leguminous plants;\n\neffect of nodules on luxuriance of\n\ngrowth.\nSoils —\nSearch for water-table — dififerent places and times.\nTest with litmus paper.\nEfifect of lime or ashes on clay soil.\nEffect of lime on clear and muddy water.\nCorrect acidity with lime or ashes (result observed in growth of clover).\nCapillarity under different conditions.\nMilk—\nBabcocktest:\nDrill in making measurements, reading bottles, computations.\nTest acid with acidometer.\nAcid test:\nCorrect measurements, computation of acid.\nMilk at different ages :\nUnder different conditions of cleanliness and temperature.\nBottle and cork tight; keep warm; observe odor; use different samples to compare.\nWaterTest for organic matter :\nBottle with a little sugar; keep warm.\nUse potassium permanganate.\nOsmosis —\nUsing egg.\nUsing bladder.\n\nObserve color, etc.\n\nFungicides —\nFormaldehyde for oats smut.\nHot water for oats smut.\nBordeaux for potato blight (use ferrocyanide test).\nComputations in each case.\nChemical action —\nCaustic soda solution plus muriatic acid. Evaporate salt (teach chemical formula of\nthis even at ten or twelve years).\nCommercial fertilizers —\nHandling and mixing.\nputations).\n\nNitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and dissolved rock (com-\n\n"} {"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nCows —\nDairy type (examine form, milk veins, hide, etc.).\nBeef type.\nWeather Map —\nDetermine location of storm center.\nPhysical Experiments —\nTaken from books on physics.\n\nTHE\n\nMake suction pump with lamp chimney, etc.\n\nPREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR INDUSTRIAL\nSCHOOLS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES\n\nAs a preliminary to the consideration of the specific preparation of teachers\nneeded for industrial phases of education in rural communities, it may be well\nto take a brief survey of the conditions in these communities from an educational standpoint, in so far as they may indicate the lines of least resistance\nin the development of industrial education.\nAt the present time schools in the country are in the main taught by a\nsingle teacher who has to instruct pupils in all stages of advancement from the\nbeginning thru the elementary course, covering a period of eight years. The\nsalaries of teachers are low; the educational and professional qualifications\ndemanded are on the same scale as the salaries paid; the teacher's entire term\nof service is short, and shorter still in a single school in most cases; the length\nof the school year is less than in most of the cities and villages of the country;\nthe attendance is irregular; many of the schools are too small to develop any\ninterest or spirit of emulation on the part of the pupils; the equipment for\ninstructional purposes is totally inadequate in most cases; and in most states\nthese schools have practically no effective supervision. Few advanced pupils\nare found in these schools, most of them withdrawing at or before the age\nof fourteen. It is recognized that in this last respect the conditions vary in\ndifferent portions of the country, but the foregoing statement is true of the\ngreat majority of the country schools.\nThere are reasons why such conditions obtain. Among these reasons\nmay be mentioned the sparsely settled condition of many localities; the distance\nmany of the pupils have to travel to attend the school; and the facility with\nwhich the children may be employed in various ways upon the farm to assist\nin the farmwork. But there are other matters more potent than any of these\ncauses. Among these, perhaps the most important is the lack of appreciation,\non the part of the parents of the children, of the value of an education, of what\nis necessary in the way of expenditure to provide educational facilities, and of\nwhat is necessary in the matter of time which pupils must be in school in\norder to secure even an elementary education. Too often the desire for the\nchild's assistance on the farm or in the home is greater than the desire to give\nhim or her a chance to secure an education. In many cases parents fail to\nsee wherein the work of the schools is of benefit to the pupils from what they\nconsider a practical standpoint, and therefore make no effort to keep them in\nschool.\n\n"} {"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n447\n\nHere and there in rural communities may be found individuals who believe\nthat the schools should furnish something other than they are furnishing in\nthe way of practical education. In few cases has their thinking in this field progressed beyond the point where they have become dissatisfied with existing\nconditions. In a vague way they feel that something is lacking which ought\nto be provided; they have not determined what it shall be nor have they taken\ninto consideration the fact that provision for something better means the expenditure ofmore money, and with greater wisdom than has thus far been shown,\nand the material lengthening of the time the pupil shall remain in school. It\nmeans provision also for far more efficient supervision than exists at the present\ntime, and this means a further increase in expenditure. In other words,\nbetterment of conditions in rural schools means higher standards on the part\nof the patrons of these schools and the expenditure of much more money in the\neducation of their children than they are now paying.\nIn a number of states the consolidation of rural schools into graded schools,\ncentrally located with reference to the consolidated districts, has been begun.\nIn few of these schools has anything yet been attempted in the way of industrial education. In many localities the consolidation of the rural schools is not\nfeasible because of the geographical conditions and difl&culties in the way of\ntransportation of pupils. Perhaps the greatest difficulty in the way of consolidation lies in the fact that it may mean an increase in the amount of school\ntaxes. In almost any community, when consolidation is proposed, the first\nquestion which arises is. Will it increase taxes? If an aflSrmative answer\nis given to this question, in nine cases out of ten the discussion is closed and\nwe are driven back again to the necessity of educating public sentiment in the\ncommunity to a point where people are willing to put more money into the\nschools.\nThe proposition to provide means for industrial education in rural communities carries with it the necessity for a campaign of education among the\npeople in these communities. They must be led to see the changes that are\ngoing on in this country in production areas for different classes of agricultural\nproducts; the necessity for the introduction of scientific farming because of\nthe steady lessening of the native fertility of the soil due to unscientific methods\nof cultivation ; the necessity for introducing more scientific methods of breeding, feeding, and caring for the live-stock upon the farm; and the advantages\nto be derived from the application of scientific and economic principles in\nconducting the affairs of the household. They must have put before them\nclearly the fact that, without an industrial education, their children on the\nfarms do not have a fair chance in life, that these conditions will grow worse\ninstead of better, and that more and more the young people will leave the\nfarm and flock to the city. They must be convinced that the use of more\nmoney than they are at present expending for the instruction of their children\nis a good financial investment, and that if applied to the furnishing of proper\nfacilities for industrial education, followed by the utilization of these facil-\n\n"} {"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nities by their children, the investment is the best possible one they can\nmake.\nThe development of industrial education in rural communities will undoubtedly demand, and very properly demand, direct state aid ; but self help is an\nessential condition for progress. State aid may provide schools; but there\nmust be a sentiment on the part of the people which will arouse them to do\nsomething more for themselves and for their children than they are now\ndoing, and which above all things else shall result in their keeping their children\nin school during a longer period of time.\nIn the first report made by this committee in 1905, there were set forth in\nsome detail the character and scope of industrial education suited to the needs\nof rural communities, and the work which might very properly be attempted\nin the field of agriculture, manual training, and domestic arts and sciences\nwas outlined.\nThe phases of industrial education outlined in that report have been demonstrated tobe entirely feasible and valuable, both in regard to the scope and\ncharacter indicated. Since that report was presented there has been an awakening and development of educational activity on industrial lines in many of the\nstates. This activity has manifested itself in different forms of effort and has\nbeen applied at different points in the educational systems of the different\nstates. A number of states have made instruction in the elements of agriculture mandatory in- all the rural schools. Others have encouraged the introduction of such work in this class of schools by requiring teachers to make\npreparation for teaching the subject by making it one of the subjects of required\nexamination for a certificate. In several states, industrial schools in which\nagriculture, some phases of the mechanic arts and domestic economy are\ntaught have been established, and at the present time bills are pending before\nthe legislatures in a number of states or have ahready become laws providing\nfor the establishment of other schools of this class.\nThe history of these schools, wherever established, up to the present time,\nshows a steady increase in attendance and a marked advancement in public\nopinion thruout the rural communities as well as in urban communities as to\ntheir value. In practically every case where such schools have been established ithas been under the authorization of state law, and state aid has been\noffered as an inducement for communities to take the initiative and bear a\nportion of the expense in the establishing and maintaining of such schools.\nIn a number of states, some township high schools, village high schools,\nand city high schools have introduced a short course of instruction in the\nelements of agriculture; but up to date this instruction has been almost\nentirely theoretical and textbook work. Wherever such work has been\nattempted in the consolidated schools it has been largely of the same character,\nand the same statement may be made with relation to its introduction in the\nrural schools.\nThis brief survey of the field indicates the points in the systems where\n\n"} {"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "b\n\nCouncU]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n449\n\neffort is now being expended for the development of industrial phases of\neducation in rural communities.\nWhie the committee believes that effort in each of these directions should\nbe encouraged, stimulated, and wisely directed, it is of the opinion that the\nwork should be pushed most vigorously along those lines which promise the\ngreatest returns in the way of results, and that these results are to be considered\nfrom their immediate and prospective value to the pupils in the schools and\nalso from their value in educating the public to an understanding and an appreciation ofindustrial education.\nThe history of agricultural education in this country shows that the line\nof least resistance and greatest progress has been downward from the agricultural college rather than upward from the rural school. The agricultural\ncolleges thru their work in investigation and experiment and thru their organization and administration of courses of instruction, have developed a more\nor less extensive body of knowledge of practical value and available for purposes of instruction in schools of lower grades. They have discovered that\ncomparatively few graduates from the agricultural college go back to the\nfarm, but that their services are needed in lines of experimental work and\ninvestigation.\nThe next step in extending the results of their researches, was the organization of short courses which are now administered in connection with some\nof the agricultural colleges and which are open to boys who have completed\nthe common school course. The formal establishment of a secondary school\nof agriculture with definite courses of instruction in connection with the agricultural college in Minnesota, the first experiment of this kind in the United\nStates, has demonstrated the possibility of extending this work downward as\nentirely practicable. The young men and women who have completed\nthe work in this school have gone back to the farms and carried with them and\nput into practice the knowledge and skill acquired in the school. They have\nbecome centers of influence in the communities in which they have continued\ntheir work, and wherever found, their influence is potent in the direction of\na further extension of facilities similar to those they have enjoyed.\nThe graduates of the short course in agriculture in the Wisconsin Agricultural College, more than one thousand in number, have organized an\nassociation for carrying on experimental work under the direction and stimulation ofthe college authorities, and wherever they are found they are awakening an interest in their communities in the direction of increasing the facilities\nfor industrial education for the country boys and girls. The establishment\nof county schools of agriculture and domestic economy in Wisconsin in 1900,\nfollowed by the establishment of similar schools in other states since then, and\nof the establishment of schools having the same purposes but making the\ncongressional districts instead of the county the unit of organization, as in\nAlabama, Georgia, and Minnesota, has demonstrated the growth of public\nopinion as to the value and feasibility of industrial education.\n\n"} {"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "450\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe establishment of these'secondary schools has aided materially in the\nbetter organization and adaptation of material for instruction in secondary\nschools and is rapidly organizing it in form to be available in the elementary\nschools. In this field much yet remains to be done. It must be done, however,\nby those who know the field and who are actively engaged in instructional work.\nUntil very recently this work in the elementary and secondary fields of instruction has been so limited and so little in demand that little or no provision has\nbeen made for the systematic training of teachers for it. Such a demand\nhas suddenly sprung into existence. Teachers adequately trained for this\nwork are not obtainable.\nProvision must be made for meeting this demand.\nFour classes of schools have been mentioned, in three of which a place is\nbeing demanded for some phases of industrial education. These three are\nthe rural school with one or two teachers, the consolidated rural school with\nfour or more teachers, and the existing high schools in villages and in the smaller\ncities. The fourth class of schools is distinctively industrial, in which academic\nwork of the ordinary kind is rather an incident than the main feature, while\nthe exact reverse is true in each of the other classes of schools.\nIt apparently needs but a statement of the conditions which obtain in the\ndistrict schools or schools with less than three or four teachers, coupled with\nan understanding of the scope and character of those phases of industrial education which seem desirable for the country boy and girl, to convince anyone\nthat it is an impossibility to so modify the course of instruction in this class of\nschools as to adequately meet the demands. With properly trained teachers,\nsome very elementary industrial work can be undertaken beyond the naturestudy work which may be profitable, but which, however valuable it may\nbe as a preparation for distinctively industrial education,, is not industrial.\nThe committee believes that something may be done in these schools, in\nwhat is known as the elements of agriculture and that the most valuable work\nin that field, is that which informs pupils of methods, processes, and results\nwhich have been proved most satisfactory in farm work; such methods, such\nprocesses, and such results as are within their comprehension and adapted to\nlocal conditions; and results such as can be secured in the community where\nthe school is located. It is not the purpose of the committee to claim that\nsuch a mode of procedure is strictly pedagogical or scientific, but that it is\njustifiable because it will appeal to the parents of the children as practical\nand having a commercial value because of its availability for use in their community. Every development of such appreciation of schoolwork is a positive gain in an educational way. It will awaken an interest in and a demand\nfor more extended work and for the organization of schools in which it can be\ngiven, and in time will result in extending the period of school life of the country\nchildren.\nSome elementary and practical work in domestic economy may be given\nthe girls with similar results. To successfully conduct the work either in the\nelements of agriculture or in domestic economy, the teachers must have special\n\n"} {"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n451\n\npreparation. The committee does not believe that adequate preparation can\nbe secured generally, except in professional schools maintained for the training of teachers. The state normal schools which train teachers for the country\nschools are already undertaking this work. It must still be further extended\nand made not less scientific, but more practical, in that the course of study\nin this subject shall undertake to make the prospective teacher well informed\nconcerning practical methods and processes based upon scientific principles\nand adapted to the agricultural needs of the community.\nA knowledge of the processes of plant growth and reproduction is important,\nbut it is still more important that the teachers shall know and be able to instruct\npupils in practical modes of modifying or developing conditions out of which\nshall come the best possible results in variety and yield of production.\nThe question of the proper preparation of the country-school teacher for\nthis industrial work is a part of the larger question of the proper preparation\nof the country-school teacher for all lines of work in those schools. The\ncommittee believes that it is not reasonable to expect the state normal schools\nwhose .courses of instruction are sufficiently extended to give the proper training for graded-school teachers in the cities, to furnish an adequate supply of\nteachers with proper training for the country schools, and especially so when\nthe cities are paying and are likely to continue to pay much higher salaries than\nthe country. For this work of preparing the country-school teacher, a distinct class of training-schools must be organized whose sole function shall be\nthe preparation of this class of teachers. These training-schools must devote\nthemselves to preparing the teachers to teach in the country school. The\ntraining will not be broad from the academic standpoint, but it must be intensive and professional in the, field covered. Such schools should give the necessary instruction for such phases of industrial education as are adapted to the\ncapacity of children in the rural schools. The teachers in this class of training-schools should be persons of education and refinement, with a knowledge\nof conditions in the country schools; experience in teaching in such schools;\nskilled in the application of pedagogic principles in their teaching-processes,\nand able to so instruct their students as to make them acquainted with fundamental pedagogical principles and capable of applying them in their subsequent work as teachers.\nAs many of the country-school teachers receive their education in the ordinary high school, it will be argued that instruction in the elementary phases of\nindustrial education must be given in the high schools. The high schools are\nnot professional schools; they are not organized for the training of teachers;\nthey are organized to do academic w^ork secondary in scope. They do not put\nthe emphasis on instruction in subjects taught in the rural schools, and while\nthe students are benefited by a course of instruction in the high school they\nare not therein properly fitted for teaching any grade of school. After graduating from the high school they must in most cases, study anew the subjects\nthey teach, and as they teach them in the rural schools, and they must learn\n\n"} {"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto teach by experimenting on the pupils in these schools. The attempt to\norganize a class in the high school for the training of rural-school teachers has\nbeen made in a number of states, and while such an attempt has not been a total\nfailure in every case, it is doubtful if it has been largely successful in any case.\nInstitutes and summer schools may be organized for the distinct purpose\nof preparing teachers for the industrial phases of educational work. Such\nagencies are valuable and accomplish something and should still be employed,\nbut they are not continued long enough to give the preparation necessary for\nthe most successful results. It is believed, therefore, that the agitation for the\nintroduction of industrial work in the rural schools should be accompanied by\nan effort to secure the establishment of training-schools for the distinct purpose\nof preparing rural-school teachers for their field of work. They would in no\nsense be in competition with the state normal schools of higher grade, but\nwould furnish facilities for training a class of teachers not now trained in\nsufficient numbers by the state normal schools, and would give many a young\nperson an impetus for further training which, after some years of teaching,\nwould be continued in the state normal schools.\nIn the second class of schools, the consolidated rural school of four departments offering one or more years' work beyond the elementary course, more\nwork of an industrial nature should be introduced into the course of study,\nbecause of the greater maturity of pupils and a consequent ability to comprehend and appreciate more advanced instruction.\nAs in most cases buildings would have to be erected to meet the needs of\nthe consolidated school, provision could be made when the building is planned,\nfor rooms in which work in manual training and domestic art and science could\nbe carried on, and for a small tract of land for experimental purposes. Where\nfour or more teachers are employed in these schools, one should be selected\nwith reference to his ability to instruct in manual training and in the elements\nof agriculture, and one with reference to her ability to give instruction in\ndomestic art and science. These teachers would need more extended instruction than is required by the teachers in the single-department rural school.\nThe teachers in these schools should have at least the training given in a good\nstate normal school where adequate provision is made for giving instruction\nin the industrial subjects mentioned. If teachers with sufiQcient academic\ntraining other than in the industrial field are employed for work in the consolidated schools, those needed for the industrial phases of work should be required\nto make preparation for such work in schools organized specially for giving such\ninstruction. Where consolidated schools have already been organized purely\non academic lines, at least two of the teachers should be selected with reference\nto their ability to introduce the industrial work. Summer courses in domesticscience training-schools or in connection with the schools of agriculture could\nbe taken, which would prepare them to make a beginning and could be continued as the work developed.\nIn the third class of schools, the academic high school, where instruction\n\n"} {"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n453\n\nin agriculture and domestic art and science and manual training are given,\nteachers should be selected who have had special training for this work. Normal schools making a specialty of training teachers of industrial subjects should\nfurnish the proper instruction. The agricultural colleges should offer summer\ncourses which would fit the teachers in these high schools for the work in agriculture. Ifthe teachers in such high schools have not had professional training or considerable experience before taking up this work, they should have\nthe opportunity to secure professional training in connection with the technical\nwork which they may do in the summer schools or elsewhere. It must be\nborne in mind that a different phase of industrial education is needed for the\ncountry boy and girl than for the city boy and girl, and that teachers must\nadapt their work to the environment of the pupils and that their training\nshould be with reference to these facts.\nIn the schools of the fourth class, those which are distinctively industrial\nin character and of secondary grade, a still moi? extended course of preparation isnecessary for efficient work on the part of the teachers. The men who\nare to organize the work of such schools or give instruction in agriculture and\nthe mechanic arts, should have the training afforded by an agricultural college\ncourse, and this course should be something more than a specialized line of\nwork. The man who is to give instruction in agriculture, if the school is\nsmall, should be a specialist in some line of agricultural work and should\nknow a great deal of many lines. His training in a special line of work will\nenable him to prepare himself to give the necessary instruction in any line\nneeded, even tho he may not be fully prepared at the beginning. His\nknowledge must be so broad and accurate with reference to agricultural conditions of the locality where the school is situated, that it will command the\nrespect and confidence of the students and of the farming population. He\nmust be able to give wise counsel to the farmers of the community in which\nthe school is located with reference to methods and processes applicable to\nlocal conditions. He must be able to present in a simple and attractive way\nthe scientific facts and principles underlying agricultural processes, before\nbodies of farmers which he may have occasion to address. He must know how\nto win the respect and confidence of the farming population and have a genius\nfor organizing, not only in school affairs but in the larger field of agricultural\ninterests outside the school.\nThere is not an institution in the United States today seriously undertaking\nto prepare this class of teachers. The agricultural colleges should take note\nof the demand for such a class of teachers and should make immediate preparation to meet the demand by organizing special courses for the training of\nteachers. Something more is needed than is at present offered in the agricultural colleges of the country. It is not enough to say to those wishing to prepare themselves for this work: \"Our courses are open to you, you can get whatever you want.\" They cannot get it under proper conditions, nor without\nusing an undue amount of time. There is sufl&cient demand today for such a\n\n"} {"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbody of teachers to warrant a number of the best agricultural colleges in thej\ncountry in establishing definite courses epecially designed to train teachers\nfor this class of schools. Such courses must not only offer instruction of a\nscientific and technical nature, but they must offer professional courses\nwhich deal with the subjects from an educational standpoint. They\nmust recognize that it is a fiction to assume that because a person knows a\nsubject he can therefore teach it; they must recognize that teaching is an art\nand that it is based upon certain scientific principles; that these principles\ncan be mastered and that their application in the art of teaching can be made\nclear, even tho practice in applying them cannot be given to the extent which\nis necessary for the acquisition of the highest skill. Departments of education\nin universities having agricultural colleges in connection with them may offer\nthe courses in educational principles needed for such training, but it would\nbe far better if the agricultural college itself could offer such courses in direct\nconnection with the scientific fhid technical work.\nThe teachers of domestic art and science in these schools should be prepared in schools which give a thoro training in both the technical and professional sides of the work. As these industrial schools are designed to meet\nthe needs of rural communities, so the instruction in domestic art and science\nmust be adapted to the requirements of people in rural communities living\nunder the conditions which obtain there rather than in the city. The preparation\nof teachers for this work must be to meet these needs. The economic, social,\nand industrial conditions of life upon the farm must be taken into consideration in planning the courses of instruction provided for such teachers.\nIn the matter of the preparation of teachers of industrial subjects in schools\nfor rural communities, the greatest need today is for properly trained teachers\nfor these secondary schools. It is in these schools that the largest results can\nbe soonest secured — results which will attract the attention of the rural population and crystallize sentiment in favor of industrial education to a greater\nextent than is possible thru the work of any or all the other classes of schools\nunder discussion. The work in them thru experience and experiment will\nresult in the better organization in pedagogic form of the body of knowledge\nof industrial subjects available for instructional purposes. It will demonstrate what can be undertaken with profit in the other classes of schools and\nwill extend their influence down into the elementary schools and thruout the\ncommunity in a way to command the largest possible support for and the best\npossible organization of industrial education thruout all classes of schools in\nrural communities.\n\n"} {"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 1907\nThe Kindergarten Department met in the Immanuel Presbyterian Church. In the\nabsence of the president, Miss Mary C. May, of Salt Lake City, Utah, the vice-president,\nElmer E. Brown, of Washington, D. C, presided until Mrs. Holden, of Redlands, Cal.,\nwas appointed.\nThe first address was given by Miss Grace Everett Barnard, of the Kindergarten\nTraining School, of Oakland, Cal., the subject being, \"The American Ideal in the Kindergarten.\"\nThis was followed by Dr. Margaret E. Schallenberger, principal of Training Department, State Normal School, San Jose, Cal., whose topic was \"Motive for Work.\" Discussions followed these papers.\nCommittees were appointed as follows:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nMiss Anna M. Stovall, San Francisco, Cal.\nMiss Grace Wood, Trenton, N. J.\nMiss Rosahe Pollock, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nMrs. Nora H. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal. Miss Barbara Greenwood, Pomona, Cal.\nMiss Lucy Ellis, Phoenix, Ariz.\nMiss Adelaide Randolph, Kansas City, Mo.\nMiss Grace Rowell, Pasadena, Cal.\nAdjournment.\nSECOND SESSION— Thursday Morning, July ii\nThe department met in Immanuel Presbyterian Church;\nMrs. Holden, the acting\npresident, presiding.\n\"Home and School Life in Germany\" was the subject of the paper given by Miss\nAmalie Nix, president of the German Pedagogical Society of Minnesota. After the reading of the paper, many questions were answered by Miss Nix.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following names:\nFor President — Miss Bertha Payne, Chicago, 111.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Barbara Greenwood, Pomona, Cal.\nFor Secretary — Miss Harriet D. Rockwell, Cleveland, O.\nThis report was accepted and, on motion, the secretary was ordered to cast the ballot\nfor the election of the nominees. The ballot was so cast and the nominees were declared\nelected for the ensuing year.\nThe Committee on Resolutions submitted the following report:\nResolved, That it is the sense of the Kindergarten Department of the National Educational Association that we, as kindergartners, deeply interested in child life, use our influence\nin such a manner that mothers will demand a higher standard of culture in the nurses or\nmaids intrusted with the home care of children.\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed to confer with the officers of the\nInternational Kindergarten Union for the purpose of bringing about a closer affiliation\nbetween the two bodies.\nj9i Resolved, That we extend our thanks to the officers of the Ebell Club for the generous\noffer of their club house for the reception given\n455 to visiting kindergartners and educators.\n\n"} {"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nResolved^ That we thank the members of the From Time to Time Club and all others\nwho have made our stay in Los Angeles a pleasant one.\nResolved, That we appreciate the careful way in which the press of Los Angeles has\nreported our proceedings.\nResolved, That these resolutions be placed upon the minutes of the meeting of this\ndepartment.\nThe Department then adjourned.\nMinnie C. Wood, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nGRACE\n\nEVERETT\n\nAND\nIDEAL\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nIN THE\n\nBARNARD,\nKINDERGARTEN\nOAKLAND,\nCAL.\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWhatever the motive for announcing this subject for discussion in our\ndepartment, its timeliness appeals to us on this coast, who feel the humiliation\nof recent revelations in civic life. In the past, we heard much of the kindergarten as a school of citizenship, and in early days it was a proud boast that not\na child of the free kindergartens had been in the police court. There has not\nyet been time for a kindergarten-trained city government to demonstrate its\nefl&ciency, but some of us seriously question whether our claims will be realized.\nTo assert one's conviction that national problems reach down even to the\nnursery, is but a revival of Froebel's claim that ''the destiny of nations lies\nfar more in the hands of mothers than with the possessors of power.\"\nThe weighty problems of immigration, industrial warfare, predatory\nwealth, with which our legislators are wrestling, have their counterpart in our\nkindergarten realm. The foreign mother, who encourages her offspring to\nadd to the family resources without regard to property rights, the wageearning mother who is forced to leave her group with immature brother or\nsister, the society devotee who, between week-end trips and nervous breakdowns, cannot be disturbed by the clamoring interests of her embryo citizens,\nall force upon the kindergartner grave responsibilities.\nThe White House, the university, the pulpit and the press unite in the\nverdict that only as we develop character that is morally incorruptable, may\nwe attain civic and national righteousness. So we who guard these first\nyears must be grounded in those fundamental principles of character-building\nwhich can secure moral rectitude, if the American ideal is to be preserved.\nAmerica is in danger of becoming a huge orphans' home. The rush of\nbusiness life taking the father away before the children are up for the day,\nand keeping him absorbed until after they retire for the night, makes them\npractically fatherless. The equally strenuous social life of the mother deprives\nthem of the very factor which has produced our typical Americans. In the\nendeavor to give their children position in commercial and social world, parents\nrob them of their most precious heritage.\nThe crowded life in hotels, apartments, and boarding-houses insures a\nsetting of standards by nursery maids and street urchins.\nThe abdication of\n\n"} {"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n457\n\nparental responsibility seems to be in progress, and church and school are held\nresponsible for what can only be accompKshed in the intimacy of companionship of parent and child in the privacy of the home.\nAnother source of danger to our free institutions lies in the growing number\nof dependent children. The secretary of the State Board of Examiners of this\nstate reports that in the United States there is one dependent child to each\none hundred who are supported by parents or guardians.\nIt is unreasonable to expect inspiring personalities in such places under\npresent conditions, and yet we all feel that the secret of character is the contagion ofa noble life.\nThe first mission of the kindergarten seems to have been to the school.\nEducators point to its influence from the receiving class to the elective courses\nand laboratory methods at college. Its second mission is to the home. It\nhas begun where Froebel began his work, in the call to parents: \"Come, let\nus live with our children, that all the world may be better thereby.\"\nShocking as are the discoveries of corruption in high places, the indifference\nto bribery and deceit in home and school is worse. The commonness of\ncheating not only in examinations, but in excuses and truancy is appalling —\nugly facts to which we must not shut our eyes. This is undermining the\nmoral fiber. Even we members in good standing of the National Educational\nAssociation, could we plead \"not guilty\" if indicted by a grand jury investigating incipient corruption in home and school ?\nThe kindergarten training-school has done earnest work in preparing\nteachers, but more lasting work in training for motherhood. A scientific\nknowledge of children, far from destroying tender affection, rouses new\nsympathy and a keener interest, and emphasizes the sacredness of woman's\nnoblest calling. The student learns that knowledge of child nature and needs\nrests upon a more reliable foundation than memory of her own childhood, and\nfortunate as was her own home experience, there is a lack in health and\nability which might have been avoided, had modern attention to such matters\nprevailed a generation ago.\nEvery well-regulated public kindergarten conducts mothers' meetings, and\ntraining-schools announce mothers' classes. The practical results of these\nare so rewarding that I urge any one who has not had courage to undertake\nthis work to attempt it without delay. My last experience was with a\ngroup of representative young society matrons, and no training-class was ever\nmore responsive. Such enthusiastic visitors to the respective kindergartens\nto assure themselves that the kindergartners were up to the standard ! Bookstore and library testified to their response to suggestions for reading. One\nmother offered to pay the fee of ten dollars a month to secure a Sunday morning\nkindergarten for the sake of her small son.\nIn a former class the practical effect was shown by dismissing an expert\ncook to afford the luxury of a graduate kindergartner for the nursery. This\nsame earnest member established the class, declaring that the mother in the\n\n"} {"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "4S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nslums was provided for, but there was no possible way for the cultured mother\nto prepare herself for more enlightened motherhood.\nIf you will pardon one other personal experience — with great hesitation\nthe suggestion was made that a mothers' class be conducted as a new feature\nin Sunday-school work. A dozen responded to the invitation and with gratifying regularity attended the three-months' course. These are hopeful indications and show us that we are not fulfiling our whole duty if confining our\nwork to the professional kindergartner.\nBut what do we offer? Not a ''program\" or ''book of work,\" suggestive\nas both may be. Not even the mother-play to begin with, but first a resume\nof the results of child-study, with special reference to the significance of\nphysical health on moral and mental development.\nThen comes sympathetic discussion of the problems of discipline in home\nand kindergarten, with emphasis upon the power of suggestion, an exposition\nof Froebel's helpful searching truths on the side of religious training. After\nintroducing the class to the underlying principles of the kindergarten, we take up\nthe kindergarten tools, the gifts, occupations, songs and games, stories and\ntalks, making clear that there is no magic in the materials, but that all depends\nupon the intelligence with which they are used.\nWe try to give them a standard by which to judge whether the kindergarten isa healthful garden where right soil and wholesome atmosphere are\nproducing natural growth, or where a forcing process is hastening precocious\ndevelopment, which is destined to wither in the bracing air of every-day\nexistence.\nIt is easy to warn against the danger of arrested development by overdrill\non the one hand, or abuse of creativeness by overstimulation on the other, but\nto point the narrow way of insight into rational methods by which the goal is\nreached is a difficult task.\nIf the training-school is earnestly trying to help the home, it has not forgotten that its main function is sending out kindergartners who by the contagion offorceful, persuasive character, and with insight into mental processes,\nare able to incite the will, arouse the emotions, and stimulate the intellect of\nthe least-promising children. The same general plan is followed as outlined\nfor mothers, only on broader lines. The day has passed when loyalty to\nFroebel excludes light from other sources. G. Stanley Hall, J. Mark Baldwin,\nProfessor James, Dr. Le Cont, and Dr. Harris are as familiar as Education of\nMan and \" mother play.\" Less time is given to elaborate handwork, and more\nto its bearing on the character. The novice does not begin to practice\nupon the children until after a period of observation and study. Her\ntask is a double one — to know herself, and to understand children. To\ndiscover that what she is determines her possibility of influence is\nstartling.\nIf the kindergarten is to justify the high claims of its friends we need not\nonly the contributions of modern science and philosophy, but a truer inter-\n\n"} {"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n459\n\npretation of Froebel. When our enthusiasm is equaled by our insight, we\nmay be worthy to follow in his footsteps and attempt\nto educate human beings who stand with their feet rooted in God's earth, in nature,\nwhose heads reach even into heaven, and there behold truth, in whose hearts are united\nthe varied life of earth and heaven.\n\nThe strongest argument for the kindergarten is its unparalleled opportunity\nfor practicing the social virtues. Altho a German importation, it thrives best\nin our democratic soil. Froebel called it \"the free republic of childhood,\" and\nstrove to prepare for political liberty by securing self-control in the child.\nObedience will be the first step, but teacher and pupil will be mutually subject\nto the same law. We help the child to rise from the self-centered individual\nof the nursery, thru the social life of the kindergarten to a truer selfhood,\nwhich becomes self-forgetfulness in the service of others. In the intimacy\nof home and kindergarten he must find his happiness thru yielding his will\nto a wiser will, and thru moral, not physical, compulsion, recognize the right.\nWe want reverence for law, but not slavish subjection to an individual. The\naim of kindergarten discipline is self -direction, but its punishments are sure.\nCaprice must rule at no stage, Froebel insists, and we believe in establishing\nfrom the first, that the consequences of wrong doing should be visited upon\nthe offender.\nHe must early learn to be responsible for his own acts.\nThe handwork helps to impress the same lessons. Carelessness or indolence leave their mark, and the present-day kindergartner never sends home\nwork that is not honestly the child's own. In all the work of the kindergarten,\nwe value the individual contribution. The ability to transform a bit of paper\nor lump of clay into an object of beauty or utility develops a sense of power and\nself-respect. The opportunity for measuring one's work by his fellows' gives\nhumility and incites to new efforts. The freedom in use of materials, and in\nmethods, gives scope for initiative. As in the games the natural leaders are\ndiscovered, so in the handwork we read the character of the children and\nlearn who need our help. To become efficient, one must enjoy some small\nsuccess, must gain strength thru victory, and reach the point where he may\ncontribute his mite to the work of the group. Children welcome so\ncordially original suggestions and rejoice in each other's achievements, that\nthe backward child develops a new self-respect as he discovers his powers.\nOne of Froebel's strongest contributions is his conception of the dignity of\nwork — not slavish drudgery for mere existence, but the finding of one's self\nthru work, and revealing the divinity within.\nThere is danger of crowding out the child's creativeness by forcing our\ndictations upon him. Originality comes by way of imitation, but only enough\nis needed to arouse a desire to transform. The handwork and games do not\nexhaust the opportunity for self-expression. The \"morning talk\" is full of\npossibilities. Each child comes loaded with interesting experiences and until\nhe has shared them he will not respond to the artificial interest presented.\nHere we find the key to his life, for he opens his soul to us. But Oh! the\n\n"} {"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "46o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\npitiful waste when a kindergartner monopolizes the time by presenting scientific information which only has place as a child may be helped to discover it\nfor himself. After each child has contributed his share, the kindergartner\nimproves her time by directing all to one central thought and focuses attention\nby having free blackboard work. To kill the desire to illustrate the story\ntold, by insisting upon formal drill, is again a waste of time. At this stage\nthe child will attempt anything, but a Kttle later he is conscious of his inability\nand then is the time to work for skill.\nSince the public school has demonstrated that the kindergarten is not a\nluxury for the rich, nor a philanthropy for the poor, but the rational first step\nin our educational system, it is doing its part in obliterating class distinctions\nand upholding the American ideal that individual worth, rather than financial\nstanding or social position, commands respect. All meet on the same footing,\nbut special excellence in any direction secures honor. Honors with us are\nalways opportunities to serve.\nOur language and customs must be mastered before the foreign element\ncan come under the power of our ideals, so the kindergarten becomes a factor\nin Americanizing the masses. Race prejudice does not appear among fouryear-olds, and Chinese and Japanese are as cordially welcomed as the more\nfamiliar types, and their obedience, industry, and artistic skill add to the\nefl&ciency of the whole.\nWe strive for individual initiative, honesty of purpose, and personal\nresponsibility, but are not satisfied unless the group work, the circle play, the\ncommon playground, result in the conviction that there are advantages in\nbeing members \"one of another.\" Co-operation is a feature of kindergarten\nexperience, and the self -centered child of the nursery responds to recognition\nof other selves, with like rights and duties, and the practice of the Golden\nRule begins.\nWe point with pride to the forceful personality at the head of our nation,\nas the embodiment of our American ideal, and crave for these children the\nsame splendid energy, efficiency and courage to stand for right. But such\ntraits do not come by accident, and the parents who mourn the lack of sterling\nqualities in their children are more ready to blame \"the times\" than to admit\nloss of early influences. The world tries to train for patriotism, but trusts\ntoo much to firing the imagination by tales of war, stirring the heart and\nrousing noble sentiments, and failing to provide outlet for the emotion awakened. We need to exercise the will in heroic endeavor in commonplace tasks.\nThe child must be given small responsibilities but held to the performance of\nthese duties, if he is to be made ruler over great things.\nTo develop conscience is the joint work of teacher and parent. It grows\nwith experience, and from the naming of individual acts as right and wrong\nto a grasp of the principle underlying these acts, until the child has a reliable\nguide within, which is as the voice of God, demands earnest attention. That\nso many children confuse moral questions with mere rules for convenience is\n\n"} {"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n461\n\ndue to the unfortunate fact that so many habits which should have become\nsecond nature before school age, are left for the teacher to form, and thus the\nserious things — scorn for deceit, for meanness in any form, contempt for\ncowardice — are classed with slips in English or matters of courtesy.\nIt is customary to plead for the kindergarten as a preparation for the\nschool. It certainly does this, but it has worth quite apart from its formal\nknowledge of color, form, number, and language. Its special function is to\nsupplement the nurture of the home and establish right habits; not only\nhabits of gait and general bearing, of voice and even of expression of countenance, and the mental habits of attention, observation, etc., but to give direction to the deep things of life; opening the eyes to the beauty of the world;\nstirring the soul by the mysteries of nature, and rousing awe which helps\nimpress the imminence of God. If religion is to be a force in life, the child\nmust never lose his sense of the conscious presence of God, and the assurance\nthat the eternal life begins here and now.\nThat each division of the school course prepares for the next is true, but\nits worth does not depend upon that fact. I am impatient of that conception;\nit seems to leave something real out of life. Did not the Great Teacher give us\nthe key when He said, ''I am come that ye might have life?\" His followers\nhave not dared to take him at his word, but supposed he spoke of the future,\nand for centuries the world has missed the secret of living. It is only in our\nown day that emphasis upon the companion truth ''the kingdom of heaven\nis within you\" has brought reaHty into religious life. Is it not possible that in\neducation we have failed to make each stage as worth while for its age, as well\nas a preparation for the next ? Life was meant to be abundant for the kindergarten child, the grammar-school boy, the high-school student, as well as for\nthe university man; and, perhaps, our failure along this line may account for\nthe haste of the majority to escape from school to real life, before they are\nawake to the responsibilities resting upon each to uphold the ideals which are\nthe heritage of the American child.\nTo sum up, the American ideal is threatened by —\n1. A foreign invasion, ignorant of our ideals of purity, respect for law, and the sacredness of individual liberty.\n2. The growth of a new class, the idle rich, lacking the same sense of responsibility\nfor participation in the artistic, scientific, social, and political life of the nation.\n3. Commercial and industrial competition, which is corrupting politics and lowering\nthe moral tone in all departments of life.\n4. An absorption in business and social affairs which is destroying home life.\n\nThe kindergarten is attempting to preserve the American ideal by —\n1. Restoring home responsibility, through trained motherhood.\n2. More thoro preparation of kindergartners, with spiritual capacity and power of\nleadership, as enthusiastic for social betterment in the community as for their own particular work.\n3. Establishing kindergartens in which respect for law, reverence for truth, individual\nresponsibility, and joy in service are practiced in a community of equals; Massini's ideal*\nthe \"progress of all thru all, under the leadership of the best and wisest.\"\nHere the\n\n"} {"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nfoundation is laid for that \"aristocracy of intellect and service\" which President Nicholas\nMurray Butler declares is the characteristic of the true democracy.\n\nLet me close with the affirmation of that noble pioneer, Emma Marwedel,\nwho brought the kindergarten to California and established it in our midst:\n\"I believe in the power of the kindergarten thru the moral power of the kindergartner to reform the world.\"\nMOTIVE FOR WORK\nMARGARET\n\nE.\n\nSCHALLENBERGER,\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF TRAINING\nSCHOOL,\nSAN JOSE,\nCAL.\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nPerhaps no educational department is so widely and so pronouncedly misundersto d asto its motive as the kindergarten. Not only may this be said\nof its patrons, fond and often ignorant mothers at all levels of the social strata,\nbut it is true to an enormous and, at first glance, surprising extent of educators\nthemselves. This gross general misconception is due probably to the fact\nthat for a long time the kindergarten was set apart from the general scheme\nof education. There were the primary, grammar, and high schools and as a\nclimax to the series — if one went on — the university. The kindergarten was\na side issue, a little play or toy school — in the narrowest sense of the word\nplay — sometimes functioning, sometimes not ; always an extra, never an essential; always a special type or variation, never a universally recognized and\naccepted form of education. This being the case, the kindergarten as a factor\nin child development has not been seriously considered ; therefore its motive\nhas not been seriously studied by educators at large. Here and there, to be\nsure, we find most careful investigators, many of whom are able writers, so\nthat we in America now possess, aside from the contributions furnished by\nother countries, a kindergarten literature of our own of no mean quality;\nbut comparatively few people have been inclined to read these publications,\nand a still smaller number have felt the necessity for doing so. Kindergartners\nthemselves are partially responsible for this apathy. Their sunny child\ngardens were filled for long years, notwithstanding the protests of many able\nleaders, with ignorant, poorly-paid women, who, dazzled by the bright colors\nand bewildered by the vast mass of novel materials thrust upon them, flitted\nhither and thither among the little people and their \"culture stuff\" like giddy\nbutterflies, and displayed little more reason while flitting than these care-free\nflower-lovers.\nBut all this is ancient history; the kindergarten has found its place in the\neducational scheme, and tho there are striking exceptions, kindergartners\ntoday, as a rule, understand, at least as well as other teachers understand\ntheirs, the problems set them. Nevertheless, for the reasons just stated,\nthey by no means have as yet succeeded in making \"the people\" understand.\nThe great problem of the kindergartner is not different in the main from\nthat of other educators. Can any clearer statement be made of it than the\nfollowing\n» P. 79. by Professor Edward L. Thorndike in his Edticational Psychology ? '\n\n"} {"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVE\n\nFOR\n\nWORK\n\n463\n\nThe work of education is (i) to supply the needs of the brain's healthy growth and\nto remove physiological impediments to it; (2) to provide stimuli to desirable mental\nvariations and to withold stimuli from the undesirable; (3) to make the outcome of desirable activities pleasurable and to inhibit their opposites by discomfort.\nThe three chief practical problems of education would thus be those of hygiene, of\nopportunity, and of incentives and deterrents.\n\nThe conscientious teacher often asks herself, How can I best deal with the\nchild at this period of his life in order that it may yield its fullest and richest\nvalue ? It follows logically that an impoverished life at one period means a\nw^eakened life at the next, and conversely. The argument often advanced that\na child entering the primary school directly from the home does brilliant work\nand advances rapidly thru the primary and grammar grades is no criticism\nat all upon the kindergarten. Who can say how w^onderful might have been\nhis proficiency or how rapid his development had he been subject to kindergarten stimuli? The other thesis, that the kindergarten child does not\nalways take to primary school methods with ease and docility is likewise\nchallengeable. The ease with which he does take to them may be largely\ndue to his kindergarten life, or we might ask, are the primary school methods\nalways those that well-developed six-year-olds find interesting and profitable ?\nThe kindergarten, as well as the other departments of education, has been\nand is in progressive evolution. The intelligent kindergartner no longer\nblindly follows the theories of Froebel or Pestalozzi, any more than does the\nintelligent primary teacher depend altogether for guidance, as she did very\ngenerally not many years ago, upon the average accumulated experience of\nher predecessors. The kindergartner no longer points with pride, as she\nsometimes used to, to the results obtained in various forms of handwork, e. g.\npricking patterns upon cardboard, any more than the thoughtful teacher in\nthe grades congratulates herself upon the ability of her pupils to state certain\nfacts in history, arithmetic, or grammar.\nThe emphasis today in education is an emphasis upon interest in what is\nworth knowing and zeal in its pursuit, rather than upon the accomplishment\nof a finished amount of work, mental or physical, or even upon the ability\nto perform the work. We care less what a man knows than for what he is\ndesirous of knowing, less for what he can do than for his attitude toward work.\nThe life of the educated man is a life of voluntary action in a right direction.\nIt is the function of the school to provide, so far as possible, the proper stimuli\nand deterrents to make not only possible but strongly probable such life.\nPsychology, sociology, ethics, as well as the long-established sciences,\nare gradually furnishing us with certain data upon which we may formulate\neducational principles. The kindergartner in common with other educators\neagerly seeks for these data. She knows that the mind of the little child is\nanalogous to that of the adult; the two are similar but not alike. She learns\nas much as possible about the make-up and functioning of her own mind.\nShe tries to apply this knowledge to the study of the child mind. She studies\nthe laws of society and tries to understand what is meant by a \"good citizen.\"\n\n"} {"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nShe learns to discriminate finally between forms of right and wrong action\nand turns to various sciences to see what they have to teach her of precision,\naccuracy, patience, conditions of experiment, truth. And then she turns\nagain to her kindergarten. To know as much as is possible of the physical and\nmental condition of each child under her direction, to study inherited traits\nand home environment, and with this knowledge to set about a work of definite\nand deliberate change to be wrought in each bit of humanity: this is the selfconstituted task of the professional-spirited kindergartner.\nHow does her work differ from that of other teachers ? The work of the\nkindergartner is of a more positive nature. The child comes to her with less\nexperience of the world of any kind. The influence of environment, good or\nbad, has not had time to change in any marked degree his original self. Action\nin any particular direction has not been continued long enough to become\nhabit. Curiosity has not yet been killed or even very much curbed, neither\nhas its field of operation been very wide or fertile. Imitation has not gone\nsufficiently far to become second-nature. Rivalry, emulation, courage,\naggressiveness, self-reliance, timidity, selfishness, generosity, vanity, co-operation— no one of these tendencies has been given opportunities striking enough\nor often enough repeated to -be classed as characteristic. In a word, the\nkindergarten child is more a bundle of natural than of acquired tendencies.\nHer problem is less complex than that of the child's later teachers. She\nhas less to do with the breaking of habits, because, speaking broadly, we may\nsay that no strong habits have been formed. She has much to do, however,\nwith the formation of habits, and in providing opportunity for their proper\ndevelopment and exercise, she has a problem sufficiently important and\ndifficult.\nIt is in the study of the natural tendencies of individual children and their\nexpression, in other words, in the study of children's motives and their direction into avenues of desirable work that her chief function lies. No teacher\nhas so little excuse for repression, for the simple reason that there are fewer\ntendencies to suggest the method of repression; no teacher, perhaps, has so\ngreat a responsibility for the simple reason that there are so many chances\nfor wrong expression, bad habit formation, undesirable work.\nAny form of expression engaged in with zeal is work. Certain forms of\nwhat is commonly termed play may very properly, according to this definition, be classed as work. This the writer understands; but the walls between\nplay and work are so low and weak as constantly to need propping upon one\nside or the other, and the enormous gaps between the two fields are so apparent\nthat it seems absurd to try to draw any hard and fast line between the two.\nThe kindergarten, e. g., far from being designated a mere play school might\nfar more properly be called a garden in which children work, not toil, and the\nwork done in a kindergarten in which selection of stimuli has been careful and\ndirection of child motive is wise, certainly compares favorably in value to that\ndone during any period of equal time during the child's school life.\n\n"} {"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVE\n\nFOR\n\nWORK\n\n465\n\nThe selection of work-inspiring stimuli rests, of course, with the kindergartner; the motive for work is to be found in the child himself. Artificial\nincentives for work in the kindergarten are neither necessary nor advisable,\nand their employment by any teacher whatsoever is too often due to lack of\nknowledge of how to use motives already in the child mind.\nRoughly, then, the method of procedure is blocked out; it is the same for\nall kindergartners. What truths, if any, have been discovered ? How is the\nkindergarten child differentiated from children of a larger growth and from\nadults ? What with him can we count upon as a motive for voluntary work ?\nThe most noticeable trait, apparent even to the casual observer, is physical\nactivity. The kindergarten child is predominantly active as compared with\nothers. He likes movement for its own sake — and truly the granting of\nopportunity of movement for its own sake would be a boon to many a child.\nBut the wise kindergartner utilizes this natural motive for motion and makes\nof it a motive for work involving motion. She realizes that this movement\nought to be self-directed to a great extent, that it must call for the exercise of\nthe power of choice, that it must lead to production of some kind, that in its\nprogress it must not interfere with the rights of others, that it must take the\nform of co-operation, that it must be of such a nature and continue for such a\ntime as to further, never to hinder, healthy, normal physical development.\nGames, then, are not played for mere amusement. Songs are not sung for\nentertainment. Handwork is not provided merely to keep the child busy,\nnor, on the other hand, for th5 finished production which may follow. Pictures\nare not drawn to serve as specimens of childish art. The work in the mind\nof the kindergartner to be wrought is real work, work that carries with it\npower and dignity, work that is thoroly enjoyed, and the motive for it she\nfinds in the child in irrepressible movement.\nBut this tendency to irrepressible movement is not confined to his physical\nnature. His mind, as is ours, is in a constant state of flux. The mind of the\nyoung child, however, is in a special or unique state — that of passive attention.\nIf he be a normal human being of four or five years, he must attend to the\nsights, sounds, and other stimuli offered by the outside world. He is more\nof an animal than he will be later. The animal who refuses thus to attend\nfails to survive. The child who is unable thus to attend is abnormal, unfit.\nYet these brief periods are at the same time periods of interest, and, if the\nproper stimuli be provided, are periods of great and valuable mental growth.\nThe motive for work in this case is simply an overpowering tendency to be\nconstantly in a peculiar state of mental activity. The work is the change\nthat goes on in the child's mental complex during these rapidly passing\nperiods under the influence of carefully directed stimuli. The motive for\nwork then is again irrepressible movement, but in this case mental movement.\nMuch that this new and strange world brings to the child he is not ready to\nreceive. It bears no content, carries with it no meaning, but there are certain\ntendencies either natural or easily and early acquired that almost never fail\n\n"} {"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIKindergarten\n\nto appeal to him. Among these is the inclination to collect things, a form of\nactivity both mental and physical. Given the proper stimulus, i. e., the one\nthat appeals to the child as an individual, and this tendency to collect may\nresult in work of huge proportions. If the tendency, as frequently happens, be\nmerely the collection of any objects whatsoever, simply the gathering together\nof material, then it is the kindergartner's privilege and duty to provide material\nof educative value or to lead the child to find it for himself. The child thus\ndirected becomes a changed being simply thru the utilization of his motive\nfor work, which was a crude, uncultivated, restlessness forcing him to act\nin a certain ill-defined, but positive way.\nLacking almost entirely the knowledge and content of words, it is no\nwonder that the child ideas are largely composed of symbols of a different\nkind. They seek for expression of their ideas, however, quite as eagerly as do\nchildren of a larger growth, but more emphatically than they in the form of\ndramatization. It is only thru their bodies that they can make themselves\nclearly understood. It is only thru the bodily actions of others that they are\nable fully to understand them. The same sort of irrepressible energy that\nimpels them almost constantly merely to move impels them frequently to\nmove in living pictures. Life is a medley of disconnected incidents. The\ndesire to set forth the incidents experienced is all-forceful. Surely it is not\nnecessary to point how eagerly the kindergartner seizes upon this tendency\nto accomplish work. The child in the kindergarten who has been permitted\nto work with ideas in this way knows far better how to work with them in a\nmore abstract form when he is ready to step forth into the larger world of word\nideas. Who shall say which form of work is the more valuable in bringing\nabout desirable change? In fact, the change wrought in a child's mental\nand ethical nature by work done in wisely selected drama can hardly be estimated, and its value can hardly be overestimated. Again we find the motive\nfor work emanating from the child himself.\nNot only is the kindergarten child interested in his own action and that\nof his fellows, but all that moves holds him a willing captive. He unconsciously stretches forth his hands to the flying bird, imitates the motion of the\nrunning horse, or follows to its hiding place the shy rabbit. All living, moving\nthings wield a power over him. It is not that he wishes to attend; he must\nattend. And so the kindergarten is filled with live animals, the living-conditions of which are as nearly as possible like those of their free brothers; or,\nbetter still, the children and animals live together in a veritable out-of-door\nkindergarten — permissible in many parts of our country — and are taken\nfrequently from their own little garden out into the larger one of the adjoining\nbit of world. Who can ever hope to trace the changes in brain-cell patterns\nthat must result? The motive supplied by the child himself, intense active\ninterest in living, moving animals, the kindergartner obtains, in addition to\nactual knowledge of animal life, increased sympathy, respect, pity, tenderness, love for, and actual care of, animals involving various forms of\n\n"} {"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\nIN\n\nGERMANY\n\n467\n\nmental and physical work. The motive for work is once more childborn.\nSometimes two tendencies — two motives of action or work of opposite\ntypes are made to co-operate admirably. There is in all animals — and the\nhuman being is no exception — the instinct for self-preservation, expressing\nitself often in young children in a kind of aggressive self-defense exercised\nwithout necessary provocation. We say the child likes to fight. There is also\nprominent in most children the parental or protective trait as shown in love\nfor and care of babies, dolls, animals, \"teddy bears,\" etc. The desire to\nfight can certainly also be traced to this origin. The kindergartner simply\ndirects the tendency into its proper channel. The kindergarten child who\ninvoluntarily flushes and clenches his small fists when he sees an animal\ncruelly hurt or a weak or deformed child cruelly teased is on the high-road to\ngood citizenship. The world needs fighters of this sort; and the motive for\nthis form of the world's work does not have to be artificially supplied.\nIt is the tendency to imitate that leads a child to wish to do what he finds\nothers doing. This is, obviously, one of the most fruitful sources of education.\nThe amount of hard work accomplished thru imitation among children is\nenormous. The kindergartner skilfully turns the motive for work of mere\nimitation into desire for co-operative work where imitation is more or less\ncalled into play.\nBut why multiply instances ? The purpose of this paper has been accomplished ifthe following points have been made clear:\n1. The kindergarten has a recognized place in the scheme of education.\n2. It is in a state of progressive evolution.\n3. Its general problem is not radically different from that of other educators.\n4. It deals with children at a time when they are in a peculiar mental\ncondition.\n5. Its function, like that of other departments of education, is to supply\ndesirable forms of work.\n6. The motives for this work are to be found in certain powerful tendencies\nInherent in the child himself.\nHOME\nAMALIE\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE LN GERMANY\n\nNIX, PRESIDENT OF THE GERMAN\nMINNESOTA,\nST. PAUL,\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\nMINN.\n\nSOCIETY\n\nOF\n\nFor the past twenty-five years many of our great scholars have crossed the\nocean to study at the universities of Germany, to acquire that knowledge\nwhich they have sought in vain in our youthful mother country. More\nrecently, the school system of Germany has been made a subject of study by\nour teachers and students of pedagogy. Most of these agree that the present\nhigh standard of intelligence of the German nation has its origin in the careful\ntraining of the child. Whether on American, English, or German soil, childnature displays a striking resemblance everywhere. The duty of molding the\n\n"} {"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ncharacter of developing and cultivating those qualities in children which will\nmake them noble men and women — worthy citizens — is left to the mother,\nfather, and later to the teacher. Children are taught to be industrious in\nGermany, respect older people, be courteous and charitable to everyone.\nThe typical German home justly deserves being called the preparatory department of the primary school. The spirit of reverence shown here for parents,\nsisters, and brothers, the sweet spirit of submission to all parental authority,\nis particularly noticeable and impressive to the observing stranger. The sunny\nexpression on the children's faces prove that they are happy to obey, and to\nrecognize law in their own homes. A spirit of harmony pervades the atmosphere of most German homes, another admirable feature which a foreigner\nobserves. From these relations necessarily follow the beautiful ties of affection that bind together the different members of a family forever. In mentioning respect shown for age, I ought to have added that this applies to things\nas well as to people. Children take pride in being allowed to sit in the same\nchair, or use the same old-fashioned writing desk which had once been prized\nby a great grandfather or other ancestors. Even mothers are proud of showing their thirty- or forty-year-old son's or daughter's first little chair or table,\nyes, all their schoolbooks from the days of their childhood. And how neat\nthese are kept ! This is especially surprising to Americans, who could hardly\nspeak in Germany of the widespread custom of buying and selling schoolbooks here second hand. The lack of piety shown by such a deed would\nhorrify our German friends. We know well that the buying and selling of\nold schoolbooks is not confined to the poorer classes in our country.\nYou are all aware that the Germans are exceedingly fond of outdoor life.\nOften they go many miles from a city to a distant suburb or another city, as\nfrom Berlin to Potsdam, or into the country on foot, generally accompanied\nby their families. During the pleasant spring, summer, and autumn months\nbreakfast and supper are served in the garden. Most professional people\nare not early-risers, neither do they retire early. In Berlin, for instance, you\nsee the same number of people on the street at twelve o'clock at night as at\ntwelve at noon.\nPerhaps a touch on the servant problem might be of interest to you in connection with what I have to say about the German home. Servants are cheap\nand plentiful, are engaged by contract for a year, and obliged to furnish\nreferences. If dissatisfied, they must inform their mistress three months\nbefore leaving of their intention of changing. The mistress of the house is\ngoverned by the same rules. A servant cannot be dismissed without extending\nto her the courtesy of a fair warning. As a consequence, we find in many\nGerman homes old, reliable servants, who have spent probably half of their\nlife-time, or more, in the same family, sometimes serving the next generation.\nIn speaking of servants, I would include nurse girls who take care of\nchildren under the age of four. The children of the well-to-do and wealthy\nclasses are turned over to a governess, who must hold a teacher's diploma.\n\n"} {"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\nIN\n\nGERMANY\n\n469\n\nThe governess has charge of them until they are old enough to attend school,\nin some families longer. She eats at the family table and is considered a\nmember of the family. If in moderate circumstances, the mother guides and\ninstructs her children until they are old enough to attend school.\nWe cannot help feeling that the German home is an ideal home in many\nrespects.\nSweet is the smile of home; the mutual look,\nWhen hearts are of each other sure;\nSweet all the joys that crowd the household nook,\nThe haunt of all affections pure.\n\nOur American educators who have studied in Germany have expressed\ntheir appreciation of the German people by the significant words: Das Volk\nder Denker — the people of thinkers. That the German nation deserves to\nbe called '-Das Volk der Denker\" is proved by the excellent schools which\nwe find in Germany. The schools of Saxony rank ameng the highest and\nnone are superior to those of the province of Thuringia. The teacher who is\nfavored to visit the schools of Blankenburg, Weimar, and Jena finds that,\nbeside stepping on sacred historical and classical soil, he has been rewarded\nby gaining considerable knowledge thru this valuable observation trip. He\nrealizes that he is benefited in his psychological researches, that he is inspired\nby the new educational thought, altho he may be surprised to learn that\ncoeducation is still in its infancy. But also in this direction some progress\ncan be detected within the past few years. In most schools the boys are\nseparated from the girls, still there are those which are coeducational. Prominent educators are beginning to see that the false barriers which had been\nerected long ago can entirely be done away with by coeducation. They know\nthat, after having tried the experiment, from the moment their schooling\nbegins, the relations of the boys and girls assume an entirely natural aspect;\nthere is no mystery, no nonsense. They have also discovered that the presence\nof girls has a refining influence on the boys, making them gentler in manner\nand more careful in speech, and that the boys teach the girls self-reliance.\nMost German universities have become coeducational during the past ten years ;\naltho it is still difficult for a woman student to obtain a degree, which seems\nstrange, since Germany's most noted professors have by far a greater admiration for the successful scholar than for his degrees. Women can, however,\ntake special work and are given credit for showing a marked progress in this,\nprovided that they come well prepared, and have acquired a thoro knowledge\nof the German language. Normal school diplomas are recognized abroad and\nthe progressive American teacher who enters a German university is held in\nhigh esteem by Germany's greatest scholars. Her fame depends on the results\nobtained; if these are of an inferior kind, the degrees, which accompany her,\nwhen admitted, are worthless. The boy from a country school who comes\nto us now with the proud remark that he had just completed the sixth reader\nbefore leaving his school and asks for admission to the seventh grade will be\n\n"} {"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIKindergarten\n\nexamined and probably placed in the fourth grade. You who heard\nElla Flagg Young's address on Monday evening are all heartily in sympathy with her views on the degree question. If degrees were conferred\nonly upon professional people of superior educational standing, they would\nbe of great value. I wish to call attention to Mark Twain and Minnesota's\ngreat governor, Johnson, who have both been honored recently with degrees\nfrom universities of standing. Men and women of superior intelligence are\nrecognized abroad, and more and more in our United States also, in no little\nmeasure due to the elevating influence of our intellectual, broad, and just\nPresident Roosevelt.\nIn returning to Thuringia — in German, Thiiringen — '*das immergrune\nHerz Deutschlands,\" or \"der Garten Deutschlands,\" I can assure you\nthat a trip to Blankenburg alone would justify the use of the adjective ''sacred.\"\nBut some of you may have been in Blankenburg and, like myself, may have\nbeen silenced at first by the grandeur of the scenery and next by the memories\nof days gone by. A glance at the time-worn \"Froebelhaus,\" at the modest\nmonument erected to Germany's ideal teacher, Friedrich Froebel, with its\nsignificant inscription, \"Kommt lasst uns unseren Kindern leben!\" and his\nfavorites — ball, cylinder, and cube — above, is an inspiration to the teacher,\nnever to be forgotten. The father of the kindergarten — your and our much\nadmired Froebel — lived and worked here for many years. It is a great\npleasure to converse with the people, who still remember Froebel, or can\nrelate what their parents knew of him, his striking personality, his kindergarten, and his famous school for kindergartners, his girls' training school.\nThe German people consider Schiller the ideal poet of Germany; Goethe\nthe greatest poet; the ideal teacher is Friedrich Froebel. Schiller, Goethe,\nand Froebel lived, worked, and died in Thiiringen.\nYou have heard that less is known of Froebel's life than of his works.\nWhen I spoke to you of the ideal German home, you knew that Froebel's\nhome — the home in which he was born — could not be included. Born April\n21, 1782, in the village of Oberweissbach, as the third son of a preacher, he\nlost his mother when but a year old. Between the ages of three and thirteen\nhe was under the supervision of a stepmother, who did not understand child\nnature. In the impressionable years of his childhood, he was deprived of his\nfreedom, not even allowed to come often into contact with the great \"book\nof nature.\" Instead of the sunshine of motherly love, the most rigid form\nof discipline reigned supreme in his father's home. In spite of these unfortunate conditions, the boy's tenderness, his love for what is good, true, and\nbeautiful, could not be crushed. It was by accident that an uncle appeared\none day in the preacher's household. His sympathy for the unhappy boy\nwas aroused, so he asked permission to take Friedrich with him to his home.\nAnd the parents let him depart willingly. The uncle brought Froebel into a\nhome where he could enjoy nature, freedom, and the association of playmates.\nAt the age of seventeen we find him studying forestry; at eighteen, a student\n\n"} {"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\nIN\n\nGERMANY\n\n471\n\nat the university of Jena. Later he accepted a position in Herrn Gruner's\nmodel school in Frankfurt-on-the-Main. The latter was a great admirer of\nPestalozzi, the famous pedagogue of Switzerland, whom Froebel met for the\nfirst time during his vacation. The following year he entered Pestalozzi's\ninstitution, both as student and instructor. And later we find him again in\nGermany at the University of Gottingen first, then at Berlin. In 181 7 he and\nhis friends Langenthal and Middendorf opened their noted high school for\nboys in a farm house of the village of Keilhau. At first only Froebel's five\nnephews were enrolled in this school, but the number increased rapidly.\nFroebel, believing that proper attention should be paid to the training of the\nhand, without neglecting the intellectual and moral training of his high-school\nboys, taught them the essentials of manual training systematically, freehand\nand instrumental drawing, the use of common tools theoretically and practically. According to Froebel, a one sided intellectual training produced\nnarrow-mindedness. He was the first educator who accomplished an allround, broad education, by developing systematically mind, soul, and body.\nOur own and other nations have borrowed Froebel's manual-training suggestions later. You know in what high esteem manual-training schools are held\nby us today; know what an unusual degree of efficiency their pupils attain,\nalso that the tendency of education is becoming more and more practical.\nBut have we given due credit to Froebel for laying the foundation of our\nmodern manual-training school? Among those who had come to assist\nFroebel in his high school at Keilhau, none were more enthusiastic than\nHenriette Hofmeister, who became his wife afterwards. In the year 1831,\nhowever, the school had to be closed on account of financial difficulties.\nBurgdorf claimed Froebel next as director of an orphans' home, principal of a\n''Volkschule\" and a teachers' training-school. Here the little children were\nhis favorites. For the first time in his life Froebel realized that his future\nought to be devoted to the education of little children from the age of four to\nsix. In 1837 he established a school for little children in Blankenburg, some-,\nwhat later a training-school for kindergartners. He believed that the lowest\nschool should cover the play period of a child's life, and that play should be\nto the child what work is to the man. By means of songs and games Froebel\nsucceeded in arousing the religious, the ethical, and the esthetic sentiment in the\nchild. His mother-play and nursery songs, his gifts and occupations are as\nfamiliar to us here at present as they are in Germany. You know that Froebel\ncould not find a suitable name at first for this institution for little children.\nBut one day the beauty of the surrounding country caused him to exclaim:\n\"Ich habe es gefunden. Kindergarten soil die neue Anstalt heissen!\" (I\nhave found it. The new institution shall be called children's garden !) And\nhis tender plants, the little children, were certainly cultivated by sympathetic\ngardners, the kindergartners.\nIn order to fully understand Froebel's great pedagogical works, which\nAmerica — our United States — has adopted, a thoro study of the German\n\n"} {"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|Kindergarten\n\nlanguage and of German customs would be very helpful to the kindergartner\nand the teacher. The same may be said of the works of Pestalozzi and\nHerb art, two other educators who have held a warm place in the hearts of all\nprogressive teachers. Froebel, Pestalozzi, and Herbart are all classified\namong our reformers on the field of pedagogy. Froebel's creative power, his\ncharming manner with little children, the breadth of his teaching, his inspiring\ninfluence, and last, but not least, the degree of efficiency his pupils reached,\nplace him in the ranks of great teachers, of whom the world has seen but few.\nFroebel, the pedagogical genius, has probably exercised a greater influence\nupon our educational ideals than any other educator. With the kindergarten\nhe has given us the primary manual-training school, which has become so\npopular that it can never pass out of existence. You know how rapidly it has\nspread for the past twenty years, what great progress it has made here in\nNature's sanitarium, in the land of roses, where we enjoy this great Convention, the fiftieth anniversary of the National Educational Association. Altho\nchanges adapted to the conditions here in our Union have been made in the\nkindergarten, we must not forget that our model will always be a Froebelian\nkindergarten. Froebel was the founder, the father of the kindergarten, and to\nhim we should be grateful. The names of Mrs. Kate Douglas Wiggin, Professor\nand Mrs. Hailmann, Miss Peabody, Miss Blow, Mrs. Hubbard, and many\nothers will always rank prominently for the excellent work they have accomplished incarrying out Froebel's ideas, at a time when the kindergarten was\nnot regarded favorably by the general public.\nWhile in Germany several years ago, I had the pleasure of visiting a Froebelian kindergarten, conducted by Fraulein Schellhorn, in Weimar, the classical city of Germany. Fraulein Schellhorn was a member of Froebel's last\nteachers' training-class — a very old lady, but youthful in appearance. The\nlittle children were instructed among large flower beds. Here they worked\nand played, themselves the choicest of the flowers. The elevating influence\n• of the environment with which these little ones were blessed was quite perceptible. Altho small, their young minds had already passed the stage of\ninfancy. They were full of activity and enthusiasm, characteristic to their\nage, still they began showing an intellectual ability which was quite surprising\nto me. It was an opportunity for studying both a psychological and a\nsociological problem.\nThat Froebel was a philanthropist of the noblest type, he proved to those\nwith whom he came in contact. To his teachers he was a friend. He had\nfull confidence in the power of an experienced teacher.\nIt may be well to state right here that a time limit in the teaching profession\nis almost unknown in Germany, even should a teacher confess that she has\nreached or passed the age of forty. Teachers are treated with great respect —\nexperienced teachers in good standing being fairly worshiped. They are\ngiven permission to express themselves on any subject freely, The dropping\nof such teachers being an impossibility, they do not fear that they might, at\n\n"} {"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE IN GERMANY\n\n473\n\nthe end of the school year, be discontinued in their positions. The wholesale\ndropping of teachers, without providing for them — a somewhat cruel custom,\nwhich still prevails in some of our American cities — ^recalls to me annually the\nGerman fairy tale, \"Die Bremer Stadt musikanten\" (The Musicians of the\nCity of Bremen). You are all familiar with it, your little children's eyes are\nfilled with tears and their hearts with sympathy for the animals, while you\nare relating it. The donkey, the dog, the cat, and the rooster, all dismissed\nby four cruel masters, because their period of usefulness had passed — they\nwere old. They decide to wander to Bremen and organize a music band.\nYou know the rest, and what a beautiful lesson it teaches, what an impression\nit leaves. The great difference between the end of this fairy tale and that of the\nreal dismissal of the so-called superannuated teacher is that the animals find\na home, while the teacher who has sacrificed the best years of her life for her\nprofession is homelesss\nAs politics cannot enter into the German schools, no teacher can be\nappointed thru influence of any kind, but strictly on the strength of his merits.\nWhile his income may not be half as large as that of our American teachers,\nhis expenses are less, and he can rest assured that the government has made\nample provision for his future by keeping a good pension for him in store\nwhen he wishes to retire, on account of illness or old age. In the treatment\nof her teachers, Germany also proves her superiority in point of culture —\nher respect for what is humane.\nTo come back briefly to Froebel, I wish to emphasize again that he retained\nhis energy, his pedagogical enthusiasm, up to the time when he entered into\nrest in 1852. Tho age had been advancing, his usefulness was not impaired.\nTeachers, can we not learn a lesson here also ?\nUnd fiihlst dein Herz du krank und alt,\nLass es mit Kindern spielen,\nIn ihrer Welt, ach wirst du bald\nVerjiingt dich wieder fiihlen.\nUnd schrecken dich der Qualm und Rauch\nIm grossen Weltgetiimmel,\nGeh', schau in deiner Kinder Aug',\nDu schaust in einen Himmel.\n\nBefore closing I shall speak to you briefly about The Athens of the River\nSaale — \"Das Saale Athen Deutschlands \" the German center of pedagogical\nprogress — ^Jena. It was at Jena where Schiller and Fichte were numbered\namong the professors of the university, where Goethe exerted his influence,\nand where Napoleon won the decisive battle on October 14, 1806. Wilhelm\nvon Humboldt, the two brothers von Schlegel, Voss, Schelling, Reinhardt and\nErich Schmidt were contemporaries of Schiller and Fichte at Jena. We can\nhardly pass thru a single street where our attention is not attracted by some\nmemorial tablet by which Jena honors her great men of the past. And Jena\nhas in her midst great men of the present day. Among these, none are of\n\n"} {"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ngreater interest to the teacher than Professor Dr. Rein, who holds the chair of\npedagogy at the university as one of Herbart's and Zillar's most enthusiastic\nfollowers. Professor Rein is also at the head of the pedagogical seminary and\npractice school, which are connected with the university. In 1904, Professor\nRein was the only professor of pedagogy who was honored with an invitation,\nfrom Europe, I think, to attend the International Congress of Arts and Science\nat the Exposition in St. Louis.\nIn his work on Herhart and the Herbartians, Professor Charles De Garmo\nsays:\nSo long as men merely lecture at the universities, or write their opinions in their books,\nthe world at large does not know whether their theories will work in actual practice or not.\nDr. Rein has made the pedagogical seminary the most noted of its kind in Europe, to\nwhich students resort from every civilized country. His specific contribution to the\nHerbartian cause lies, not so much in the promulgation of new ideas, as in the practical\napplication of the important ones that had remained mostly untried.\n\nAccording to the historic genetic principle involved in the Herbartian\nsystem, history forms the basis of the plan of instruction, the center from which\nthe other studies diverge, like the branches of a tree from its massive trunk.\nEvery lesson is based on five formal steps: i. Preparation; 2. Presentation;\n3. Association; 4. Drill; and 5. Application. Wherever the Herbartian\nsystem with its principle of correlation as the central thought is employed\nadmirable results are obtained. Character-building is the first aim of every\nrecitation, acquisition of knowledge the second.\nThe pupils acquire a thoro knowledge of every subject included in their\ncourse of study.\nProfessor Rein also organized the first university summer school in Germany\nin 1889, and still conducts it. It is considered the best summer school in all\nGermany, where excellent courses in pedagogy, theology, philosophy, etc.,\nare offered by some of Germany's greatest scholars. Three times I have\nbeen in a position to notice its progress — once as a student and twice as a\nstudent and speaker besides. Of all the speakers. Professor Rein draws the\nlargest audience. Our meeting here is a national meeting, the value of which\nwe all realize. The summer school sessions at Jena are international\nsessions, which are likewise very helpful to a teacher. My advice is to attend\nDr. Rein's summer school when abroad; it will prove an inspiration to you\nwhich will last for years. The association with those of our profession from\nforeign countries may be considered equal to a special course in pedagogy\nand educational psychology. The majority of teachers seeking higher\neducation in Jena come from Germany, Austria, England, America,\nSweden, Denmark, and Finland.\nIt is hardly necessary to tell you that the German people are pervaded by a\nspirit of honesty, which does not permit them to swerve from what is just and\nright. By the extension of moral and mental culture, Germany has grown\ninto an educational center, of which the German people may well be proud.\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday Morning, July io, 1907\nThe department convened at 9 : 30 A. m. at the Immanuel Presbyterian Church,\nMrs. Alice W. Cooley, the president, in the chair.\nOwing to the absence of the secretary, Miss Emma C. Davis of Cleveland, O., was\nappointed secretary by the chair.\nThe session was opened by an introductory address by the president giving a comprehensive view of the topic of the session: \"Potent Factors in Teaching Oral Reading\nand Oral Language,\" with the relation thereto of the several topics to be discussed.\nThe first paper on this topic was presented by Henry Suzzallo, adjunct professor\nof education, Teachers College, Columbia University, on \"The Story and the Poem.\"\nThis was followed by a paper discussing \" Story Telling and the Poem,\" by Miss Emma\nC. Davis, supervisor department of English, Cleveland, Ohio.\nProfessor Thos. C. Blaisdell, Department of EngHsh, State Agricultural College,\nLansing, Mich., followed with a paper on \"Dramatizing.\"\n\"Expression by the Hand\" was then discussed in a paper by I. C. McNeill, superintendent ofschools, Memphis, Tenn.\nUpon motion, the president appointed the following committee on nominations:\nJames F. Chamberlain, Los Angeles, Cal.\nS. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\nChas. H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn.\nThe papers were discussed by John S. Welch, supervisor of grammar grades, Salt Lake,\nUtah; J. F. Reigart, principal of Public School No. 2, New York City; L. E. Wolfe,\nsuperintendent of schools, San Antonio, Texas, and Henry Suzzallo, Teachers College,\nNew York City.\nThe department then adjourned.\nSECOND\nSESSION— Friday Morning, July 12\nThe department was called to order at 9:30 a. m., the president, Mrs. Alice W. Cooley,\nin the chair.\nJames F. Chamberlain of the Los Angeles State Normal School presented a paper\non \" Geography in the Life of the Pupil.\" Superintendent A. L. Hamilton of Pasadena\ndiscussed Mr. Chamberlain's paper.\n» Harold W. Fairbanks of the U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal., continued the\nconsideration of one phase of the main topic in a paper on \"Illustrative Excursions for\nField Sight.\" C. T. Wright, supervisor of geography, city schools, Redlands, Cal., discussed Mr. Fairbank's paper.\n\"The Emphasis of Commercial and Industrial Geography\" was the topic discussed\nin the next paper by Superintendent S. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\n\"History in the Life of the Pupil,\" was presented in a paper by Walter A. Edwards,\nPresident of Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, California. The paper was discussed by Miss Agnes Elliot, head of the Department of History in the Los Angeles Normal\nSchool,\nFollowing this. Professor Chamberlain at the request of the president, summed up\nthe points considered in the several papers. 475\n\n"} {"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nReport of the committee on nominations was made by the chairman as follows:\nFor President — ^J. K. Stableton, superintendent of schools, Bloomington, 111.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Adalaide S. Baylor, superintendent of schools, Wabash, Ind.\nIdaho.For Secretary — Miss S. Belle Chamberlain, state superintendent of schools, Boise,\nA motion was made and carried that the report be accepted and that the nominees\nbe declared elected. The president closed the meeting with an expression of appreciation\nof the work of the contributors to the program and of the local committee. The Department then adjourned.\nEmma C. Davis, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nINTRODUCTION\nALICE\n\nWOODWORTH\n\nBY THE\nCOOLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nGRAND\n\nFORKS,\n\nN.\n\nD.\n\nHundreds of us climbed over and shot thru most stupendous mountains;\nslid down into and crept up out of deepest canons; and panted across scorching\nand seemingly pathless deserts to what we had ignorantly thought to be the\nsouthwestern jumping-off place of our country. At last arrived, we find our\ndestination to be the center of the universe. So we have great reason for\ncongratulation this morning.\nTruly it is a matter of great significance that so many of us have thus\njourneyed for days and nights over mountain, cafion, and desert because of\nour interest in our chosen work. It is significant, too, that with so great a\nvariety of good things inviting us this morning, so many are here to evidence\ntheir appreciation of the vital importance of the elementary work. And\nwe assume that we are here because of our live interest in the live topic to be\npresented.\nA brief glance at the program shows that each address is a part of one\nwhole — these parts woven together by experts in both theory and practice.\nThe president's part of the program is to give merely the prelude; to call\nattention to a few main features of the morning's discussion.\nThere is concentration of attention on the one subject, development of\noral self-expression. More than this, concentration upon a particular phase —\nthe great factors to be used in this development. In the word factor we strike\nthe keynote. In the grouping of the words \"oral reading and oral language\"\nwe strike the dominant chord, to emphasize the fact that there can be no true\nteaching of the one that does not give increased power in the other. Both are\nforms. of self-expression.\nThis program has been made to meet the demands of present conditions.\nFor more than a quarter-century colleges and universities have been castigating us for the noticeable lack of early language training in their students;\neducational clubs thruout the country have been continuously ** resolving\"\nthat the \"correct use of the English language must be taught in the elementary,\nschools;\" leading periodicals and current magazines have taken up the cudgels\n\n"} {"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nPRESIDENT\n\n477\n\nand laid upon us the responsibility for \"English as she is spoke.\" And these\ncriticisms are just. In these days of art-revival, when we are so vigorously\npreaching the gospel of beauty and the necessity of cultivating the sense of\nbeauty, this great universal art is most neglected. One rarely hears in conversation the choice, beautiful English that is our inheritance. Our ears are\nmade constantly familiar with ungrammatical and provincial expressions,\nused by boys, girls, men, and women, who have spent years in our public\nschools, and who frequently tell us they have \"been thru\" language, grammar,\nand literature.\nAgain, we have for years discussed all phases of this problem in conventions\nand institutes — national, state, city, village, and rural. We have learned by\nhead, if not by heart, the physical, metaphysical, aesthetical, philosophical,\nbiological, psychological, and pedagogical reasons why language development\nis absolutely fundamental in education. And after all this, we return to the\nschoolrooms of our country to find very little growth in actual language teaching. We find schools in which \"language is taught incidentally;\" schools\nwhere grammar lessons of varying degrees of solution and dilution are taught\nunder the guise of \"language lessons;\" and schools in which all kinds of\nmechanical devices and exercises masquerade as language work; but we find\nvery little true, strong, vital language teaching.\nMany, many teachers are awake to the necessity of doing^something who\nhave most vague and hazy ideas of that something to be done. For these\nreasons, therefore, emphasis is laid this morning on the factors, the means\nto be used in the twofold nature of language teaching, the two phases that\njoined by nature cannot be \"parted asunder.\" These are, as we know,\ncultivation of the ear to quick, keen discrimination between the beautiful\nand the ugly expression — ^between the true and the false; and the establishment of the habit of right usage,.\nThe subject has been chosen for this particular time and place with the\nthought that the function of the National Educational Association is not merely\nto talk and possibly influence theory, but to mold practice. It is our most\nearnest hope that the messages brought to us by the speakers of the morning —\nmen and women who have proved the potency of these factors by experience —\nmay be to each individual as so many bugle-calls to more effective work in the\nlanguage development of children. None can measure the service to humanity\nif we who are here help the children who come to us in the future to more\nadequate self-expression. It means for each child so helped, unfolded life\nwith greater power for service. In this way the work of the teacher of language\nnever dies, but abides as a mighty and generative force, playing its part in the\nup-lifting of humanity. May we enter into this holy privilege and thus prove\nourselves one of those whom Robert Burdette described to us as \"teachers\ncome from God.\" And may this morning of July 10, 1907, bring us new\ninspiration, new consecration, and new determination that shall bear fruit in\nthe lives of children.\n\n"} {"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "47^\n\nPOTENT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nFACTORS\nI.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIN ORAL READING\nTHE\n\nSTORY\n\nAND\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\n[Elementary\n\nORAL LANGUAGE\n\nPOEM\n\nHENRY\nSUZZALLO,\nADJUNCT PROFESSOR\nOF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION,\nTEACHERS\nCOLLEGE,\nCOLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY,\nNEW\nYORK\nCITY\n[condensed\n\nstenographic\n\nreport]\n\nThe tendency of the modern school to become an institution designed to\ngive more than an appreciation of knowledge is clearly manifested by recent\nschool curricula. Within the past decade or two the expressive subjects have\ncome to occupy a larger place in instruction. Drawing, music, manual training, and composition have been given larger attention of late than in previous\nyears. The importance of expression in the learning process has become quite\nobvious from the very beginning of the experiment in the use of active subjects.\nThere is ng final test of the rightness of feeling or of the accuracy of thinking\nlike the action or expression which is the result of these. We are realizing more\nas we proceed that the school must turn out men with more than appreciative\npower. Its men must have the ability to influence life thru expressive ability.\nThus far our efforts have been fragmentary, however, and it seems a meet\ntime to consider from a unified and broad point of view the expressive work of\nthe school, and more particularly for the purposes of this address to show the\nplace of the story and the poem.\nThere are many types of expression thru which man comes to influence\nhimself and the world in which he lives. Some of these are in analysis, simple,\nothers are complex. For purposes of convenience and clearness one might\nsay, that there are four simple types of human expression and action. These\nwe may term, (i) organic expression; (2) reconstructive expression; (3)\nrepresentative expression, and (4) expression thru language. Other important\ntypes which are combinations of two or more of these might be noted, such as the\nforceful expression of a great executive, who does his creative work mainly\nthru the control of men. Dramatic expression, which is also a combination\nof these various types, might likewise be noted.\nThe first type of expression, which I have chosen to call organic expression, isthe expression of human life which man gives thru his own physical\norganism. Movement of all sorts, facial expression and every other form\nwhich reveals the human mood may be included under this head. From the\nplay of the child and the irritation which a man reveals thru the nervous\nreadjustments of his body up to the fine art of pantomime and facial expression as revealed in the drama is a series of human manifestations which make\nup the influential factors in human personality. Find a man who is devoid\nof personal expression of this organic type, and you will have a man who is\nlikely to be personally uninfluential among his fellow beings. In the order\nof precedence organic expression is the most instinctive and is the first general\npower of expressiveness which a child attains.\nBut a child not only makes over himself readjusting his inner states by\n\n"} {"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN READING\n\nAND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n479\n\nhis organic actions; he goes farther and becomes expressive and creative with\nthe world beyond his physical self. When a child changes an object from one\nposition to another or tears it to pieces, scattering its fragments, or builds the\ntorn fragments together again, he is modifying the world in which he lives;\nhe is engaging in reconstructive expression. This is the second large type.\nIn the school it is represented by the subjects of manual training and the\nfine arts.\nIn the work of making over the world after the fashion of his heart's desire a\nchild soon faces his own impotency. A child like a man may wish to hold a\nfleeting picture or the evanescent hues of a sundown. He may wish to change\nthe sky line to the fashion of his own interpretation. But the untold forces\nof nature are mightier than he; the round of days with its fleeting beauties\ngoes on and the mountains hold their rigid silhouettes against the sky. Man\ncan little change them. But the idealistic nature of man must have its way\nand so he represents nature to himself in line and color. Out of it come the\narts of drawing and painting.\nThis is representative expression.\nAll that man has done in the preceding types of expression is to tell of some\nconcrete thing, to indicate a special mood, to mold a special object, or to\nrepresent a particular picture. Man with his intellectual powers sees more than\nthe concrete. Behind the world of particular things his interpretive mind\nhas builded abstractions and generalizations, laws and gods, and so for these\nhe has created a special language, the language npt of sticks and stones and\nlines and colors, but the language of sounds and symbols. In the school\non the lower planes, we call such expression language, and when it rises to the\nplane of fine arts, we speak of it as literature.\nIf the school is to train thoroly the expressive life so that man may be\ninfluential through all his powers in all his domains, the school must develop\nnot only these four tjrpes of expressiveness but the various complexes of these\nwhich are everywhere recurrent in life. Spontaneous play with its free organic\nexpression, constructive activities, music and the plastic arts, the formal expression of language, the executive control of his fellow-men must all have a place\nin the public school. They may not all be set down in the formal course of\nstudy, but in the inclusive round of school activity each will have its place.\nNow the special subject in hand, the place of the story and the poem, has direct\nreference to but one type of these, that is, to expression in language, and to but\na single aspect of one form of language; that is, to the aesthetic side of oral\nlanguage.\nFor the most part human experiences have the same meanings to different\npeoples the world over. This is due to the similar constitution of human beings.\nBut the language which expresses the meaning of these experiences will differ\nwith Frenchmen, Englishmen, or Germans. The training of linguistic expression then depends upon a clear and fixed association between the meaning\nof an experience and the language symbol which expresses it. For our\nAmerican public schools it involves giving the child experiences, or taking\n\n"} {"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthose which he ahready possesses and associating with them the conventional\nsymbols which his race usage has approved.\nThe English language is, psychologically speaking, two languages, for\nthere are two sets of symbols to be associated with every experience, one with\nsound symbols, the other with sight symbols. In any written language the\nsymbol enters the eye and is expressed thru the fingers which write or set the\ntypes for the printed page. In any spoken language the symbol enters the\ncar and becomes expressed thru the vocal organs. The poem and the story\nas potent factors in oral reading and oral language concern the symbols\nunderstood by the ear and expressed thru the throat, tongue, lips, and other\nphysical organs of speech.\nIn the foregoing analysis it has been suggested that there are two functions\nto oral language. One is the function of appreciation and the other is the\nfunction of expression. Appreciating is listening and understanding. Expression isthinking and speaking. Between these two functions there seems to be\nan established relationship. Our appreciations usually precede and envelop\nour expressiveness. Clear expression demands as a basis clear appreciation.\nKnowledge of a definite sort is always important to decisive and effective action.\nBut in the learning stage experiment in expression may be the best method for\ngaining clear and effective knowledge. Our ability to appreciate, as it widens,\nenlarges our ability to express. And as expression grows our appreciation\nenlarges. The literary appreciation which comes from the use of the story\nand the poem is not alone significant in ministering to understanding and\nenjoyment — it has a direct influence upon the power of expression thru oral\nlanguage.\nIf any given course of study in the subject of reading is carefully analyzed it\nwill be noted that three problems appear to be dominant each at a different time.\nThese problems are, (i) the mastery of mechanics in beginning reading; (2)\nthe quick acquisition of thought in the silent reading of the later primary\ngrades, and (3) the sensing of feeling in the interpretations of the literature\nof the grammar grade. This order in the treatment of our problems which is\nthe common practice of our schools, while it represents fundamental types\nof difficulty, may not necessarily give the proper order and arrangement for\nattacking these difficulties.\nWhile one problem may be dominant the subordinant problems should\nnot be neglected if teaching is to be truly effective. From the very first mastery\nof mechanics reading should mean some appreciation of thought and literary\nfeeling. The same treatment should be characteristic of oral language where\nfrom the start children should not only write words but their ideas and feelings about things. The story and the poem therefore will be a force in oral\nreading and in oral language not only in the more advanced stages of the\nsubject, but from the very beginning.\nBecause the story and the poem deal with literary forms of language where\nthe aesthetic elements of beauty are involved their main service in oral read-\n\n"} {"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN READING\n\nAND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n481\n\ning and language is to minister to the cultivation of literary taste. Most of our\nhigher-grade work in literature has been a failure because there have been no\nadequate foundations in the development of a taste for literary form and\nfeeling in the lower grades. A literary taste for the complex types found in\nour complex classic literature is no more to be expected without an adequate\npreliminary training in the simple foundational elements of literature, than\nis a sudden understanding of complex reasonings in advanced arithmetic without a preliminary training in the simple stages of primary number.\nTaste in oral reading and language will depend on the child's obtaining\nincreased power to appreciate the various elements of beauty. In literature\nthis beauty may be contributed from three sources — One source is the beauty\nof material. Some words are more beautiful intrinsically to the ear than other\nwords. The mere sound of ** harsh \" is less pleasing than the sound of ''gentleness.\" Gold is a more beautiful material than lead, silk than cotton. The\nbeauty of form such as we find in rhyme, meter, etc., is another source. Certain\nvases are of more beautiful form than others. The third source is the beauty\nof meaning. The subject of one poem may revive associations of feeling far\nmore delightful than certain others. In literature all three of these elements\ncontribute to its beauty, and the training of children's taste in literature thru\nthe story and the poem must take into account the growing sensitiveness of the\nchild to the beauty of sound, of form, and of meaning. The extent of a child's\nappreciation of these elements will necessarily depend upon his experience.\nIt is the business of the teacher to give such stories and such poems as will be\nwithin the child's maturity and to add to his life such experiences as will make\nthe appreciation of more difficult forms and meanings possible. Usually\nthe teacher has committed two errors: (i) The classical stories and poems\nhave been given to the child regardless of their inadaptability and the child's\nmastery has been merely mechanical and memoriter. (2) Or, the teacher has\npandered to the present power of the child and provided no new experiences\nwhich creates growth in taste so that more difficult and more beautiful literary\ncreations may ultimately come within his literary reach. The \"Mother Goose\"\nrhymes, which seem absurd to many human beings because of their lack of\nmeaning in terms- of common-sense, are dearly loved by children because of\nthe appeal made by their sound and rhythm. The beginnings of two elements of\nbeauty are present. While the beauty of meaning may to a considerable extent\nbe absent, the \"Mother Goose\" rhymes may be most useful at the beginning of\nliterary work for other elements contributed. Many classics may be loved\nby children for musical sound and pleasant form, while a considerable part of\nthe beauty of their meaning may be quite lost. It is thus that many of us\nhave learned a \"memory gem\" the full beauty and meaning of which came\nlate in life.\nThe story and the poem purely because they are different literary forms\nwill render a different service in that teaching which has as its object the cultivation oftaste for beautiful things in language.\nThe poem will be to children\n\n"} {"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmore appealing for the beauty of its sound and form, and will therefore be\nmemorized and repeated precisely as the master-mind created it. While the\nstory, because its appeal is in its selected meaning and their ordered arrangement in plot and narrative, will scarcely ever be memorized verbatim, but\nwill be learned from the standpoint of the development of its thoughts in their\nnarrative order with little regard for the exact words which originally clothed the\nstory. Here the child will repeat the essential charm of the story even though\nhe may use his own language. It will be the same with other literary forms.\nThe aesthetic qualities contributed by each will need to be studied and its use\nin teaching controlled by the essential qualities which it contributes. When we\nhave made more conscious and studied use of literary forms in teaching, breaking away from the slavery of traditional treatment, the literary side of instruction\nin oral reading and oral language will find some new and more potent factors\nthan it has ever known before.\nII. STORY-TELLING\nEMMA\n\nC.\n\nDAVIS,\n\nSUPERVISOR,\n\nAND\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF\nCLEVELAND,\nOHIO\n\nTHE POEM\nENGLISH,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe consideration of the relation of story-telling to oral reading and oral\nlanguage leads at once to the question of the relation which these bear to the\neducational process and this in turn looks forward to the educational aim.\nWhat is education and what is its goal, may be answered in brief as \"character building,\" with all that this implies, and the two great factors that life\nemploys to this end are the individual experiences and activities, and the experiences of other people portrayed or communicated either by word of mouth or\nthru literature and other arts.\nThe great strides in progress made in the earlier civilization were due to\nmany agencies, not the least important of which was story-telling. The\nrecounting of heroic deeds in the Sagas, the explanation of natural forces\nand their manifestations in m)rths and the interpretations of life in the folklore\nand fables, told from generation to generation, constituted a traditional literature which, beginning in the most primitive and childish myth, advanced to\nthe noble epic of the Greek.\nThese agencies of the past for the education of the race we now seek to\nrevive. The youthful mind holds its view of the universe as a \"vague, unorganized synthesis\" of all the constantly inrushing sense preceptions, the unrelated\nconcepts and impressions, immature opinions, judgments, and feelings — all\nthe items and influences that have come into his experience and contribute to\nhis mental and spiritual interpretation of the physical and psychical universe;\nand the educational process is a leading up to a final consciousness, thru the\ntransmutation by the means of synthesis, analysis, and ultimately of resynthesis of this vague sense of the unity of all things into as clear and all-embracing a\nconcept of the meaning of life and immortality as the human soul is capable of.\nAnd as we ponder it, does it not seem clear what part the story and poem\n\n"} {"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nTN\n\nREADING\n\nAND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n483\n\nplay in this process ? What interpretations of life, what self -revelations, what\ninsights, what clarifications, what harmonizing influences,'what unifying effects,\nwhat explanations in terms of the imagination are possible thru stories and\npoems which, if properly selected, have power to reveal the world to the child\nand the child to himself.\nThe range, adaptation, and selection of stories and poems for such use are\nthemes, each important in itself and worthy of full consideration, which can be\nbut briefly touched upon here.\nSince it is thru stories and poems largely that, either by contrast or coincidence, our ideas of life are revealed to us, and our ideals created, a full range\nwould require that every phase of life and all sorts and degrees of experience\nbe touched upon, and the entire gamut of emotion sounded. In this wide\nrange the variations and types are many and should include some of the rhymes\nand jingles, and cumulative-repetition stories of the nursery period; folklore\nstories, myths, fables, fairy tales, and fanciful stories of classic origin; stories\nof heroes and heroic deeds; ballads and some lyric poems and always and\neverywhere poems which convey exalted ideals or pictures of beauty and\nharmony. Every poem worthy a place in education, embodies and reveals\nsome phase of eternal, universal experience which the human spirit recognizes\nas such and this leads on to self-revelation and self-expression of the highest\ntype. There is too little appreciation of the fact that the poem is a form of\nart of greatest power to move the human heart, to enlighten the finite mind,\nto convey shades of thought and feeling which are inexpressible in prose, and\nto appeal to that prescience of immortality we must nurture all we can.\nThe array of types noted above is given in an unorganized way; a most\ncareful gradation and arrangement is required to meet the different attitudes\nand needs of the progressive stages of psychic growth, but this adaptation is\nagain a theme in itself.\nNot less important than adaptation is the selection of stories within the range,\nfor not all folklore, ancient tho it be, not all myths nor all classic tales are to be\ngiven the children. Perhaps I shall be deemed heretical by some, but I am\nsustained by high authority, when I make the statement that some of the most\ncommonly accepted classical stories are unethical in influence and should be\neliminated from the list. I do believe that strong, vigorous tales touching\nthe heights and depths of human feeling and human experience should be given\nand that goody-goody tales are worse than none, vitiating standards or creating\nanaemic tastes; but deceit, trickery, and wanton lying and stealing rewarded by\nsuccess is not an ideal of life and ''luck\" to put before children; there are hosts\nof other stories full of life and action and near to childish hearts to substitute\nfor such as these.\nI have failed of my endeavor if I have not demonstrated how deep lies the\nsource of influence of the story and the poem upon the oral language and oral\nreading.\nAs for the practical results, the outward testimony of the value and the\n\n"} {"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nindispensability of the story and poem as a part of the educative process, we\nhave not far to seek.\ni\nWe have seen how story and poem may touch the whole range of Hfe^a\nmagic touch at which thought and feeling spring to greet the pictured thought\nand feeling; experience matches experience and is illumined; words and\nexpressions come into consciousness to clothe thought in speech and the language power expands.\nThe expansion in language which comes in this most vital way, is reinforced\nand made permanent thru the wonderful power of memory and imitation of\nchildren; the new language forms in which the stories are clothed thus becoming usually a part of their regular language stock. This effect is very easily\ndiscernible and I find it again and again in schools where the teacher is truly\n\"a story-teller.\" This form of language development transcends in value\nthat which comes thru conversations upon actual activities and experiences,\nvaluable as these are for other purposes, because these being intelligible by the\nuse of the more common words and forms, make less demand upon the\nlanguage power and add comparatively little to the vocabulary, whereas the\nliterature in which most stories are embodied supplies a higher type and wider\nscope of language as well as an enriched content to already familiar words.\nOne of the most subtle ways in which the story and poem influences the\nchild and his self-expression in oral language and oral reading is thru the\nimagination, \"the stuff that dreams are made of.\" But it is the dreamers of\nthe world who feed the fires that supply the motive power of all progress,\nrealistic as well as idealistic; Isaac Newton was a dreamer, and so was Gutenberg, and so were Pestalozzi and Froebel — these were dreamers that were\nalso doers.It is the imagination that transmutes knowledge into power and knits\ntogether the ideal and the real. It is this endowment of the human mind of\nwhich we educators take too little account. It is, or should be, stimulated by\nstory-telling, that it may vitally and directly influence the oral reading and\nlanguage. It is thru the exercise of the imagination that the child thinks the\nthought, thrills to the emotion, and lives the experience of the story, and it\nis the quality and degree of this response that makes the good or the poor reader.\nIn the oral reading or in the telling of a story, the child seeks to express\nthis response not alone in words but by looks and gestures, by inflections and\nmodulations of the voice; and here the dramatic instinct comes into play,\nanother endowment which has been too much repressed by the school and by\nparental interference thru lack of knowledge and appreciation of it as a vital\nessence of expression.\nIn summing up the argument for story-telling as an educative factor, we\nfind that it lends its aid in reflecting and interpreting life experiences, in\ninspiring and evolving thought, in quickening and fostering emotion, and that\nby reflexive action, it becomes an effective instrument in the development of\nlanguage expression, thru accumulation of vocabulary, enrichment of content.\n\n"} {"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "D>partment]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN READING\n\nAND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n485\n\nand increase in control and power of formulation, and, on the side of oral reading, it enhances appreciation, gives training in interpretation, and greatly\nstimulates and exercises all forms of expressive delivery.\nBut whatever may be said of the immense importance of these factors, there is\nalways that one other factor without which we cannot reckon — the teacher; for\nafter all, the effectiveness of any educational agency depends upon the teacher.\nIs it reading or story-telling ? Then the teacher must be a model reader or\nstory-teller, with all that this implies of insight, of sympathy, of imagination, of\ndramatic control, of the power to judge and appreciate what is truly good in\nliterature and above all she must have the skill of the raconteur.\nI would have story-telling and the ability to read poetry a part of the theory\nand practice examination for teachers' certificates. Every teacher who has\nnot had such special training should feel it her bounden duty to \"go to school\"\nand acquire this most difficult and delicate but most indispensable of arts.\nWe may organize our forces and officer the educational ranks with great leaders,\nwe may plan the campaign of education with highest skill, and yet all without\navail unless the teacher is imbued with the professional spirit and realizes the\nheights and the possibilities of her vocation and aspires to be an artist.\nAs far back as 1835, Mazzini said :\nScience, the arts, and every form of human knowledge await the coming of one who\nshall link and unite them all in a single idea of civilization, and concentrate them all in one\nsole aim.\nThey await his coming, and he is destined to appear.\n\nWhile we all recognize that education as an art has been practiced in some\nguise since the dawn of civilization, and that the late past and present centuries\nhave witnessed giant strides in the evolution of a science of education, we must\nadmit that there still remains for the on-coming generation the formulation of\na philosophy of education.\nAnd I believe that the one whom we await, the one by whom shall be\nwrought out thru the actualities of experience this culminating triumph of\ncivilization, is not a single individual, but that Messianic host — the corporate\nbody of the teachers of the race. And with this interpretation of Mazzini's\nprophecy granted, our responsibility looms large and clear, for we, the teachers\nof today, are the teachers of the teachers of tomorrow.\n///. DRAMATIZING\nTHOMAS\n\nC. BLAISDELL, PROFESSOR\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nOF ENGLISH LITERATURE, MICHIGAN\nCOLLEGE, LANSING, MICH.\n\nSTATE\n\nAs I entered I saw that the children were playing a story. In front of\nthe schoolroom a dozen boys and girls were moving about. They had their\nelbows lifted from their sides, and some kept flapping them up and down,\nwhile others occasionally stretched their heads forward and hissed. One boy\nstood apart, with a pointer in his hand. In the rear of the room a lad sat on\nthe floor reading.\nThe play was Maximilian and the Goose Boy.\nSoon Maximilian closed his book.\nHe rose. He looked up thru the trees\n\n"} {"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elemental\n\nand out over the meadows. He began a soliloquy. \"This is too fine a day to\nread. I'd rather look at the trees,\" and he cast aside the book. ''Oh, isa't\nthe song of that bird pretty !\" and he turned an attentive ear toward the imaginary bird. \"What a beautiful view that is down the valley,\" and he gased\nthru the window at a forest of smoke stacks. Then he was charmed with the\nbeauty of the flowers, with the music of the brook, with the glory of the setting\nsun. This reminded him that he must hurry home.\nAs he neared the goose-boy he discovered that he had forgotten his volume.\nAfter showing the king how to herd geese, the lad hurried into the forest for\nthe book. Then the geese woke up. They ran down the aisles, here, there,\neverywhere, the poor king utterly helpless. Then the contempt as the lad\nhanded him the book: \"Well, you may know enough to be king, but you certainly don't know enough to herd geese !\"\nBecause of this little drama, how much better those children understand\nthe story, how much better they will read it, and how much more they will see\nof the beauty of nature when again in the woods! Because it accomplishes\nsuch results dramatizing is potent.\nAs dramatizing is a comparatively recent feature of schoolroom work this\npaper will be a record of my own observations and conclusions, combined with\nmaterial from the reports of about thirty teachers, from Rhode Island to\nCalifornia.\nMy experiences with dramatizing date from the publication of Sara Cone\nBryant's How to Tell Stories to Children. In it I found her suggestions concerning playing stories, and I felt that here was a plan that would add much\nto the child's interest in the story and in the schoolroom tasks. Being in normal\nwork, I began to experiment in our training-rooms. I took the subject into\nsenior and junior classes. I had young women dramatizing stories that they\nmight understand the plan when they went to the practice rooms or into active\nteaching. Surprising as it may seem, seniors took scarcely less interest in\nplaying a story than did primary tots. They enjoyed it; they came from it with\nfreshened interest and increased energy. These results, seen not only with\nchildren, but also among girls far beyond the age where \"play\" would be\nsupposed to have value, convinced me that this was a possible factor in teaching\nwhich was indeed powerful.\nBut why should not dramatizing be a potent factor in education ? Children\nhave an imagination far more vivid than have youths or adults. Left to themselves, unhampered by teachers and curriculum, children unconsciously become\nactors of power and dramatists of real human interest.\nTo illustrate: A few days ago I attended the out-of-door flag-day celebration of a two-room rural school. The program had been left to a committee\nof five girls. They had of course the conventional recitations and songs, a\nviolin solo, choruses, etc.\nBut finally came an announcement that caused an expectant rustle among\nthe fifty or sixty children and the few visitors sitting on the sloping hillside.\n\n"} {"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN\n\nREADING\n\nAND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n487\n\nCharades were announced, and we were to ** guess.\" They were not charades,\nhowever; they were effective Httle dramas, conceived entirely by the girls,\nwithout rehearsals, and so far as I could learn, without any schoolroom experience in dramatizing. The Betsy Ross home during the making of the first\nflag was shown, the conversation between General Washington and his aides,\nand the famous flag maker, being given with a vividness that caused silence\neven among the boys of the somewhat restless audience. But the chief work\nof art was yet to come. Our young friend Malcolm was seen mounting his\npony. He and his pony are a unit. And when he came crashing thru the\ntrees and in front of the audience crying \"The British are coming! Be ready!\nBe ready!\" he brought his audience to their feet. They cried out in their\nexcitement, \"Paul Revere! Paul Revere!\" The dramatizing was done with\nvigor, and was received with a delight that does not pass. Will not Malcolm\nread of the famous ride of Paul Revere with a new power when next that poem\nis called for in the reading-class ? And will not every boy and girl who saw\nthe little play, have a deeper understanding of the real meaning of the original\nride and read of it with added joy and with more dramatic skill ?\nBecause it brings such results dramatizing is a potent factor in teaching\noral reading and oral language. Children are eager, are hungry to comprehend life. It is this hunger which impels them to reproduce in play the life\nthat they see about them. It is this hunger that makes them anxious, at a\nsuggestion from the teacher, to play stories, poems, songs, and home or vacation incidents.\nChildren do not readily comprehend from the symbol, from the spoken\nword, or the printed page. It is easier for them, as it is for us, to understand\nafter seeing. We read of a glacier all our days: we know what a glacier is\nafter we walk across the Mer de Glace. We read Irving's charming descriptions of the Alhambra; we know the Alhambra after we have rambled thru it\nand become enamoured of its beauty and of the music of its waters and the\ncolor and witchery of its architecture. So children enjoy the fable of the fox\nand the grapes, but they know its meaning after they have seen it played; and\nthat they get the very heart of the meaning is brought out by an Ohio teacher.\nAfter telling of the enjoyment her children had from dramatizing the fable,\nshe writes: \"In the afternoon I told them that the teachers were expecting\nto have a great meeting in California and I knew a number who would attend;\nbut the weather would be very warm, and I really didn't want to go. One of\nmy boys looked up and his bright eyes snapped as he timidly said, 'Sour\ngrapes !' I said, * Yes, Lawrence, I want to go, but my pocket-book is too\nnearly empty.' With this boy, Aesop has become splendidly concrete, all\nbecause he has seen the fable played.\nPower to visualize, power to see with the imagination the whole action,\npower to live thru the experience — this is the power that makes good oral readers, as well as appreciators of literature. Power to see the unpainted pictures\nis an essential to the appreciation of poetry. And it is just this power to see\n\n"} {"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthe picture, to live thru the experience, that is developed by dramatizing. In\norder to act the part of the boy and of the reapers and of the wolf in the wellknown tale, the pupil must see the picture; he must be the fooHsh and later the\nfrightened boy; he must become the alarmed and at last the impatient reapers.\nEvery time he thus enacts one of these parts he is developing his ability to see\nmore clearly the pictures, to appreciate more keenly the experiences, to feel\nmore truly the emotions, in what he will read in the future. And as he develops\nthis power, he gains in ability to read with interest and expression.\nIn another way also dramatizing is a potent factor in teaching oral reading.\nIt makes pupils forget themselves. We have all seen diffident, retiring children\nwho really suffered when called upon to read. Such children watch the playing of stories with delight, and before they realize it they are taking the less\nimportant parts themselves, and thus gradually they lose something of the selfconsciousness which is so great a hindrance to their progress. This result is\nno less marked and is even more important in many pupils who are naturally\ndull. Their enthusiasm becomes aroused, and soon they are striving with a\ndiligence that is surprising. They have attained a purpose, a desire to take\npart in the theatricals of the schoolroom. The result it that the smouldering\nspark kindles into a tiny flame, and the reading ability gradually begins to\ndevelop. This power to banish diffidence from the nervously self-conscious\nand to arouse interest in the dull and unready, in not a few cases, seems to me\nenough in itself to recommend dramatizing to every teacher.\nIn teaching oral language dramatizing is no less potent a factor. Anything\nthat makes the mental image more distinct will help expression in words, both\noral and written; for clear thinking results in clear talking and writing. Every\nchild has a fund of knowledge for language work that is literally inexhaustible.\nIt is impossible for any child ever to tell of all the things he has seen and taken\npart in. With this fact I feel that many teachers and writers are not sufficiently\nfamiliar. They are ever striving to give the child material for expression; for\nexample, they give him stories and poems to reproduce. The reproduction\nof poems in prose is to me some thing pedagogically criminal, while the reproduction of stories, in writing, is scarcely less to be condemned when carried\nto the extent of practically excluding all other kinds of composition, as is all\nbut true in several of the courses in language work that are widely followed.\nChildren do not need to be given material for language work; they need merely\nto have their attention called to the material with which their memories are\nfull — material which is ever ready for instant use if only touched by the magic\nof the teacher's suggestion.\nDramatizing makes clear and exact the images of the literature involved.\nIn making them clear it must appeal to the experiences of the child. In thus\nappealing to his life, it serves the double purpose of making his thinking about\nliterature more vital, and at the same time of making his memories of his own\nexperiences more tangible. This is illustrated by the boy's unexpected exclamation'of \"Sour grapes!\" \"when the teacher said she thought she did not care\n\n"} {"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN READING\n\nAND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n489\n\nto take the long, hot ride from Ohio to Los Angeles. He made the remark\nbecause his thinking had been vitalized by the drama.\nThinking concretely about a story which has been acted will enable the\npupil to read that story with a new appreciation and an unexpected power\nof dramatic expression; it will also enable him to tell the story more effectively\nbecause in his imagination he has lived thru the experience. Further, it will\nenable him to reproduce it in writing, if this is asked, with added skill; but\nbetter than all this it will add to his power to tell of his own experiences, as it\nwill make him see a clear relation between those experiences and the literary\nexperiences which he and his classmates have put on the stage. With a little\npreparatory thinking, teachers will readily throw out the suggestions necessary\nto make every pupil discover in his life something which is allied to any schoolroom drama and of which he will tell with delight.\nEvery teacher from whom I heard concerning this subject emphasizes the\nnew power for reading and for oral composition which is developed by dramatizing.\nMany other desirable results are claimed for dramatizing. It helps pupils\nsocially, by adding to the ease of their indoor associations. Many claim that\nit helps to teach correct form. It opens and strengthens the speaking voice.\nIt improves conduct in the schoolroom. It adds interest and spontaneity to all\nschool work. It increases the love for good literature, by making pupils understand itand by making them see that in literature there is an element closely\nallied to life. Many insist that this is the most important of the results. It\nhelps morally. It brings teacher and pupils into a new relation, causing the\nteacher to become really acquainted with the pupil, and enabling the pupil to\ncome into something like a living touch with the teacher. Beside all this it\ngives the pupils pleasure, and personally I consider this the greatest good that\ncomes from dramatizing. There is little enough legitimate pleasure in life and\nin school, and anything that adds to the amount, should be welcomed. And\npupils do enjoy dramatizing. They iind it a source of keenest delight. The\neducation that brings genuine joy along with careful and exact training is better\nthan the kind that omits the joy.\nIn many schools dramatizing has been confined to the pupils of the first two\nor three years. Already some teachers are finding that the work almost introduces itself in the more advanced years of the grades, and not a few schools are\ndoing something in impromptu dramatizing even in the eighth year, while in\nothers formal dramatizing is making for itself a place. Personally I am not\ngreatly in favor of formal dramatic work, even in high schools, if carried to any\n\nI\n\n'extent. It lacks many of the advantages of the impromptu work, and I fear\nthat it has to commend it but little in comparison with the time it requires.\nBut I do favor the extempore dramatizing of stories and other literature.\nIn the early years, the dramatizing of simple action stories and fables is\nappropriate, with the occupations of the home and country, such as breadmaking, horse-shoeing, playing house, fishing, sailing, etc. Later come the\n\n"} {"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "490\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmore complex fairy tales, household tales, and myths. I consider the dramatizing of myths to be the best possible method of making them part of the real\nlife of the child. To be Ulysses tied to the mast or boring out the eye of Polyphemus isto know forever the story of the Siren and of the Cyclops. To have\nopened the lid of that wonderful box of Pandora or to have glanced back over\nthe shoulder at the heavenly beauty of Eurydice is far better than merely to\nhave read the stories. Under proper guidance, I believe that dramatizing\nwill make the glorious poetic visions of the ancients, as we have them in the\nmyths, a stock of common knowledge for all children to a degree possible in\nno other manner.\nStill later many of the choicest fruits of literature will become thrice real\nfor grammar-school pupils by being acted by them. To be the village favorite\nand to rise from a twenty-year sleep; to throw a pumpkin at the ungainly\nschoolmaster; to be locked in the church while the women and children are\nplaced on the English vessels; to draw the sword from the great stone when\nall others have failed; to be saved by the Indian maiden just as death hovers\nnear; to live these experiences in the schoolroom drama is to have a new outlook on the beauties of Hterature and history, is to find new life and new meaning in them.\nScenic accessories are only such as the schoolroom affords. The cloakroom,\nespecially in winter, proves a wonderful costumer's shop. Primary pupils\nhave the imagination to make very little into the living reality; older children\nespecially when they have drifted from the fairy realms, may need more scenic\nhelp.\nOn the daily program a special minute for dramatizing tends too much\nto formality. It is better introduced when the story or reading-lesson or\nlanguage work or history affords the right sort of action, and the mental condition ofthe pupil seems to demand relaxation. Some schools make dramatizing the regular occupation for the recess hour when bad weather forbids outof-door play. The time will be found for it by the teacher who once tries it,\nfor the work is its own best champion. Once introduced, I doubt whether the\npupils of any school will let it drop.\nIn many stories the whole schoolroom becomes the stage, while others\ndemand but a small portion. More and more I believe the work will be taken\nto the schoolyard, and thus will become one of the favorite ch'ldhood games.\nOne phase of dramatizing seems to have been all but neglected. I refer to\nits use in primary Sunday-school work. The modern drama had its origin in\nthe church. As the adult of three and a half centuries ago needed something\nconcrete to make him realize the meaning of the Bible stories, so today the child\nneeds similar help.\nI know of a single Sunday school in which it has been tried. There the\nsuccess has been phenomenal. Sunday has interest for those children. On\nthat day they live the wonderful biblical narratives in a way which gives new\npower to the lesson.\n\n"} {"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN READING\n\nAND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n491\n\nMy question concerning the drama in the Sunday-school was ignored except\nby two teachers. One had seen it tried with great success. The other was\nsure it should not be tried, as it would detract from the devotional spirit of the\nlesson. Personally I am quite willing to have the devotional spirit of most\nprimary Sunday schools disturbed, if something can be introduced of sufficient\ninterest to keep small boys from horse play and of sufficient power to make\nthem understand and remember the heart of the day's lesson.\nTo sum up, dramatizing is a potent factor in teaching oral reading and\noral language because it makes the child understand literature, because it makes\nhim love literature, because it makes him self-reliant, and because it makes\nhim see that there is a vital relation between a story and the life he is living\ntoday.\nOf its other important results especially to be commended is the bubbling\ndelight it affords children. It will probably win its way thru all the grades,\nbeing of particular value in making the old myths and the literary classics\nvibrant with interest. Little costuming should be attempted, and its hour\nshould be the psychologic moment rather than a regular time on the program.\nIt may become one of childhood's favorite outdoor games, and it seems potent\nas a help to concreteness and interest in primary Sunday-school work.\nIV.\nI. C. MCNEILL,\n\nEXPRESSION\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nBY THE HAND\nOP\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMEMPHIS,\n\nTENN.\n\nThe school is life as well as a training for life. All movement toward\nself-realization is at first vague, crude, and indefinite. The all-wise Creator\ndecrees it should be thus. Man in his systems of science, philosophy, art,\nand business must ever move from the vague, crude, and indefinite to the\nclear, the finished, and the comprehended. The movement is natural and the\nonly possible way to freedom of action, mental or physical, lies in this direction.\nThe utility of expression by the hand is no exception to the principle stated.\nSome have thought of its coming thru music, some thru drawing, some thru\nmanual arts, some thru domestic science, or domestic arts, and others thru\nartisan work in wood, iron, clay, leather, or other kinds of skilled labor. All\nare right in part, yet expression by the hand means more than deftness in any\nline of human effort. It is the soul expressing itself, in doing what the mind\nhas imagined, conceived, or constructed. It is a test of the fulness of the\nexecutive agencies of stimulation, guidance, and control. It is a high form\nof reaction by which the free play of motor activity reinforces the development\nof mental images or ideals. It is the guided expression of motor impulses\nwhich stimulates the senses to do their work, a lack of which would inhibit\nmental growth by letting the motor impulses go out toward wrong or trivial\nends.\nA definition of expression by the hand should harmonize with the latest\nfindings of science. It is now held by investigators of the localization of brain\nfunctions that manual expression enriches the centers in front of the fissure of\n\n"} {"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nRolando and makes brain activity more easy and vigorous in other directions.\nIt is known beyond any reasonable doubt that brain activity and brain efficiency\nmove together; that the enrichment of one area by use makes growth and\ndevelopment more certain and more easy in other areas; and that welldeveloped lobes in front of the fissure of Rolando were characteristic of brains\nof some great men who gave to the world thought expressions thru the\nhand in one or more of its manifold modes of self -revelation.\nThe mind works with images. There ought to be a close relation between\nthe motives for expression and the images of the needs of the home and of\nthe larger social units with which pupils of different sections are familiar.\nThe images that form the most valuable contents of children's minds are those\nthat appeal to individual and social necessities which they can understand and\nappreciate. A scientific application of expression by the hand would hardly\nwarrant children's making wooden nutmegs, since the national pure food laws\nprevent their attempted export sale as food. The ethical end of effort and the\nidea of practical utility come together at many points; and true educational\nguidance makes all expression one's best and therefore in some degree ethical.\nI have just come from Mississippi where for two weeks I assisted in the\nwork of the Institute Conductors' Meeting at Starkville. I had there an opportunity to see many illustrations of the attractions of properly guided expression\nby the hand in the summer school at the Agricultural and Mechanical College.\nThe most popular courses offered were those that allowed the hand to express\nthe ideas gained by full and complete use of the motor activities. One crowded\ncourse was given by Superintendent E. L. Hughes, of Greenville, S. C. At\nan expense of less than two dollars for all the material used, the teachers learned\nhow to construct a twenty-four-inch globe which has all the illustrative value\nof one that would cost twenty dollars on the market. The construction of\nthe globe, the necessary study of the problems of latitude and longitude, the\nwork with Diamond Dye colors to produce artistic and graphic pictures of land,\nwater, elevation, etc., and the idea of making an irresistible appeal to boys and\ngirls, who in the past have had so much trouble in seeing with the mind's\neye the world in miniature, led a large and enthusiastic group of men and\nwomen, many of whom had college degrees, into doing what would equip them\nto direct scientifically the steps of pupils to an attractive realization of many\ngeographical notions.\nAn interesting experiment, showing the high appreciation placed upon\nexpression by the hand by people who value doing for art's sake under the\nexpert guidance of great teachers, was tried in the Wisconsin State Normal\nSchool at Superior while I was the president of that institution. Courses in\ndomestic science and handwork, or domestic art, were installed; and students\nwhose programs would permit it were allowed to take the work with no view\nto credit toward graduation. The movement was a marked success from its\ninception. A waiting-list from which students were admitted to the classes\nwas necessary.\nThe further fact that the interest grew from year to year\n\n"} {"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN\n\nREADING\n\n'AND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n493\n\nshows that the work has intrinsic value, a value that makes its appeal from the\nside of science, as well as from art.\nIn the modern interpretation of expression by the hand science guides\nand precedes art. Science orders the doing and art, expressed, reveals and\nreinforces the mind's perceptions, images, and relations. The educator,\nhaving reached large and clear views of the meaning of things he teaches,\ncauses art to follow scientific knowledge. The wise superintendent requires\ngeneral culture, specific training in the science and the art of teaching, and a\ncomprehensive and guided education in the technical work to be done of all\nwho are to assume leadership in expression by the hand.\nIn every system of schools there are problems peculiar to the locality. In\na large measure the scope of the work in all phases of the educational scheme\nshould aim to relate the life of the school with the larger life outside.\nDrawing, painting, paper-folding, weaving, basketry, clay-modeling, cardboard construction, book-binding, mechanical drawing, woodwork, ironwork,\ncooking, and sewing are the principal features of the branches that require\nan intelligent application of the motor activity.\nIn some places the exercises have been arranged to give exact sequence\nto them; and to exalt the system rather than to lift up the children, all pupils\nmust ''get into the grind\" and do the same work in the same way at the same\ntime. Such a plan is systematic, but it is so rigidly formal that it leaves no\nopportunity for initiative and original thought on the part of the individual\nchild. In other cities we find a jumble of exercises not well interrelated, each\none being an isolated item bearing very little upon other units of the course.\nThis is an aimless waste of time and energy, entirely out of harmony with the\nspirit of scientific teaching. All the forces and considerations that necessarily\nenter into the success or failure of any line of effort should be taken into consideration. Nothing should be done by guess. Everything should move\ntowards a definite and understood end. To illustrate, girls who study cooking\nneed instruction in the chemistry of food, in food values, in providing for balanced rations, in economy of materials, in cleanHness, in sterilization, in care\nof utensils, and in other things the home-maker should know and do, or direct.\nThere are many who, having an empirical view of expression by hand, make\na great outcry against the crowded course of instruction and object to motor\nstudies and call them fads. I quite agree with Superintendent L. D. Harvey\nof Wisconsin in saying that we teach too many details in subjects not worth\nteaching and in so doing waste the time and energies of pupils; that when\nbooks fail, industrial training, which calls forth a high order of mental activity,\nis a time-saver; and that the mental power gained by contact with things gives\na capacity for mastery which holds the pupils in school and thus brings them\nunder the influence of educational agencies.\nGradually but surely the American people are reaching an advanced conception ofthe utility of motor expression as an effective and necessary element\nin public education.\nThe science of teaching, year by year, brings closer\n\n"} {"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL' EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ntogether the vital factors of stimulation, guidance, and control to the end that\nthe children and the youth may grow to be able and disposed to lead happy,\nhealthy, and morally worthy active lives. As history advances, more and\nmore the citizens of this great country of ours realize that for every impression\nthere must be adequate expression; that motor activity guided by trained\nintelligence is a powerful instrument for intellectual and moral advancement;\nthat character is measured by the habitual reactions of our daily lives; and\nthat the All Wise in his Book anticipated our reaching a new interpretation\nof the injunction — ** Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might.'*\nDISCUSSION\nJohn S. Welch, supervisor of grammar grades, Salt Lake City, Utah. — The mind\nhas many languages, many modes of expression. Now it speaks thru stone or bronze;\nnow thru the many-colored canvas; now thru fragile clay or massive steel; now thru\ngigantic industrial and commercial enterprises; now thru institutions for intellectual and\nspiritual uplift and growth. In the discussion this larger conception of language may\nlegitimately enter into the trend of thought, for, back of all the diversity of expression as\neffect, there may be unity and oneness of cause.\nAnything that tends to focus the mind on a central point about which ideas may group\nthemselves is a factor which determines clearness of language and forcef ulness of expression.\nThoughts seek to embody themselves in fitting form. Slovenliness of language and expression is due to slovenly thinking; to a lack of worthy ideas to be expressed worthily.\nThe discussion will be an attempt to estimate the points advocated in the papers as\nmeans for causing fit ideas to be expressed fittingly.\nExpression by hand. — We will all indorse the oft-repeated statement of Dr. G. Stanley\nHall that manual labor builds brain, if the statement refers to the work of the muscle as\nit becomes an agent for transforming the thought of the brain to the external object that\ngives it sensuous being, but we will scarcely indorse the implied suggestion that any form\nor phase of muscular labor builds brain. We can believe that the brain of a Michael\nAngelo was strengthened and enlarged as acting thru his muscle it wrought the form of\nhis mighty Moses in the unyielding stone, but we are loath to believe that the brain of the\nhod-carrier, the ditch- digger, and the plowman are strengthened and enlarged by the action\nof muscle as they follow the dull routine of the occupations into which circumstances have\nthrown them. So in school, the child builds brain as the brain holds the idea which is\ngiven objective being thru the action of mind and muscle, but we doubt whether the brain\nis either strengthened or enlarged as he constructs the formal object from dictation, suggestion, or imitation of the teacher. That manual training may build brain is true, but that\nit all too frequently does not is also true.\nBecause of its possibilities, I wish to re-emphasize all that Superintendent McNeill so\nably has said of the right of manual training in all of its manifold phases to a place side by side\nwith the other studies which have found an abiding-place in the work of the school. The\ndelay in giving it this recognition is due to the fact that there are those classified as leaders\nof educative thought who still beHeve that the subject is the end, the child the means of\nfostering and preserving it; who still believe, or seem to believe, that all children need the\nsame thing at the same time and in equal amounts. When all can realize that the child\nis the end; that books at best, however important their message, merely represent what\nothers have thought and said and done, that the child will come to his own in the best\nsense of the term when he feels and thinks and does in terms of his own initiative and\nresponsibility;\n\nwhen the construction, in whatever form or manner it reveals itself, is the\n\n"} {"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENT\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN\n\nREADING\n\nAND\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n495\n\nresult of creative effort, manual training will receive full recognition in terms of what the\nschool ought to do, must do, will do as determined by a well-ordered course of study.\nThe final value of the work of the hand as a factor in thinking and expressing will\nbe determined by whether the leaders are artists or artisans in the work; by whether the\ndesired end is the finished product in terms of the object constructed, or whether it is the\nchild's ability to see, to relate, to execute, to go from better to best in high thinking, in\nworthy achievement; by whether the child seeks to realize his own best possibilities and\nto give himself as the finished product thru\"the use of brain and muscle.\nDramatizing. — Glearness, conciseness, definiteness of language, force and power\nof expression, are dependent upon the vividness of imagination and dramatization is a\nforceful factor in training and developing the imagination. This training and development is vitally essential as the imagination is a mighty factor in social, intellectual, and\nspiritual life, but we must not fail to discriminate sharply between the fancy and the imagination. None will question that in the main children are more fanciful than adults, tho\nthere may be grave doubts as to their being more imaginative. We have but to recall\nthe facts and forces of modern complex life; the gigantic sky-scrapers, towering like huge\nexclamation points done in stone and steel; the great corporate and municipal enterprises;\nthe great inventions and discoveries and all the appliances and appurtenances of modern\nlife to realize the power of the imagination in the affairs of men. Surely the imagination\nof the adult is not a negligible quantity. Because the imagination plays so important a\npart in the affairs of men there is full justification for using any and every legitimate means\nfor its development in the schoolroom.\nWe may admit all that is claimed for dramatization as an aid to the expression of\nthe constructions of the imaginations, yet we must not lose sight of the fact that all objective representation is on a sensuous basis and the highest flights in the possibilities of thought\nand expression have not been reached until, above the sensuous, the spiritual construction\nhas been attained. Every individual defines its own limits. The beginning of the use\nof dramatization must also be the beginning of its disuse.\nThe great dramas of Shakspere are a mighty force and power, for despite the glitter\nand trappings of the stage, the pomp and splendor of costume, a thrill of real spiritual\nlife is felt in and thru them all. It is possible to so read these dramas that only the external\nform will be seen and felt, hence an appreciation of Shakspere by a Tolstoi; but it is also\npossible to so read a play of Shakspere that no outer presentation plus all the panoply of\nthe painted stage can equal the construction which the reader has made, hence the disappointment inwitnessing the rendering of Hamlet by a Mansfield or an Irving.\nThru the development of the imagination we must lead children to the conception\nof Mrs. Browning:\nThe growing drama has outgrown such toys\nOf simulated stature, face and speech;\nIt also, peradventure, may outgrow the simulation of the painted scene,\nBoards, actors, prompters, gaslight, and costume.\nAnd take for a worthier stage the soul itself,\nIts shifting fancies and celestial lights.\nWith all the grand orchestral silences\nTo keep the pauses of the rhythmic sounds.\nAnother phase of dramatization, vastly important, but often lost sight of, is the choice\nof material for dramatic purposes. Supervisors and teachers often become enthusiastic\nover the possibilities of the subject and literary selections are made not because of their\nintrinsic life and worth but because they admit of dramatization. There is a failure to\nkeep in mind the fact that not what can be dramatized but what ought to be, what must be,\nis the determining factor in choosing material for this purpose. If any one believes that\nI am aiming at a man of straw, I respectfully refer him to the average book dealing with\nthis subject and suggest that he travel about and witness some of the foolishness perpetrated\nin the name of dramatization.\n\n"} {"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nIf dramatization could be based more largely on the scenes and incidents of daily\nlife idealized ; if the purpose, motive, movement could be drawn from such instead of being\nbased so largely on the expression of others, there would be a stronger stimulus for the\nimagination and less of a stimulus for the fancy.\nI am in full accord with the speaker in the thought that the spirit of dramatization\nmay well enter the Sunday school. If the Sunday school is to become organic with the\nlife of the child; if it is to be really forceful, effective, inspiring, it must bring the spirit\nof Sunday to the spirit of the child instead of continuing to force the adult conception of\nSunday and of religious influences upon the spirit of the child, regardless.\nThe story and the poem. — The story and the poem are vital factors in determining\nwhat the language and the expression will be. The quaUty of the thinking will determine\nthe quality of the language and the quality of the expression will be determined by the\nintensity of the feeling. The child will feel and think and express in direct ratio to the\nintensity of the cause of his feeling and thinking and expressing.\nThe child learns language by hearing language long before he enters upon the formal\nstudy of language for its own sake. Indeed when one contemplates the rapidity with\nwhich a child acquires his vocabulary and masters its use before he begins his formal study\nand also contemplates his snail-like pace after he begins one feels justified in inferring that\nwhen he begins he quits !\nThe story and the poem owe their vitality to the fact that they couch themselves in\nmore elegant diction than do the facts of ordinary conversation. In them the art of expression isat its best. Here the learner finds no weak modifiers, no slovenly verbs. All are\nclear, concise, definite, elegant. The learner who really lives in and loves the story and\nthe poem is idealized by them. He lives intensely. His language becomes tense, terse,\nclear-cut, elegant. He unconsciously uses the fitting word and phrase to designate the\nsituation in which he finds himself, thus the fitting word and phrase, the well-chosen modifier\nand forcible verb become part of the warp and woof of his speech.\nHowever important they are as factors in the process, we must not lose sight of the\nfact that the story and the poem are expressions of ideas, the means by which objective\nreality is given to ideas. There is need for the teacher to look back of the expression to\nthe idea which gave it birth and being. There is need to seek to know what gave rise to\nthe story, the poem, the fact from which they took their tone, color, meaning. The child\nmust be led from the expression of the ideas of others to the expression of the ideas of the\nworld that around him lies.\nIn conclusion I cannot refrain from making a general statement in terms of the\nvarious phases of this most important subject. The value of any factor that makes for\nvigorous feeling, thinking, expressing, lies in the quality of the feeling and thinking, the\nvalue of the thing expressed. What does it avail any or all to have the power to think\nand feel and express unless the thinking is worthy, the expression commendable; unless\nthe thought is noble, unless into the construction there enters something of permanent\nand intrinsic worth ?\nWhen the story, the poem, dramatization, handwork, and every phase and form of\nschool life shall operate and co-operate to make children realize that beauty is more than\nugliness; that goodness is more than evil; that truth is more than error; that right and\njustice are more than wrong and injustice, every child will come into possession of himself; he will square himself with truth, with goodness, with beauty, with right and justice,\nwith high thinking all worthily expressed thru right living; then will all manners and\nmeans that make for thoughts to express and the expression of thoughts justify themselves;\nthen will the work of the teacher take on new dignity and worth; then will school seek\nto find and to make the most of the individual instead of seeking to suppress the individual,\nto make him one with the crowd.\nJ. F. Reigart, Public School No. 2, New York City, gave an account of effective •\nwork in dramatizing in a foreign school on the East Side in New York City.\n\n"} {"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPUPIL\n\n497\n\nL. E. Wolfe, superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Texas — ^Mr. Suzzallo, Miss\nDavis, and Mr. Blaisdell, have, in their papers and discussions, given us a contribution\nof the highest value on teaching oral reading and language. But the practical question\nthat will present itself to most of us is how shall our teachers be trained to do this work\nefficiently. Upon this point may I detail what we have done in San Antonio. For several\nyears we have held a school of methods during the first two weeks in June. We have\nsecured the best practical educators to be found in the country. Dr. Charles A. McMurry\nwas with us two summers on the correlation of history and geography. Miss Georgia\nAlexander of Indianapolis gave us some excellent work in composition. Richard Wyche\nnot only gave the teachers instruction in story-telling, but told stories in all our schools\nto the pupils.\nIt seems to me that there is great danger of loss of time in introducing new and improved\nthings unless a systematic effort is made to prepare the teachers efficiently to handle the\nimproved subject-matter and method. Certain principals have been selected to m.ake a\ncareful study of each branch for the respective grades in order that our teachers may get\nthe best work in their monthly institutes and grade meetings.\nIn answer to a question. Dr. Suzzallo spoke upon the fairy story as giving play to\nthe fancy wbJch precedes the period of constructive imagination and as an antidote to\npirate and Indian stories.\n\nGEOGRAPHY\nJAMES\n\nFRANKLIN\n\nIN THE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF THE\n\nPUPIL\n\nCHAMBERLAIN, DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY,\nSCHOOL,\nLOS ANGELES,\nCAL.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nThat our schools do not prepare those who attend them for the opportunities, the responsibilities, the problems of adult life is a statement frequently\nheard. If this charge be true, then our schools are failing to perform their\nessential function, for the great aim of education is to prepare for life in the\nhighest sense. Its purpose is so to surround each child by the best influences\nand conditions, so to direct its physical, mental, and moral growth, that it\nshall, as a present and future member of society, live the highest life, of which\nit is capable.\nNo one will question the statement that pupils should study those phases of\nhuman knowledge and human activity which will, in later years, enable them\nto be of the greatest service to themselves and to humanity. In fact, it may be\nsaid that the public school has no right to teach anything else. That these subjects should be so presented as to enter into the life interests of the learners is\nevident. Neither of these conditions is fully realized in practice, and hence the\nschools are not doing their full duty in training pupils for their lifework.\nGeography, as one of the fundamental subjects in the elementary school,\nshould receive, as it has been receiving during recent years, the most careful\nconsideration. Both subject-matter and methods of presentation are being\nexamined in order to secure more valuable results.\nUntil quite recently a knowledge of geography was not regarded as an essential part of one's education. Indeed, it seems that it is not generally so regarded\ntoday, for our high-school and college graduates know much more of Latin,\nFrench, and German than of geography.\nFor the former, the average citizen\n\n"} {"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nhas comparatively little use, while a knowledge of the latter is constantly\ndemanded in conversation, reading, travel, and business.\nThe study of geography can and should make our pupils closer observers,\nclearer thinkers, better reasoners. It should furnish them with information\nwhich will be helpful in almost any occupation. It should make them broad\nand sympathetic in their views. It should remove superstition. It should\nmake traveling, reading, and conversation more pleasurable and more profitable.\nIn spite of this, and in spite of the fact that geography treats of those things\nin which both children and adults are deeply interested, and with which they\nare vitally concerned, the subject is said to be poorly taught. It is said that\nas a rule it is dry and uninteresting to pupils. It is not long since Dr. Hall\ncharacterized it as the ''sick man of the curriculum.\" That there is some force\nin these criticisms every teacher realizes. I wish to point out a few fundamental weaknesses in our work, and to suggest a few improvements.\nThe failure of geography to enter fully into the lives of the pupils in the\nelementary school is not a matter of failing to provide for instruction in the\nsubject, but is rather a matter of unwise selection and presentation of subjectmatter.\nAltho geography has made a remarkable advance during the last two\ndecades it is still too largely a memory subject. Mere exercise of the memory\nis not necessarily interesting or educative. Unless geography is training our\npupils to put together the links in the chain of cause and consequence it is\nbeing poorly taught. More important than this is the fact that it is not developing the habit of reasoning without which our pupils will, as adults, be drifted\nby the currents of popular opinion, now this way and now that.\nThe great problem in geography is how to make the subject enter into\nthe conscious experience of the child, for only as it is to him a living reality,\nas it interests him, appeals to him, and influences his life in ways which are\nto him apparent will he enter consciously and purposefully into its study. The\nsubject must do more than offer information thru the medium of the printed\npage; it should encourage the pupil to experience geography, and to contribute\nthese experiences. Such opportunity as geography offers for the exercise of\nthe constructive faculty should be used to the fullest extent. This can be\ncarried out in the making of maps, charts, sketches, graphs, and models of\nvarious kinds. Where these conditions are not realized the results must always\nbe meager, superficial, unsatisfactory.\nThe textbook still holds, and must always hold, an important place in the\nstudy of geography. The weaknesses of the book are therefore likely to be\nreflected in the work of pupil and teacher.\nOur geographies are too incomplete. The material is too fragmentary,\ntoo statistical. This is a necessary condition where the plan of treating all\nor a large part of the world in one book is followed. If each book dealt with\nthe work of a single grade the topics taken up could be more fully and more\n\n"} {"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPUPIL\n\n499\n\ninterestingly presented. This would also make possible a larger number of\nmaps and illustrations.\nIn order to make good this deficiency in the text supplementary readers\nshould be very freely used. These bring out the human side of geography,\nwhich always appeals to children. It is a mistake to use these books simply as\nreaders. The topics should be fully discussed by the pupils and maps employed\nwhenever they would be of service.\nUnder present conditions the questions in the text constitute an important\nfactor in the work of the pupil. His preparation for the recitation is in large\nmeasure based upon these questions, and therefore very much depends upon\ntheir character. As a matter of fact the majority of the questions ignore the\ncasual notion. Their study is dry and deadening to the pupil. In our very\nbest texts about one-half of the questions tend to create thought.\nQuestions pertaining to position, dimensions, area, population are legitimate, and many such should be asked, but they should not dominate the work.\nThe function of questioning is to develop thought, not simply to secure answers.\nWe can increase the interest in and the value of the work by supplying questions\nof the right sort.\nThe following, which are simply suggestive, indicate how this might be\napplied to the British Isles:\nUsing your map, find the latitude of the British Isles. Compare this with the latitude\nof your state, and with that of Labrador. Using the scale, find the length and the average\nwidth of Great Britain. Compare with the dimensions of your state. What is the nature\nof the coast line ? Is such a coast line an advantage or a disadvantage ? Make a Hst of\nthe seaports. Make a list of those on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Has the\nEnglish Channel helped or hindered the development of the British Isles ? Give reason\nfor your answer. What part of the British Isles is best watered ? Explain. If the\nmountains extended east and west how would they influence rainfall ? Examine an isothermal chart of the British Isles and compare the temperatures with those in New England.\nAccount for the difference. Is there snow in London during the winter? Do people\nsleigh-ride ? Do they skate ? Compare with winter conditions in Boston.\nWhat part of England is best adapted to agriculture? Comparing the population\nwith the area, do you think that England's agricultural products supply her demand?\nIf not, where might she purchase wheat, flour, cotton, sugar, fruit, etc. ?\nLocate the coal and iron producing sections. Locate the manufacturing areas.\nHow are the two related? What is the meaning of the expression, \"Carrying coals to\nNewcastle ?\" What advantages has Great Britain for shipping her manufactured products ? What articles have you seen that were made in the British Isles ? Why do people\ncome to America from the British Isles ? Why do people go from the United States to\nthat country ?\n\nThese questions are by no means exhaustive. Similar lists pertaining\nto other areas can be worked up and placed upon the board to be used by the\npupils during the periods devoted to the study of geography.\nSpecial investigation, as well as the experience of the teacher, has shown\nthat the geographical interests of children center in peoples, products, and\nindustries. Hence work involving these topics should be made the basis of\nintroductory geography, and should receive attention thruout the grades.\n\n"} {"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nOur texts give very scanty attention to the industrial and social phases\nof geography as constituting the basis of the subject. One of the best devotes\n107 pages to home geography and of this number the first 79 pages treat of\nrivers, plains, mountains, the ocean, the air, etc. The remaining 28 pages, or\nabout 25 per cent, of the whole, deal with the human side. Another recent\ntext devotes 45 pages to home geography, 17 of which, or about 40 per cent.,\ntreat of the industrial and the social. In other texts introductory geography\nis almost entirely physical and astronomical.\nThe child has a more active interest in a snow-white cotton field, in the\npicking and the ginning of the crop, in its transportation to the mills and its\ntransformation into wearing-apparel, than he has in the conditions of soil,\ntemperature, and moisture, which make the crop possible. Not only this\nbut he sees a closer connection between the industrial and social conditions\nand himself, than he does between the physical and his individual life.\nThe story of the necessities of life runs back and forth on bands of steel\nor over ocean wave, connecting the most distant lands and peoples with the\ncommunity, with the pupil himself. This is home geography in the largest\nsense, for the home cannot be understood unless its relation to remote areas is\nseen. The people of a community and of the world are held together by the\nchains of mutual industrial, and social interdependence, slowly forged thru\ncenturies of development in the habits and demands of daily life.\nThis study of the industrial and social does not ignore the facts of surface,\nclimate, and location. These are of necessity taken up and given more meaning than they would otherwise have.\nAmong the lessons taught by this phase of geography is the great truth that\nphysical labor is absolutely necessary and honorable. If the pupil sits beside a\ncheery coal fire while the snow is drifting out of doors, it is because deep beneath\nthe earth's surface men with hands and faces blackened by contact with coal,\nwith bodies weary from labor, toil day after day altho constantly exposed to\nthe most terrible dangers. This general truth of the necessity for co-operation\nand the dignity of labor is presented in different forms as each industry is studied.\nWhile geography deals with the realities of life — human beings, streams,\nforests, mountains, mines — these are for the most part studied through the\nuse of symbols. Here we have another reason for the difficulty experienced in\nplacing geography among the life interests of the child. The great value of\nthe excursion is now generally recognized, altho it is still much more largely\na matter of theory than of practice. Nothing else can give such life and\nvalue to geography. With the great inspiring picture spread out before us;\nthe wonderful works of nature, and the marvelous works of man, we ask the\npupil to step in doors, and read about these things.\nThat practical difficulties confront us when we attempt to do field-work\nis well known, yet if all teachers, school authorities, and parents realized fully\nthe importance of this method of study, these obstacles would, in large measure,\nbe removed.\nThe taking of an occasional half-day or entire day for excursions\n\n"} {"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPUPIL\n\n501\n\nshould not be regarded as an interference with the regular work of the school.\nThe time is not far distant when out-of-door work will occupy a prominent place\nin elementary instruction.\nThe excursion should by no means be limited to the observation and study\nof geographic forms and processes, but should include mills, factories, quarries,\nmuseums, and many other centers of human activity. The trips need not be\nand should not be expensive. If carefully planned and skillfully handled the\ndanger attending them is not worth considering.\nPictures constitute a very valuable aid in the teaching of geography. Here\nagain practice falls short of theory. Merely exhibiting the pictures is not\nenough, altho there is value in this. The teacher should ask questions concerning them so as to encourage close observation.\nThe modern stereoscopic views are an inspiration to pupils. While using\nthem one can easily imagine that he is observing the actual objects which they\nrepresent. The stereopticon should find a much more general use in the elementary school. By means of the slides we may take our pupils on in-door\nexcursions to all parts of the v/orld.\nMuch material in the form of raw and finished products can be brought\ninto the schoolroom. In studying other states and countries, pupils should\nbe encouraged to bring to the school articles which came from those areas.\nThe list of materials easily obtained is a long one. Thru the efforts of pupils\nand teacher a school museum of some considerable value can be worked up.\nThe materials, in connection with pictures and descriptions written by the\nchildren, could be so arranged as to present a graphic history of some of the\nmost important industries. When desired they could be so placed as to show\ntheir geographical distribution.\nTravel is a most potent factor in vitalizing the work in geography. The\nknowledge and the inspiration obtained by every member of this association\nwho has traveled across the continent to attend this convention can be used to\ngreat advantage for years to come. Pupils are always deeply interested in\nwhat the teacher has actually seen. In many schools there are pupils who\nhave enjoyed the benefits of some travel. This contact with geography at\nfirst hand should be drawn upon to the fullest extent. As early in the year as\npossible the teacher should learn just what regions have been seen by pupils.\nThis information can be tabulated and the topics assigned pupils at the proper\ntimes. In all cases where trips are being described the routes followed should\nbe carefully traced upon a map before the class.\nThe exchange of letters by schools in different parts of the country while\nby no means new, should be much more generally practiced. If one letter a\nmonth were written by each grade thruout the year, pupils would be in possession\nof a very valuable picture of changing landscape, planting and harvesting of\ncrops, weather conditions, migration of birds, blossoming of wild flowers. In\naddition there would be descriptions of the surface, natural resources, industries,\nand the daily lives of the people.\nIf a different section were selected by each\n\n"} {"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ngrade in the school, and the practice kept up from year to year, it would add\nimmensely to the pupils' knowledge of geography. Pictures accompanying\nsuch letters would be a very valuable feature. Several pupils should have a\nhand in the writing of each geography letter, thus multiplying the benefit\nreceived.\nTo summarize: Geography, while intimately connected with daily life,\nis not so vital a part of school life as it should be or can be made. Our texts,\nwhile steadily improving, are still too meager and statistical in character.\nA striking weakness is shown by the map questions which do not serve sufficiently todevelop thought. The books should be more limited in scope, thus\nmaking it possible to treat given areas more interestingly and fully. The\nmap questions should be supplemented by others tending to create more interest\nand greater mental activity.\nIntroductory geography should be based upon the industrial and social\nphases of the subject, as investigation has shown that the geographical interests\nof children are strong along this line. Such study connects geography directly\nand vitally with the actual daily life of each pupil, not only as applied to the\nhome, but as applied to the world as well. More uses should be made of pictures,\nstereograms, and slides, as well as of such materials, raw and manufactured, as\ncan be supplied by pupils and teacher. Every school should start a museum\nwhich will increase in size and usefulness with each succeeding year.\nSuch knowledge of areas beyond the immediate vicinity as has been\nacquired by teacher or pupils thru actual observation should be used to the\nfullest extent. The exchange of letters by schools in different parts of the\ncountry can be made a source of the greatest interest and profit.\nIn these ways geography can be made to enter more fully into the school\nlife of the pupil, and to enlist his conscious and purposeful participation in its\nstudy. It will then be fulfilling its deeper function, the training for the larger\nexperiences which follow those of school days.\nDISCUSSION\nA. L. Hamilton, superintendent of schools, Pasadena, Cal. — I regret to agree that\ngeography does not hold as important a place in the life of a child as it should. This\ncondition is more to be regretted when we consider the richness of this subject in material\nwhich touches life from so many directions. When we consider, however, the growth in\ninterest in the study of physical geography in the high school, and its remarkable and\nrapid development as a subject of study we are led to the conclusion that there is a future\nfor geography in the grades. I well remember my own experience, when as a boy I owned\nmy first large geography. I opened it and the whole world seemed before me. I resolved\nto conquer it. I mastered long lists of questions, and I presume they did me good. I\nbecame acquainted with the maps, at any rate. The greatest revelation came to me,\nhowever, when on one summer afternoon, I walked along the flooded, muddy, country\nroad, with my teacher. It was after one of those heavy eastern thunder showers, and\nthe storm water was playing at its own sweet will with the yielding earth of the roadside.\nI saw there miniature valleys in actual process of formation, waterfalls eating their way\nback, creating grand canons in depth reaching to my boyish shoulders, stream deltas as\n\n"} {"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPUPIL\n\n503\n\ncomplete as the ones on a larger scale which I have observed since that day. That was\na memorable walk and impressed its lessons on my mind.\nIt entered into my life.\nNot long ago I had the pleasure of listening to a fifth-grade girl talk to her mates\non her experiences in Japan where she had lived for some time. She had brought to the\nschoolroom many Japanese articles and her talk was interesting and instructive. It took\nhold of her schoolmates as some other method of presentation could not. Altho the\nmother was not present I suspect that she had been interested in the affair and had rendered\nvaluable assistance.\nThis is an excellent subject thru which to keep in touch with the home. Our schoolwork ought to go into the home and be felt there. We should prize any sign of interest\nshown by parents in the work done, and seek in all ways to honor the parent by expressing\nour appreciation of all they do, rather than wound their feelings by criticism of methods\nused. Honor the parents. They are necessary in the work of putting into the life of the\nchild the things taught.\nGeography work, as also all other work, must be related to life and to the life of the\nchild. The study of people, products, and industries will put the pupil in touch with the\nwhole range of geography work. If we do not know anything until we have experienced\nit, some of our pupils will never know much unless we put some deeper thought into our\nmethods of instruction. Such books as How We Are Fed, Clothed, Sheltered, enable\nthe pupil to go on tours of inquiry from his own breakfast, table and home.\nIn your teaching you aim always to climb to the high points and take a survey of the\nfield and then are able to lead out into the details. You, for example, do not take for your\ntopic ''the cat,\" but \"cat food,\" and from this familiar position you lead the pupil out\ninto large areas of the cat field; so in the use of pictures in the teaching of geography, you\nselect some point of vantage and so organize the picture material that the pupil shall get\nthe large characteristics first, then work out the details. We do not use our pictures intelligently sometimes, that is to say, we allow the pupils to become confused over unclassified\nand miscellaneous collections. Allow me to illustrate how I think this should be done.\nA short time ago, in teaching a young men's Bible class the lesson on Christ's triumphal\nentry into Jerusalem, I used three stereopticon pictures to get our bearings; one taken from\nthe Mount of Olives, looking to the eastward down upon the village of Bethany and on\nacross the plains toward Jericho and the Jordan. It was all spread out before us. We\ncould see for a portion of the way the rocky road skirting the hills along which Christ had\njust traveled. Then from another point on the same mountain we looked down its western\nslope across the valley of Kedron and upon the city of Jerusalem and the country beyond.\nThe third picture was taken from a point south of Jerusalem looking up the valley of\nKedron — the Mount of Olives on one side, the city of Jerusalem and country adjacent on\nthe other. After such general features are fixed, the details may be intelligently worked\nout. So any section may be handled to the great advantage of the pupil. You should\npersuade your high-school people that they are sufficiently interested in the outcome of\nyour work to allow that precious lantern to be loaned to you, if you are not fortunate enough\nto have one yourself, and with the proper appliances ready for it you should make it tell\nits stories as only a lantern can.\nI agree that we attempt to do too much in each grade, but when that happy time shall\ncome when there are no grades, requiring the pupils to be fitted to them, and when the\nwork shall be arranged in courses which are consecutive from a beginning to an end, then\nthe pupils will be given what they need and when they need it, and in quantity which may\nbe assimilated. If pupils have a definite aim in their excursions and an interest in the\nthings they are to find, which has been excited by careful classroom work done with the\nexcursion in view, and if the instructor has before been over the ground and knows that\nthe trip will not be fruitless, the tramp abroad will be about the most valuable exercise of\nthe course.\nA discussion has been going on for some time on what sort of matter is or is not per-\n\n"} {"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\n^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmissible in presenting nature subjects, in which discussion even the president has taken\npart. I have been interested in reading what John Burroughs, also, has had to say about\nit. I think, as does he, that in the realm of science we ought to be very sure of the truth\nof the statements we make as facts.\nThe children usually understand what is imaginative and what is presumed to be\nfact. When we travel with the pupil in company with some familiar desert plant out\ninto its lonely habitat, we may paint about the facts with colors of the imagination as we\nwill and the child will understand, we may read poems picturing death from thirst and\nmake it all as vivid as seems best, but the statement of fact should be such that the child\nshall not be required later to correct its data and thus weaken its confidence in authorities.\nIf we do not know the facts with reference to a given question then we ought to say so, and\nseek more light in that direction.\nThe children ought to be so taught that they may have a feeling that they are part of\nthe universe in which they live, and as they look up into the skies at night they ought at\nleast to be able to locate the north star, and understand somewhat the movements that are\noccurring, and be able to look famiharly upon some of the beauties there. The children\nshould be able to get a grasp upon the great thoughts that come to every one of them, and\nto widen their horizon till they are able to take in the multitude of living things that they\nwill find in this most interesting study.\n\nILLUSTRATIVE\nHAROLD\n\nW. FAIRBANKS,\n\nEXCURSIONS\nU. S. GEOLOGICAL\n\nFOR\n\nFIELD\n\nSURVEY,\n\nSIGHT\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nCAL.\n\nExperience has shown that in teaching the child we must lead it step by\nstep from that which is known and has become a part of experience to that\nwhich is strange and unfamiliar. We cannot plunge it at once into that which\nis wholly unfamiliar and expect any real comprehension.\nThe object of field excursions in geography is twofold. On the one side\nthe child becomes acquainted with the facts of his environment. On the other\nhe acquires that necessary foundation thru actual contact with the geographical\nfacts of his home region which will enable him to grasp intelligently similar\nphenomena in the world at large.\nThe home is a little world replete with materials for a practical concrete\nfoundation in geography. These seem so simple, however, and so commonplace that we are apt to overlook their importance. • Too often the pupil\ngoes out into life without the faintest conception that the world of geography\nlies all about him. The geography of the textbooks seems far away and unreal\nand few of its disconnected facts laboriously committed to memory are retained\nin such form as to ever be of any value.\nObservations in the home region should include a great number of facts\nwhich are not geographic but which properly belong under the head of naturestudy.\nElementary geography, nature-study, and the beginnings of history as\nillustrated in the district open to excursions are for the pupil parts of one whole\nand might be termed ''home lore.\" It is essential, however, that the teacher\nunderstand the bearings of these various factors, and, as the pupil advances,\ngradually differentiate them.\n\n"} {"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXCURSIONS\n\nFOR\n\nFIELD\n\nSIGHT\n\n505\n\nWe may conveniently take up first in our discussion of field excursions the\nuse of the home district as a basis for a real understanding of maps. Mapdrawing as commonly practiced is little more than an exercise in the training\nof the eye and hand. Unless we begin by actually developing the meaning of\nthe symbol from the real thing for which it stands the pupil will have had no\nexperience to enable him to interpret the symbols or form mental images of\nthe features of any remote region as expressed in the map of that region.\nWe must begin with a study of the features of the neighborhood and pass\nfrom these to their representation upon a model. The step from the features\nof the model, or from those of the actual landscape to their representation upon\na plain surface then easily follows. The pupil now in looking at a map of the\nhome district is able to form a mental image of the features for which the symbols stand. He is further prepared to see in maps of regions which he has never\nvisited those things which the various lines and figures represent.\nAs a usual thing the variety of geographical features in any one neighborhood is not great. Excursions will bring to light many examples in miniature\nof the working of nature's forces in the shaping of the earth. The children\nin the Mississippi Valley can form little conception of a canon by reading\nabout it from a textbook, but when taken out into the field and shown the work\nof a torrential rivulet upon an unprotected bank, they can picture in their\nminds something of the nature of a real canon.\nIt is utterly useless to study the work of the various forces shaping the\nearth and the origin and meaning of the various geographic features if the\ntextbook is depended on entirely. Only in so far as this phase of geography\nis supplemented by actual observations out of doors is it of any value to the\npupil. In a certain large city the pupils are given dictation lessons on the\nwork of streams and asked to memorize it for examination without ever\ntaking any out-door excursions altho the city is surrounded on all sides by the\nmost interesting geographic features.\nWhat realization can a pupil have of a delta who has never had his attention directed to one. In every locality delta plains and debris fans can be seen\nupon either a large or small scale, and also the influence which they exert upon\nthe location of the homes of people and their occupations.\nCivilized man has had a great and disastrous influence upon the surface\nof the earth. He has killed the w41d animals, cut off the forests, and left the\nsurface to be torn and washed away by torrential streams. It will do the pupil\nno good to know of these things and that they are wrong. He must get out into\nthe fields and see what has taken place. Under the direction of a skillful teacher\nsuch object-lessons will never be forgotten, and the importance of conserving\nnature's gifts will not be a mere statement in a book without vitalizing force.\nHow the soil is formed from the rocks and how it is distributed over the\nsurface can never be learned in-doors. The way in which soil and slope\naffect the occupations and distribution of people are facts open to observation\nin every district. The hills and valleys determine the position of homes, the\n\n"} {"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nposition and direction of roads and trails; the economic importance of streams,\nwhether they flow quietly or possess rapids and waterfalls, can also be studied\nin excursions.\nThe various industries carried on in reach of the school offer much material.\nThe study of such industries in themselves is not strictly geography, but when\nwe take up a study of the conditions leading to their establishment where they\nare, the source of the materials with which they deal, and the reasons for the\nshipment of their products here and there we are dealing with geography.\nThe child who has actually observed the influence of a body of water upon\nthe temperature and moisture of the air, influence of elevation on climate and\nproduction, and has noted the movements of the winds bringing fair and\nstormy weather, is prepared to grasp intelligently the facts concerning the\ndistribution of the climatic features of the earth. He does not have to memorize\nthe fact that the high plains east of the Rocky Mountains are valuable chiefly\nfor stock-raising.\nMany subjects which cannot be illustrated from excursions can be made\nmuch more real thru the use of pictures. Considering the abundance, variety, and\ncheapness of pictures at the present time there can be no excuse for their omission.\nThe matter of interest is of the greatest importance, and interest can be no\nmore easily aroused and kept alive than by bringing the facts of geography into\nclose touch with the interests of everyday life.\nDISCUSSION\nC. T. Wright, Redlands, California. — The teacher who has never taken a class afield\nusually dreads the ordeal. This dread has been variously ascribed to lack of special\ntraining, to the new conditions of the management of children in the field, or to want of\ntime for the field lesson and its adequate preparation.\nThere is no doubt but that fieldwork with children offers problems that are real and\neven difficult, but none that are impossible of solution. In attacking the problem the teacher\ncan get much aid from reading, but more from the field and the child himself. To know\nboth field and child is necessary to the correct solution. Therefore the teacher must visit\nin advance the place where the lesson is to be given — often more than once. The lesson\nmust be thoroly planned — even written out. A printed (mimeographed) sheet may be\ngiven to each pupil calling attention to particular things en route that are to be noted,\ndrawn, mapped, or discussed.\nThe number of pupils taken on the excursion should be small. The out-of-door lesson\nshould be such that the pupil will welcome its return, yet it should be borne in mind that\nthe excursion is not a picnic.\nThe preliminary discussion in the classroom should form a basis for the field lesson,\nwhile the field lesson in turn will furnish material for many oral or written lessons after\nthe return pf the pupils. This material will serve in subjects other than geography, thus\nthe excursion touches several subjects of study. Time is gained, not lost, and meanwhile\nthere is secured that desideratum in all subjects, vivid ideas.\nThe presence of no particular land form or industry is necessary to a successful lesson\nafield. Even though the relief features of the neighborhood be limited to a barbed-wire\nfence, let the lesson be given on that ! It may afford more than one good geography lesson.\nThe plea is for a study at first hand. From the present and the concrete, one may pass\nto the remote and the abstract.\n\n"} {"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEMPHASIS\n\nAND\n\nOF COMMERCIAL\n\nS. L. HEETER,\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\n507\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nI desire to discuss the subject announced under two heads. First, the\norigin, scope, and significance of our \"new geography;'' second, the place the\nsubject should hold in elementary school programs.\nThe history of geographic expansion follows the history of the race down\nthru the centuries in every effort to inhabit and subdue the earth. Once\ncivilization was confined to the Roman Empire and the \"circle of the lands.'*\nThere was no geography in that day, especially no geography beyond the foothills of the Alps to the north, and the Afric sands to the south; beyond the rocks\nof Gibraltar to the west, and the watersheds of the Don and the shadows of the\nCaucasus to the east. Then, the Mediterranean with its circle of empires was\nthe sum-total of the civilized w^orld, and there could be no geography until\nRoman shackles had been burst, which had prevented geographic expansion;\nno geography until after a thousand years of mediaeval darkness, after the\ncrumbling of feudalism, after the fanaticism of the Crusades, the opening of\nthe monasteries, the fall of Constantinople, the spread of learning and culture.\nI cannot follow the genesis of a world geography. It came with the Renaissance, the revival of learning, the discovery of America, the explorations in\nthe New World, the voyages of Marco Polo, and the circumnavigation of the\nglobe. It came during the late centuries with the populating of the entire\nearth, the breaking-down of Chinese walls, and the opening of dark continents.\nBut our new geography has its origin, not only in the migrations of the race;\nit finds its principles not only in the exploration and colonization of the different\nquarters of the globe; for back of man's search and struggle for a comfortable\nexistence, back of all his migrations and settlements, we always find him\nface to face with the controlling influences of physical nature — climate, flora,\nfauna, and topography; and here is the suggestion of the very first aspect of\nour new geography.\nAs man has settled the earth, its valleys, hills, and plains, its deserts, mountains, mainlands, and islands, in his struggle for existence and victory, he has\nfaced primeval forests, unconquered streams, undrained swamps, parched\ndeserts, and unyielding plains. He has found a natural distribution of materials. The products and treasures of land and sea have been placed here and\nthere by natural forces, and man's first call has been to search the earth for\nits stores. The flora of the earth remains even today more or less localized.\nNatural forces have always controlled the distribution of the banana lands,\nrice fields, orange orchards, cotton belts, lumber regions, cactus plains, and so\non. So also, in the course of man's globe-trotting, he has found primitive\nfauna ever attached to a favorable environment, the fur-bearing animal in the\ncolder regions, the cod on the Newfoundland banks, and the marsupials in\nAustralia. He has learned that coral could not be fished up in the Arctics,\nnor the oyster in Hudson Bay. The bison once belonged to the plains, and\n\n"} {"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "508\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nstruggled even to extinction with the alkali water, the cacti, the canons, coyotes,\nand cowboys of the American desert.\nHere then, in the history and development of the human race, in its struggle\nfor a world-wide existence, is the very first consideration, giving our new geography the scope and significance of a science.\nBut this is not all of our new geography. It is not all a study of original\nenvironments; it is not only a natural science; it comprehends more than\n''earth as the home of man,\" for man has not been content to remain subject to\nhis surroundings. While climate and topography have operated singly and\ntogether in the distribution of life and both have played an important part, not\nonly in the making of history, but in determining the customs and achievements\nof every people, yet man has not been a slave to geographical conditions. He\nhas gone forth to modify, to rise above environment, to multiply, and to subdue\nthe earth, and there is a human, as well as a natural, interest in all this new\nstudy.\n'Tis true, man has populated the earth, the Northland and the Southland,\nfrom Scandinavia to Siberia, from Abyssinia to the islands of the sea, but\nwherever he has gone, he has clad himself to meet the conditions of climate; he\nhas built to withstand the tests of seasons; he has labored for wholesome food;\nand has forced the earth to yield up more than her native stores. The very\nform and character of his effort, as revealed by the apparatus in organization\nof industry, show not only the process of adjustment to native environment, but a\ndetermination and a success in rising above all natural limitations. Thus the\nEsquimaux labors and invents, but not the same as the nomad of the desert,\nthe planter of the flood-plain, the ranchman of the foot-hills, or the lumberman\nof the camps. The great double question, then, confronting the student of\ngeography today, is, first, what physical and climatic conditions have directly\ninfluenced the different peoples of the earth, their modes of life, and their\nactivities? Second, what have these people in turn done reacting against\ntheir geographic environment ?\nOur new and modern geography thus furnished two sets of causal forces,\none springing from physical nature and the other from man and his enterprise.\nIt is man and nature, rather man in nature, not man alone. Here is a geography\nwhich becomes the foundation for systematic study of the natural and descriptive sciences on the one hand, and a man's industrial, economic, and commercial\ndevelopment on the other.\nAnd just a step farther. Under the stimulus of man's inventive genius,\nalong with the evolution of modern science and inventions, intercommunication has been made perfect, barriers have been broken down, regions once\nisolated have been connected, continents have been linked, the whole earth\nhas become one vast neighborhood, and every man a neighbor. Here we see\nthe interdependence of men, the East upon the West, the West upon the East,\nthe North upon the South, and Europe upon America. Adverse conditions in\none section affect all other sections.\nCivilized man everywhere is dependent\n\n"} {"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n509\n\nupon all regions of the earth to contribute to his food, shelter, clothing, and\nculture; and a large part of civilized effort has been directed toward perfecting\nmodes of travel, commerce, and intercommunication, until today streams of\ntrade have opened into world-wide currents.\nFollow the world's currents of trade and you have an index to man's varied\nfortune in reducing nature, or rather in learning natural laws and in conforming his life to them. Originally, he projected his routes along ready-made\nways — ^rivers, lakes, mediterraneans, and oceans, but later he modified topography, overcame natural impediments, changed the direction of rivers, built\nroads of steel and rock, bridged streams, tunneled mountains, cabled the seas,\nwired hills and valleys, and severed continents by artificial waterways. Here\nemerges a new geography, a commercial geography, whose basic principles\nlie away back in the original conditions of physical nature and the interplay of\nnatural forces, in the relations of the different geographic divisions of the earth,\nand finally, in the varied industries of men, in the policies and arts of modem\nproducers, consumers, and exchangers.\nThis brings us to a conception of our new geography, triple in its aspect,\nphysical, industrial or social, and commercial, and no school is justified in\ngiving this subject any large place in the curriculum today unless it be conceived as a complex and composite subject closely related to, in fact underlying,\nalmost all other sciences. Once there was no geography of the Rocky Mountains, for example, except a study of their location and elevation and their\nrepresentation on colored maps. Today the student studies its Yellowstone,\nits Salt Lake, its palisades, parks, and cafions, but he soon runs aground in the\nlegitimate fields of geography, and finds himself encroaching upon the territory\nof geology or botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, or mineralogy. Even in an\nelementary discussion of the influences of these mountains upon the climate\nof the continent, many facts must go unexplained without the principles of\nnatural philosophy. That geography of the Rocky Mountains is incomplete\nwhich does not include a typical and detailed study of its industries, of its\nmining, smelting, lumbering, herding, and its method of agriculture and irrigation. A study of the various peoples of the mountains may take the direction\nof sociology, economics, ethnology, or government. The geography of the\nRocky Mountains thus approached, and only thus, may give a true insight into,\nand an ability to interpret, that part of the world.\nSo it is in one form or another in the study of Egypt or Brazil or Alaska\nor Japan; so with every other region or nationality. There is no other geography worth while. It has become a mighty subject, intensely practical in\nour day, for the society in which the child is to move is so complex and varied\nin organization as to make a full treatment of this comprehensive subjectmatter seem almost imperative.\nAnd this is the point to which we have come. If this is the scope and\nsignificance of only one of our subjects now taught in the elementary schools,\nwhat emphasis should be given it ? The old geography was burdened by its\n\n"} {"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nown shortcomings and so narrow was the conception of its teachers that it\nbegan and ended in drill on isolated facts, but the new geography has become\nafter a process of so-called enrichment, so comprehensive, so far reaching in its\nscope, that its outlines almost bewilder, if not overwhelm, the untrained teacher.\nAnd this single consideration remains: Where in the process of education\nor training is this new geography available? Can the elementary school\nprofit by it ? My conviction is, first, that colleges and normal schools must\ngive teachers in America even today more ^ training in this larger aspect of\ngeography. A more thoro preparation of teachers and a more valuable equipment should be the first result of the present awakening to the facts and merits\nof our \"new science.\"\nThere are still too many teachers, even normal trained, after a decade of\nenrichment of elementary subjects, that are bookish, formal, cold, and unsympathetic. The teacher of geography today should be armed with principles\nof wider bearing and interest in her endeavor to pilot children thru what\nhas long been regarded by many as an arid and unteachable maze of unrelated\nfacts. If our present geographical instruction can be freed from tradition and\nconservatism, if it can be brought abreast of contemporary scholarship, it will\nfurnish a foundation for all other sciences and will become a unique and indispensable element in elementary education.\nBut what of the child ? Can the boy and girl in the grades profit by such\nan extended course ? We would welcome in the grades any geography which\nwould reduce brute memorizing by focusing facts, so far as possible and practicable, about nuclei of more general principles. Our new science has broken\naway from the dry bones of former, lifeless matter and has brought before the\nteacher broad fields of materials — materials not found on maps, in textbooks,\nnot even inside the schoolroom. The true course of study in geography today\nis in the great outside world of fact and interest concerning man and nature,\nand the best teacher must select, and organize her materials from the complexity\nand phenomena of life about her, from the sky over her head, from the air she\nbreathes, the ground on which she walks, the people with whom she talks, and\nthe books she reads. That teacher is most successful, who, systematically and\nsympathetically, reaches into the outside world of life, gathers up its related\ninterests, and focuses them upon the growing child.\nThe time has come, however, when we should be careful. The course of\nstudy in geography or in any other thing is not the final desideratum. The\ntime has come when for the good of our schools, we should go more slowly if\nnot call a halt on enrichment; when we should realize as school people that\ngeographic content has been suflGiciently outlined; that a comprehensive geography as a science is being forced upon us by the very organizations of modern\nsociety. We must take heed now, lest our attention to the content of study\nabstracted from the experiences and ability of the child may return us to the\ntime when the branches taught seemed to be the center and the end of\neducation.\n\n"} {"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n511\n\nWe hear the constant cry against the multiplicity of subjects that have\nfound their way into our schools. The elementary program has been referred\nto as a kind of grand medley, a heterogeneous mixture, a kind of stew, a hodgepodge of many ingredients, and yet, here is not where the schools break down.\nLet us be careful. The problem before the schools is not that of eliminating\ncertain subjects bodily, but that of fixing upon essentials in our enlarged courses.\nIt is no longer a problem of enrichment, but now, one of arriving at fundamentals inthe subjects taught.\nI cannot help feeling that too many children are leaving our grade and high\nschools every year dazed and bewildered by a superficial treatment of elaborate\ncourses. Teachers have absolutely no time to stop for the sake of mastery and\nthoroness. In geography children are rushed thru the primary and intermediate grades, twice around the continents, in abstract discussions of cause\nand effect, thru a tangle of so-called rational study, while they should be\ndoing observational work in home geography and nature-study. I wonder if\nthere is a tendency now, after all our enrichment, to crowd back upon childish\nminds pure mathematics, institutional history and scientific geography beyond\nthe experience and comprehension of grade children. We seem to be so concerned about the reasoning powers of children. In a nervous, restless, determined way we have enlarged and enriched our courses and outlined them for\nthe teachers even to confusion and bewilderment. It is weak argument for\nus to say that it is all done for discipline's sake, and at the same time, graduate\nour children with blind staggers, with no power of concentration and no degree\nof thoroness.\nIt is not only in the grades but in the high school. I am sure there are too\nmany science courses between the lids of the books and not enough applied\nscience. Too many laboratories instead of offering an interesting workshop\nfor boys in elementary experimentation, acquainting them with natural phenomena, are given up to abstract discussions of the law of Avogadro, ionic equilibrium, solution, tension, and so on. A high-school girl has no buisness working\nin historic geology and running about nights making a pretense at astronomical\nobservations before she has an every-day practical acquaintance with physical,\nindustrial, and commercial geography. Our free elective systems must not\nlose sight of prerequisites. Things on earth and near home should come\nfirst. A certain amount of arithmetic should come before algebra, spelling\nbefore, or at least along with, dramas and elocution, a legible handwriting before\ndesign in color, typewriting before stenography, home geography before geology\nand astronomy, English grammar before Spanish and Greek, physiology and\ndomestic science before zoology.\nIt has lately been charged by that staunch German Professor of Harvard,\nthat superficiality and inaccuracy are the curse of our American schools; that\nour children do not acquire habits of strict mental discipline from the first;\nthat intellectual disorderliness prevails; that our students reach much and\nabsorb immense quantities but do not master anything completely; learning\nis loose, inefficient, and time-wasting.\n\n"} {"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nI propose to defend the American schools; I believe the spirit that prompts\nthe American teacher and permeates the American schools is the best in the\nworld, but at the same time, I cannot escape the conviction that the German\nprofessor has put his finger on the weakest spot in our educational system.\nAnd now what is the remedy? It is suggested by the subject in hand.\nIt comes with the answer, shall we give greater emphasis to commercial and\nindustrial geography? Shall we give greater emphasis to our enriched and\nenlarged courses ? I have followed the genesis of geography as a science. I\nhave indicated the scope, significance, and importance of this subject in elementary education. I have pointed out the pedagogical possibilities of our\nnew geography, and. the fact that it has already relieved our schools of a diluted\nmush of unpractical pedantry, and yet I cannot urge greater emphasis of this\nsubject without some consideration for the child. The great problem now\nbefore the teacher who would give greater emphasis to commercial and industrial geography or to any other subject is a problem of selection, elimination,\nadaptation, and presentation.\nThe solution comes with a course of study so organized as to afford practical\nbasic training to every child, a broad basis of general culture and efficiency for\nevery boy, however humble the home and however circumscribed the course\nof his destiny. There are certain phases of all school subjects that are essentially fundamental. We must agree upon these. Here is our business — appreciation of things essential and adaptable before emphasis. It may mean, in\narithmetic, the elimination of complex fractions, bank discount, partial payments, compound proportion, foreign exchange, mensuration of trapezoids,\ntrapeziums, cones, spheres, and pyramids, until all children alike have learned\nthe multiplication table and have become accurate in fundamental operations.\nIt may mean, in grammar, the abolition of guess-work in parsing and fine discriminations insentence analysis until all grade children, even in the flat districts of our cities, are given a sure grounding in practical language-training.\nIn writing, it may mean less wrangling over the uniform slant of letters, and\nmore consideration for the development of an individual, intelligible hand on\nthe part of each child. In drawing, it may mean nothing more than the cultivation ofsuch an artistic sense as will help boys and girls to wash their hands,\ncomb their hair, clean the nails, and put their desks in order. In music, it\nmay mean merely the cultivation of the primary music sense and an appreciation\nof clean, wholesome sentiment in song.\nIn geography, it should mean a reaction against *' sailor geography,\"\nagainst exclusive map-study and old-time drill on spots and lines, less attention to ten thousand and one insignificant brooks, ponds, hills, villages, and\nharbors in all parts of the world, a movement breaking away from grind on locations and isolated facts, a first step toward vitalizing method and humanizing\nsubject-matter, putting our children in a position no longer to be staggered\nutterly by the great mass of facts connected with the distribution of plants,\nanimals, and men, but to comprehend their attendance upon wide-reaching\n\n"} {"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n513\n\nprinciples. Then, we may give greater emphasis to commercial and industrial\ngeography in the elementary school.\nHISTORY\nWALTER\n\nA. EDWARDS,\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nLIFE OF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nOF THROOP POLYTECHNIC\nDENA, CALIFORNIA\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nPASA-\n\nThe education of the schools has been defined as a preparation for life.\nAnd the definition appeals to one as both broad and noble. It seems to enlarge\nthe school to the full scope of human experience, and to elevate it to the level\nof man's highest ideals. This conception is embalmed in the word commencement, meaning the day which marks the end of the preparation and the beginning of real life. But this is not the truest conception of education. School\nis not a preparation for life; school is life. It is no gymnasium where with\nartificial exercises we train and harden the muscles so that they may after a\nwhile be equal to some serious task awaiting us. School, like life, is real, it is\nearnest, and commencement is not its goal. If the future should happen to\nhold for a given child no more of life, if he should die before he grew to manhood, still a school of the right kind would be the best place for him during his\nchildhood. The considerations which should govern in the school are not\nthe far-off account of years, not an imaginary view of an unknown distant\nfuture, but the status and needs of the child here and now. Our study of the\nchild's needs must be not superficial, but profound and comprehensive, and\nmust take into account the fundamentals of character and life; but with this\nunderstood we shall do our duty if we ask ourselves not what sort of a man\nwill this child make, but what sort of a child is he now.\nNow these considerations profoundly modify our view of what the child\nshould do in school. If they are sound — and I cannot doubt it— his school\nwork should not consist of exercises and drills conceived of as fitting him\nfor something different that he is to do later, but should have value and richness\nof content in itself. School should mean to the child what life means to us,\nwith all its seriousness and comprehensiveness and solidity. His lessons\nshould appeal to him as real and worth while. There should be a vital contact\nbetween them and his out-of-school interests. All that he does, whether in\nschool or out, should be of a piece.\nNow this does not mean that all school work should necessarily be what is\nfoolishly called '* practical\" and concerned only with material things. He\nmakes a sad mistake who imagines that a boy's mind is occupied wholly with\nthe visible and the tangible.\nOn the contrary, as the poet tells us,\n\nI\n\nA boy's will is the wind's will,\nAnd the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts.\n\nYou can count just as confidently on the glorious fancies and generous ideals\nof your boy as on his fondness for candy or baseball.\nHis daydreams are\ncertainly not less real and precious to him than his dinner.\nAnd the point I\nam urging is that what we give him in school must tie up to something he has\n\n"} {"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nhere and now, whether daydreams or dinner, not to something he is likely to\nhave when a man.\nA fellow-teacher once complained to me of the unfair tests on which teachers\nare sometimes condemned. Other employees, she said, are expected to\nsatisfy their employers, mature, presumably reasonable, beings. Teachers\nare condemned as failures if their pupils are dissatisfied — immature, heedless,\nflighty, incapable of forming an opinion worthy of respect. And yet there is\nan element of justice in this test, for the whole duty of the teacher is to meet\nthe present needs of the pupil, and even a child must have some instinctive\nsense of failure or success in the satisfying of his own needs. And similarly\na curriculum which does not meet the present needs of the child, which does\nnot in some sense justify itself to him, is to be condemned.\nOur point of view then in selecting and arranging studies for the curriculum\nand also in determining the methods to govern our teaching must be the child.\nWe must take the child just where we find him. We must approach each\nsubject from his point of view.\nHistory in the life of the child — for this is my topic — is then the whole\npedagogical problem. There must be no history in the school except that\nwhich can somehow be vitally connected with the child's life. Nay, this is\ntrue of us all. Says Hinsdale: ''Life alone enables us to form the conception\nof history.\" And Newman in the Grammar of Assent dwells at length upon\nexperience as the interpreter of history. He says:\nI may indeed bring home to my mind so complex a fact as a historical character by composition out of my experiences about character generally — Tiberius, James I, Louis XT, or\nNapoleon; but who is able to infuse into me, or how shall I imbibe, a sense of the peculiarities of the style of Cicero or Vergil, if I have not read their writings ? or how shall I gain\na shadow of a perception of the wit or the grace ascribed to the conversation of the French\nsalons, being myself an untraveled John Bull ?\n\nNow the mature man has a long and varied experience and the abundant\nmaterial garnered from that experience out of which to construct his view of\nhistory. But the child's experience is short and narrow and has been concerned with trifles. What practical acquaintance has the child with industrial\nand commercial conditions, national ideals and institutions, the operation of\nlaw on a large scale ? And yet these meagre experiences of the child are the\nmaterial with which we must work. Perhaps you think the history teacher is\nrequired to make bricks without straw if she must build up a true conception of history out of such childish ideas. All that I can say is that the teacher's\npath is indeed no royal road. She must work with the actual material she finds\nin the boy's mind, or not at all.\nThe rustic in Vergil says :\n\nLet me quote again from Newman:\n\n\"Urbem quam dicunt Romam, Meliboee, putavi,\nStultus ego, huic nostrae similem.\"\nAnd so the child's idea of a king, as derived from his pictiire book, will be that of a fierce\nor stern or venerable man, seated above a flight of steps, with a crown on his head and a\nscepter in his hand.\nIn these two instances indeed the experience does but mislead,\n\n"} {"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n'\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n515\n\nwhen applied to the unknown; but it often happens on the contrary that it is a serviceable\nhelp, especially when a man has large experiences and has learned to distinguish between\nthem and apply them duly, as in the instance of the hero \"who knew many cities of men\nand many minds.\"\n\nNow I take it that most of the history work in the grades below the high\nschool, certainly below the eighth grade, must be confined practically to the\nacquisition of facts. Do not misunderstand me. By facts I do not mean\ndates and names alone, nor do I advocate that the time set apart for history\nshould be devoted to committing to memory a chronological outline. I mean\nthat not much can or should be attempted in the philosophy of history, in a\ncareful analysis of causes. Nor should the teacher be overconcerned about\nher pupils acquiring the proper historical \"method.\" She will have done\nenough if she teaches successfully — ah, yes, successfully — the facts assigned\nto that grade. For as has been intimated above, it is no easy task to teach\nhistorical facts.\nI believe it is generally thought best to make the history of our own land the\nfirst and principal, if not the only, subject of historical study in the elementary\nschool. Patriotically and practically this is perhaps best. But it is of doubtful soundness from the standpoint of pedagogical theory. For theoretically\nthe child should first master the simpler phases of a subject and afterward\nthe more complex. He should begin his history study with the comparatively\nsimple, naive civilizations of ancient times, when governments were singleminded in their interests and straight-forward in pursuing them, when the\norganization of society was simple and rigid and easily comprehended, when\nthe motives governing action were the primitive ones we all instinctively understand, when the occupations of daily life were few and of well-recognized\ntypes. Instead of this the American child must wrestle with a governmental\norganization, perhaps the most complicated and elaborate on earth, except that\nof the German Empire and possibly Great Britain. He must try to understand a society whose elements are most diverse and in constant flux, and whose\ninterests and ideals are multitudinous. He must study a civilization which\nis daily increasing in complexity, and an industrial system which seems to\nembrace every occupation possible to man, whose organization is so delicate\nand whose inter-ramifications so far reaching that the smallest disturbance\nmay produce the most astounding changes. The motives which govern this\nmodern society are not the naive ones of primitive ages but are sophisticated,\nself-conscious, composite. We of this latter day-\n\nLook before and after\nAnd pine for what is not;\nOur sincerest laughter\nWith some pain is fraught.\n\nThe ancients in their simple joys and sorrows and labors were children compared\nto us — and children find them easier to understand than modern peoples.\nThis\ncomparative unfitness of modern history for children's minds is partially\nobviated by selecting our material for the younger classes from the times of\n\n"} {"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "5l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ndiscovery and settlement. Then conditions were indeed primitive and life\ncomparatively simple. The interests were few and elemental, except, be it\nnoted, that tangle of ambitions and rivalries in Europe which after all gave the\ninitiative to settlements and wars in America and of which we are always conscious inreading the early history of our country. But this European background against which early American conditions are projected must be mostly\nignored by the teacher of the younger children. For thus only is it possible to\ntreat our history so as to appeal to them powerfully. Says Mrs. Barnes: \"The\nstory of LaSalle's wanderings is more noble and more pathetic than that of\nUlysses. Our continent needs a Homer to restore its heroes.\" So we shall\nfind in tales about the Indians and in the hardships and heroisms of colonial\ntimes and frontier life abundant material suited to the child's mind.\nNow I hope no one will misunderstand me. I do not mean that we should\ngive children nothing except what they may fully comprehend. I am only\ninsisting that every lesson should have its starting-point in the familiar, and\nthat what is new in it should be referable to something in the child's own\nexperiences. But I am not ignorant that it is the mysterious that fascinates.\nThe motive to study is the desire to master the hitherto unknown. Let the\nchild then reach out after things somewhat beyond him. Let him occasionally\nlose his head in the clouds, if only he keeps his feet on the earth. For it is\ntrue of the child as of the man that his reach should exceed his grasp.\nI hardly need to urge upon the attention of this body of teachers the desirability ofoccasional excursions to such historic places as may be within reach.\nFortunate is the teacher who has the privilege of recounting to her class some\ngreat event on the very scene where it occurred. Next in value to the actual\ntrip are stereopticon views, or, failing that, photographs. Let me repeat that\nthe object sought by all these and similar means is not only correctness of information but vividness of conception and keenness of interest. Let us use all\navailable means to make the historical material real and live, to bring it home\nto the child's own experience, to make it a part of his life. We have not accomplished our purpose unless the boy can think of himself as taking part in the\nscenes described. So much must the pupils enter into the spirit of their history\nthat, as Mrs. Barnes has said, in studying Egyptian history they must feel as\nif they might have been ancient Egyptians themselves. Tell a young child a\nfascinating story of adventure, and in the midst of it ask him, \"Now what\nwould you have done if you had been there ?\" This question will rarely take\nhim by surprise. He will have an answer ready, satisfactory to himself if not\nto you, for he has been there in imagination all the while you have been telling\nthe story. If he is really interested in the story he views it not as an onlooker,\nbut as one taking an active part in it. Unless we approximate this vividness\nof impression in our history work we do not make it a part of the life of the\nchild. Thus the wise teacher will seize upon all chance local aids to this end.\nElection day, when it comes around, can be made useful in many ways. Sufl5cient sample ballots can always be obtained to make possible the holding of\n\n"} {"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n517\n\nan election within the school, at which all the forms should be closely observed.\nA talk to the class by a city or state ofiScial may be helpful, but choose your\nman with care. Read current news of course and the daily paper. If the\nchild understands that what he today reads in the papers and hears discussed\nat the dinner table will in the future be studied in the history books by boys\nin school who come after him, it may give him a new conception of how history\nis made.\nAn effective exercise for making real the functions of government is to ask\nthe children to name over the points in which they individually come in contact\nor have dealings with the national, state, county, and city governments.\nThey will probably be much astonished to find how much larger a part the\nlocal government plays in their lives than the national. Little danger that the\nremoteness of the latter will lead to its depreciation in their minds. Sentimentally the national government so far overshadows the city that the prestige of\nthe latter needs such emphasis as we can give it.\nAn interesting method for introducing children to the study of history is\nthat proposed by Mary R. Ailing- Aber in the volume entitled, An Experiment\nin Education. The class are supposed to have begun their study of geography\nand to have drawn a map of their own town. Let the teacher show them a\nmap of the same region before. its first settlement. The difference between\nthe two maps will immediately kindle great interest and each child will wish\nto learn about the series of events which brought about these changes. These\nevents may then be taken up in chronological order, the changes wrought by\neach recorded in turn upon the map, and so the history of the growth of the\ntown traced. It is indeed to be objected to this plan that it emphasizes the\noutward, material aspects of historical development and takes little note of\nthe inner current of emotions, aspirations, thoughts, beliefs which constitute\nthe essential life of the community. But for the child, history must necessarily\nbe largely objective and materialistic.\nI have a suggestion to offer which may be helpful especially to California\nteachers, possibly to those in some other of the newer sections of our country.\nIn every California town there are many families only recently come from\nother states. Therefore in every history class there are children familiar with\ndistant placeSj some of them important in history. Now when reference to\none of these places comes up in the course of the history work one of these\npupils may be able to add vividness and reality to the lesson by telling his\nclassmates what he knows by personal experience about the place in question.\nThe New England child, he who has seen the Hudson, the boy from the sunny\nSouth, one who has dwelt on the banks of the Mississippi — these can all instruct\ntheir less-traveled fellows. I hardly need to add that the teacher must have\nconvinced herself beforehand, by questioning the pupil or otherwise, that he\ncan really tell something interesting and worth while.\nIn what I have said I have tried to plead the cause of the child. I have\nurged upon you the most difl&cult of tasks, that of putting yourself in his place.\n\n"} {"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "5l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nI have attempted to show that if our children are to learn history it can only\nbe thru those aspects of history which they can in some measure interpret\nby means of experiences they themselves have had. In order that their study\nmay truly lead them out into hitherto unexplored fields whose very mystery\nis an invitation, it must necessarily get its hold on them thru that which is\nfamiliar. That they may travel securely from the known to the unknown let\nus first make sure that what they begin with is indeed known.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Agnes Eliott,' teacher of history in the State Normal School, Los Angeles,\nCal. — \"The boy's lessons should appeal to him as worth while, there should be a vital\ncontact between them and his out-of-school interests. There must be no history in the\nschool except that which can somehow be vitally connected with the child's life.\" The\nexcellent paper we have just heard places the ideal high, yet not too high to appeal to our\nsound common sense and best pedagogical theory. We know, however, that by actual\npractice in large numbers of schools of our land the pupil still gains his knowledge of history\nfrom the pages of his textbook and we know most surely that with such methods, history\ncan never become a part of the child's life but only a grind to be turned off as soon as\npossible. So we are interested this morning in searching out ways and means by which\nwe may reach the ideals set forth in this paper.\n\"Not intellect but feeling is power,\" we hear over and over in the Child-Study Department. As we turn to our American history, complicated as it is from the political standpoint, we find that it lends its aid at each step if we would follow the advice given and\nenlist the emotions in our work of education. And this may be done without diverging\none iota from the straight line of fact and truth. Our continent does need a Homer to restore its heroes, but when he comes let his subject be, not only La Salle and his picturesque\nwanderings, but those brave pioneers who fought first-hand with nature, as did our forefathers inpushing the frontier line westward, our American inventors in their struggle with\npoverty and discouragement as they prepared the way for our industrial greatness. But\nthese are not all : thruout our history may be gathered the material, which, given in story\nform and not from covers of a textbook, will furnish enough to awaken enthusiasm and\npride and, when needed, judgment of right and wrong, for of all things most interesting\nto young people are the records of human life and achievement. Story and poem of our\nmaster-minds — these, too, have their place in the history lesson as truly as in the literature\nhour.\nDramatization, of which we are only learning the value, may be our strong assistant.\nOne suggestion given by Professor Edwards I wish might go forth from this educational\nbody with the force of a command as as it was voiced eight years ago by the Committee of\nSeven; i. e., that the American boy is heir to all the ages and has a right to his inheritance. Have you ever watched a group of boys searching for material to use in their revival\nof the Olympic games on their own playground converted into a Greek stadium? If\nnot, you can hardly realize the amount of information thus absorbed about the Discusthrower, the Wrestlers, and other statues, about buildings, the great men of Greece, and\nthe ideals of her people in those days of Olympic greatness. In like manner from the\nstories of Rome comes a knowledge of her bridges and aqueducts, her conquests, and the\nmanners and customs of the time that furnishes a basis for later understanding of Rome's\ngift to the civilization of western Europe. Especially has our American boy whose\n\"schooling\" ends with the grammar grades a right to the culture that all unconsciously\ncomes from the delightful history-reading of these peoples of other lands and other times.\nIn the paper under discussion a point made, i. e., that our choice of school work should\nbe guided, not by the far-off account of years, but by the status of the child here and now,\n\n"} {"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n519\n\nf\n\nis well taken, yet must not be carried too far. In one particular our education must prepare very definitely for this \"far-oflF account of years,\" and to do so our subjects and\nmethods must be thoughtfully chosen. We are in great need of a type of citizenship not\nfound in any large degree among us today. To meet that need our American boys must\ngo forth from our schools with a definite equipment — an acquaintance with the great\nquestions of the day that are thronging upon us for solution, and an awakened understanding of the needs of these cities of ours, these cities that have grown up \"without the political\npale\" uncared for and unprotected, while our voters have been absorbed with national\nissues.\nAnd this is most pertinent to our subject of \"History in the Life of the Child.\" To\nus teachers, time and precedent has hallowed colonial land grants, charters, and governments and even the slavery controversy, giving, perhaps, undue importance to the things\nthat are past, while our boys are living in an age of newspaper, magazine, and home discussion of modern issues. Their ideal is too often taken from the \"Captain of Industry\"\nwho gains quick success by shrewd and perhaps dishonest business methods.\nHere is our opportunity to make our history, not only a part of the boy's life, but a preparation for the \"far-off account of years.\" The period from the Civil War up to date —\nand particularly the up-to-date part — must receive most thoughtful attention at our hands.\nThru its pages may the boy understand the scientific and economic development that has\nbrought about our great industrial questions of the day. And in this work no American\nteacher can afford to neglect the daily papers or allow herself a womanish disregard of\npolitical issues. The type of hero whose stories we must tell should not be taken entirely\nfrom the pages of Old World chivalry, but should more often be the man who stands for\nright and honesty in business and public life — the young district attorney, Folk of Missouri, and his battle against official dishonesty. To such study should be given the strength\nof our best teaching, backed by a high admiration for this type of truth and nobility that\nhas arisen to meet our modern needs.\nWe should recognize as a great trust this work that has fallen into our hands, this\npreparation of our boys to become enlightened citizens filled with a desire for social service,\nwhich, being interpreted, means appreciation of duty along political lines from caucus\nand primaries to polls on election day — such a recognition of duty our boys must have\nand with it an honesty of purpose that makes the square deal in business and public life\na sacred thing. With such teaching the next generation may be saved the constant political\nhouse-cleaning now necessary in nation, state, and city; for ideals will have been planted\nby our history-teaching in our daily schoolroom work that shall answer\nTHE\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHOUR\n\n\"What do we need to keep the nation whole.\nTo guard the pillars of the State ? We need\nThe fine audacities of honest deed;\nThe homely old integrities of soul.\nWe need the Cromwell fire to make us feel\nThe common burden and the pubhc trust.\nTo be a thing as sacred and august\nAs the white vigil where the angels kneel.\nWe need the faith to go a path untrod.\nThe power to be alone and vote with God.\"\n\n"} {"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\n"} {"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Morning, July 9, 1907\nThe department met in joint session with the departments of Higher Education and\nNormal Schools for the consideration of \"The Preparation of _ High-School Teachers.\"\nThe minutes of this meeting will be found under the Department of Higher Education.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nMorning, July 10\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nRound Table A. Topic: \"The Preparation of the High-School Teacher.\"\nPrincipal J. Stanley Brown, of the Joliet, 111., High School, led the conference and\nPrincipal S. A. Underwood, of Kansas City, was made secretary.\nThe general subject was discussed by Principal H. M. Barrett, of Pueblo, Colo.;\nPresident John R. Kirk, of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo., and others.\nThere was general discussion on the adoption of the report of the Committeeo f Seventeen on the Professional Preparation of High-School Teachers, but no report of these\ndiscussions was made for publication.\nRound Table B. Topic: Mathematics.\nThe mathematics round table was called to order by the leader, Charles Ammerman,\nhead of the department of mathematics, William McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nJ. F. West, head of department of mathematics. State Normal School, San Diego, Cal.,\nwas appointed secretary.\nThe chairman, Charles Ammerman, presented a paper on \"Adaptation in\nMathematics.\"\nE. H. Barker, head of department of mathematics, Polytechnic High School, Los\nAngeles, Cal., read a paper on \" Graphic Algebra.\"\nFletcher Durell, teacher of mathematics, John C. Green School, Lawrenceville,\nN. J., presented a paper on \"Original Demonstrations in Geometry: The Purpose, Nature\nand Methods of Presentation.\"\nJ. Melville McPherron, head of department of mathematics, Los Angeles High School,\nalso read a paper on \"Original Demonstrations in Geometry: Time of Introduction and\nLimitations.\"\nRound Table C. Topic: History.\nThe history round table of the Department of Secondary Education met at the First\nCongregational Church under the leadership of C. E. Locke, of the Polytechnic High\nSchool, Los Angeles, Samuel Baumann being appointed secretary.\nThe first paper was by Mrs. Ada I. Atkinson, of the history department of the High\nSchool, Omaha, Neb., on \"The Notebook in History Classes: Its Value and Limitations.''\n\"The Place of Modern History in the High School\" was presented in a paper by E. I.\nMiller, professor of history and political science. State Normal School, Chico, Cal. R. D.\nHunt, principal of the high school, San Jose, Cal., led the general discussion which followed.\nRound Table D. Science.\nThe round table was called to order by the leader, Lewis B. Avery, superintendent of\nschools, Redlands, Cal. Arthur Durward, of the High School, Pomona, Cal., was appointed\n\n"} {"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsecretary. Upon the first subject \" The Value and Limitations of Quantitative Experiments\nin Physics and Chemistry,\" a paper was presented by George C. Bush, principal of high\nschool, South Pasadena, Cal, the same being discussed by W. A. Fiske of the Richmond\nHigh School, Richmond, Ind.\nGeneral discussion followed.\nThe second subject considered was \"The Use of the Microscope in Biology Classes.\"\nThe first paper presented was upon \"The Purpose of Work with the Microscope,\" by\nWilHam M. Kern, president of the State Normal and Industrial School, EUendale, N. Dak.\nThis was followed by a paper upon \"The Kinds of Microscopic Work Valuable for\nHigh-School Students,\" by H. F. Wegener, principal of high school, Tacoma, Wash.\nThe discussion was opened by Mr. J. B. Lillard, teacher of biology in the William\nMcKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo., and C. T. Wright, Redlands, Cal.\nA general discussion followed, having mainly to do with the recommendation of various\nmodifications of projection apparatus. It seemed to be a general opinion that more work\nin projection microscopy should be done.\n\nThursday\n\nAfternoon, July ii, 1907\n\nThe president of the department E. W. Lyttle, inspector of the University of the state of\nNew York, presided.\nThe topic for the session was \" The Relation of the High Schools to Industrial Life.\"\nPresident Lyttle presented a paper on the topic of the session.\n\"The Function and the Value of the Commercial Course\" was discussed by J. H.\nFrancis, principal of the Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"The Function and the Value of the Manual- Training Course\" was presented by\nJ. Stanley Brown, superintendent of Township High School, Joliet, 111.\nEllsworth Robey, of Kokomo, Ind., county superintendent of schools and member\nof State Board of Education, responded to a request for information regarding agricultural\nwork in Indiana Schools.\nA Report of the Committee on Six- Year Courses of Study was presented by the chairman, Gilbert B. Morrison, principal of the William McKinley High School, St. Louis,\nMo. This report was discussed and adopted by vote of the section and it was unanimously recommended that the report be published in the volume of proceeding's.\nThe recommendations of the Committee of Seventeen on the Professional Preparation\nof High-School Teachers was then presented by President Lyttle. J. H. Francis, of Los\nAngeles, moved that the report be amended to allow at least two years of commercial\nexperience to substitute for an equal time of college training, but after considerable discussion this amendment was lost and the general recommendations were approved.\nThe following resolution was then presented by Miss Grace R. Southwick, of the\nCalifornia School of Mechanic Arts, San Francisco, and was adopted without dissenting\nvote.\nResolved^ That it is the sense of the Secondary Department of the National Educational\nAssociation that, in standardizing the requirements for high-school teachers, due weight\nshould be given to substituting practical experience for academic requirements in certification of special teachers in commercial lines, manual training, drawing, etc.\nThe Committee on Nominations composed of Principal W. L. Griswold, Youngstown,\nOhio; Principal W. H. House, Los Angeles, Cal.; and Charles Amraerman, of the\nWilliam McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo., then made the report or nominations of\nofficers for the ensuing year as follows:\nFor President — Gilbert B. Morrison, principal of the William McKinley High School,\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nFor First Vice-President — H. H. Cully, principal of Glenville High School, Cleveland,\n\nOhio.\n\n"} {"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nSEVENTEEN\n\n523\n\nFor Second Vice-President — Fletcher Durell, teacher of mathematics, John C. Green\nSchool, Lawrenceville, New Jersey.\nFor Secretary — Lewis B. Avery, principal of High School, Redlands, Cal.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was received and adopted and the\nnominees declared elected as officers of the department for the ensuing year.\nThe department then adjourned.\nLewis B. Avery, Secretary.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF SEVENTEEN\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nPREPARATION\nTEACHERS\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nINTRODUCTION\nBY THE\n\nCHAIRMAN,\n\nREUBEN\n\nPOST\n\nHALLECK\n\nThe Secondary Department of Education at the 1905 meeting at Asbury\nPark, N. J., voted that a committee be appointed by the president elected in\n1905, Dr. E. W. Lyttle, New York state inspector of high schools, to consider\nthe subject of securing proper professional preparation for high-school teachers.\nIn accordance with this resolution, the following Committee of Seventeen\nwas appointed.\nReuben Post Halleck, chairman^ principal, Boys' High School, Louisville, Ky.\nH. M. Barrett, principal of high school, Pueblo, Colo.\nFrederick E. Bolton, professor of education. State University of Iowa.\nStratton D. Brooks, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\nJ. Stanley Brown, superintendent of Joliet, 111., Township High School.\nEdward F. Buchner, professor of philosophy and education, University\nof Alabama.\nJohn W. Cook, president, Northern Illinois State Normal School.\nE. p. Cubberly, professor of education, Leland Stanford Jr. University.\nCharles DeGarmo, professor of science and art of education, Cornell\nUniversity.\nEdwin G. Dexter, professor of education. University of Illinois.\nPaul H. Hanus, professor of education. Harvard University.\nE. O. Holland, junior professor of education and high-school visitor,\nUniversity of Indiana.\nC. H. Judd, professor of psychology, Yale University.\nJohn R. Kirk, president, Missouri State Normal School.\nGeorge W. A. Luckey, professor of Education, University of Nebraska.\nGeorge H. Martin, secretary, Massachusetts State Board of Education.\nM. V. O'Shea, professor of science and art of education. University of\nWisconsin.\nAs chairman, I asked every member of this Committee of Seventeen to\n\n"} {"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nprepare a paper dealing with some phase of this subject. Every one complied\nwith this request. I am glad that the National Education Association will\npublish these papers in a separate pamphlet to be known as the ''Report of the\nCommittee of Seventeen on the Professional Preparation of High-School\nTeachers.\"\nBecause this subject is somewhat new, it was thought wise to have a large\ncommittee from all parts of the United States, representing high schools,\nnormal schools, colleges, post-graduate departments of education, and superintendents. The majority of this committee have at some time been high-*\nschool teachers. Seven of the college professors on it were selected because\nthey had actually taught in secondary schools and thus had first-hand experience with the practical necessities of the case. These men also have the added\nadvantage of connection with university schools of education. They have for\nsome time been considering what is ideal as well as what is practicable in the\ntraining of secondary teachers. Several other members of the committee, in\naddition to the two now connected with normal schools, were formerly normalschool teachers.\nSome critics may object because the members of this committee do not\nagree on all points, but let such remember that exact agreement in regard to\nthe professional training of high-school teachers is not necessary for progress,\nin fact, exact agreement would soon stop advancement. Precise delimitations of method will probably be sought by the pedant, the inefficient, and\nthose who lack originality, but it is to be hoped that the day is far distant when\ncut-and-dried methods of the same t)^e shall be imposed on the secondary\nteachers of this land. There may be — and there probably should be —\nagreement on certain cardinal points, but let it not be forgotten that one of\nthe reasons why progress in the United States has astonished the world is\nbecause there has been freer play for individuality here than elsewhere.\nSome repetition will naturally be found among so many papers, but even\nwhen the same point is discussed, the angle of view is frequently different.\nSome divergence of opinion and variation in the emphasis placed on certain\nsubjects might have been expected from so many different types of educators.\nNaturally those expressions of opinion in regard to which all the members of\nthis committee agree will carry the most weight. In order that readers might\ngain more definite impressions, it seemed wise to select and bring together\ncertain cardinal points on which there is substantial agreement. To decide\non these, the following members met in deliberative session at Chicago on\nFebruary 28 and March i, 1907: Messrs. Bolton, Brooks, Brown, Buchner,\nCook, DeGarmo, Dexter, Judd, Kirk, Luckey, O'Shea, and the chairman.\nAfter much discussion, a brief document was prepared, to be known as the\n''Recommendations of the Committee of Seventeen on the Professional Preparation of High-School Teachers,\" and to be signed by all the members of the\ncommittee. These recommendations, which follow this paper,, are the result\nof a conference which respected whatever conflicting views the members held\n\n"} {"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nSEVENTEEN\n\n525\n\nand which incorporated only those opinions in which all who were present\ncould concur. While these recommendations leave out some things which\nseveral would have liked to see inserted, it is, nevertheless, felt that they\nrepresent a distinct advance over existing conditions. It was further agreed\nthat additional opinions and matters on which the members of the committee\ncould not agree would receive sufficient prominence in the individual papers\nfollowing these recommendations. Every member who was at the Chicago\nconference agreed to these recommendations without dissent. Three of the\nmembers who were absent dissented on certain minor points, noted in connection with their names.\nThe chairman in this individual report wishes to emphasize what seems to\nhim to be salient points. He is willing to concede that his views are influenced\nby his personal equation as an active high-school principal.\nThere was an Elizabethan stage, which could present Shakspere's plays,\nbecause, more than a century previous, certain towns had rules like this to\ndetermine who should act in the miracle plays: —\nAll such as they shall find sufficient in person and cunning, to the honor of the City\nand worship of the said Crafts, for to admit and able; and all other insufficient persons,\neither in voice or person, to discharge, ammove, and avoide.\n\nThe twentieth century must find some means \"to discharge, ammove, and\navoide\" all persons who would make \"insufficient\" teachers, or the profession\nof high-school teaching will never rise to Elizabethan greatness. Possibly\nschools of education might do some of their best work in acting as a sieve.\nEvery year there are many persons desirous of getting positions in high schools\nwhom all the professional schools of education in this country could not fashion\ninto successful teachers. The great schools of art get rid of many would-be\nartists. Professors of education, while not infallible, can often tell that certain\npersonalities could not succeed in the high school. It would be a great act of\nkindness to many to weed out such. There would be joy among untold\nadolescents, if schools of education would act as a sort of St. Peter to bar the\ngate against all the manifestly unfit who think they have a \"call \" or who proposed to break in uncalled.\nI .* No matter what branch the high-school instructor is to teach, he ought to\nknow the groundwork of psychology and its educational applications. Probably three-quarters of the psychology taught in many universities would be\nabout as directly serviceable to a teacher as a fifth wheel to a coach. Human\nminds, nevertheless, do not work in a lawless way. It is just as necessary\nfor efficient trainers of the mind to know its laws as for an electrical engineer\nto be familiar with the laws which electricity obeys, before he attempts to\ninstal a plant. The civil engineer who deals with certain materials spends a\nlong time studying their resistance. He does not build his bridge first and\nthen ascertain the qualities of his materials.\nHe learns all that he can before\n* The numerals thruout all the papers mark those paragraphs referred to Specifically in the \" Joint\nRecommendations.\"\n\n"} {"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhe starts his bridge. In the same way, the high-school teacher ought to leam\ncertain things thoroly about psychology before he even begins to teach. This\nis the most important single study in the professional training of the highschool teacher. As an Irishman might say, it is not so much psychology that\nthe teacher wants, as it is educational psychology. This is something of a\nblanket term, but it includes any deductions or suggestions, helpful to the\nteacher, which can be drawn from the main stream of psychology or from\nany of its branches or subdivisions, no matter whether genetic, experimental,\nadolescent, physiological, animal, or morbid psychology.\nSome eminent psychologists are not very apt at showing the applications of\ntheir subject in practical education. It is scarcely more than a quarter of a\ncentury ago that an authority in electricity in one of our great universities said\nthat the electrical current could never be so subdivided as to make it practical\nfor lighting small rooms. Like some psychologists, he was too busy investigating and theorizing to stop to make practical applications of his knowledge.\nWhen such an application is made, it usually is, like all truths of greatest worth\nso self-evident as to render a formal statement of the process almost offensive\nto the theorizer.\nSince there has been some skepticism recently shown in certain quarters\nabout the utility of psychology in this connection, it may perhaps not be unwise\nhere to point out a few ways in which psychology may be made serviceable\nto the secondary teacher. In the first place, the gateway to teaching pupils\nis by means of a nervous mechanism. Teachers ought to have a clear working\nknowledge of this mechanism; of its sensory and motor neurones, and their\ndevelopment, its associative tracts, the division of labor in the brain, the laws\nof neural fatigue, recuperation, and nutrition. They ought to realize that\nknowledge of all kinds, at the last analysis, rests upon a definite neural disposition, that Shakspere's daffodils would mean nothing if there had been no\nprevious modification of nerve cells due to sensory stimuli from the flower.\nThe fact that the nervous system grows to the mode in which it is exercised\nought to be something more than an empty expression. In short, the writer\nfeels that teachers ought to have some such working conception of physiological psychology, as he has tried to give in his Edtication oj the Central\nNervous System.^ The high-school teacher will then be the better able to\nperform one of his important functions — that of teaching first-year pupils how\nto study. Book study is unnatural, and the more thinking it requires, the\nmore unnatural it is. For untold ages, man was trained by making thought\nresponses to sensory and motor stimuli or to the vivid imaginative recall of\nsuch stimuli. Many a boy drops out of the high school because he has never\nlearned how to concentrate his mind on Latin or algebra. The first step in\nteaching him how to study by himself consists in giving him some faint dilution of the old sensory and motor stimuli to which the brains of his progenitors were accustomed.\nThese stimuli will be like the scaffolding employed\n' The Macmillan Co., New York.\n\n"} {"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nSEVENTEEN\n\n527\n\nin building a house, and they may later be dispensed with. If a boy studying\nhis Latin forms is given a lead pencil and asked to write them out, a new\nstimulus is applied to two different parts of his brain. The motor tract concerned in writing is set in action and the black marks appeal visually to the\noccipital lobe. If he repeats the forms aloud, the speech center in the third\nfrontal convolution and the auditory center in the temporal lobe are stimulated. Such stimuli help to anchor his attention and enable him to continue\nat his task. Some knowledge of physiological psychology is needed to afford\nintelligent guidance and to furnish philosophical explanation for insistence on\ncertain methods.\nExperimental psychology has filled many pages with matter useless to\nthe teacher, yet it has given to pedagogy a number of facts of great value.\nFor instance, no teacher can use the time of pupils economically unless he\nknows the saving in interrupted repetitions in learning certain things. > Experimental psychology has shown that the number of consecutive repetitions\nnecessary for mastery in certain cases is far greater than when these repetitions are separated by a certain interval of time^ and that 40 per cent,\nof time and energy may sometimes be saved by not insisting on absolute\nmastery at one attack.\nFurther experiment has shown that the central nervous system has peculiar\nlaws of its own in showing progressive stages of acquired adaptation and skill.\nThe pupil climbs the stairs rapidly for awhile with some new acquisition, then\nthere is a long landing where he remains on a dead level, while the teacher\ngrows discouraged and scolds and perhaps disheartens the pupil. Then there\nis another rapid ascent, followed by another horizontal plane. A knowledge\nof such laws in neural development would make more effective teachers and\nhappier pupils.\nIt is time that a new term was coined in educational psychology, the\n\" psychology of difficulty.\" If teachers were grounded in this branch, they\nwould be less often swept off then: balance by \"easy\" methods and tasks.\nThe psychology of difl&culty tells us that what is popularly known as the\n\"easiest\" road between two places is seldom the best psychological road,\nthat while a straight line is the shortest geometrical distance between two\npoints, such a line is seldom the shortest psychological distance. Experimental psychology showed us long ago that consciousness, like the greatest\ncaptains of industry, whose hours are precious, saves its time and energy by\nerecting about itself certain barriers which interfere with any straight line\naccess. Many stimuli from light and sound and odor are not allowed to cross\nthe \"threshold of attention.\" Effective attention can be secured only by\nstrong stimuli. The day that it ceased to protect itself against weaklings,\nits efficiency would cease. The most of u . have to be told a thing vigorously\nin three different ways and then knocked down by experience before we\nreally learn a new truth.\nPsychologists promptly called attention to the fact that it is not the spelling\n\n"} {"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof the hardest words which is most often forgotten. \"Chicago\" and \"knowledge\" will be misspelled less often than \"confectionery\" and \"separate\"\nbecause the human mind will not put forth its strongest prehensile powers\nexcept when confronted with a difficulty. The Anglo-Saxon race did not\ndevelop under tropical skies with easy problems. The difficulties in the way\nof settling New England may even at this distance cause tender hearts to ache,\nbut cHmates and subjects may be too \"easy.\" The Spanish language is very\neasily spelled and learned with comparatively small effort, and this brings us\nto the arithmetical problem : \"If we find one Shakspere using a hard language\nlike the English, how many should we find using the Spanish language, only\none-third as hard?\" High-school teachers need to learn that Anglo-Saxon\nadolescents do not like easy things. They prefer football to marbles, to the\nintense astonishment of tropical races.\nMany high-school teachers make themselves and their principals a vast\namount of extra work in discipline and also fail to get the best results because\nthey do not know the psychology of suggestion. It is usual to call persons\nfools who, after an accident with a weapon, claim that they did not know that\nit was loaded. Ideas, like firearms, are loaded, the ideas more often than the\nfirearms. For a teacher, the best practical working definition of an idea is\n\"a hint to do something.\" To emphasize the importance of suggestion,\nteachers should learn something of hypnotism. So far as manipulating suggestive ideas is concerned, every teacher of adolescents must learn to be\nsomething of a hypnotist. People of individuality, who leave their impress\non those around them are always suggestive. The psychological relation\nbetween suggestion and initiative is of the closest kind.\nThe modern proverb, \"If you don't see what you want, want what you see,\"\nbrings us to another point of educational psychology, important for the secondary teacher. Certain teachers and salesmen are gifted at making pupils\nand customers want what they see. Such are worth their weight in gold.\nPsychology gives us the conditions of making people want what they see. We\nstudy these conditions, variously labeled as the psychology of interest or of\nfeeling. The psychology of imagination and of thinking are also necessary\nin this same process, while the psychology of will conditions all else for the\neducator.\n2. A study of apperception, or of that process under some other synonymous name, ought to furnish a philosophical reason why the high-school\nteacher should not be merely a narrow specialist, but a person of broad culture. We see things not as the things are, but as we are. If we are narrow\nwe shall see great things small ; we shall see only a microscopic section of the\npupil's life and interests; and we shall magnify our petty specialty out of all\nproportion to its relation to many-sided life. We must be broadly educated\nso that we can determine the educational value of the different studies and\nknow what instruments of learning to employ in order to introduce richness and harmony and avoid discord in the educational orchestra.\nThe\n\n"} {"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nSEVENTEEN\n\n529\n\nhigh-school teacher, above all, needs to be responsive to all those influences\nwhich give variety to life, which quicken the imagination, which bring him\ninto sympathetic touch with the lives of others. You cannot send the whole\nchild to school, unless the whole teacher has gone to school. Any training which\nbinds with dwarfish hands even the sweet influence of the Pleiades on his life\nwill render him a less-inspiring teacher. He is dealing with those who are\nlooking forward to a wonderful voyage of discovery to a new western world.\nHe furnishes the incentive to that voyage; he superintends the preparation\nfor it. In power to make or mar, he is only a little lower than the angels.\nFinally, a careful study of educational psychology will help high-school\nteachers to form independent judgments when confronted with some new method\nor proposition and will further enable them to make valuable suggestions to\nteachers in the grades and to parents. A high-school instructor in English,\nfor instance, finds that his pupils come to him such bad spellers as to be unable\nto get a good business position. When He complains, he is told by the graded\nteachers that scientific experiments have shown that those grades which have\nno specific instruction in spelling send out as good spellers as come from schools\nwhere spelling is a daily set task. He starts to ascertain the facts and finds\nthat such has proved the case in a city where a few schools from the entire\nnumber omitted specific drill in spelling and taught it only incidentally for a\nfew years. If he has been grounded in scientific' method — and every highschool teacher shoidd he grounded in rigorous scientific method as a part oj his\nindispensable professional preparation — he soon notes that it is impossible\nfor him to estimate certain factors accurately. Did the novelty of the situation\nin those special schools arouse every teacher to pay far more attention to the\nspelling of words which came up naturally, no matter in what branch or connection? Did every teacher feel more intensely that the children of those\nspecial schools must not be allowed to fall behind in comparison with other\nschools ? Did the new situation make the parents feel that added responsibility\nwas thrust upon them? Would the state of affairs have been precisely the\nsame if the entire city had abandoned specific spelling lessons, if there had been\nno rivalry, and if the novelty had completely worn away ?\nHe soon realizes that it is impossible to answer these questions with absolute\naccuracy, but his educational psychology has taught him to recognize whatever\nadvantage there is in this claim and to be on his guard against expecting results\nin conflict with mental laws. While general psychology has taught him that\nrepetition is one of the chief foundation stones of memory, educational psychology has indelibly impressed on him the more important fact that energy in the\nmental state is far more effective in securing memory than mere uninterested,\nsomnolent repetition, and that interest is not only one of the indispensable\nfactors of energy, but that interest is the divine mother of all world-compelling\nenergy. He has learned theoretically what usually happens when an educational gunner fires at a mark outside of the range of interest, and he sees spelling,\nas a rule, taught in a perfunctory way. Even theoretical educational psychol-\n\n"} {"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "530\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nogy will teach him that interest and enthusiasm are as catching as smallpox,\ncatching even in spelling, if a live teacher, who has breathed the breath of life\ninto his pupils, has them spell only live words. He then is thoroughly competent to say that some may teach spelling incidentally far better than others\nfrom a specific list. His knowledge of psychology and of scientific method\nforbids him to make a more sweeping statement which might lead some astray.\nSuch h gh-school teachers have been known to change the attitude of an entire\ncity in the teaching of English, by insisting on the simple law of energy and\ninterest — that a child should spell when there was something to spell, talk when\nthere was someth ng to say, write when there was something to communicate,\nand that the teacher should be responsible for providing the interest and the\noccasion, just as an intelligent parent succeeded in getting two of the laziest\nboys in the city to clear his garden of stones, by putting in the corner a mark at\nwhich they could throw. Other teachers have little fuss and feathers with\nLatin or modem language forms after a few months, because these teachers\nknow and apply the psychological truth that energy and interest are natural\nqualit'es in a mental state when dealing w th new matter, as well as with anything demanded by the present logical necessities of the case. Those teachers\nwho let the golden time of novelty pass without utilizing to the utmost the mental energy then liberated are like the landsman who waited to sail his boat out\nof the harbor unt 1 after the breeze had died away. The teacher grounded\nin modern educational psychology will have an advantage over the one who\ndiscovers the right method through experience alone. He will know why and\nwhen to do a certain thing and not stumble blindly on the right process.\nIn short, increased efficiency and leadership may be expected from the highschool teacher who has made a thoughtful study of educational psychology,\naccompanied by training in scientific method.\nProfessional training is strictly not concerned with the subject-matter, as\nmere original information, but only with that matter from the point of view\nof the high-school teacher, or more strictly still, from the point of view of the\nhigh-school pupil.\n3. This difference between a knowledge of the subject-matter and the recasting ito fit the pupil's mind, however self-evident it must seem to every psychologist, inot\ns yet generally appreciated by high-school teachers or their college\ninstructors. This difference is as great as the difference between a side of\nleather in a wholesale store and a part of that same leather cut out by a skilful\nshoemaker to fit a certain person's foot. ** Knowledge is knowledge,\" says\nthe university specialist. ''All that is necessary is to give the high-school\nteacher plenty of knowledge and his pupils will get it.\" Yards of silk are\nyards of silk. All that is necessary is for a woman to give her dressmaker\nplenty of goods and a dress will be forthcoming. Why, then, will women\ngladly pay certain dressmakers three times as much as others to make up\nprecisely the same dress pattern? Such a question would seem childish to\nevery woman who has had ''trouble with her dressmaker.\"\n\nThis question\n\n"} {"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nSEVENTEEN\n\n531\n\nwould seem more childish in this connection if it was not for the fact that so\nmany university professors are today claiming that knowledge is the prime\nrequisite, that other things will take care of themselves.\n4. The first necessity for the high-school teacher is, of course, ample knowledge. If he is to teach Latin, for instance, he should be a better teacher for\nstudying it four years in a high school and four years in college. A teacher in\nthe academic department of a high school should not only have a degree from\na reputable colege, but he should also have given special study to any subject\nwhich he expects to teach. If no absolute number of years can be assigned\nfor subjects as various as Latin, bookkeeping, and manual training, the teacher\nspecialist should be guided by the general rule that he ought to study his branch\nuntil he can survey it as a whole, keep in mind at one time its parts, decide\nwhat may be omitted without detriment, and have confidence in his own opinion\non any points raised in connection with his subject. Without such a mastery,\nit ought not to be possible for a high-school teacher to get a certificate. His\ncertificate should be issued only for those special subjects in which he has\nadequate scholarship.\n5. Every high-school teacher ought to have a definite course in recasting his\nsubject from the pupil's point of view. A Ph.D. may chafe at having to learn\nhis subject over under such restrictions, but why should he chafe any more\nthan a plumber, who comes to your home with an ample supply of pipe and\njoints which do not fit, chafes at being sent back to the shop for suitable\nmaterial? Why should the Ph.D. not expect to submit to the same earthly\nlaws which every successful tailor, farmer, cook, and manufacturer must obey ?\nThe teacher must fit the pupil's mind. Misfit knowledge discourages the\npupil, perplexes him, and frequently causes him to stop school. High-school\nteachers have often been heard to repeat precisely the same explanation four\nor five times to a wretched pupil, making no attempt to find a different route\ninto his mind, or to lodge the fact there by slow stages, resting patiently on\nsuccessive landings.\nThis point of working over one's store of knowledge so that it can be\nintelligently communicated to the pupil and assimilated by him is as important\nas getting that knowledge in the first place. Universities and schools of education ought, for a while at least, until the full importance of such a distinction\nis recognized, to keep sharply separate those courses which give new information to the student and those which teach him how to adapt to growing minds\nthe information which he already has.\n5a. There are two practical ways that may be employed in training highschool teachers to acquire their specialty a second time from the learner's point\nof view. The first, which should be used in every case, is to have professors of\neducation who can take the pupil's point of view and become children\nagain, just for that course. The candidate should then be required to\npresent the subject-matter under those limitations. For successful results,\nprofessors of education must be found who are capable of taking the adol-\n\n"} {"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nescent's point of view, men who are not desiccated, who have their own\nyouth well in memory, and who subject their own methods to the touchstone of\nthat memory. Such men will instruct the future high-school teacher to see\nhow much he can possibly omit from every textbook, without impairing its\nlogical sequence, and how much he needs to add to make that sequence comprehensible and vivid to pupils. The teacher should realize that the author\nof every secondary textbook is swayed, consciously or unconsciously, by what\nadult critics will say of its completeness and logical methods, and that there will\nconsequently be introduced matter beyond the comprehension of the average\nhigh-school student. The teacher must learn to note and reject this adult\nmatter.\n56. He should also be taught to repeat to himself with all reverence thisprayer\nevery morning before he enters the high-school room: ''Give me this day\nsufficient sense and sympathy to realize that what appears to me easy, logical\nsequence, only because I am a specialist in that branch, may seem absolutely\nmeaningless jargon to an adolescent. Make me to feel that one taste of\nvictory over high-school subject-matter is worth a hundred defeats, yea, that\nvictory and hope and continuance in school are adolescent synonyms, and\nthat a general's fame is not built on the defeat of his troops. Teach me to be\nless wise in my own conceit and give me the social grace to realize that if I\nam to travel in the golden clime of adolescence, I must at least learn the language of that country and avoid what may seem to its inhabitants a barbaric\ntongue. Bestow on me the saving grace of humor sufficient to keep me from\nover-stressing any point and from becoming shrill. Grant me also the capacity\nto be as easily bored as the children of that rapidly changing land of springtime. And, finally, enable me every day to look through the eyes of adolescence\nat a new world bathed in a light that never was on land or sea. Amen.\"\n6. The second method consists in giving candidates what our medical friends\ncall ''hospital practice\" on actual adolescents. For the sake of the children,\nprevious preparation should reduce to the least possible minimum the evils\nnecessarily resulting from such a course. Some such practice is indispensable.\nThis may be had (i) in a secondary school maintained by a university for\nthat special purpose; (2) in the schools in the town or city in which the university isituated; (3) in distant high schools. For a careful study of what\nis actually being accomplished by the first two methods, Professor Dexter's\nexcellent paper should be read. The third method has for some time been\nemployed in an increasing degree during the last few years by superintendents\nand high-school principals all over the country. These inexperienced teachers\nare watched, advised, and given a chance as often as possible to visit the classrooms of the best teachers in the school. The majority of those who have had\nexperience in secondary schools-would probably agree that practice in teaching\nin the grades would not take the place of experience in the high school, and\nthat the two schools must differ widely in methods. A study of the psychology\nof adolescence should make this point plain. The papers of Messrs. Barrett,\n\n"} {"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nSEVENTEEN\n\n533\n\nBolton, Cook, DeGarmo, Kirk, and Martin will show some divergence of\nopinion.\n7. In this connection, however, we should note that there can be no dispute\nabout the truth that a high-school teacher's academic and professional training\nshould be conditioned largely by the special subjects which he is to teach, and\nthat practice in teaching Latin would not make a skilful teacher of physics.\nPedagogical hospital practice for teachers of adolescents, in some form or\nother, is as old as Adam. It is yet in its infancy in systematic scientific application in the training of secondary teachers. The next ten years will probably show what special secondary training-schools can and cannot accomplish.\nThe members of this committee regret that these schools are not farther\nevolved at this time, and that the data based solely on practice in conducting\nthem is at present so limited.\n8. Every prospective high-school teacher should be encouraged to spend at\nleast one post-graduate year in some university school of education, engaged\nin professional preparation for teaching. Where this is not possible, at least\none-eighth of his under-graduate work should be devoted to such professional\nbranches. This recommendation was submitted for criticism by a highschool principal to a group of twenty excellent men, all of them experienced\nhigh-school teachers.\n\"Is this rule for men or for women ?\" sixteen of them asked.\n\" For both,\" was the reply.\n\"Well, this rule would have disposed of us,\" replied the sixteen, \"for none of us\nintended to become teachers early enough to shape our college course in conformity with\nsuch requirements. If we had been compelled to take a post-graduate year, we should have\ndone something else.\"\n\nTheir principal shifted uneasily in his chair, for he realized that among those\nsixteen men there were enough born teachers to make a reputation for almost\nany school. It may be true that comparatively few of the many born teachers\never enter the profession of teaching, even under the easiest requirements.\nCareful investigation should determine whether these same easy requirements\ndo not drive out the fit teachers, under a sort of pedagogical Gresham's law,\nthat a legalized cheap instrument, to be used on other people, will drive out a\ndearer instrument, in the same way that a debt will be paid in the cheaper\nmoney, if two standards are in circulation.\nIt is plain that in the case of men, such a rule should not be passed, unless\nas some of us think, it would be a step toward making high-school teaching as\nmuch of a profession as either law or medicine and as well rewarded. Even\nthese desiderata would not be sufficient to tempt the best men unless their\ntenure of office was certain, unless they could have freedom for their different\nindividualities, and escape the apron strings of too much supervision.\nMany first-class women might conform to stringent requirements only\nbecause fewer ways of earning a living are open to them. It is certainly not\nthe wish of this committee to suggest requirements which would keep the best\n\n"} {"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmen from becoming high-school teachers. In Germany the secondaryteacher must have eighteen years of preHminary study and practice; three\nyears in the primary school, nine in the gymnasium, three in the university,\none in passing the state examinations, one in the seminary, and one in trial\nteaching. Even then there are generally two applicants for every place, but\nthere is no competition on the part of women. ^ The caste system in Germany\nis such, the population so dense, the opportunity of rising in varied ways so\nfew, that the young men of the United States cannot be expected to be willing\nto follow Germany as a pattern.\nEvery secondary-school teacher ought to have as a part of his regular\nprofessional training either a course under a library expert or under someone\ncapable of giving instruction in recommending general reading for adolescents.\nThe future teacher should learn the point of view of different types of adolescents and be able to suggest books interesting to them all in all branches.\nNo teacher ought to receive a high-school certificate unless he is able to\nrecommend stimulating and interesting books on subjects as various as\nastronomy, inventions, history, animals, literature, adventure, poetry, flowers,\nIndians, and travel. He should know better than his pedagogy books like\nThe Prince and the Pauper, The Jungle Book, The Oregon Trail, Astronomy\nwith an Opera Glass, Tenting on the Plains, The Bar Sinister, Lives oj the\nILunted, ILero Tales jrom American History, and suitable poetry selected\nfrom a wide range. Boys and girls have, in the majority of cases, decided\nbefore leaving their teens what the bulk of the reading for the rest of their\nlives shall be, in fact, whether they shall read anything except novels. Librarians say that the majority of all reading is done by young people before\ntwenty. The experience of the world, its joys and sorrow, are bequeathed to\nus thru books. By them, Shakspere, being dead, yet speaketh. Woe to the\nboy or girl who leaves the high school without a taste for reading. Every\ndecade or so sees the hours of the laborer shortened. What shall he do with\nhis spare time? This becomes a question of increasing importance. The\nsaloon, the poolroom, and the card-table will have less attractions for the one\nwhose teachers have given him a love for reading. The teacher who has not\nmade a special study of reading for adolescents cannot do his best in implanting\nsuch a love. Unless he supplements this special training during each subsequent year of his teaching-life by reading at the very least three adolescent\nbooks, he will gradually lose both the capacity and the inclination to direct\nthe outside reading of his pupils.\n9. The professional training of the high-school teacher ought to show him\nthe best methods of character-building, of establishing our boys and girls on\nfirm moral foundations. More than anything else, this should be made the\nsubject of scientific study. The teacher should investigate the neural basis\nof habit, and its gelation to morality of the higher type. He should learn why\n'Professor DeGarmo's paper (No. XV) on \"The Professional Training of Teachers for the Secondary\nSchools of Germany\" should be read in this connection.\n\n"} {"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nSEVENTEEN\n\n535\n\n''character,\" \"regularity,\" and \"thoroness\" are largely synonymous terms.\nHe should be taught how to select noble ideals from history, literature, and the\nlife around him. He should know the tremendous power of suggestion for\nmorality and immorality. He should learn what appeals especially to adolescents and he should skilfully plan to enlist their interests, their likes and dislikes on the side of morality. Some of the great masters of secondary schools\nhave kept their pupils marching to the music of noble ideals until that way of\nmarching has become a habit. The state certainly has a right to demand\nthat, in return for the vast outlay for secondary education, the pupils shall come\nout of school with higher moral ideals than when they entered. Ethics and\nsociology should be taught together. A knowledge of what is ethical should\nbe put in immediate practice in doing something for one's neighbor. If it is\nimportant that the academic knowledge of the high-school teacher should\nbe recast and revised so as to render it capable of being assimilated by the\nminds of his pupils, it is far more important that everything connected with\nthe high-school curriculum should be scientifically studied from the point of\nview of its effect on character. Such study has already proceeded far enough\nto prove that we have often put the greatest emphasis where it least belongs.\nDuring the next twenty-five years it is to be hoped that the scientific study of\neducation will show vast progress in giving practical directions for building\nmoral foundations which will withstand the floods of temptation and also\nshow more forcibly that intellectual foundations alone are but sand. The\nnation is now demanding this of its educators more than ever before. There\nare already signs of progress in this direction, but practical ethics does not\nyet rest on as firm a scientific foundation as the intellectual processes in building bridges or improved methods in teaching chemistry.\n10. For lack of space, a few additional points which the professional training\nof the high-school teacher should emphasize must be compressed into one\nparagraph. The candidate should learn something of school administration,\nsince he must work with others and be a part of the commonwealth. He\nshould know something of the evolution of the secondary school and also the\nevolution of the methods of teaching his own special branch. He should be\nable to orient the work of the entire school and to have a clear idea of what a\nwell-rounded secondary school should accomplish. He should be able to\nweigh judicially the claims of both the so-called cultural and vocational\nsubjects. He should read some educational classics and biographies of the\ngreat educators and catch from them on the personal side greater enthusiasm\nfor his profession. He should recognize the importance of being thoro, the\ndangers of superficiality, \"sight-reading,\" and of too hasty inference or\nshrewd guesswork. To this end he should have careful training in some one\nscience, grow to respect scientific method, and learn that character and thoroness are closely related.\nThe chairman would emphasize the importance of reading all the papers\nwhich follow.\nThis is necessary to obtain a well-rounded view, for no single\n\n"} {"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmember of this committee has attempted to treat all the points involved in\nthis comparatively new subject. The chairman desires to thank all the members of this committee for the interest which they have taken in this question\nand the hard work which they have given to it. He wishes specially to thank\nMessrs. Brooks, Dexter, and DeGarmo, who, with himself, were members\nof a preliminary executive committee. This executive committee read all of\nthe papers, compared the points made, and studied for some time how best to\nframe a set of * 'Recommendations,\" sufficiently unified, it is hoped, to leave\na clear impression on the mind of the reader. Without the unusually efficient\nwork of these three men, the following \"Recommendations\" would never have\ntaken such simple shape. The drudgery which they cheerfuUy consented to\nundergo to present something definite, as well as something acceptable to all\nthe members, may not appear on the surface, but it was certainly drudgery.\nThe chairman wishes further to thank Superintendent Brooks for suggesting,\nmaking, and verifying the numerical references in the \"Recommendations\"\nwhich follow:\nTo Dr. E.W. Lyttle, state inspector of high schools for New York and president of the Department of Secondary Education, 1905-07, the thanks of everyone interested in this subject are due. His zeal in the field of secondary education, his familiarity with it on both the theoretical and the practical side, and\nhis sympathy with the work of this committee, which he appointed, made his\nsuggestions and counsel invaluable to the chairman. Dr. Lyttle certainly\ncan point to work done by the Department of Secondary Educalion under his\nleadership.\nJOINT\nRECOMMENDATIONS\nOF\nTHE\nCOMMITTEE\nOF\nSEVENTEEN ON THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS\nThe committee on the preparation of high-school teachers recommend:\nI. That the academic preparation include the following elements:\nA. A detailed and specialized study of the subjects to be taught.\nThe program of studies selected by each student should include work in subjects\noutside of those in which he is making special preparation, sufficient to give some insight\ninto the different fields of knowledge and to avoid the dangers of over-specialization.\nI Barrett, 2, 3; Brooks, 2; Brown, 2; Cubberley, 2; Halleck, 2, 4; Holland, 3;\nHanus, 2, 3, 4; Judd, 3; Luckey, 8; O'Shea, 3.\nB. One or more subjects from a group including history, economics, and sociology,\nwhich will give the teacher a proper outlook upon the social aspects of education,\nBarrett, 6; Brooks, 4; Martin, 6; O'Shea, 4.\nC. A course in general psychology and at least one from a group of subjects including history of philosophy, logics, and ethics, which will give the teacher\na proper outlook upon education as the development of the individual.\n' The references are to the paragraph numbers in the papers of this Committee. Only those paragraphs\nare numbered which fall under the heads given in these joint \"Recommendations.\" Failure to number a\nparagraph docs not imply that it is not important.\n\n"} {"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] RECOMMENDATIONS\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nOF SFIVENTEEN\n\n537\n\nBolton, IV, 2; Brooks, 11; DeGarmo, 4; Halleck, i, 9; Hanus, 3; Judd, 5a;\nMartin, 6;\n\nO'Shea, 4.\n\nII. That definite study be given to each of the following subjects, either in\nseparate courses or in such combinations as convenience or necessity\ndemands :\nA. History of Education.\n1. History of general education.\n2. History of secondary education.\nBarrett, 5; Bolton, IV, 2; Brooks, 4; Cubberley, 3; DeGarmo, 3; Halleck, i, 10;\nHanus, 6, 7; Holland, 3; Judd, 4; Luckey, 6; Martin, 7; O'Shea, 4.\nB. Educational psychology with emphasis on adolescence.\nBarrett, 6, 8; Brooks, 5; DeGarmo, 4; Halleck, i, 5a, 56; Hanus, 5, 8; Holland, 3;\nLuckey, 6; Cubberley, 3; Martin, 2, 3; O'Shea, 4.\nC. The principles of education, including the study of educational aims, values, and\nprocesses.\nCourses in general method are included under this heading.\nBarrett, 7, 10; Bolton, IV, 2; Brooks, 6, 7; DeGarmo, i; Hanus, 4, 5, 8; Holland,\n3; Judd, 5a; Luckey, 6; Martin, 2, 5; O'Shea, 4.\nD. Special methods in the secondary school subjects that the students expect to\nteach.\nBarrett, 12; Brooks, 8; Buchner, 3; DeGarmo, 2; Halleck, 3, 5, 7; Hanus, 4a, 4c;\nO'Shea, 3.\nE. Organization and management of schools and school systems.\nBolton, IV, 2; Brooks, 9; Halleck, 10; Hanus, 8; Holland, 3; Luckey, 6; Martin, 3;\nO'Shea, 4.\nF. School hygiene.\nBrooks, 10; Hanus, 8; Holland, 3.\n\nIII. That opportunity for observation and practice teaching with secondary\npupils be given.\nThe committee recognizes the difficulties involved in this recommendation, but believes\nthat they are not insurmountable. Each of the following plans has proved successful\nin some instances:\nA. The maintenance of a school of secondary-school grade that may be used for\nobservation and practice.\nB. Affiliation with public or private high schools so situated geographically that\npractice teaching can be done without interfering with the other work of the\ncollege course.\nIn addition to the above, the committee suggests that where competent critical\nsupervision is possible, cadet teaching, in schools more remotely situated, may be attempted.\nIn such cases, a teacher's diploma might be granted after a year's successful work as a\ncadet teacher.\nBarrett, 10, 11; Bolton, IV, 2; Brooks, 12; Buchner, 1,4; DeGarmo, 5; Halleck, 6;\nHanus, 4c, 8; Holland, 2; Luckey, 6; Martin, 8; O'Shea, 5, 5a.\n\nIV. That the minimum requirement for a secondary-school teacher be graduation from a college maintaining a four-year course and requiring four\nyears' high-school work for admission, or from an institution having\nequivalent requirements for admission and giving equivalent academic\nscholarship.\nA year of graduate work divided between academic arid professional subjects is desirable. Discussions of the relative value of college and normal schools as training-schools\nfor secondary-school teachers, are to be found in the references below:\n\n"} {"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nBarrett, 6; Bolton, II, IV, i; Brooks, 3; Buchner, 3; Cook, Entire paper; Halleck,\n4, 8; Judd, 3; Kirk, Entire paper;\n\nLuckey, 2, 7; Cubberley, i; Martin, 9; O'Shea, 4a.\n\nV. That the study of subjects mentioned under II be distributed thru the\nlast two years of the college course.\nThe proportional amount of time given to these subjects will vary with local conditions,\nbut an irreducible minimum is one-eighth of the college course. They should be preceded\nor accompanied by the subjects mentioned in I, B, C. Recommendations as to the amount\nof time given to particular courses will be found in several of the accompanying papers.\nBolton, IV, 2; Brooks, 12; Hanus, 3; Luckey, 4; O'Shea, 4a.\n\nPapers dealing with special topics have not been given paragraph numbers\nand are not included in the references above.\nThey are as follows :\nFrederick E. Bolton\nI. Requirements for High-School Certificates.\nII. The University and\nthe College as Training-Schools for High-School Teachers.\nIIL Standards in Germany.\nIV. Standards Suggested for American Schools.\nEdv^ard F. Buchner\nThe Professional Preparation of High-School Teachers in the Fifteen\nSouthern States.\nJohn W. Cook\nCapacity and Limitations of the Normal School in the Professional Preparation ofthe High-School Teachers.\nCharles De Garmo\nProfessional Training of Teachers for the Secondary Schools of Germany.\nEdwin G. Dexter\nThe Present Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools.\nJ. R. Kirk\nWill the Same Training in the Normal School Serve to Prepare the Teacher\nfor Both Elementary and High-School\n- Signed, Work ?\nREUBEN\nPOST HALLECK\nSTRATTON\nD. BROOKS\n\nJOHN R. KIRK\nFREDERICK\nE.\n\nJOHN W. COOK\nEDWIN\nG. DEXTER\n\nEDWARD\nCHARLES\n\nC. H.\nH. M.\n\nE. O. HOLLAND\nGEORGE\nW. A. LUCKEY\n\nJUDD\nBARRETT\n\nJ. STANLEY\nBROWN\n' E. P. CUBBERLEY\n2 PAUL H. HANUS\n\nA SHORT\n\nCOURSE\n\n^ GEORGE\n\nBOLT\n\nv:\n\nF. BUCHNER\nDE GARMO\n\nH.\n\nMARTIN\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL READING\nSCHOOL TEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-\n\nRequests for suggestions for professional reading have been received from\nhigh-school teachers who cannot stop their work to go to schools of education\n' Is not positive about making mandatory the history of philosophy, logic, and ethics,\n» \"Dissents from the seemingly unqualified opinion that all the studies under II should\na part of the prospective teacher's undergraduate study.\"\n3 Questions Numlier V.\n\necessarily form\n\n"} {"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREADING\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n539\n\nor who cannot remain in these schools a sufficient length of time. It is one\nof the encouraging signs of the times to note the increasing number of highschool teachers who wish, in so far as is possible, both to remedy deficiencies\nin their professional training and also to grow in their profession. A br'ef list\nof books for this purpose is accordingly given. In the preparation of this list\nthe chairman has had valuable assistance from a number of members of this\ncommittee, but no one member except himself is responsible for the list as a\nwhole. While several books by members of this committee • appear below, it\nshou'd be understood that such books were in every case suggested by other\nmembers of this committee.\nThe brevity of this list should add to its value. Before the teacher has\nread very far, other books and references will be suggested to him and he will\nof his own accord search for a more elaborate treatment of certain topics.\nWhat the majority of teachers need is a start among the bewildering multiplicity\nof works on education. Where shall we begin ? is a question which they\nfrequently ask.\nThese books are recommended to teachers who are doing any branch of\nsecondary educational work, no matter whether it is academic, arts and crafts,\nmanual training, or commercial.\nPSYCHOLOGY,\n\nGENERAL\n\nMETHOD,\n\nAND\n\nPHILOSOPHY\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJames, Talks to Teachers on Psychology, also parts of his two-volume work on psychology\n(Henry Holt & Co.).\nJudd, Genetic Psychology for Teachers (D. Appleton & Co.).\nHalleck, Education of the Central Nervous System (The Macmillan Co.).\nThorndike, Principles of Teaching Based on Psychology (A. G. Seiler).\nAdams, Herbartian Psychology Applied to Education (D. C. Heath & Co.).\nHalleck, Psychology and Psychic Culture (American Book Co.).\nHome, Psychological Principles of Education (Macmillan).\nLe Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (Macmillan).\nGalton, Inquiries into Human Faculty (\"Everyman's Library \" 1907, E. P. Dutton Co.).\nHall, Adolescence, Its Psychology, 2 vols., 1,373 pages. The one- volume edition, 379 pages,\npublished under the title. Youth: Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene (Appleton)\nwill suffice for the average reader.\nBagley, The Educative Process (Macmillan).\nMcMurry, Method of the Recitation (Macmillan).\nHanus, Educational Aims and Educational Values (Macmillan)\nO'Shea, Education as Adjustment (Longmans, Green & Co.).\nHanus, A Modern School (Macmillan).\nO'Shea, Dynamic Factors in Education (Macmillan).\nSPECIAL\n\nMETHOD\n\nDeGarmo, Principles of Secondary Education (Macmillan).\nVol. I, \"The Studies;\" Vol. H, \"Educational Processes.\"\nBagster- Collins, Teaching of German in Secondary Schools (Macmillan;.\nBennett and Bristol, The Teaching of Latin and Greek in the Secondary School (Longmans,,\nGreen & Co.).\n\n"} {"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nCarpenter, Baker, and Scott, The Teaching of English in the Elementary and Secondary\nSchool (Macmillan).\nChubb, The Teaching of English in the Elementary and Secondary School (Macmillan).\nSmith and Hall, The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the Secondary School (Longmans, Green & Co.).\nLloyd and Bigelow, The Teaching of Biology in the Secondary School (Longmans, Green &\nCo.).\nSmith, D. E., The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics (Macmillan).\nYoung, The Teaching of Mathematics (Longmans, Green & Co.).\nBourne, The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and the Secondary School\n(Longmans, Green & Co.).\nThe Study of History in Schools, Report to the American Historical Association,\nby the Committee of Seven, 267 pages (Macmillan).\nReport of the New England History Teachers' Association, 299 pages (Macmillan).\nRichards, Manual Training (Longmans, Green & Co.).\nHISTORICAL\n\nAND\n\nDESCRIPTIVE,\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nAND\n\nGERMANY\n\nBrown, The Making of Our Middle Schools (Longmans, Green & Co.).\nDexter, History of Education in the United States (Macmillan).\nLuckey, The Professional Training of Secondary Teachers in the United States (Macmillan).\nBolton, The Secondary School System of Germany (Appleton).\nRussell, German Higher Schools (Longmans, Green & Co.).\nPaulsen, German Universities (Charles Scribner's Sons).\nGENERAL\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCLASSICS\n\nMonroe, Textbook in the History of Education, 772 pages (Macmillan).\nDavidson, History of Education, 292 pages (Scribner).\nBosanquet, Education of the Young in Plato's Republic, 198 pages (Cambridge University\nPress).\nBryan, Plato, the Teacher, 454 pages (Scribner).\nDavidson, Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals, 256 pages (Scribner).\nAscham, Scholemaster, 317 pages (D. C. Heath & Co.).\nWoodward, Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators, 261 pages (Cambridge\nUniversity Press).\nLocke, Thoughts on Education, edited by Quick, 240 pages (Cambridge University Press).\nRousseau, Emile (abridged edition, D. C. Heath & Co.).\nHerbart, Outlines of Educational Doctrine, edited by Lange and DeGarmo, 334 pages\n(Macmillan).\nSpencer, Education, 285 pages (Appleton).\nPainter, Great Pedagogical Essays, 426 pages (selections from twenty-six classics; American\nBook Co.).\nETHICS\n\nAND\n\nSOCIOLOGY\n\nAdler, Moral Instruction of Children, 278 pages (Appleton).\nMacCunn, The Making of Character: Some Educational Aspects of Ethics, 226 pages\n(Macmillan).\nGriggs, Moral Education, 352 pages (B. W. Huebsch, publisher. New York).\nSidgwick, On Stimulus (Cambridge University Press).\nForbush, The Boy Problem: A Study in Social Pedagogy, 194 pages (The Pilgrim Press,\nBoston).\nDewey, The School and Society, 129 pages (The University of Chicago Press).\n\n"} {"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n541\n\nPatten, New Basis of Civilization, 220 pages (Macmillan).\nGiddings, Elements of Sociology, 353 pages (Macmillan).\nAmerican Journal of Sociology.\nBOOKS\n\nHELPFUL\n\nTO\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN\n\nRECOMMENDING\nPUPILS\n\nSUITABLE\n\nREADING\n\nTO\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nHewins, Books for Boys and Girls, 56 pages (American Library Association, 34 Newbury\nStreet, Boston).\nChildren's Reading: A Catalogue Compiled for the Home Libraries and Reading Clubs,\nConducted by the Children's Department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburg, no pages\n(American Library Association, 34 Newbury Street, Boston).\nField, Fingerposts to Children's Reading, 276 pages (A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago).\nColby, Literature and Life in School, 229 pages (Houghton Mifflin Co.).\nGriswold, A Descriptive List of Books for the Young, large 8vo, 175 pages (W. M. Griswold, publisher, Cambridge, Mass.).\nHanna, \"One Hundred Books of Unqualified Value for High-School Students to Read\" —\npublished in the 1899 volume of the Proceedings of the National Educational Association, pp. 486, 487. This list is also included in a separate volume of eighty pages,\nknown as Report of the Committee on the Relation of Public Libraries to the Public\nSchools, published by the National Educational Association, Winona, Minn.\nHall, \"Youth,\" chap, viii, pp. 141-206, Biographies of Youth (Appleton).\nAldrich, Story of a Bad Boy (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.).\nBashkirtseff, Marie, Journal of a Young Artist (Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago).\nHowells, William D., Heroines of Fiction, 2 vols., 513 pages (Harper & Bros.).\nRichardson, Choice of Books (David McKay, Philadelphia).\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPERIODICALS\n\nThe School Review (especially devoted to secondary education) should be read regularly.\nThe Educational Review.\nThe Pedagogical Seminary.\nEducation.\nThe Manual Training Magazine, Peoria, 111.\n\nPAPERS\n\nON\n\nH.\n\nM.\n\nTHE\nPROFESSIONAL\nPREPARATION\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nTEACHERS\nI\n\nBARRETT,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPUEBLO,\n\nOF\n\nCOIO.\n\nI. It might be inferred from the subject of this paper that the professional\npreparation of the high-school teacher is not always satisfactory. I shall\nnot object to the inference. Rather, I shall try, first, to furnish a bill of particulars inthe complaint against the high-school teacher's professional training;\nsecond, I shall mention some of the reasons why this training is not all that\nit should be; and finally, if I can, I shall point out how the high-school teacher\nmay secure the proper professional preparation.\nThe faults in the professional preparation of the high-school teacher may\nbe grouped under three heads: First, although the high-school teacher has\nsufficient education, broadly speaking, he does not know how to teach. It\nis not long since it was assumed that anybody with a college diploma was fit\nto teach in a high school; and if he had taken high rank in his college classes\nthen any high school was lucky to get him.\nThe superintendent and principal,\n\n"} {"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nat least, have long since been made to realize by abundant experience that a\ngood student is not always a good teacher. In the light of this experience they\nhave been chary about giving a try-out to the unseasoned graduate, if one may\nborrow a football phrase, and they have tried to insist when they could on\nsuccessful experience in other high schools as evidence of ability to teach.\n2. The second item in the bill is that the teacher who has anticipated his\nwork and has undertaken to prepare for it has frequently devoted himself\nalmost exclusively to the study of a single branch. He has gone in for science,\nor has taken everything in advanced mathematics that his college offered, or\nhas spent considerable time in the study of Anglo-Saxon, has attended with\nenthusiasm all the classes in literature, and has devoted himself assiduously\nto the work in theme-writing and in the composition of sonnets. Thus prepared for his special work in high school, he comes to teach boys and girls\nto do the same thing that he has done. The specialist has studied not wisely\nbut too well. If he be a science man he feels that he ought not to have to\ncorrect English in the notebooks of his pupils — and indeed he ought not;\nbut when the need exists, as it does now and then, he cannot agree that every\nteacher should be an English teacher before he is anything else.\n3. Finally, the complaint against the high-school teacher is that, even\ntho he could teach mathematics, science, English or what not, he cannot teach\nboys and girls. One principal puts it brutally that the high-school teacher\nhas no sense. This is a hard saying, but there is directness and finality in\nthe sound of it that carry weight. Ordinarily, the statement that a man has\nno sense is a tolerably sweeping condemnation; but when we examine the\nmeaning of the word \"sense\" in this connection we find that it signifies about\nall that makes a man a master in any profession. A man may have the finest\nuniversity training in medicine, but if he lacks sense he will not succeed as a\nphysician; lack of sense in a lawyer will make a superior knowledge of the\nlaw of little value. The fact is that sense, fundamental as the quality appears,\nand fundamental as it really is, actually implies all that makes one a strong\nteacher, a great teacher. It may seriously be doubted, whether, after all,\nsense is not a gift with which one is born, rather than an accomplishment\nwhich can be acquired by training. An old professor of mine used to say:\n\"There are some things which, if a man doesn't get before he is four years\nold, he never gets.\" I fancy that sense is one of these things. The French,\nwho are polite, call it savoir jaire, and so called, it sounds more like something which may be acquired by study and growth.\nMost principals are apt to feel that the reason why the student fresh from\ncollege fails as a teacher lies in the fact that he unconsciously assumes that\nhigh-school boys and girls are young ladies and gentlemen. Technically,\nso far as age goes, and so far as the name implies nice young people, decently\nbrought up by particular parents, they are young ladies and gentlemen; but\nmentally, for all the practical purposes of the teacher, they are still boys and\ngirls. They are not at all ready for college methods of instruction.\nIt will\n\n"} {"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n543\n\nnot do for the high-school teacher to give a course of lectures and permit the\npupils to take the instruction or leave it as they choose. If they choose to\nleave it the loss is theirs, true enough; but they must not be allowed to leave it.\nThe old masters knew their duty in this regard, and they did it— often with\ngroanings on the part of the pupils that could not be uttered. There was a\ncertain crudeness about their methods which would not be tolerated today;\ncaning and flogging were long the effective means of inducing interest in study\nwhich the Herbartian doctrine does not approve. Yet the old masters understood their problem well enough, no matter what we may think of their method\nof solving it. They knew that boys and girls cannot be left to themselves to\nstudy or to take the consequences in a life of inefficiency in the vague future.\nThey knew human nature well enough to understand that the doctrine of\nfuture punishment, however well founded, is not an efficient cause of present\neffort with men and women, much less with boys and girls. And in their\nown primitive way the old masters undertook to supply an immediate substitute\nfor future punishment, unpedagogical, no doubt, but often effective in accomplishing results.\nThe specialist, too, because he is a specialist, has lost some of the advantages possessed by the old master. If the boy does not do well in his particular subject, the boy to him is a ne'er-do-well. The specialist knows nothing\nabout the pupil except what he sees of him in his own class; and if the pupil\nfails there he is condemned utterly. The principal who sees this situation\noften feels that it would be well if the specialist were required to teach more\nthan one subject — well for the pupil and well for the specialist.\n4. The limitations of the college graduate and ulso the limitations of the\nuniversity-trained specialist are summed up in the indictment that they do\nnot know boys and girls and therefore they do not know how to deal with them.\nThese teachers are too apt to shift upon others the responsibility for a pupil's\nshortcomings, to throw it back upon the grade teachers, or to attribute it to\nsome lack of rigid discipline in the high school as a whole. Often one hears\nsuch teachers lamenting the fate which condemns them to the annoyance of\npetty discipline, and weakly wishing for a college position. Not till they learn\nthe joy of being alive among boys and girls and of watching them grow under\ntheir hands into men and women, can these hope to be high-school teachers\nin the real sense. Now, they do not realize that it is folly to place responsibility for poor work on other teachers, or, indeed, upon the pupil himself.\nHere is the pupil with all his imperfections on his head. It is up to the individual teacher to train that pupil to do the work in his class and make a man\nof him in that work. The grade teacher knows that if any one of her pupils\nfails in the next higher grade it is a reflection upon her. Much more, however, does she appreciate that if he does not do good work in her grade nobody\ncan be blamed but her. The unsatisfactory pupil is a perpetual problem to\nher, and there is more joy in her heart over the successful solution of one such\nproblem than over ninety and nine that need no solution.\nEvery time she\n\n"} {"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsolves such a problem she knows that she has proved herself a real teacher;\nevery time she fails to solve such a problem she must feel that she has measurably failed as a teacher. How, then, thro professional preparation, can\nthe high-school teacher fit himself to do the work before him, to assume the\nresponsibility of teaching, not physics, or English, or mathematics, but boys\nand girls?\n5. The high-school teacher ought of course to know the history of education and the history of the development o^ the secondary schools. It is not\nquite clear precisely how this is to help him solve particular problems in training boys and girls; but, intelligently used, the knowledge and appreciation of\nthe present in the light of the past should be of real value in giving the teacher\nbreadth of view and grasp of the work as a whole.\n6. Educational psychology ought to have its place in such a course of\ntraining. Yet here, too, the value of the study will be general rather than\nparticular; it will be more valuable for the man himself than can be pointed\nout for specific use in his daily task. An attempt to apply such knowledge\nnarrowly and rigidly will almost certainly make the teacher unpractical and\npedantic, and will be attended with ridiculous and even with disastrous results.\nThis suggests the need that the high-school teacher have, as a prerequisite to\nhis special training, the broad and liberal education represented by a four\nyears' college course. Such an education ought to give him the habit of seeing\n''great things large and little things small,\" of ''seeing life steadily and seeing\nit whole.\" If one might particularize in this digression it would be to say\nthat in his college course the teacher ought to get a great deal of practical value\nout of the pursuit of a thoio-going course in sociology.\n7. With this general education to fortify him, it ought to be safe for the\nfuture high-school teacher to give some time to the study of pedagogy. Without the general education, there is great danger that the teacher may fall into\nthe error of thinking that pedagogy is the whole thing in education. To the\npractical teacher, it seems just to exclaim, modifying slightly the familiar\nphrase of Madame Roland, \"Ah pedagogy, how many crimes are committed\nin thy name !\" Pedagogy isn't much of a science as yet. It has in it commonly\ntoo many glittering generalities, too many half-truths that the narrowly educated teacher accepts as absolute and comprehensive.\n8. It is scarcely necessary to mention as a book which the high-school\nteacher should include in his course of professional training. Dr. Stanley Hall's\ngreat work on Adolescence. No book exists which deals so minutely and so\ncomprehensively with the life in which the high-school teacher works.\n9. It is not likely that any educational expert will object to the course of\nstudy thus outlined as too extended; if anyone cares to elaborate it the writer\nof this paper will not seriously object. Yet the element which the writer\nregards as most important in the proper professional preparation of the highschool teacher has not been mentioned. It is the element of experience.\nIn teaching, quite as much as in any profession, trade, or business, we learn\n\n"} {"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n545\n\nto do by doing. Nothing can take the place of actual work in the schoolroom.\nThe practice school under supervision will not answer. It is good so far as\nit goes, but its conditions at best are more or less artificial.\n10. Here perhaps might be mentioned the normal school as a training-place\nfor high-school teachers. The normal school would undoubtedly serve to\nsupply some of the common deficiencies in the high-school teacher's training.\nIt should never be accepted as a substitute for the college, for with most highschool pupils who are to continue study after graduating from high school the\ncollege is the next step, and the high-school teacher will not do the best for\nthese boys and girls unless he knows intimately what college is. The training furnished by a good normal school as supplementary to the teacher's\ncollege course would be quite worth while, for it would bring the teacher\ncloser to the work before him. It is a mistake to suppose, however, that normalschool training can take the place of actual experience. Here, as in the university, conditions are inevitably artificial, though the study of methods as\ntaught in the normal school will be most helpful to the college graduate who\nintends to teach. But the teacher cannot do his best or develop those qualities\nand that skill most needed in a teacher while a critic is looking on and taking\nnotes of his faults in manner and method. A brief experience of a few weeks\nor months in a room of boys and girls somewhat trained to habits of work by\nothers furnishes small opportunity for the use of initiative on the teacher's\npart. The teacher in the making needs to be confronted by conditions, not\ntheories. Such conditions only will force him to summon to his command those\nmethods and expedients which, so far as they are of real value, are in every\nteacher matters of personality. Something, though generally very little, the\nteacher may gain by watching the work of good teachers; very little indeed,\nunless it be appropriated in a condition of mental and spiritual hunger on the\nteacher's part, and assimilated and made a part of himself under the healthy\nnormal conditions of real work for which he is actually responsible and which\nis genuinely his own.\n11. In view of these considerations, then, the high-school teacher should\nhave a year or two year's experience in grade schools, where as an actual and\nresponsible teacher he should see growing under his own hand the mental\nand moral character of a school of boys and girls. In the grades the highschool teacher will have learned intimately and accurately a great deal of the\nmethod of thought and of the feelings and motives of the boys and girls which\nhe is to teach in high school. He will have some practical notion of the proper\nand legitimate use of the word apperception, which without this experience,\nhe might be prone to regard as one of the charm words with which the childstudy priests are wont to cast a spell upon their converts. In the grades, if\nthe teacher is to do anything at all, he must first divest himself of college\nmethods of instruction and meet the boys and girls on their own ground.\nHe must recognize also, because he directs all matters of discipline and\nstudy, that he, and he alone, is responsible for all the conditions in his school-\n\n"} {"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nroom, for the pupils' attitude toward work, and for the growth and development\nof all the pupils under his charge. He may not steel himself to endure an illtrained, disorderly class for one recitation period, while he looks forward to\nthe hour when he shall have a class and has learned habits of good behavior\nand systematic work from some other teacher. This is where the teacher too\noften fails who serves his apprenticeship in the high school, for here the road\nto success is long and hard, unless unusual natural ability combined with a\nlarge measure of good luck forces the truth home to him. In the grades the\nconditions will compel him, in the phrase of Carlyle, to make truce with necessity, which the sage of Chelsea points out to be the foundation of all success.\nThe poor high-school teacher as a rule lacks that professional training which\nputs him at home with his pupils. Nor can he easily gain this part of his\ntraining in the high school, where the pupils are at the adolescent stage. They\nare awkward and diffident, mentally as well as physically. A few years earlier,\nin the grades, these pupils would have made themselves at home with the\nteacher; now it is the teacher who must take the initiative and take it easily\nand naturally. Nowhere in the child's life is the need so great for the trained\neye and the steady hand as at the high-school age. The teacher who tries\nto gain these in the high school is like the pilot who should take his first lessons\nat the wheel in steering a boat through the rapids. The high school is a poor\nplace to gain the first experience in teaching.\nThe conditions are too complex.\nObjections may perhaps be made to this method of professional preparation on the ground that the teacher who is to do high-school work cannot\nafford, on account of the poor pay, after having invested in a college education,\nto accept a position in the grades. The answer is that this is the final step\nin the teacher's training. This work in the grades ought to be far more valuable to the teacher than to the school. If the superintendent is willing to give\nthe man or woman fresh from college a chance to teach in the grades, the man\nor woman ought to be glad to get the place; and ought to strive conscientiously\nto do as much good and as little harm as possible to the pupils intrusted to\nhim. The young doctor with four years of college and two or three years of\nmedical school behind him is glad to get a place as interne in a hospital and\nwork a year or two for his board in order to get the practical side of his profession. The young lawyer, having earned his B.A. and his LL.B., is glad to\nwork at small pay for a successful law firm, and plead his first cases in a justice\ncourt, in order to learn the routine of office and court work. The clergyman just out of the seminary is fortunate if he can get an appointment as assistant in a good charge and learn here the rudiments of his profession. The\nmost promising of the men who graduate from the technical schools are eager\nto begin at the bottom in the factory or in the railroad shops and learn the\nbusiness from the beginning; they understand that it is a valuable and often\na necessary step toward the manager's office or the private car to have worn\noveralls and carried a dinner bucket. So the schoolmaster with all his degrees\nand his special study may well serve his apprenticeship in the grade school-\n\n"} {"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n547\n\nroom at a very small salary, realizing that for the first two years he is much\nmore of a learner than a teacher. He needs to approach his work from a\ndirection altogether different to that from which he has approached it before.\nHe has studied historical facts and scientific theories; now he must get down\nbeside the boys and girls and look at things with their eyes, see the world as\nthey see it. Only so can he use his facts and theories to good purpose as a\nteacher. The course in education at the university is of great value to the\nexperienced teacher; it is commonly worth little to the college graduate without experience in the schoolroom.\n12. To put it briefly: Let the college student who is to teach in high school\nspecialize somewhat in the lines of his chosen calling during his last two years\nin college. Let him study the history of education, particularly of secondary\neducation, educational psychology, pedagogy, methods of teaching his special\nsubject, and the relation of his subject to the whole work of the high school ;\nlet him learn what Stanley Hall can tell him of the adolescent period. Then\nlet him get a place in the grades and learn how to teach boys and girls, how to\nunderstand them, and how to work with them. After two years of this work\nthe teacher ought to be ready for work in the high school. He will then\nbring to his task a fund of school lore not to be found in books or in courses\nof education; he will even have accumulated a store of sense. This, from the\nstandpoint of a high-school principal, is the proper professional preparation\nfor the high-school teacher.\n\nn\nSTRATTON\n\nD.\n\nBROOKS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nI. A somewhat extended observation of teachers causes me to believe that\none of the important elements leading to ineffective teaching in the secondary\nschools of the country is that the teachers fail to get the pupil's point of view.\nThey do not see the subject taught as the pupil sees it. A large majority of\nthem give greater attention to the logical development of the subject than to\nthe development of the logical powers of the pupil. This is due to the fact\nthat the training of these teachers has been largely, if not wholly, academic,\nand that their professional training, if any, has been incidental and superficial. Academic training, as here used, means the study of the subject\nfor the sake of mastering it as a subject in its logical and epistemological\nrelations, while professional training, as here used, means the study of the\nsubject with reference to its adaptability to use as an instrument for developing and training the mind of the pupil. Such professional training will include\nthe supplementary study of all allied or additional subjects that will aid in\nthis purpose. To the extent that academic study of any subject prepares a\nteacher to use that subject as an instrument of child development it is professional in its result.\n\n"} {"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n2. Since without an academic knowledge of his subject the teacher cannot\nteach that subject, it follows that the academic pursuit of knowledge must be\na fundamental part and parcel of professional training. The amount of special\nstudy in any single line will vary with the nature of the subject. Four years\nof work in Latin beyond that of high-school grade is not too much to require\nfor a teacher of Latin, nor would four years of work in sciences as a whole be\nconsidered too great a requirement for a teacher of science. For a teacher of\nchemistry, however, suitable preparation on the academic side may require\nless than four years of work in chemistry alone, though the total time given to\nscientific study by such a teacher should not fall below four years of college\nwork. In general, the greater the academic accomplishment of the secondaryschool teacher, the better his teaching will be; provided this academic study\nis so tempered and modified by professional study as to enable him to select\nfrom his greater store of knowledge those items of most use in the development\nof his pupils. The evils of over-specialization are not those of excessive academic preparation but those of insufficient professional preparation. The\nminimum requirement for a high-school teacher should be graduation from a\ncollege course in which special study has been given to the subjects that the\ncandidate expects to teach.\n3. In addition to as complete and accurate scholarship as can possibly be\nobtained, the training of the secondary-school teacher should include many\nitems that will give to this academic knowledge its greatest efficiency as an\neducational instrument. These elements may be properly termed professional.\nSome of the more important ones are as follows:\n4. A teacher should have a knowledge of the fundamental aim and purpose\nof education. This involves a knowledge of our present civilization and the\nobligations of the citizens of it. Even a partial understanding of the present\nideals of education can be arrived at only by considering the process by which\nthey have come into existence. It is necessary that the teacher understand\nthe more important epochs in the development of civilization and the means\nadopted in each to educate the citizens therefor. Without this knowledge\nthe teacher must accept the statements of others as to what constitutes the aim\nof education, and will be unable to select from the different claimants those\nhaving the largest basis in human experience. The teacher's professional\ncourse must therefore include a study of a large portion of the history oj the\nworld with special emphasis upon the part of education therein and with some\nconsideration to the history oj secondary schools.\n5. The teacher must be thoroly familiar with the child, not only to the extent\nof understanding the laws of his development, but what is more important\nto the extent of appreciating the child's point of view, and being able to look\nupon the world as the child looks upon it. Study alone cannot give this last.\nThe sjrmpathetic attitude is not based solely upon knowledge, but is rather\ningrained in the character. The teacher who is most analytical, who most\nclearly separates and picks apart the mental machinery of childhood, is\n\n"} {"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n549\n\nlikely to be the least sympathetic and so most often fails in the schookoom.\nIt is true, however, that given the sympathetic attitude, this sympathy gains\nin point and purpose from a complete understanding of the needs of the child.\nThe increase in teaching power that the study of psychology and the consideration of the facts of adolescence will give to the teacher attuned to the appreciative attitude is immeasurable. Psychology, with emphasis on adolescence,\nmust therefore be included in the teacher's professional course.\n6. The final goal and the point of departure being known, the major lines\nof educational procedure are thereby determined. The teacher who has\ndecided what he will consider the fundamental aim of education, and who\nappreciates the condition and methods of development of the child, has a\nstandard for judging the truth or falsity of educational principles that is not\npossessed by one whose ideas of either of these subjects are hazy and indefinite.\nThe professional study of a teacher should therefore include the full consideration of the principles oj education as determined by the nature of the child and\nthe purpose of education.\n7. After such a study, intelligent consideration may be given to the adaptation of the subject-matter of instruction to the needs of the pupil so that by\nselection and modification this subject-matter may be presented in the way\nthat will most rapidly advance the child toward the desired end. TJte general\nprinciples oj method will therefore find a place in the teacher's professional\ncourse of study.\n8. The academic study of the teacher will give him a knowledge of the\nsubject-matter of instruction, but his attitude toward it will be that of the\nadult mind, and his conception of it that which will make it useful for other\npurposes than educational ones. To this academic knowledge of the subject\nthe teacher should add a professional study of it by means of which he will\ndetermine what aid it will give to the general purposes of education; what\nportions of it are possible of acquisition by the child; in what order these\nshould be presented so that the child's development will be most helped;\nby what methods it may be made to conform to the child's point of view^;\nto what extent it must be accommodated to the general principles of methods;\nand what special devices and applications the experience of years has shown\ndesirable and effective. Of quite as much value as all this, his professional\nstudy should show him what not to do and enable him to avoid the repetition\nof experiments long since shown to be detrimental. The professional course\nshould include, therefore, a study of the special methods of instruction in the\nsubjects to which the teacher expects to give the major portion of his attention,\ntogether with the history oj the teaching oj that subject.\n9. If all the preceding could be accurately determined and carried into\neffect we would have the ideal. Unfortunately the ideal is unattainable, and\nthe teacher who fails to accommodate his ideals to the necessities of his work\nwill have his failure charged up to his being a mere theorist. We are not alone\nin this world and not only must all the preceding be determined in its applica-\n\n"} {"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "550\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntion to many pupils rather than to one, but it must be applied by a teacher\nworking with other teachers and instructing many children at the same time.\nAll that he does is but one additional element in the large number of influences\nat work upon the children, and any theoretical determination of what ought\nto be produced must give way to the clear conception of what is really produced.\nThe modifications and adaptations that numbers render necessary must have\nconsideration, and no teacher is educationally equipped who has not given\ncareful thought to the necessities of system and organization, so that in so\nfar as possible their advantages may be preserved and their disadvantages\navoided. Quite as much for teachers as for supervising officials a study of\nschool organization and management is a necessary part of the professional\ncourse.\n10. To give attention to the moral, mental, and social progress of the child\nwill be of small value if we do not at the same time make sure that he is surrounded byconditions that render possible a healthy and vigorous physical\ndevelopment. The enforcement of compulsory education carries with it the\nmaintaining of proper hygienic conditions. The daily routine of schoolwork\nwill include careful attention to school hygiene and instruction in this subject\nshould be included in the professional course.\n11. With such professional equipment the teacher is prepared to start his\nwork with a clear understanding of his problem and can derive the highest\nbenefit from his experience. But to start with such an equipment is not\nenough — it must be kept. The teacher who falls behind the times is a clog\nupon civilization at the point of greatest hindrance. Education is a live, vigorous, growing subject, and the teacher must know the lines of that growth.\nFor this he must depend largely upon his reading, but it must be reading with\ndiscrimination. Every age has brought forward some theory of education\nthat has been followed by large numbers for a considerable time before its\nfallaciousness became apparent. Every month the educational journals of\nthe present time set forth some man's idea, promulgate some new theory,\npropose some new device. Some of these are good and will in time become\nthe commonplaces of education; some have elements of good, some are wholly\nand completely bad, and tho attractively presented, are based upon a false\nphilosophy and must be ultimately discarded. To read educational literature understandingly, so that the true may be sorted from the false, demands\na logical and philosophical training. The teacher not trained in this becomes\na mere follower, quite unable to tell whether his leader is an educator or an\nimpostor. The course in professional training must, therefore, include sound\ntraining in. logic , philosophy, and ethics.\n12. The order in which the elements of professional training have been\nnamed is not intended as indicating the order of acquisition. The training\nin logic and philosophy that will be a protection against false theories of\neducation after graduation will also be of great service to the pupil as an undergraduate, and its elements at least should come early in the course.\nIt is\n\n"} {"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n551\n\nlikewise undesirable that the theoretical study of the principles and methods\nof education be separated entirely from their practical application. Especially\nfor those who have no experience as teachers it is highly desirable that during\nthe period of training they have access to a school for observation and practice.\nEven those with experience find great profit in teaching under skilful criticism.\nThe professional course should include, therefore, some experience in practice\nteaching.\n13. Such a course of professional training as here outlined cannot be conducted with any high degree of success under the direct domination and\ncontrol of the regular college or university faculty. The attitude of the college\nprofessor is properly and necessarily academic. His attention both as a student\nand teacher has been so long turned exclusively to the academic side that the\ncase is rare indeed that he is competent to offer professional instruction of even\nmedium quality, yet he is seldom conscious of this and looks with contempt\nand suspicion upon the efforts of the department of education to discuss how\nto teach a subject about which it knows academically so much less than he\ndoes; nor does he look with favor upon allowing another department to teach\nin any way a subject that belongs to his department. Education is, however,\nan all-inclusive subject, and the material of the department of education\nembraces everything in all the other departments, tho from an entirely different\npoint of view and for a different purpose. If must have free range thru all\nthe field of knowledge unhampered by any personal or departmental prejudices.\nThere are great advantages derived from close correlation with a college or\nuniversity, but professional training in its best form is possible only when the\ndepartment of education is large enough to attain to the dignity and organization of a separate college, to have its own professors, and to dictate its own\npolicy.\nHI\nJ.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nBROWN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nHIGH\nSCHOOL\n\nJOLIET,\n\nILL.,\n\nTOV^NSHIP\n\nAccording to my scheme this subject is fairly treated under the following\nheads:\n(i) Physical. (2) Mental. (3) Psychic. We have for a long time rejected\nthe notion that the valedictorian of his class is the man from whom we may\nexpect the greatest returns, since it must be conceded too often that his superiority rests in a trained mind only. Symmetry, balance, poise, or what may be\nput into phrase all-round development, is the acme of desire in the preparation of teachers for secondary schools.\nI. The physical man demands the best and most careful training the college and universities afford, because it must be the setting for all that is ever\naccomplished by the individual. A carefully developed physique will often\nmeet the deficiency existing in other directions.\nMany of the struggles which\n\n"} {"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nteachers seem called upon to endure are physical. Headaches, deafness,\nimpaired vision, abnormal digestion, irregular appetite or entire loss of appetite\nare a few of the physical defects which result from our failure either to use the\nknowledge we have or to secure the knowledge we ought to have. Most disagreements between teachers and students in schools and colleges of all grades\nmay be traced, by proper analysis, to physical causes.\nIt ought to be a part of every teacher's daily gospel to be able to say that\nevery organ of his body is performing its normal function. If our daily attention to the physical were heeded half so well as that to the mental, we would\ncertainly have fewer teachers with the rheumatic type of mind.\nThat the physical is the most fundamental and ought to act as a setting\nfor the other two ought not to be questioned. The foundation must always\nprecede the superstructure in the course of construction. The furniture,\nthe adornments follow after the foundation, walls, etc., have been completed,\nand must ever be the sequence in human, magisterial development if we would\naccomplish the most with the material at hand. When we have learned to\ngive the proper attention to the physical, sarcasm, bitterness, scowls, impatience,\nextreme nervousness, irritability, etc., will very largely disappear and in their\nplaces we shall find encouragement, sweetness, pleasant smiles, patience, wellbalanced nerves, etc.\nIf we had to choose between a well-developed physique and a modicum of\nmental training, or the reverse of these two things, we would, without hesitation, choose the former for our boys and girls. Many of us who have positions of\nresponsibility have been preaching with others, ''send the whole boy to school;\neducate the whole boy.\" But when the boy came to school we gave him books,\nor, perhaps, we excused ourselves by saying, \"this is the kind of training I had\nand this is good enough for these boys.\"\nIf we wish teachers to teach the whole boy we must demand that the teacher\nhimself shall be educated in the threefold sense I have mentioned.\nWe as teachers are much inclined to teach as we were taught. The water\ndoes not rise above its level. We must teach by example as well as by precept.\nIt is not enough for the faculty to put off the preparation of physique by saying\nthis belongs to the football coach, because it is most likely needed by all other\nmembers of the faculty more than by the athletic coach.\nLet boards of education demand good physiques as well as universitytrained minds and responsive souls and all will bestir themselves to meet the\nconditions. If we accept Emerson's statement that \"the test of civilization is\nnot in the census, nor the size of cities, nor ths crops, but the kind of men\nthe country turns out,\" teachers ought to have good bodies as well as good\nminds and souls.\nIn addition to the more general development of the body, teachers ought to\nbe participants in some outdoor exercises, such as walking, running, jumping,\nhorseback riding, bicycle riding, tennis, basket-ball, base ball, rowing, hunting\nand other kinds of physical exercise.\nI am quite persuaded that no one\n\n"} {"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n553\n\nexcept a cripple should be graduated from college until he has learned to swim.\nThis would mean that a very large per cent, of teachers in the secondary\nschools would at least know how to swim. If we teachers paid more attention\nto the development of the physique we would have better teachers, better\nschools, and much less friction in the management of the schools.\n2. What shall be the scholastic training of the mind of this teacher for\nsecondary schools is, in the minds of some, considered to be the most important,\nin the minds of others the all-important, but, in our judgment, on a parity\nwith the other two.\nOther observations show us that more teachers are failures because of\ninsufficient training than from extra sufficient, and yet we maintain that\noverspecialization by secondary-school teachers tending to make the subject\ntaught the center of greatest importance and not the boy taught is distinctly\ndetrimental. The day has gone when an indulgent public applied the name\n''teacher\" to one who performed the function of a condenser and distributer\nof knowledge. We are not content with a wooden, mechanical, commercial\ntype of teacher. The teacher today must be a live wire with an ever-increasing\ncurrent, and that in order to meet the present demands with a fair degree of\nsatisfaction. The secondary teacher ought to complete the four-years' course\nin a secondary school, four years in a good college, and then take a year of professional training either in a normal school or school of education. The preparation cannot continue to satisfy, however, unless all the best in pedagogical\nliterature is constantly sought and appropriated. It is often posited that a\nteacher in high school cannot have too much preparation for his work, but I\nam convinced that the completion of work for the doctor's degree is not\ndesirable for one who expects to teach secondary-school students, because to\ndo well in such work the field must be very narrow and the effort intense.\nThere can be little or no thought given to boy pedagogics if one's whole thought\nis given to the subject, and hence, we incline to give to the Ph.D. earned\nin cursu, a place in college or university, but not in secondary schools as most\nare conducted at present.\nForeign travel is very desirable for secondary teachers because it renders\nreal so much that has hitherto been admired in our college or university\ntraining, but has to be limited to our narrow experience. Seeing a great\nmountain or a magnificent cataract forever fixes the concept as no amount of\nreading or oral description can do. I would not make this mandatory but it\nought to be held out as an inducement to become worth more in public service.\nWe have spoken in the main concerning the scholastic preparation before\nregular service, as an instructor begins, but no one who has had any experience\nin teaching or who has even observed the work of the teacher would think that\nthis is anything but the beginning of preparation, and is simply intended to\nmeet the first general requirement. The man or woman in the teaching profession who does not see to it that his or her preparation to do effective work\nincreases year by year is scarcely worthy to belong to the profession, and so\n\n"} {"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe leaders in educational advancement must read the best journals, study\neducational movements at home and abroad, visit the best schools of any and\nall grades, attend teachers' conventions, pedagogic clubs, do correspondence\nwork along lines not touched by the universities ten years ago, and withal\nkeep abreast of the times.\nThe teacher's preparation must keep pace with the preparation of the men\nand women of other professions. The best schools of law and medicine require\nsix, seven, or eight years of college and university above the high-school course,\nand the tendency at present is toward an increase rather than a diminution in\nthe work. The teacher must either keep up with the highest and best demands\nof the times, or be relegated to a position of constantly diminishing worth.\n3. Let us turn now to the third phase of this subject. The moral force of\nany teacher among students is manifested much more in what he really is than\nin what he really does. Teachers are too often looked upon as negative\nforces simply because they refrain from doing something whose moral\nquality is mentioned and yet do nothing positive and aggressive to take the\nplace of the injurious act.\nMoral character, psychic force, does not need expression in word, and such\nexpression would often be ineffective because these things do not easily lend\nthemselves to description.\nHonesty, justice, love for a square deal, must find a place in the character\nof the teacher if he is to create and maintain among his students an atmosphere\nabove reproach in his dealings with all the vexed and perplexing questions\nthat may come up. Since we are a Christian nation, and since religion is the\nrecognized basis of soul culture, religious training should be as carefully\nsecured by the secondary teacher as training of mind or body We are sometimes prone to forget that great paragraph in the famous ordinance of 1787.\n\"Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to the perpetuity of a free\ngovernment, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.\"\nOur fathers placed religion -first, morality second, and knowledge third. We\nneed to return to the doctrines of our fathers. In our scheme of preparation\nfor teaching we are inclined to give place to ethics, or temperance, or to a few\nlectures on purity, when we ought to stand for the weightier matters of the law.\nSetting aside the question of where this preparation in morals, soul culture, and\nreligion may be secured, whether at home, in church, in school, or in all, we\nmust admit that these qualities are very vital and must be emphasized in the\npreparation of the teacher. The kind of man we turn out will be woefully deficient if he lacks moral character and real religious attitude of\nmind.\nJesus, whose teaching we look upon as the best known in the Christian\nworld, was the greatest teacher the world has ever seen or known. There\nis no great pedagogical scheme that cannot be traced directly to the\nmethods and teachings of Jesus. If we teachers could teach as he taught,\nwe, too, could revolutionize the world in three years or less. Let us then incul-\n\n"} {"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n555\n\ncate this teaching as representing the best in character building, psychic\nculture, and ethical dogma.\nWe have tried to show that the preparation for teaching in secondary\nschools ought to show a symmetrical development, that this development\nshould include body, mind, and soul; that proper physical development\nshould mean good digestion, good nerve power, good endurance, good disposition, good organic functioning, and a cheery, responsive individual; that\nthe proper development of the mind may be met by graduation from secondary\nschools and association with secondary-school people; by graduation from\ncollege, together with the association of the college; by completing either at a\nschool of education or a good normal school one year's work in professional\ncourses. Added to this scholastic preparation may come foreign travel,\npedagogic study in paper and magazine, attendance on school conventions,\nclubs, etc., and these with a view to keeping abreast of the times.\nFinally, and in many respects most important, is the psychic preparation\nwhich has fundamentally to do with the religion of Jesus. Whether obtained\nin the school, the home, or the church, it is vital in the development of the\nhighest type of teacher in the Christian man or the Christian woman. When\nwe have carefully directed the training along these three lines which must run\nparallel with one another, we have done what seems best in the production of a\nsymmetrically developed teacher.\n\nIV\nELLWOOD\n\nP. CUBBERLEY,\n\nPROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nUNIVERSITY\n\nLELAND\n\nSTANFORD\n\nJR.\n\nThe secondary school is pre-eminently the place where the boy or girl is\nbrought into contact, not only with new forms of knowledge, but with new\nideas, new ideals, and new methods of work and of investigation. It is the\nplace for the broadening of the boy or girl in culture, appreciation, and insight,\nno less than in knowledge. It is these new ideals, new methods of work, and\nincreased culture and appreciation which give point and effectiveness to the\nwhole secondary-school training. While they are inseparable from knowledge, they are worth even more than the knowledge which the school in.parts.\nWhen one thus considers the secondary schools, either from the point of\nview of the needs of the adolescent or from the point of view of the subjectmatter to be taught, one can scarcely overemphasize the importance of the\nproper preparation of the high-school teacher. Just as we emphasize the need\nof broader knowledge and culture for the teacher in the elementary school, in\norder that she may know more than she is expected to teach and be able to\nmake her teaching broader than the mere course of study or the textbook she\nuses, so must we insist that the teacher for the secondary school shall know\nmore and shall have had a broader and more extensive training than that\noffered by the secondary schools themselves or by the normal schools of the\nstate.\n\n"} {"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "5S6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n1. Much of the work of the high school of today, with its elective courses,\nmany subjects of instruction, and advanced instruction along certain lines,\nis fully as advanced as that done in the first year of the college course. Unless\nthe teacher in the high school has come in contact with men who are masters\nof their subjects, has caught something of the masters' spirit of dealing with\nthe great truths that lie in this field, and has learned something of that method\nwhich, after all, is only organized common sense, which men of larger scholarship apply to the solution of difl&cult problems, he is not likely to carry much\nof a message to the young people who come under his direction in the secondary\nschool. This practically demands that the teachers in our secondary schools\nshall be college graduates, and shall have prepared themselves specially for\nthe work which they propose to do. The secondary school itself does not\noffer such opportunities, and our normal schools, devoted as they are and\nought to be to the preparation of teachers for the elementary schools, cannot\nadequately give such training.\nThe secondary-school teacher is distinctively in need of three things, viz.:\n(i) broad general knowledge; (2) special knowledge, and (3) professional\nknowledge. Other things being equal, the broader the teacher's general\nknowledge the more useful he will be. This general knowledge, or broad\nliberal culture, is largely a product of opportunities and experiences. Larger\neducational opportunities in an atmosphere of scholarship and culture, with\ntravel, are the best means of securing it.\n2. Special knowledge of an advanced nature in the fields in which the\ncandidate proposes to teach is an absolute necessity. It cannot be emphasized\ntoo much that the person who desires to teach in our high schools must know\nthat which he is to teach. That fair or indifferent successes are made today in\nmany of our high schools by teachers who are teaching subjects which they\nhave made little or no preparation to teach is no argument against the principle. Where such teachers are employed one generally finds that the community lacks proper standards as to what high-school education should be,\nor sufficient funds to properly maintain a high school, or both. One of the\nbest guarantees for successful teaching, tho by no means an absolute or a\nsufficient one, is that the candidate shall have made careful preparation for the\nwork of instruction in a given subject. One of the greatest weaknesses and\nreproaches of the American secondary schools today is the altogether too\ncommon lack of any adequate preparation on the part of the teachers, and the\ngeneral indifference of the state in the matter.\n3. In addition to general and special knowledge, the prospective teacher\nneeds professional knowledge. By professional knowledge is meant professional preparation for the actual work of instruction and a professional attitude\ntoward the work of the public secondary school. To this end the prospective\nhigh-school teacher should be required, during the last two years of his college\ncourse, to make a somewhat general study of the work and problems of public\neducation in a democratic society such as our own; the work, purpose, and\n\n"} {"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n557\n\nspecial problems of secondary education, with some comparison with conditions in a few European states; the psychology of instruction and of the\nadolescent period; special teachers' courses in the subjects in which recommendation isought; and some practical experience (how much is needed\nwill vary greatly with different individuals) in instruction and class management. Itwould be well if the candidate, in addition, should know something\nof the history of education, and especially the history of education in our own\ncountry. I place the history of education after the others because it is largely\ncultural and inspirational instead of technical.\nOne of the most important legislative steps to be taken by most of our\nstates in the matter of certificating teachers is the complete separation of the\ncredentials necessary to teach in a high school from those necessary to teach in\nan elementary school, and the erection of distinctly higher standards for the\nhigh-school certificate. In view of the possibility of a six-year high school\nbecoming somewhat general the high-school certificate should not be limited\ntoo closely as to its validity, but the elementary-school certificate, of any grade,\nshould never be valid for instruction in a high school.\nIn the erection of such a special certificate for high-school teaching we\nobviously cannot depend upon the written examination. The standard of\ncompetency in general, special, and professional knowledge set above practically demands that the secondary-school teacher shall have had a college\neducation, or its substantial equivalent. To examine the candidate on the subjects studied in college would be not only almost impossible, but ridiculous\nas well. To attempt to enforce the higher standard by an examination given\non the subjects to be taught in the high school will also fail, for the reason that\nthe high-school graduate, fresh from his studies, can almost always pass the\nexaminations more easily and with better grades than the college graduate.\nThe result will almost always inevitably be that in certain localities there will\nnot be a college graduate in the high schools. This was clearly the experience\nof California under the old optional examination plan, and was one of the\nstrongest arguments which led to the abolition of the examination for the\nhigh-school certificate. The only safe way to do is to make the possession of\na degree from some reputable college an absolute prerequisite for high-school\nteaching, and to grant high-school certificates only to those who, in addition\nto the degree, present evidence of special and professional preparation for the\nwork of teaching in secondary schools.\nIn many of our states the absolute enforcement of such a requirement\nwould not be possible at present, but in almost every northern and western\nstate a movement looking in that direction is possible now. The first step in\nthe process is the definite recognition of secondary-school work as a field which\ndemands special and additional preparation, and the separation of high-school\ncertificates from elementary certificates. The former should then be based\non higher educational standards, and college diplomas and other evidences\nof preparation should be recognized as the full equivalent of the subject-\n\n"} {"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "558\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondarj\n\nmatter examination. The second step in the process, to be taken as soon as\nthe supply of properly educated and trained teachers equals the demand, is\nto diminish in frequency and importance and finally to entirely abolish the\nsubject-matter examination and thus make the possession of evidence of proper\neducation and training a prerequisite for the granting of the high-school certificate. When such conditions come to prevail somewhat generally, and not until\nthen, can we be said to have an educated and a professionally trained teaching\nforce in our secondary schools.\n\nCHARLES\n\nDE GARMO,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF THE SCIENCE\nCORNELL\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nI. Practically all institutions for the training of teachers, to be found in\nthe United States, are adjusted to elementary standards. Even in college and\nuniversity professional courses the ideals of the earlier stages of education have\nheretofore predominated. We are just beginning to realize that the professional training of secondary teachers differs from that of primary teachers,\nnot only in degree but often also in kind.\nIn the first place, so far as subject-matter is concerned, training for elementary teaching circles about the common branches, which everybody is\nsupposed to know, which all teachers must teach, and all learners learn. But\nthe case is different with preparation for secondary teaching. Here the\nsubject-matter is so extensive that no teacher can teach and no learner learn it\nall. It follows therefore that the student must choose (or* have prescribed)\nwhat he shall study, and the teacher must select a department of knowledge\nin which he may become a special,- or 'departmental teacher.\nOut of these relations there arises the need for a kind of professional study\nthat is but slightly felt in elementary circles — that namely, of relative practical\nand educational values. For, how, except by pure tradition or by mere personal preference, can a course of study be wisely advised for any given student\nunless the adviser is fairly clear as to the educational and practical significance,\nboth immediate and remote, of each distinctive department of knowledge ?\nAnd how, moreover, can one be expected to make his students realize these\nbenefits if he himself knows not what they are ?\nIt is perhaps natural that those who believe in the sacredness of a certain\ncourse of study as universally valid condemn the study of educational values,\nbecause they condemn the introduction of branches that would in some degree\ndisplace those they have. Thus I read in report of a recent Berlin speech in\nfavor of classical training that ''the brazen lords of nature are not the elected\nteachers of the immature.\" Some there may be who prefer the ''brazenness\"\nof nature to that of such advisers. At any rate, I submit that it is a proper thing\nfor the secondary teacher to be properly instructed as to w^hat significance for\nlife and for individual development the study of the various natural sciences\n\n"} {"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n.\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n559\n\nlias; in what these sciences differ in their effects upon the mind, both as contrasted with one another, and with Hterary or historical studies? Where\nthere are world-wide differences in the content of the studies, there must be\nsignificant differences in the educational results which the various studies\nshould bring about in mental training. To make the old assumption that\ntraining is training, that only difference in degree exists, that each subject is an\nequivalent for every other in the degree of its effect, is to adhere to a superstition asincredible as that which ascribes green cheese to lunar composition.\nIt is to shut one's eyes to the teachings both of psychologic and common sense\nalike. There are sciences whose basis is mathematical law; there are others\nwhose basis is the unfolding of life — one group is demonstrative, dealing with\nthe exact and law-accordant, the other is inductive, dealing with uncertain,\noften bewildering data. Compare, for instance, the study of a bird with that\nof a pump. The latter is comprehended when its mechanical principle is once\nunderstood; but when is one done with the study of a bird ? We may study\nits life history, or its anatomy. The latter is almost without Hmit in its possibilities. Again, the mathematical sciences require for their retention that\nform of memory which rests upon clear insight into fixed laws, whereas the\nbiological sciences are retained in mind thru a mastery of classification and\nan understanding of function. Likewise, the form of imagination stimulated\nby the two groups differs as radically in kind. If the nature poets had only\nthe mathematical quality of imagination, it were a sorry task to read them.\nOn the other hand, had the engineer only the biological quality of imagination,\nwe should hesitate to cross his bridges or trust ourselves on his ships.\nIf the sciences differ so radically among themselves in their effect upon\nthe mind, what shall we say of the contrasts they afford when compared with\nlinguistic, literary and artistic, and historical subjects? Literature and art\ndeal with ethics and aesthetics; history deals with contingent causes — those\nthat might have been otherwise, had the circumstances of race, situation,\neducation, economic conditions, passion, ability, or what not, been different.\nWhat man, not mole blind, could confound with one another the distinct\neducational effects that these various groups may have upon mind, heart, and\ndestiny of a student ? And what secondary teacher is qualified for leadership\nin this field who has not turned his attention to the fundamental truths that\nmust underlie every rational course of study, whether in a special or general\nhigh school?\n2. Such a study of educational values must, moreover, precede and\nunderlie all rational study of methodology. Having only vague ideas of the\nends which a study should subserve, how can a teacher be adequately prepared\nin the best methods of teaching it ? And here it must be clear that method\nmeans to the secondary teacher something different from what it means to\nthe elementary teacher. It is perhaps more special than general; or, at any\nrate, it falls more naturally into groups in accordance with the characteristic\nquality of the departments of study.\nThirty years ago, for example, scientific\n\n"} {"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "560\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmethod was quite undeveloped; now it has developed so far in the universities\nthat it not only rivals but, in many respects, surpasses in completeness of\ninstrumentalities that which obtains in the older subjects. It has, for instance\nits laboratories with a place and a distinct set of apparatus for every student\nand an elbow-to-elbow assistant for every ten students. It has its lecture\nsystem which is kept in touch with the laboratory work, and it has, finally, its\ngroup system of recitations upon the combined work of lectures and laboratory,\nand of textbook study. No such elaborate and far-reaching ways of imparting\nknowledge have ever been devised even in languages and mathematics, to say\nnothing of history, economics, and social sciences.\nAs in the university, so in the high school the question of method rests upon\na more technical basis than in the case of the elementary school. The candidate for the high-school teachership should base his study of method upon the\nnature of the subject-matter, the effects it should have in mental training, and\nupon the methods that have been effective in its development. He should not,\nif he is to teach science, be unacquainted with such books as Bain's Inductive\nLogic, and Jevon's Principles oj Science, for these give him an enduring insight\ninto the nature of his subject and the best ways to make it effective in the schoolroom. After a general methodical study of this kind, the candidate should\nmake a special study of the admirable books now issuing from the press, such\nas the series by Macmillan and that by Longmans which are devoted to particular study. What can not a teacher of English learn from such a compendium as that of Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, or the teacher of mathematics\nfrom that of David Eugene Smith, or of Professor Young ?\n3. For the secondary teacher the study of the history of education should\nbe more thorogoing and more special than it is for elementary teachers. While\nhe should, of course, follow the development of universal education as seen\nin the elementary schools, he should at the same time give much attention to\nGreek ideals of culture and instruction since these have been so important in\ndetermining the curriculum of modem high schools. Upon this study of the\nsources of educational ideas, the student is prepared to base his future study\nof the rise and development of language as an educational means. In a\nsimilar way he should follow the introduction and development of mathematics,\nnatural science, and history in the curriculum. It is well within reasonable\nexpectations that the university student should master the admirable text of\nProfessor Monroe upon the History oj Education, and do not a little collateral\nreading besides.\n4. With respect to the psychological basis for the study of education, it\nmust first of all be remarked that the secondary-departmental teacher will not\nbe a psychologist, for it takes five years to make a psychologist. What we may\nfairly expect from him, as a minimum, is a half-year's study of general psychology, and an equal expenditure of time upon applied, or educational,\npsychology, the emphasis being laid upon the period of adolescence.\n5. The most difficult and most debated part of professional training for\n\n"} {"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n561\n\nsecondary teachers is that of practice. The persons now most active in this\ndiscussion are those engaged in elementary training, not the principals of high\nschools or university authorities. It seems natural to think that if the practice\nschool is a good thing in preparing elementary teachers, it would be an equally\ngood thing in fitting secondary teachers for their work. Yet the matter needs\nsome consideration on its own merits, and may need much experimentation\nbefore it is satisfactorily settled.\nSo far we have had little successful demonstration that a secondary practice\nschool in the university is either practicable or desirable. No one would\nassume for a moment that a subject of such importance can be disposed of by\na mere appeal to experience, positive or negative. Because a thing has been\nso or so adjusted in experience, long or short, home or foreign, we have no\nwarrant for closing the debate, for the essence of progress often consists in\ninnovation. Yet an appeal to experience is the natural introduction to a\ndiscussion of principle. In Germany the most weight has been laid upon the\ndevelopment of productive departmental scholarship, as a preparation for\nteaching in secondary schools. Only the man who knows his subject well\nenough to continue its development is, in Germany, theoretically fit to teach\nit in a gymnasium.. This condition being met, the German candidate may^\nturn his mind to other things. In the first place, there are two state examinations to be taken subsequent to his university study in which the history and\nprinciples of education are included. The secondary schools, being state\ninstitutions, and their teachers being state oflStials, the next step is to assign\nthe young candidate to some gymnasium or school of similar rank for a year\nof trial or cadet teaching without salary under the supervision of the director\nof the institution. When the authorities are satisfied that the candidate can\nteach well, and when there is a place to which he can be assigned, his permanent appointment as a teacher follows. There are but few practice schools\nconnected with German universities, and what there are busy themselves\nentirely with practice in elementary grades. This practice is of use to the\nsupervisor of elementary instruction, but the question is an open one as to how\nuseful it is to the real secondary teacher.\nIn the United States the practice of Germany is followed to a limited extent,\nas at Harvard and Brown with graduate students, while some are cherishing\nthe hope which, in some cases amounts to expectation, of establishing secondary\npractice schools modeled after those of the normal schools. It would be\npremature to declare that the inherent difficulties lying in the situation cannot\nbe overcome in this manner. Of one thing, however, we may be assured, that\nthe means provided for giving the candidate his first practice in teaching, will\nin the end be those that conform most closely to the public interests concerned.\nPreconceived ideas, analogy with other institutions, practices of other countries,\nwill all have to be measured by this standard. While we await the solution of\nthe problem, as it will ultimately be worked out, it is perhaps allowable to consider the subject as it presents itself from theoretical and practical standpoints.\n\n"} {"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nWhat shall we say, first of all, to the assumption that one may learn to do\none thing well by doing another ? Or, perhaps, that teaching is teaching, the\nsame thing in the high as in the primary school, and that if you get good practice in the grades it will serve you equally well in the high school ? This\nassumption must be seen to have decided limitations, because of the great\ndifferences between the two stages of school life. Young children are\nmost effectively managed by an affectionate exercise of authority; highschool students, on the other hand, are most tractable when managed in\naccordance with the usages of good society. Authority there may be, nay,\nmust be in the high school, but it is veiled by the social covering of politeness.\nTo treat students as children is to be weak where one should be strong, for\nhowever childish some of their actions may seem, we may be assured that the\nfeelings of American youth are those natural to the adolescent. The younger\nand more numerous in the class the children are, the greater the need of pedagogical technique; the older they become, the less need there is for it. It\neasily happens that the teacher trained in the methods of the primary school,\nbut transferred to a high school, fails to arouse the best efforts of the students\nbecause he fails to apprehend the maturity of their capacity and feelings.\nThe contact of mind with subject-matter is much more intimate and immediate\nin the high school than it can be in the grades.- The intermediation of elementary devices for stimulating and guiding thought are far less necessary\nand desirable. The method of thought inherent in the development of the\nsubject-matter itself becomes increasingly important as the student grows\nolder, until in the university we often find impatience in any mediation between\na subject of study and the mind of the student. The school man is rather\ninclined to condemn all teaching as unpedagogical that does not use the means\nof mediation with which he is familiar and which may be highly successful\nwhere he is wont to try them. But such condemnation may be wholly unjustified, as in the case of many famous teachers of language, history, and science.\nHe is the best teacher who best succeeds in arousing the minds and hearts of\nhis students to genuine educative activity, and while there is a wholesome\nmethodology for the high-school teacher, I seriously question whether it is\nclosely related to the technique so commonly employed in training elementary\nteachers. For the foregoing reasons I do not think that in principle we should\ntrain secondary teachers in elementary practice schools.\nBy this I do not mean that an elementary experiment school may not be of\ngreat educational worth in a university; but the function of such a school is not\nthe training of secondary teachers.\nAre practice schools of true high-school rank desirable and obtainable in\nconnection with colleges and universities? Their educational desirability is\ndependent upon their educational (and it may be financial) cost. Advantages\nthere would doubtless be in such practice schools, but it may be easily conceived\nthat we find the community would have to pay too high a price for them.\nIn all our older communities the high-school teacher is a specialist both\n\n"} {"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n563\n\nbecause he wants to be one and because the school authorities demand that he\nshall be. A successful practice school of secondary grade should therefore\nbe a large one to afford the desirable practice in many branches of study and\nkinds of schools. A teacher of languages would not be greatly inspired or\nguided by the teaching of a science, nor would the future specialist in history be\nmuch helped by teaching a class in mathematics. When we remember that\nuniversities must graduate large numbers of prospective teachers each year,\nevery one of whom has specialized in one or two departments, we can easily\nsee that such a practice school as contemplated would cost a formidable sum\nof money. But in America we need not be deterred by cost, if what we want\nis what the people want, or the cause of education imperatively demands.\nUnder favorable circumstances the people will stand and even pay for a\npractice school of elementary grade, but experience makes it questionable\nwhether the public is willing to furnish students and money for one of secondary\ngrade. An indication of the public aversion to such an arrangement is the\npotent fact that a private high school, like the Horace Mann School of Teachers\nCollege, for instance, would soon lose a large share of its patronage were it to\nintroduce practice teaching in any considerable quantity. What the private\npublic will not listen to, the public as such will probably in the end reject as\nan unjustifiable burden upon a few. And what no public will submit to,\nuniversity boards of education are not likely to be willing to pay for, since\nit must be evident that in public opinion the advantages of such training\nwould be too dearly bought.\nThe outcome of the foregoing argument may be summed up in the following propositions :\n1. It is not worth while to establish elementary practice schools for the\ntraining of secondary teachers.\n2. Practice schools of secondary grade, tho having some advantages both\nfor the individual and the community, would be but meagerly supported both\nas to quality and number of students and the money necessary to conduct them.\nI conclude, therefore, that for the present we must be satisfied with good\nprofessional instruction in educational history and principles, supported by\na fundamental study of the psychological and social sciences; and with such\npractical instruction as may be gleaned frorn high-school visitation or gained\nby occasional cadetship in public high schools. Tho this may not be all that\nis desirable in the professional preparation of teachers, it is a great deal more\nthan we have ever had.\nVI\nPAUL\n\nH.\n\nHANUS,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nHARVARD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nWhat ought a high-school teacher to be, and what training should he have ?\nHe^ should be a man of good personal qualities; and he should possess sound\n» For the sake of brevity the masculine pronoun only is used.\nwell as men.\n\nThe entire paper applies to women as\n\n"} {"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nISecondary\n\ngeneral scholarship, together with superior attainments in some one field of\nhuman learning including the useful arts or the fine arts; he should be an efficient class-room teacher and manager of pupils; he should have a professional\noutlook or horizon; he should ultimately become a leader in his profession,\nand a useful and helpful influence in the community where his lot is cast.\nPERSONAL\n\nQUALITIES\n\n1. Some persons ought never to be teachers. Hence, it is our duty as\nguardians of the teaching profession to keep such persons out of that profession ifwe can, whatever their training may be; as well as to encourage and\neven, on occasion, to persuade others to enter it.\nTo say nothing of such disqualifying and almost unmentionable characteristics as habitual untidiness in person and dress, and chronic bad taste, it is\nclear that one who has an inborn incapacity for good sense or fine feeling;\npersistent bad manners; an irritable or gloomy or despondent disposition;\na stolid or sluggish mind, incapable of intellectual enthusiasms and a healthy,\ndiscriminating optimism; a narrow view of men and affairs — that one who is a\nmere bookworm or a pedant; or an intellectual or moral prig, incapable of\nwinning or holding the respect or regard of his colleagues or his pupils, an\negotist, or a self-seeker — it . is clear, I say, that one who is unmistakably burdened with one or more of these disqualifying characteristics ought to be\nkept out of the teaching profession.\nOn the other hand, it would be absurd to Set up requirements impossible\nof realization. What we want, first of all, in candidates for the teaching\nprofession are the qualities that mark the gentleman and the lady; then we\nwant physical vigor, moral health and strength, and intellectual attainments\nand power. In other words, we want good personal qualities, good health, and\ngood general and technical education. If, in addition, we occasionally secure\nthe \"bom teacher,\" we shall be as happy as members of other professions are\nwhen the occasional rara avis appears. In what follows, good personal qualities\nin the prospective secondary-school teacher are assumed. My task is to set\nforth in some detail what the preliminary training of such a person should be to\ninsure a good degree of efficiency at the outset of his career as a teacher,\nprogressive skill in teaching, and a broadening and deepening interest in and\ninsight into his profession — such a training as we may reasonably expect will\npromote increasing professional usefulness, in the broadest sense of that term,\nas time goes on.\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\n2. The first element of the teacher's professional equipment is adequate\nscholarship — scholarship that is at once broad and deep. This general proposition is,of course, a commonplace. But the sort of scholarship here meant\nis of such fundam«ntal and far-reaching importance and is so often wanting\nin high-school teachers, that one need not hesitate to discuss it in some detail.\nThe secondary-school teacher's scholarship must be broad in order that his\n\n"} {"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n565\n\nintellectual sympathies may be broad; in order that he may have an appreciative insight into the resources that he and his colleagues have at their command for the appropriate education of every pupil committed to their charge;\nand his scholarship must be deep enough in some one field in order to enable\nhim to reveal the sense of mastery, the intellectual enthusiasm and power\nto bring about results, that kindle the same intellectual emotion and the\nsame consciousness of growing power over difficulties in his pupil. The secondary-school teacher, more than any other, must impart richness and breadth\nto his subject, no matter what it is. His pupil is old enough to appreciate the\nbest he can give him; and unless checked or disappointed, he is usually keen\nenough to demand, or at least desire unceasingly an extension of the meaning,\nimplication, and application of the results of his own study — of the significance\nof all he learns. And this demand or desire only the well-equipped teacher\ncan meet.\nNot all pupils, it is true, manifest this eagerness to learn, and some are\neasily satisfied when they do. But a goodly proportion of the pupils have it\nand in most of them it can be aroused. Once started, it tends to grow. Whether\nit does grow or not depends on the teacher. Beauties in Hterature or art not\nperceived by the pupil, or meanings unsuspected by him; the unsolved mysteries of science as well as its known wonders and established laws, and its farreaching applications; the fascination of mathematical truth, reasoning, and\ninvestigation in elementary as well as in advanced mathematics, together with\nthe never-ending practical applications of mathematics, in science and in the\nindustrial and constructive arts; the constant bearing of history on the development of right conceptions of American public service; the processes and\nproducts of manual training, always interesting in themselves but capable\nof an interpretative significance that insures economic enlightenment and\ninterest — to enable the pupil to realize these and other illuminating, steadying, and inspiring influences is the privilege and the duty of the high-school\nteacher. And this duty cannot be adequately discharged by one who does\nnot himself possess in full measure the resources of the subject he teaches.\nTo make this discussion specific, let us inquire now what ought to be the\nessential minimum of academic training which a high-school teacher should\npossess.\nThat our future high-school teacher should secure a good high-school and\ncollege education goes without saying; he must secure an equipment in\nscholarship at least four years in advance of his most advanced pupils. To\nthis general proposition, I take it, every one will agree. But it will be necessary to examine this proposition more in detail.\n\nII\n\nEvery well-educated person should have, first of all, a good high-school\neducation, such as is represented in substance by preparation for admission\nto a good American college (provided the college allows a considerable range\nof choice in the studies that may be offered for admission). If all the best\nAmerican colleges were ready, as they should be, to accept for admission any\n\n"} {"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwork well done, and covering at least a year of four periods of prepared\nexercises per week, we could say that each pupil's work should cover\nat least one year's work in each of the studies enumerated below as\n\"prescribed studies,\" together with two or three additional years of work\nin those studies (or groups of studies) which he prefers, as will be pointed\nout farther on. Since we have not yet attained the educational millennium,\nwe should approximate the general scheme proposed in the following paragraphs as closely as possible.\nPRESCRIBED\n\nSTUDIES\n\n(The figures mean so many class exercises per week. Double periods are to be understood for the sciences, when laboratory work is required.)\nPREPARED\n\nCLASS\n\nEXERCISES\n\nEnglish\nForeign language\nMathematics:\n\n3\n. 4\n\n(Algebra a»i geometry)\nPhysical geography\nPhysics\nAmerican history\nEconomic history or economics\nGovernment (civics)\nUNPREPARED\n\n4\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\nCLASS\n\nManual training and drawing\nDrawing and the history of art\nMusic\nPhysical training\n\n26\n\nEXERCISES\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n3\n.2\n2\n.8(2 each year.)\n15 41\n\nFrom the offering of a good high school the pupil should be required to\nchoose, in addition to his prescribed studies, thirty-four periods of prepared\nexercises, if he desires the diploma of the school. These thirty-four additional\nperiods should be so chosen that they are devoted chiefly to deepening and\nextending his knowledge and power in a small number of studies or groups\nof related studies already undertaken. Such a scheme of work seems to me\nto guarantee both necessary breadth and thoroness, so far as these terms are\napplicable to high-school education. Now breadth and thoroness are the\nessential characteristics of a future teacher's scholarship. This program is\naccordingly well adapted to the needs of future teachers.\n3. On this basis our future teacher begins his college work. When he\ngoes to college, he will select his studies on the same general principles that\ndetermined his choice of work in the high school. If he has not had this\nsatisfactory precoUegiate education, if his precollegiate training has been too\nnarrow, say, he will naturally have to sacrifice some of the time he would\notherwise devote to his specialty to such studies as will give him sufficient\nbreadth of training. If, on the other hand, his precollegiate training has\nbeen too widely dispersed, he will be unable to make such progress in his\nspecialty in college as is here suggested.\nBut neither of these things should\n\n"} {"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] PREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n567\n\nhappen in good high schools. That they do happen is an evidence of lack\nof insight and aim on the part of the high-school teachers.\nFor illustration, I select three typical schedules of study from the number\nthat might be given — one for a teacher of English, one for a teacher of classics,\nand one for a teacher of physics. Each schedule represents the essential\nminimum of academic training a high-school teacher of the subject named\nshould possess. Each of these schedules fills the entire time of an undergraduate working at the rate of five full courses (i. e., five studies at a time)\neach year — and no real student ought to attempt more.\nNo provision is made in these schedules for the study by the prospective\nteacher of his profession. As this study is just as fundamental as the teacher's\nstudy of \"academic\" subjects, it is clear that, in my view, undergraduate\nstudy for the teacher is not enough. The essential minimum — about four\nfull courses — of professional study, without which a young high-school teacher\nshould never be recognized as such, is accordingly assigned to a year of graduate study. Since, however, it will be impossible, for some time to come, to\ninsist on this graduate year in practice for all high-school teachers, those who\nfind themselves obliged to restrict their training to their undergraduate careers,\nought to be required to take this essential minimum of professional studies as\nundergraduates. What this essential minimum is, is given below. Such a\ncompromise between what ought to be and what can be reasonably demanded\nshould, however, be recognized as temporary, and to be outgrown at the\nearliest possible moment.\nFor a teacher of English — The student enters college with three years of\nEnglish, four of Latin, two of Greek, two of German, and one year of French.\nThis is a good linguistic preparation for the prospective teacher of English.\nIf he is less well equipped with Latin and Greek, but has had better training\nin German and French, he will naturally give more time to the classics and\nless time to modern languages, than is suggested below. But his training in\nclassics (in the high school and college together) ought never to be less than\nfour years of Latin and two years of Greek. It is, of course, possible to enjoy\nEnglish Hterature without some knowledge of the classics. But if a wouldbe teacher of English has had no classics at all in his precollegiate training\nhe must at least know Greek and Roman literature thoroly in translation. Even\nso, however, he will find himself handicapped at every turn because he lacks\nthe elementary philological training, without which thoro understanding\nand appreciation of English are impossible. That a teacher of English ought\nto possess such understanding and appreciation goes without saying. Hence,\nthe scheme recommended seems to me a safe basis for general guidance.\n\nSCHEDULE OF COLLEGE STUDIES FOR A TEACHER OF ENGLISH\nFIRST\n\nEnglish\nEnglish\n\nYEAR\n\nRhetoric and composition\nHistory of English literature.\nthe present day\n\nAnglo-Saxon\n\nperiod\n\nto\n\n"} {"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n568\n\nLatin\n\n^Literature. Horace: Odes and epodes; Livy, Terence,\nAndria, and Phormio: or, Tacitus: (Annals I-VI);\nCatullus: Selections; and other poets; Horace:\nSatires and Epistles\n^Literature. Homer: Odyssey, Phaeacian episode;\nEuripides and Aristophanes: scenes from selected\nplays. Or, Plato: Apology, Crito; Lysias: selected\norations; Elegiac, Iambic and Lyric Poets: selections; Euripides: Iphegenia among the Taurians.\nLectures on the history of Greek Hterature.\nEnglish.\n\nGreek\n\nHistory\n\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\n\nEnglish\nEnglish\nGerman\nFrench\nScience\n\nAdvanced composition\nSeventeenth-century literature\nLiterature and composition\nLiterature and composition\nPhysical geography or geology; or a haK yea\nand a half year of zoology\n\nEnglish\nEnglish\nGerman or French\nHistory\nSociology or Economics\n\nDebating and public speaking\nChaucer\nLiterature and composition\nMediaeval\nGeneral principles\n\nEnglish\nEnglish\nHistory\nPhilosophy or Psychology\nFine arts\n\nShakspere\nNineteenth Century\nAmerican\nHistory of modern philosophy or psychology\nMediaeval and Renaissance\n\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nFOURTH\n\nYEAR\n\nFor a teacher of classics — The student enters college with four years of\nEnglish, four of Latin, three of Greek, and at least one year of German and\none year of French. It is usually impossible to accomplish this desirable\npreparation, together with other work a high-school pupil ought to do, in four\nyears, and it ought not to be attempted. It can be done in five years, however.\nSCHEDULE\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nSTUDIES\nFIRST\n\nEnglish\nLatin\nModern Language\nHistory\nScience\n\nA TEACHER\n\nRhetoric and composition\nLivy, Horace, Terence\nLiterature and composition\nAncient or mediaeval\nPhysical geography, or geology;\nSECOND\n\nEnglish\nLatin\n\nFOR\n\nOF CLASSICS\n\nYEAR\n\nor botany and zoology\n\nYEAR\n\nHistory of EngHsh literature\nVirgil, sources and literary influence\n\nThe alternatives are to be chosen in accordance with the pupil's preparation.\n\n"} {"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nGreek\nModern Language\nHistory\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\n569\n\nTEACHERS\n\nPlato, Xenophon, Lysias, Euripides\nI^iterature and composition\nModern European or English; or life of the ancient\nRomans\nTHIRD\n\nEnglish\nEnglish\nLatin\nGreek\nHistory or Government\n\nYEAR\n\nStudy of a period of English literature; or\nShakspere\nTacitus, Catullus, Horace\nDemosthenes, Aeschines, Aeschylus, Sophocles, the life\nof the ancient Athenians\nAmerican\nFOURTH\n\nYEAR\n\nNineteenth-century literature\nComposition, one-half year\nComposition, one-half year\nThe life of the ancient Greeks\nMediaeval and Renaissance\nHistory of modern philosophy, or elementary psychology\n\nEnglish\nLatin\nGreek\nGreek\nFine Arts\n\nPhilosophy or Psychology\nThe emphasis on Latin in this course is slightly greater than on Greek, because\nrelatively few teachers of classics in schools are called upon to know Greek as well as\nthey know Latin.\nBut the principle is recognized that a teacher of either of the ancient\nclassics must have well studied the other.\n\nFor a teacher of physics — The student has offered among his admission\nsubjects advanced algebra, solid geometry and trigonometry, elementary\nphysics, and at least two years of one modern language, either German or\nFrench.\nSCHEDULE\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nSTUDIES\nFIRST\n\nFOR\n\nA TEACHER\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nYEAR\n\nEnglish\nGerman or French\nMathematics\nPhysics\nChemistry\n\nRhetoric and composition\nLiterature and composition\nPlane and solid analytics\nExperimental physics, or general descriptive physics\nPhysical chemistry\n\nEnglish\nFrench or German\nMathematics\nPhysics\n\nHistory of English literature\nLiterature and composition\nCalculus\nAdvanced course in experimental mechanics\nyear)\nLight: Laboratory course (one-half year)\n\nSECOND\n\nPhysics\nPhysical Geography or Geology\nDrawing\n\nYEAR\n\n(one-half\n\nProjections and machine drawing\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nHistory\nPhysics\n\nModern European, or English\nLaboratory course in electricity and magnetism.\nurements\n\nPhysics\n\nHeat (one-half year)\n\nMeas-\n\n"} {"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nShop Work\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAstronomy\nSociology or Economics\n\nConstruction and repair of physical apparatus (one-half\nyear)\nDescriptive and practical astronomy\nGeneral principles\n\nHistory or Government\nPhysics\n\nAmerican\nenergy\nGeneration, transmission,\n\nPhysics\nFine Arts\nPhilosophy\n\nThesis on a special problem\nHistory of\n\nFOURTH\n\nYEAR\n\nand\n\nutilization\n\nof electrical\n\nHistory of modern philosophy or psychology\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nSTUDIES\n\n4. So much for our student's general and special scholarship. The very\nfact that he is to be a teacher implies that he must be something more than a\nscholar, important as scholarship is. Scholarship is for him not only an end\nin itself, but a means to an end — that end being the use to be made of it in\nthe interest of his pupil. This interest includes the exceedingly important\ndiscovery of the pupil's dominant tastes and capacities and the progressive\nshaping of his education in accordance with that discovery.\nThis conception of the teacher's scholarship as an instrument in his hands\nfor the good of his pupil is the teacher's conception, not the scholar's To\nendeavor to attain it is the duty of every teacher. Ultimately it will determine\nhis permanent attitude toward his work as a teacher — not merely to this or\nthat part of it, but all of it.\nNow this professional attitude is very rarely the outgrowth of scholarship\nalone; indeed, scholarship may even prevent its development. Very few\nyoung graduates have even an inkling of it; and most young doctors have\nbeen prevented from acquiring it by highly specialized \"research\" in the\nfield of pure scholarship. While these men are studying for their degrees,\nscholarship is only an end in itself. Incidentally, if they are preparing to\nteach, they know, of course, that scholarship is an indispensable part of their\nprofessional equipment. But this knowledge alone is quite as apt to promote\na wrong attitude toward their work as a right one. It often leads a young\nscholar to regard the work of teaching as a necessary evil, to be borne only\nbecause it may enable him to pursue further the research which he loves.\nWhen this does not happen, when he really applies himself with some zeal\nto his work as a teacher, it often leads to an exaggerated or at least disproportionate estimate of the educational value of his specialty, and to corresponding\nindifference to the educational value of other studies. And the greater the\ndegree of specialization, the greater the danger is. This is one reason, I\nsuppose, why the doctor of philosophy who wishes to teach in a high school is\nsometimes justly regarded with suspicion by principals and superintendents.\nAnd it is doubtless also one reason why the German states require would-be\nsecondary-school teachers to pass examinations in three fields of study — one\n\n"} {"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n571\n\n\"major\" and two \"minors;\" and also why relatively few German secondaryschool teachers have secured the doctor's degree.\na) My point is, once more, that the teacher is not merely a scholar, important as scholarship is. To be available for teaching purposes, scholarship\nmust have been acquired or at least overhauled from the teacher's point of\nview. The scholar must possess his scholarship in a new way. He must\nexamine it with a view to attaining a clear conception of the educational\nresources of his specialty and an equally clear recognition of its limitations.\nHe must, for example, have a definite answer to these two questions: (i)\nwhat ought the pupil to get from this subject under my guidance; and also\n(2) what can he by no possibility derive from it ? The teacher of history,\nfor example, may expect his pupil to derive from history social insight and\ninterest, and some political enlightenment. But it is clear that social insight\nand interest, and political enlightenment do not constitute more than one\nelement of the complex whole we mean when we speak of a good citizen;\nto say nothing of the fact that, at a given time, even social insight and political\nenlightenment cannot be secured thru history at all, owing to the pupil's\nimmaturity, or unawakened social and political comprehension. Hence,\nthe teachers of mathematics, science, languages, the mechanic arts, and the\nrest, have important subjects to teach as well as the teacher of history; and at\na given time any one or several of them may be able to secure for the pupil a\nmore adequate revelation of the world and a clearer self -discovery of the pupil\nthan the teacher of history can secure. That is to say, the history teacher's\nbusiness is to see that the world is revealed to the pupil from the historical\npoint of view, while recognizing the worth and efficiency of other studies to\nthe final end at which all are aiming — the pupil's knowledge of the world and\nof himself, and a command over both appropriate to his age and opportunities.\nThe history teacher will thus realize that this historical revelation of the world,\nimportant as it may be in itself, is not the whole revelation. Just what this\nhistorical revelation is in its breadth and depth, it is the history teacher's\nprofessional duty to know; for this knowledge will determine nothing more or\nless than his conscious aims as a teacher — ^will determine the richness or poverty\nof his teaching, and the significance or want of significance of the subject for\nhis pupil.\nIt thus appears that conscious aims, clearly and discriminatingly defined,\nconstitute an important part of the teacher's professional equipment, and that\nscholarship alone cannot be relied upon to supply them, although it is impossible to realize them without scholarship. How are they developed? This\nquestion will be answered presently. But first something more needs to be\nsaid about them.\nBy implication it is already clear, from what has gone before, that the\nteacher's aims are both general and special. Up to this point, however, the\nteacher's special aims — i. e., the results he hopes to attain through his specialty —\nhave received most attention.\nBut his responsibilities do not stop with a\n\n"} {"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nclear conception of what the pupil should learn of a given subject under his\nguidance. He must know how to teach his subject so as to realize his aims.\nHe must also understand his pupil as a child and youth and not merely as a\npupil of history, or literature, or science, or manual training; he must be able\nto guard and promote the physical as well as the mental and moral welfare\nof his pupil; and he must be able to estimate the significance and value of\nthe work of the school as a whole in providing for its pupils the most salutary\nphysical environment, and appropriate participation in all the worthy interests\nof life, i. e., satisfactory preparation for the pupil's maturity, for his work and\nfor his leisure.\nThe teacher must therefore know how to teach and manage children and\nyouth, must know the nature of children and youth, and the conditions of\ntheir satisfactory development; he must know whether the school in which\nhe works is adapted to the ends for which it exists — in a word, he must have\nprofessional insight, interest, and skill in his own work, and he must have\na professional horizon wider than his classroom, or his school.\nh) The teacher's special aims and his power to realize them — his technical\nskill and his general professional insight and interest, and his professional\nhorizon, he can derive only from the study of his profession. The lawyer,\nengineer, or physician has professional insight, interest, and skill which everyone recognizes, appeals to in case of need, and respects as valid when obtained\nbecause each of them bases his professional career on a body of organized\nfacts and principles pertaining to his profession and on an incipient command\nover them, and he perfects this knowledge and skill by practice. That is\nto say, each enters on his chosen calling with a developed professional attitude\ni. e., with a knowledge of his professional responsibilities, and developed\nconfidence in his power to discharge them. Such an attitude must be based\non a prolonged study of the resources and the problems of his profession, and\nas much practice as possible in formulating legal advice and pleading cases;\nin making plans for routes, structures, or machines, and in executing those\nplans; in diagnosing bodily conditions, and prescribing treatment.\nNow the teacher's educational aims, insight, interest, and skill and his\nprofessional horizon — the range of his professional efl&ciency — determine his\nprofessional consciousness, just as the corresponding equipment of the workers\nin other professions determines theirs. Such a professional consciousness\nis the professional attitude. It is the outgrowth of consciously possessed and\ntried resources. It makes the worker painstaking; prompt without precipitation; aware of the difficulties that beset his path, but courageous in meeting\nthem; willing to experiment but not without adequate cause; judiciously\naggressive in proposing new policies, and able to defend them convincingly\nin the face of all kinds of opposition.\nSuch is the desirable attitude that we have a right to expect every teacher\nto attain. That too many teachers now in service have it not is due to the\nfact that they have not taken pains to acquire it, they have not seriously studied\n\n"} {"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n573\n\ntheir profession. Until they do, it is impossible to expect that their employers\nor the general public will acknowledge their superiority over the lay public in\nmatters educational; for, in general, no such superiority will exist.\nOf what, then, does the teacher's study of his profession consist ? First\nof all, as has been said, the teacher must know how to teach — he must command\nthe technique of his art; he must know how to teach his subject and manage\nhis class. At this point I may be pardoned a brief digression.\nc) It is still believed by otherwise well-informed persons that any scholar\nis ipso jacto a teacher, or, at least, that he can easily become a teacher — a good\none — ^by practice only. (It would be more correct to say by floundering!)\nThis view is held, with a conspicuous disregard for the testimony of experience,\nby many college professors, who are often called upon to recommend young\ngraduates as teachers, and not infrequently by the employers of teachers —\nparticularly private-school or endowed-school principals and trustees. In\nthis paper there is no need to combat this error; and I content myself with\nreminding you, once more, in passing, that in spite of recent progress, it still\npersists — it still interferes with the development of training in teaching in\nour colleges and universities. Inasmuch as colleges and universities are the\nsource of supply of the great majority of our high-school and private-school\nteachers, the persistence of this error must be reckoned with when we seek to\nsecure proper training for high-school teachers.\nBut to return. Everyone, whether superintendent, principal, teacher,\nor layman, knows that bad teaching defeats the very ends for which the schools\nexist and is the source of enormous waste of money, time, and strength. It\nmakes the most attractive study dull; bewilders, misleads, and repels the\nmost earnest and capable pupil, and so, as just intimated, perverts the educational opportunity willingly and generously provided by the public, or expensively maintained by private means.\nThese are obvious commonplaces. But it will be necessary to insist on them\nuntil our college-bred scholars and specialists, and many of those who employ\nthem as teachers, as well as most of those who recommend them for employment, finally divest themselves of the traditional error already referred to that\nscholarship and particularly specialized scholarship, involves teaching power\nas a matter of course. As long as this traditional error persists in spite of\nthe evidence of experience — for I venture to say that no single fact of the highschool teacher's equipment for his work has been so often established by\nexperience as that scholarship and teaching power do not necessarily go together\n— it will be necessary to insist that teaching power, like scholarship, must be\nacquired with painstaking care. True there are \"born teachers\" whose native\ngifts enable them to- teach well without instruction; but most teachers in the\npast have not been bom teachers, and most of them never will be. In the\nteaching profession, as in other callings, the genius is found only occasionally;\nand even he gains enormously by the careful study of every detail of his art or his\nprofession.\nIt is plain that the world's teaching must be done in the future\n\n"} {"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nas it has been in the past, not by geniuses chiefly, or even largely, but by persons of ordinary endowments; and experience has shown that all such persons\nneed to make the most of their natural gifts, whatever they are, by careful\ntraining.\nThe young graduate without technical training will naturally follow the\nexample of his college teachers, since their teaching is fresh in his memory.\nIf those teachers happen to have been good models, the neophyte of good\nnatural teaching power will, ere long, beat out a fairly successful routine,\nalthough at the expense of his pupils, and more or less damage to his subject.\nIf a young language teacher's model, for example, has emphasized the philological aspect of his subject rather more than its literary content and form,\nhis pupil — our young teacher — ^will be likely to overemphasize the same thing\nin his teaching, in spite of the well-known fact that literature and not the\nrefinements of syntax and long excursions into comparative grammar attracts\nmost high-school pupils; if his model has been an inspiring literary interpreter\nas well as a reasonable grammarian, our young teacher will similarly be likely\nto address himself by preference to literary interpretation. The fact is, however, that without specific instruction in the various educational resources of\nhis subject, the educational possibilities of that subject are not consciously\nrecognized; and, what is even more important, the varying educational values\nof those resources are not seen to differ from each other, and to have varying\nvalues for different pupils. For example, I once heard a secondary-school\nteacher spend nearly the whole of one class exercise on three illustrations of a\nvery unusual use of the ablative case by Cicero — one of the three having\noccurred in the lesson of the day.\nSo the prospective teacher must be led to overhaul his scholarship from\nthe teacher's point of view, in order to become aware of its educational possibilities and their relative importance; and then he must secure a training\nin theory and practice that will enable him to work systematically and progressively toward realizing these possibilities in his teaching. Such training,\nwhen successful, develops the first requisite of a professional attitude, an\nattitude which, as has been said, is dependent on the consciousness of power\nto teach and incidentally, to govern pupils and classes, an incipient\ncommand over the technique of the teacher's art. This training naturally\nconsists of directed observation of good teachers, instruction in methods,\nand carefully supervised practice teaching in the classroom, under normal\nconditions.\n5. But, as has been said, to teach and govern well the teacher must know\nhis pupils as well as the art of teaching and governing. He must know the\nfundamental characteristics of children and young people, in order that he\nmay more appropriately become their guide and interpreter, and not merely\ntheir judge and taskmaster. And, of course, he must acquire the habit of\nstudying every pupil, for his interpretation and guidance are effective only\nwhen they meet the needs of each individual.\nThe teacher must, therefore,\n\n"} {"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n575\n\nlearn as much as possible about the nature of children and young people, and\nhe must acquire the habit of studying each individual, and of shaping his\ninstruction and management in real harmony with both the general nature of\nchildren and youth and the particular characteristics of each pupil. That\nis to say, he must acquire the attitude of the trained and sympathetic student\nof the minds and hearts of all his pupils, and their individual responses to\nhis influence. Incidentally all his professional training promotes this end.\nBut it is directly arrived at in courses on educational theory (general principles\nof education, school hygiene, and educational psychology, particularly the\npsychology of mental development in children and adolescents).\n6. But the teacher must also have a professional horizon. He must know\nhis school as well as his class. He must see his own work in relation to that\nof his fellow-teachers; he must be able to co-operate with them, for the pupil's\nsake, on the basis of a good mutual understanding of the total aim, atmosphere,\nclasswork, and collateral activities of the entire institution as an educational\nforce; and he and they must be able to work together for the progressive\nreadjustment of the educational opportunities the school affords, and the\nresults it achieves to the actual needs of the pupils and of the community,\nas they appear. That is to say, he must study the high school as a social\n(educational) institution. He must know its origin and its development.\nFrom its vicissitudes he will learn much that will enlarge his professional\nhorizon, and make him a more intelligent and constructive critic of its present\norganization, its relation to the elementary schools and to the college, and its\nactual contemporary efficiency. Such training should be given in a course\nproviding for a thoro study of the secondary school, particularly the public\nhigh school.\n7. But the teacher's professional horizon is still too narrow if it is limited\nto the educational activities of his own school and his own time. His profession has a remarkable history, of great intrinsic interest and professional\nsignificance. The history of education is the history of culture. It covers\nthe varying educational ideals of important periods in the history of progressive nations, the social (political, religious, economic) conditions which gave\nrise to these ideals, and the institutions devised to embody these ideals, up to\nthe present day. These ideals are also embodied in educational writings, and\nthese are accordingly sources of fruitful thinking on educational theory and\npractice. To study the history of education is, accordingly, to pass in review\nthe world's thought and activity in the field of education, and to reflect critically on its adequacy as measured by the standards adhered to in any particular\nperiod. To do this is to acquire a professional horizon that extends far beyond\nthe confines of a particular classroom or school, and inevitably promotes the\nhabit of applying thoughtful consideration to all educational problems or\nactivities — and this is, as we have seen, the professional attitude which we are\nseeking every proper means to secure for every teacher. A good course in\nthe history of education\nis, accordingly, indispensable\nto the essential\n\n"} {"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nminimum of professional studies every secondary-school teacher should\npursue,\n8. From the foregoing it is clear that this essential minimum should consist\nof the following four courses:\n1. General Principles of Education, one-half year.\nSchool Hygiene, one-half year.\n2. Educational Psychology, one-half year.\nMethods, and Practice Teaching, one-half year.\n3. Secondary Education — Particularly the Public High School, its Origin and\nDevelopment; Relation to the Elementary School and to the College; Present Aims,\nOrganization, and Work.\nForeign Secondary Schools.\n4. History of Education from the Time of the Ancient Greeks to the Present Day.\n\nIt is clear that a teacher's training is only well begun by such a course of\nstudy as has been outlined in the preceding pages. His growth must continue\nwith the practice of his profession if he would continue to be efficient as a\nteacher, and increasingly useful as a member of an important profession\nwhose interests he ought to be able to promote by his example, his voice, and his\npen; and if he would be counted among those who not only render efl&cient\nvocational service, but can be relied on to co-operate with others in at least one\nof the many community interests lying entirely outside his vocation.\nThru the teacher's ministration the pupil is to be led to understand and\nenjoy this wonderful world of ours — to possess some command over its resources,\nto find in it the particular thing of worth that he likes best, and to look forward\nto the kind of work that he can do best. The pupil is to .acquire knowledge\nand the power to use it; his heart is to be touched and taught to respond\nhabitually to noble emotions of \"virtue, honor, love, courage, and magnanimity;\" heis to see and love beauty as well as noble emotions and goodness;\nhe is to be trained to act in harmony with his insight, his warm heart, and his\ncultivated taste; and so to be and do his best in everything he undertakes.\nThis is the teacher's ideal. All would like to approximate its realization, and\nfew indeed would not try to realize it as nearly as possible, once it is seen.\nThere are many teachers fortunately who cherish such an ideal, consciously or\nunconsciously, and who adhere to it and maintain an attitude of discriminating optimism amid all the trials, misunderstandings, discouragements, and\ndisappointments that fall to the lot of every worker. Such teachers rejoice\nin their partial successes and derive from them the courage and good will\nthat make for ever increasing efficiency. These are the chosen few — chosen\nby nature and a fortunate combination of circumstances to do the teacher's\nwork.\nUnfortunately, however, the conditions under which too many teachers\ncarry on their work are a constant menace to the maintenance of the teacher's\nideal, and not a few who have it at the start harden under them. Under the\nstress and strain of a deadening routine for small pay, or an unappreciative\npublic, or narrow or ill-bred official supervisors, or some or all these combined,\nsuch teachers are in danger of losing the inspiring influence of their ideal, and\n\n"} {"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n577\n\nof forgetting it entirely. In any case, every teacher's inspiration is derivable\nfrom two sources — his equipment of scholarship and his professional insight,\ninterest, and skill; and we cannot urge too strongly or too persistently the\nappropriate recognition of the training on which this inspiration depends until\nit ultimately wins, wherever found, thoro appreciation and appropriate material\nrewards.\n\nVII\nE. O. HOLLAND,\n\nJUNIOR\n\nPROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND\nUNIVERSITY\nOF INDIANA\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nVISITOR,\n\nI. The last few years of the nineteenth century will be noted as the time\nfor a new and widespread interest in secondary education. 'In the past, educators have given their attention to the problems of the common graded schools\nand the college and the university. As a consequence, the elementary and\nthe collegiate work have been well developed and been placed in the hands of\nspecialists. It was not until about fifteen years ago that the secondary-school\nproblem was able to demand the serious thought of the educational leaders.\nIn the year 1890 was held the December Conference at Berlin. Four years\nlater the Committee of Ten made its extremely valuable report. Within\nanother year, the English Parliamentary Commission on Secondary Education\nconcluded its investigations. In 1899, the Committee on College Entrance\nRequirements gave the results of its work; During these years, every state\nteachers' association has found the secondary-school problem one worthy of\nits serious and persistent consideration. As the late President Harper well\nsaid, \"Wedged in between the great common-school work and the higher work\nof colleges and universities, its prominence in the past has not been commensurate with its importance.\" But this condition has been modified, and as\na result, of all the educational advances made during the early part of this\ncentury, none will surpass that in secondary education.\nThe growth of the high schools during the past fifteen years has been\nphenomenal, for the enrolment has been nearly trebled. In 1889-90 the\nsecondary schools enrolled 297,894, and in 1903-04, 822,000. This increase\nhas been most marked in the Middle West in connection with the public high\nschools, and least marked in the private eastern academies. Yet the increase\nhas been so great thruout the entire country that it must be called a national\nmovement. From President Eliot's report we find in 1891 that 128 public\nhigh-school students entered Harvard; in 1900 there were 212, showing an\nincrease of more than 65 per cent. In 1891, 147 students entered Harvard\nCollege from private schools; in 1900, there were 105, showing a decrease of\nover 28 per cent. Many of the great western colleges and universities have\nbeen enrolling thousands of young men and women, practically all of whom\nhave been prepared in the public high schools. The growth in the high\nschools has made possible the rapid growth in institutions of higher learning.\nYet notwithstanding this vast army of young people that pass each year into\n\n"} {"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe doors of our colleges and universities, the great majority of secondaryschool students never enter an institution of higher learning. Since this is\ntrue, it means that the secondary school has a peculiar function, and in the\nlanguage of Dean Russell, that function \"is the selection and training of\nleaders for intelligent service in academic, professional, and industrial life.\"\nThe high school of the twentieth century is not to be considered a preparatory\nschool; it has its own specific work to do. It should reinforce the true democratic spirit in our government; it should arouse in each pupil both an intellectual and an intelligent interest in life; it should develop him along the lines\nof strength so he can render to society the greatest possible service. Dr,\nHanus has said.\nMost of our editors, politicians, skilled mechanics, and labor leaders, our leading\nbusiness men, and even the great majority of our professional men and women, are not\ncollege bred; but they have usually had a secondary-school training. These people are\ncommonly the leaders of the people.\n\nSince, then, the American high schools have a distinct function, and since\nthey have such an intimate connection with the social, intellectual, and industrial life of the whole people, we should assume that the question of professional training for secondary teachers should be one that has received the most\ncareful consideration. It is true that in recent years our educational leaders\nhave thought and written a great deal upon this subject, but today we find that\nthe vast majority of school committees are indifferent to this important problem,\nand that the secondary-school field is very largely in the control of inexperienced, unskilled, and incompetent teachers. The facts collected a few\nyears ago by Superintendent Crum, of Madison, Neb., throw light upon this\nassertion. Beginning with September, 1896, there were at work in the\nNebraska high schools 454 teachers, in 1905 only 74 remained. Here are\nthe statistics by years:\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\nSeptember,\n\n1897, 190 new teachers entered the work; 1905, 27 remained.\n1898, 192 new teachers; 1905, 25 remained.\n1899, 169 new teachers; 1905, 34 remained.\n1900, 178 new teachers; 1905, 29 remained.\n1901, 162 new teachers; 1905, 42 remained.\n1902, 188 new teachers; 1905, 62 remained.\n1903, 188 new teachgrs; 1905, 90 remained\n1904, 198 new teachers, making 583 in those positions.\n\nSuperintendent Crum discovered that over t^t, per cent, of the total enter\nthese important positions every year, and that over 67 per cent, of these\nteachers have been at work for less than four years.\nThese statistics are indeed startling, but, in a large measure, they are no\nmore so than those to be obtained from any other state in the Middle West.\nThese facts would seem to prove my assertion that most of the secondaryschool teachers are inexperienced, but is it true that they are, as I have charged,\nunskilled and incompetent? In 1901, Professor M. V. O'Shea received\nreports from one hundred high-school principals and school superintendents\n\n"} {"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n579\n\nconcerning secondary-school teachers, and, to reinforce this evidence, he\ncarefully examined the records of one thousand inspections of secondaryschool teachers.\nHere is what he discovered:\n1. The university graduate has no just conception of what a high school ought to\naccomplish.\n2. He has little sympathy at the beginning with the kind of work the high school must\ndo.\n3. He has little appreciation of what should be the right relation of his department to\nthe other departments in the high school. He tries to monopolize all the time, and to\ncrowd out other subjects, for he has not given thought to the relative value of the high-school\nbranches. His last two years at the university led him to think that his specialty is the\nonly subject to be taught in the secondary schools and beyond.\n4. He gives special and technical work before the pupils have any idea as to the scope\nof the subject.\n5. His tendency is to talk too much, to lecture to the pupils, and lecture he does regardless of the impracticability of the plan.\n\nSpiritless teaching is the greatest fault to be found in the majority of these\ncases. The second fundamental fault is the narrowness of view. Pupils\ncannot see the bearing of the questions. The teacher fails to arouse delight\nand enthusiasm. Of course that kind of teacher is certain to have difficulty\nin discipline. Because of his inefficiency many pupils fall behind in the work\nand quit school forever. Such instruction, of course, is a costly business for\nthe people. It decreases the efficiency of every high-school student, and, in\nmany instances, it perceptibly lowers the moral and intellectual life of a\ncommunity.\nI think I have not made the case worse than it is. How are we to improve\nthis condition? How are we to make the secondary schools equal to the\nimportant task they have to do ? Of course the answer is that we must get the\npeople to demand that the secondary-school teacher make a preparation that\nwill equip him to meet the needs of the school. And we must get the people\nto be willing to pay for such service; for the high-school teacher should have\nthe opportunity to do good work, to receive a reasonable salary, obtain advancement as a reward for excellent service, to be given social recognition, and to\nbe secure from unfair attacks from the public. In a large measure the possibilities inthe secondary-school field should be comparable with those to be\nfound in the other professions. When this condition obtains, the best highschool teachers will remain in the profession and the poor ones will drop out\nbecause of the stronger competition. Then the high schools of the country\nwill be able to wield a powerful influence on the life of the people. Improvement in the secondary-school work will come first of all from the efforts of the\ncolleges and universities, and from the public-school leaders of the country.\nDuring the fall of 1906, 1 sent out a questionnaire upon the general problem\nof professional training of secondary-school teachers, and with a query concerning the local condition and how this condition could be improved. I\ncompared the forty replies received from the leading college and university\n\n"} {"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "58o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\neducators with those statements made by the same number of the leading\ncollege and secondary-school men of Indiana. I was especially impressed\nwith the fact that the needs seem to be the same thruout the whole country.\nFrom one point of view this is not a misfortune, for we can approach the\ngeneral problem with the approval and support of all sections of the United\nStates. ■ Practically all of the educators insist that the secondary-school\nteacher should possess four qualities: (i) general knowledge; (2) professional knowledge; (3) special knowledge; and (4) real skill in teaching.\n2. From the answers to my questionnaire, I infer much difficulty is found in\nattempting to solve the fourth need and requirement — the development of real\nskill in teaching. All of us agree that the preparation of the secondary-school\nteacher cannot be satisfactory or complete until, in a practical way and under\nnormal conditions, it includes actual experience in teaching. Only a few of\nmy replies favored the establishment of a training-school in connection with the\ncollege or university because of the great expense and the difficulty in making\nsuch a school practical and attractive to any large percentage of the college\nstudents. Most educators seem to favor an affiliation with a nearby high\nschool, where opportunity can be given the students of the department of\neducation to observe skilful teaching and to take charge of classes under the\ndirection and supervision of efl&cient teachers. Another plan that has been\nfavored widely is that of sending out seniors, during the college vacations, to\ndo work in some of the best schools of the state. Such a plan would enable\nthe regular .teachers to observe work in their own and neighboring schools —\nan opportunity today they seldom have. Some such plan, I believe, will in\nthe future be used widely by many of the best city superintendents, who can\nthereby fill vacancies with less trouble and risk; and the pupil-teachers,\nhaving such experience, will be able to teach much more satisfactorily\nwhen given a permanent place the following year.\n3. Already the departments of education in most of the institutions in the\nMiddle West require the completion of a prescribed course, which includes\nwork in the history and the philosophy of education, in educational and\ngenetic psychology, secondary-school management and teaching, and in\nobservation and practice.\nAs Dean Russell has stated:\nThe lowest requirements which can consistently make for such a diploma or certificate,\nare as follows:\na) The candidate must be a college graduate, at least when he receives the diploma\nif not when entering upon the course, or have the equivalent of a college education.\nh) He must satisfactorily complete courses: (i) In the history of education; (2) in\nthe philosophy of education; (3) In school economy, especially school hygiene — -an allotment, say, of eight hours a week throughout one year.\nc) As evidence of special knowledge in each subject in which a diploma is sought,\nthe candidate should be able to show the equivalent of at least three years' collegiate study\nof the subject. . . . Such a course may very properly be conducted wholly or in part by the\nuniversity department, which is responsible for the academic training in subject matter.\n\n"} {"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depirtment]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n581\n\nd) The candidate must be given opportunity to observe good teaching, study its\nmethod under guidance, and finally give instruction under normal conditions long enough\nto demonstrate his ability to teach.\n\n\"The lesson from German experience is that to liberal culture you must\nadd special scholarship, and to special scholarship, professional knowledge,\nand to professional knowledge, teaching skill.\"\nHere is the ideal toward which we are striving, tho we understand that\nthere are many steps to be taken before it can be realized. In the Middle\nWest the leading city superintendents are urging their teachers to go back to\nthe college or the university for a year and take courses in education. Where\nthe best salaries are paid, the school authorities can demand and obtain welltrained teachers. Those school communities which pay low salaries generally\nget poorly prepared or inexperienced teachers; the teachers that become\nefficient are quickly transferred to some other place paying better and offering\nmore opportunities, and so those communities are left with teachers that\nprobably earn the pitiful salaries paid.\n4. In the Middle West the accrediting system used by practically all the\ncolleges and universities has been found to improve the conditions of the better\nand larger high schools. Most of the universities have high-school inspectors\n(in Indiana, the State Board of Education acts in this capacity), and they\nhave set a certain standard to be met by the secondary school holding a commission. They require that the minimum scholastic attainment of all teachers\nin commissioned high schools shall be equivalent to graduation from a recognized college, and shall include special training in the subjects they teach;\n''the number of daily periods of classroom instruction should not exceed five,\neach to extend over at least forty minutes in the clear;\" the laboratory and\nlibrary facilities must be adequate to the needs of the instruction; ''all schools\nwhose records show an abnormal number of pupils per teacher, as based on\nthe average number belonging, even tho they may technically meet\nall other requirements, are rejected.\" Thirty is considered the\nmaximum.\nCertainly, these are splendid rules, but this association of colleges and\nuniversities \"has omitted for the present the consideration of all schools whose\nteaching force consists of fewer than five teachers exclusive of the superintendent.\" Tho this last may be a splendid rule to follow, it seems to me that\nthe most important work to be done by inspectors is being neglected. In\nIndiana, the State Board of Education has commissioned 240 high schools,\nwhich leaves 527 non-commissioned high schools that are not inspected by the\nmembers of the State Board. This is the condition of practically every state\nin the Middle West, and it means that the schools that especially need direction\nand encouragement are ignored. If money is needed for inspection, it should\nbe furnished, for we cannot expect to raise the standard of secondary education thruout the country unless we give practical aid and direction to more\nthan one-third of the high schools.\n\n"} {"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nVIII\nC. H. JUDD, PROFESSOR\n\nOF PSYCHOLOGY,\n\nYALE\n\n[Secondary\n\nI\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n1. The preparation of a high-school teacher has never included as much\nattention to special methods as has the training of elementary-school teachers.\nMuch greater emphasis- has been laid in preparation for high-school work\nupon a broad general training and upon training in the special line in which\nthe teacher is to give instruction. These practices of the past are being called\nin question at the present time by many who regard the work of the high\nschool as inferior in method to the work in the elementary schools. Indeed,\nthe criticism is very frequently made by superintendents and those who have\ncharge of elementary work that the poorest teaching in the schools is to be\nfound in the high schools. The criticism undoubtedly has some justification\nin actual experience, but in the opinion of the present writer the remedy is not\nto be found in the institution of normal schools for high-school teachers as has\nsometimes been suggested.\n2. The fact is that the work of a high-school teacher is more general in\ncharacter than the work of an elementary teacher, and, from the nature of the\ncase, high-school instruction is less susceptible to general definition in point\nof its method. The high- chool teacher is not called upon to drill in the\nfundamental forms of knowledge, his problem is rather to open up before the\ndeveloping mind great bodies of information and new forms of thought. The\nindividual with whom the high-school teacher has to deal is very much more\nof a distinct personality than is the child in the elementary school. Indeed,\nthe characteristic fact about the high-school pupil is that he is reaching a stage\nin life in which he is differentiated by his development from those who are\nabout him; he becomes clearly conscious for the first time of his own personal\ninterests and his own personal place in the world. To deal with a class of\nhigh-school students in anything like an adequate way requires that the\nteacher shall have the keenest sense for the individual characteristics of the\nmembers of his class.\n3. There is one statement from which there is not likely to be any dissent.\nA teacher in a high school should have a broad general education which carries him far beyond anything that he will be called upon to teach to his students.\nPut in the concrete this statement means that graduation from a college is the\nminimum requirement which can be tolerated in the case of a high-school\nteacher. If the candidate is not a graduate of a college he should be able to\ngive evidence of at least the equivalent of a college course in independent study.\nIt is not so much the formal compliance with the academical requirement as\nit is the study which is implied by an academical degree that should be considered. No young man or woman should present himself as a candidate\nfor a position in high-school mathematics, for example, who has not mastered\nthe higher branches of this subject. Nor should he present himself in science\nunless he has taken more than a freshman or sophomore course in physics\n\n"} {"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\nDepartment]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n583\n\nand chemistry. The high-school teacher must be quaHfied in the subject\nwhich he is to teach by a specialized study of this subject far enough to become\nacquainted not only with its elements, but also with some of its more advanced phases. If there is to be any limitation of training in preparation for\nhigh-school positions it should not be along these lines.\n4. Not only should the high-school teacher be acquainted with the subject\nthat he is to teach but he should also be acquainted with the institution in\nwhich he is to teach. More than for any other teacher is it essential for the\nteacher in the high school that he should understand the history and present\nposition of the high school. This institution stands in the midst of our educational system; its influence upon the lower schools and upon the schools which\nare above it give it a central character and importance which has been felt\nvery powerfully in the historical development of American education. One\nneeds only to turn to the history of our middle schools by Professor Brown\nto recognize that the influence of these schools has been very large in determining the revision of the course of study in American colleges, and at the\nsame time this influence has been very marked upon the development of the\npublic schools, especially thru the preparation which the high school has\ngiven to many of the teachers in the elementary schools. To be sure it is\nvery desirable that all teachers have some knowledge of the historical development and present condition of the schools, but the elementary teacher is more\nlikely to be called upon to follow a line of teaching which has been marked\nout by the superintendent, and the college teacher may devote himself to his\nspecialty and leave the problems of reorganizing the college curriculum to the\nforces which are operating thru the elective system and thru other general\nmovements to determine the character and scope of college courses. No\nhigh-school teacher, on the other hand, can neglect, as he prepares his courses,\nthe intimate problems of organization which come up in connection with his\nwork. Our high schools would not be bound to traditions if there existed\namong high-school teachers a clear historical insight of the origin and character\nof the traditions which have, in a very large measure, determined the development of high-school courses.\nWe may assert, therefore, that a study of the history of education is essential\nto preparation for high-school teaching. There should be some instruction\noffered in our American colleges on the historical and institutional relations\nof the high school if colleges are to meet this second obvious requirement as\nfully as they meet the requirement which has been described above in\ndiscussing general training in the teacher's specialty.\nThere is a very general movement in American colleges looking toward\nthe satisfaction of the demand here expressed for a historical course. Almost\nevery institution is introducing a course in the history of education as an\nessential part of the curriculum for those who are to teach. It is highly desirable\nthat his work be placed upon the same academical footing as the well-established courses in history in our colleges.\nThe history of education has long\n\n"} {"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secon(kry\n\nbeen required of German and French teachers in the higher institutions in\nthose countries. It would be quite impossible to find among the teachers\nin the German Gymnasium or the French lycee anyone as ignorant of the\nmovements in the history of education as can be found in every high-school\nfaculty in this country. The course of history of education should not be a\nformal course such as is offered in many institutions. It should not be merely\na course dealing with the educational reformers who have co-operated primarily inthe development of elementary schools. It should be rather a discussion of the whole development of educational institutions, including\nespecially the higher schools. Such a work as Paulsen's on the higher schools\nin Germany should be prepared for the special use of colleges.\n5. A third requirement which should be made upon the student who is\npreparing to teach in the high school is that he prepare himself to treat in a\nthoroly scientific way the individual problems which confront him in the\nperson of each pupil and in each new phase of the presentation of his subject.\nMuch could be said in favor of a modification of the requirements imposed\nupon teachers in the elementary schools, so that they also shall be trained,\nnot in special methods, but in the general scientific method of treating all\neducational problems. Yet if the elementary teacher adheres strictly to the\nsame elementary method of procedure, he will not go so far astray as will the\nhigh-school teacher who attempts to deal in a stereotyped way with the highly\nindividualized pupil of the high school. Too great emphasis cannot be laid\nupon the fact that every high-school problem is a distinct problem requiring a\ndistinct and intelligent mode of treatment. The teacher who has not cultivated flexibility of sympathy and procedure should have no place in a highschool faculty. When a boy or girl shows inability to grasp a problem from\none point of view, there is certainly no justification for a reiteration of the\nmethod which has failed and an effort to make the individual child conform\nhimself to this ordinary method. The teacher should be prepared to meet\nthe intellectual difficulties of a high-school student with a flexible method.\nHis problem is therefore essentially a scientific problem. It consists in investigating the case in hand and meeting it exactly as a trained scientific engineer\nwould meet his problem. No general rule can be laid down for the building\nof bridges. The suggestion which has been made above, that the high-school\nteacher become acquainted with the historical problems and historical development of his institution, will furnish much of the material in method that may\nbe helpful to the individual teacher, but beyond these suggestions which can\nbe delved from a careful study of institutions and their growth, there is rela\ntively little to be derived from any mere restatement of high-school methods.\nWhat the high-school teacher ought to have is that intangible something which\nwe call the scientific spirit. He can secure that only from the thoro mastery\nof some experimental science. If, for example, by a course in chemistry the\nstudent has been trained to take any substance which comes into his hands\nand work out a careful analysis of its constituents and the mode of their combi-\n\n"} {"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n585\n\nnation, he has certainly acquired something which is more significant than the\nfacts of chemical composition ; he has acquired a method of attacking the problem which comes before him. In the same way, if his studies have been along\nbiological rather than the chemical lines, if he has learned how to observe the\ncharacteristics of certain living forms and how to relate these characteristics\nto the environment in which the organisms have grown up and in which they\nlive, he has acquired again a method and spirit of observation and study\nwhich will be of great assistance to him in his contact with pupils.\nThe demand which is expressed in this discussion of the scientific spirit\nis so broad and general in its scope that the single illustrations should not be\ntaken to cover the whole demand which is being expressed. No student who\npursues a course in chemistry or a course in biology or a course in any branch\nof science merely for the sake of the facts which we will derive from these\ncourses has acquired the scientific attitude which will lead him to take up every\nproblem which he confronts in a scientific way. The best kind of training\nfor the scientific spirit which is being demanded in these statements is the kind\nof training which is required in most institutions for the advanced degree of\ndoctor of philosophy. The essential requirement for this degree is that the\ncandidate shall exhibit ability to carry on independent research. Our American institutions suffer in comparison with the German and French institutions\nbelow the university in the fact that the German and French institutions are\nmanned by those who have shown themselves able to do scientific work of an\nindependent sort sufficient to give them the doctor's degree. It is perhaps too\nearly in our American educational development to demand that the teachers\nin our high schools be doctors of philosophy in every case, but every institution\nwhich is preparing teachers of high schools should make a special e£Fort to\nintroduce into the course of study some training of the sort which shall make\nits graduates independent in dealing with educational difficulties. Even if a\nman is going to teach Latin or literature or history, one phase of his problem\nin the high school will be to deal with individual minds. These he must\ndiagnose on the spot; no set formal method can be given to him. He must\nbe able to cope with new situations that arise in a period in the student's life\nwhen there is the largest degree of variation and the most capricious type of\ndevelopment. The training which a high-school teacher needs is closely\ncomparable to that needed by a physician. No student of medicine is allowed\nto feel that he can learn formal methods of treating cases. He may become\nacquainted with the general forms of treatment that are utilized by those who\nare older in experience than himself (this would be comparable to the historical\nand institutional training which was advocated above), and then the main\nemphasis in the physician's education is laid upon the scientific studies which\nwill render him independent as far as possible of any formal precepts and\nmake him a student of every case with which he has to deal.\nThe fulfilment of this particular requirement does not call for any modification inthe present course of study provided in American colleges, but it does\n\n"} {"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncall for a very radical modification in the types of training that have been\nlooked for in candidates for high-school positions. One very seldom hears\nany inquiry made of a teacher who is to give high-school courses in history\nother than those which relate to his preparation in history. The same is true\nof literature, of modern languages, and even of mathematics. There has been\nvery little recognition of any special preparation for educational study of the\nchildren.\na) The demand which is here expressed has often been recognized in a\nsomewhat narrower form. Teachers have been urged to study some scientific subject closely related to education, such as the theory of education or\npsychology. The unfortunate effect of short courses in these subjects has\noften been that teachers have required the false notion that they are supplied\nthru these courses with a scientific attitude toward education. Psychology\nand theory of education may be, and often are, quite as formal as other disciplines. Itis only when these lines of study prepare the teacher for independent\ngrasp of educational problems that they serve the end for which they are here\nadvocated. It would be very much better for the prospective teacher to get\na broad general scientific training by taking courses in biology or physics and\nthen learn to apply his scientific habits to education thru psychology or the\ntheory of education, than that he should get a vague body of psychological\ninformation and little of its scientific spirit.\nThe fact that high-school teachers are not generally trained in the methods\nof independent attack upon problems comes out very clearly when one contrasts American high-school teachers with teachers in the German Gymnasium\nor the French lycee. To be sure the ordinary high-school teacher is overloaded with hours and is distracted from original investigation by temptations to enter administrative positions, such as the principalship of a high\nschool or the superintendency of some neighboring school system, and for\nthese external reasons scholarly research in American high schools is relatively\nrare as compared with German and French schools. But when all of these\nexternal conditions have been taken into account, the fundamental difficulty\nlies in the fact that high-school teachers are not trained in the methods of\ninvestigating even problems that fall within their special lines of investigation.\nIt is a little wonder in view of these facts that there should be so much formalism and lack of scientific investigation in their treatment of the practical school\nproblems which can come to them.\nh) It seems very doubtful whether this special form of training can be\nadequately provided by departments of education in colleges. It certainly\ncould not be provided by any special institutions for the preparation of highschool teachers analogous to the normal schools of the training of elemen'.ary\nteachers. The best work of a department of education in this respect is\nprobably to interest students in broad scientific study and to interest the\nscientific departments in the college in giving the right sort of scientific attitude to those who are preparing to teach in the high schools.\nSome special\n\n"} {"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n587\n\ndiscussions from a scientific point of view of the problems of the high school\nmight very properly be the work of a department of education, but the candidate for a position in the high school should never be allowed to present, in\nfull satisfaction of his science requirements, courses in the theory of education.\nSuch theory of education is at the present time in too formative a condition\nto be a suitable basis for scientific training.\n6. A brief summary of the foregoing argument, then, is as follows: First,\nthe most essential requirement for the preparation of a high-school teacher is\nelaborate training in the subject to be taught. This should extend into the\nhigher branches of the subject to be taught to a sufficient extent to make\nthe student reasonably independent in his judgment of authorities upon- that\nsubject. Second, the teacher should be acquainted with the institutions of\neducation in the midst of which the high school stands. He should have some\nknowledge of the development of secondary schools in other countries and in\nAmerica. Third, he should have, whatever his specialty may be, a training\nin science for the purpose of preparing him to deal with the problems that arise\nin his contact with students. The source of this training should not be soug.ht\nin those disciplines which deal most intimately with the facts of education,\nbut in whatever scientific subjects are available as giving the most complete\ntraining in scientific method.\nIX\nGEORGE\n\nW.\n\nA.\n\nLUCKEY,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nNEBRASKA\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nI. We are in the midst of a most fruitful period in educational history.\nWithin the past thirty or thirty-five years the population of the United States\nhas doubled, the school attendance trebled, the average length of the school\nterm has increased from one of six to one of seven months, and the attendance\nin public high schools risen from thirty thousand in 1878 to over six hundred\nthousand in 1903. Taking the last ten years for which I have been able to\nobtain data — 1893-4 to 1903-4 — the enrolment in secondary education\nincreased from four hundred eighty thousand to eight hundred twenty-two\nthousand, or an average increase of more than thirty-four thousand per year.\nDuring the same period the enrolment of students in colleges and universities\nin the United States changed from seventy-eight thousand to one hundred\neighteen thousand. I have reason to believe that this great increase in higher\neducation has been no less rapid during the past few years. In many schools\nthe attendance has doubled and even trebled within the last ten years.\nThis evolution in education is shown not alone by the increase in attendance.\nOur conceptions of education are undergoing a remarkable change. The\npeople are beginning to realize that secondary education is an essential part of\nthe common-school system, the years of which increase in importance as you\nascend the scale. Human life is larger than it used to be and vastly more\nimportant.\nAs civilization grows in complexity, education must grow in\n\n"} {"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nefficiency. Owing to the increase in education and the complexity of presentday problems, greater responsibility is being placed on the young. In the\nhigh schools of the future are to be planned and executed some of the most\nimportant battles of civilization. These schools must be kept in close touch\nwith the life of the community. All problems that vitally affect society\nshould find consideration here. To teach in such an institution one must know\nand appreciate life. His education must be dynamic, not static. He must\nhave keen insight and be able to adjust himself to new conditions with the\nleast possible friction. He must not only be thoroly alive to the needs of\nhumanity, but he must know how to inspire others with its problems.\nNot many years ago the chief purpose of higher education was to prepare\nfor professional life. Only those who desired to enter the learned professions\nhad need of such education. Today the problem has greatly changed and the\nmultiplied industries as well as the learned professions are in need of men of\nbrain and brawn. To meet these changed conditions of society the highschool curricula must be modified, the attendance increased, sex and class\ndistinctions and advantages eliminated, and the teaching force vitalized. To\ndo this the problems of education must become a part of every teacher's stock\nin trade.\nLarge sums of money are needed to carry forward the work of education\nand more will be needed in the future. But the people recognize the importance ofgiving and can be relied upon so long as they have faith in their schools.\nIf the teacher is properly prepared for his work and equal to the emergency,\nhe will give sufficient proof for the faith reposed in him. He will organize and\ngive purpose to the thought, shape the ideals, and better the life of every boy\nand girl placed under his instruction. No one can succeed without an ideal\nor well-conceived aim, and it is the purpose of good teaching to create within\nthe students ideals of life equal to their strength and worthy of their best\nendeavor. The aimless teacher can be of no service in inspiring others —\nprecept is nothing, example is everything. He must have a high moral purpose, be thoroly alive, progressive, observant, and in sympathetic touch with\nthe life of the community. It is no easy matter to prepare such a teacher, for\nmore depends upon the how than the what.\nThe importance of this question can be seen in another way. In 1896 the\nUniversity of Nebraska established what is known as the University teachers'\ncertificate granted only to graduates who have met certain academic and\nprofessional requirements preparatory to teaching.^ Since that time the\ncertificate has been granted to four hundred fifty-one graduates. One year\nago, one hundred fourteen students received the degree of Bachelor of Arts,\nsixty-seven of that number received the university teachers' certificate, and\neighty-two of the number are now teaching. This year (1905-6) there were\none hundred thirty-eight students who received the Bachelor of Arts' degree,\n• These requirements are explained somewhat in detail in my work on The Professional Training of\nSecondary Teachers in the United States, The Macmillan Company, New York, pp. 186 ff.\n\n"} {"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n589\n\nsixty-eight of whom received the university teachers' certificate, and eightyeight of the graduates have indicated their intention of entering the profession\nof teaching. For a number of years a majority of the graduates of the university\nhave engaged in teaching and what is true of the University of Nebraska is no\ndoubt equally true of other state universities if not of all higher institutions.\nIt is especially important that the education of these students who are to exert\nsuch a telling influence on humanity should be planned with care. And since,\nin many instances at least, they represent the majority of the student body there\nshould be established in every such institution ample provision for their\ntraining,\n2. When we come to determine the particular training of the high-school\nteacher there is still some divergence of opinion, tho there is quite general\nagreement that the high-school teacher should have at least a college education. By this is meant that he should have completed at least the first sixteen\nyears of public education, as usually outlined, four years of elementary, four\nyears of high school, and four years of college. The Committee of Fifteen\nappointed by the National Educational Association to consider among other\nthings ^'The training of teachers\" said, in its report of 1895, that,\nThe degree of scholarship required for secondary teachers is by common consent fixed\nat a collegiate education. That no one — with rare exceptions — should be employed to\nteach in a high school who has not this fundamental preparation.\n\nThis seems to have been the prevailing view of the National Educational\nAssociation ever since, and it has come to represent the more often-expressed\nview of the different state associations. Quoting from my work on The\nProjessiond Training oj Secondary Teachers in the United States, published\nby the Macmillan Company in 1902 :\nWe have reached a point in our educational progress — at least in many states — wherein\nthe minimum standard for the preparation of elementary teachers can be, and ought to be,\nthe equivalent of a four-years' high-school course, and at least two years of additional\ntraining at some good state normal school. The minimum requirement for secondary\nteachers should be, in addition to the above high-school course, a four-years' college course,\nsupplemented by the professional requirements as outlined in the preceding chapter;\nthe latter to be insisted upon as earnestly as the normal-school training is in the former\ncase.\n,\n\nSince writing the above I am even more convinced that these standards are\nattainable, practical, and desirable.\n3. Scholarship alone is not sufficient no matter how thoro and extended\nit may have been. There must be in addition the teaching instinct, and a\nknowledge and appreciation of the educational processes and the laws of\nmental growth. Teaching and learning are disparate processess and are\nnot acquired in the same way. The process of learning is one of acquisition\nand mental adjustment, while the process of teaching is one of guidance and\nthe imparting of knowledge. The prevailing motive in the one case must* be\nthe desire to know or to understand, while in the other it must be how to\nimpart, to assist others, to know what is already known.\nIn the one case the\n\n"} {"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nend in view is the object or the subject-matter, in the other the growing mind\nof the child. Hence to know education from the learner's standpoint is not\nto know it from the teacher's standpoint.\n4. When we come to determine the nature and amount of professional\ntraining for the high-school teacher there is less unanimity of thought. There is\nquite general agreement that there should be at least twelve hours in the department of education, and I am but voicing the prevailing practice when I quote\nagain from my work on the professional training of secondary teachers as\nfollows :\nThe average amount of purely professional study required of the student for the\nuniversity-teachers' certificates is usually from fifteen to eighteen hours — more often\nthe latter. This may or may not include a course in psychology offered in the\ndepartment of philosophy and a special-methods course offered by the department in\nwhich the student has his major (academic) subject. The professional work is more often\nspread over the last two years of the college course. By some it is thought preferable to\nhave it deferred until the last year in college or taken as graduate work and made a matter\nof concentration and intensive study.\n\nThe time will come when this professional study will be required in addition to the Bachelor's degree, but I do not believe we are ready for that now.\nI think it is better to have the professional training spread over the last two\nyears of the college course. Naturally the professional study of the teacher\nshould follow rather than precede or be taken with his academic training.\nThe reasons for this have been given elsewhere.^ It is difficult for the student\nto approach a subject both in the attitude of the learner and the attitude of\nthe teacher at one and the same time.\n5. The various courses offered in departments of education which come\nunder the category of professional knowledge may be grouped under the following heads: historical, theoretical, psychological, practical. Under historical\nmay be included the history of education, school systems, educational classics,\neducational reformers; under theoretical may be included the theory, science,\nand philosophy of education; under psychological, genetic, and applied\npsychology, child-study, and adolescence; under practical, school organization, management and supervision, observation and practice teaching,\nmethods of instruction, and the art of teaching. There is, of course, in this\ngrouping considerable overlapping depending on the teacher and the nature\nof the instruction. The work of the student should be distributed over these\nfour groups in order that the profession of teaching may appeal to him in its\ntrue significance.\n6. From a study of the problem it is evident that the subjects which are\nthought to be of the most importance in the professional training of secondary\nteachers are as follows: history of education, with a probable course in\neducational systems — foreign and domestic; educational psychology, including\nchild-study and adolescence; theory of education, including the science and\n• See The Professional Training of Secondary Teachers in (he United States, published l)y the Macminan\nCompany, New York. pp. 189 ff.\n\n"} {"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n591\n\nphilosophy of education; school administration, including organization,\nsupervision, and management, observation of actual schoolwork under\ndirection and criticism, and practice teaching. The latter should be obtained\nwhen possible under conditions similar to those of actual practice and is\nessential in the training of a teacher, tho less vital in the training of a secondary\nthan in the training of an elementary teacher. I desire to call attention to\nPart I of the Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study\nof Education which is devoted to \"the education and training of secondary\nteachers,\" edited by Professor Manfred J. Holmes, secretary of the National\nSociety, Normal, Illinois. This is a valuable monograph and should be in\nthe hands of everyone interested in the training of high-school teachers. It\ntreats the more important topics concerned in the education of secondary\nteachers in an able and interesting manner.\n7. It seems to me that the time has come when we should demand of the\nnew high-school teacher not only a college degree but also a professional\ndiploma which will indicate that he has made a serious study of the important\nproblems upon which he is about to enter. This would in time prevent twothirds of the present failures in high-school teaching, and bar from high-school\ninstructors much of the \"cultured aimlessness\" that is now in the shape of\nindividuals drifting thru our colleges without a purpose or a thought of the\nmeaning and seriousness of life. When fewer teachers enter the schoolroom\nwithout professional training the normal schools and college departments of\neducation will receive less criticism for the failures they do not cause and have\nhad no opportunity to prevent.\n8. Two thoughts should be made specially prominent in the academic\nrequirements of the high-school teacher. First, he should have a broad\ngeneral education, hence a Bachelor of Arts' rather than a Bachelor of Science'\ndegree, unless the latter is made to cover an equally broad culture foundation.\nSecond, he should be a specialist in the subjects he expects to teach, not a\nspecialist in the narrow sense of having his knowledge confined to a single subject, but a specialist in the broader sense of being strong in one line while\nfamiliar with and keenly appreciative of many others. In this academic\ntraining the University of Nebraska has long held that the student who is\nto receive the university teachers' certificate must show a much higher grade\nof scholarship (averaging above 80 per cent, on a scale of 100) and keener\nappreciation than he who is simply permitted to pass for a degree. On\nthese points Dr. A. F. Nightingale, in the monograph above referred to, says:\nI would make language, then, ancient, modern, foreign, native, the basic study for all\nwho would become successful teachers. Upon these foundations laid deep and strong, I\nwould build a superstructure, scientific in character, mathematical in correctness, historical\nin breadth; and upon this building poetical in its symmetry, beautiful in its proportions,\nrichly plain and plainly perfect in all its inner furnishings, there should rise some magnificent turret, original in design and typical of a special genius, which should tell to all around\nits exact location and for what it is specifically adapted.\n\nGiven the above training in a suitable environment the student with apti-\n\n"} {"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\n-NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntude for teaching will make an excellent teacher and all others should be\ndirected into other channels where they are more likely to succeed or to do less\nharm in misdirecting others.\n\nGEORGE\n\nH.\n\nMARTIN,\n\nSECRETARY\n\nOF MASSACHUSETTS\nEDUCATION\n\nSTATE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nI. The absence of means for training teachers for public high schools is\nthe most glaring anomaly in the American system of education. The reason\nfor it is easier to find than the remedy. When the movement to provide for\nthe training of teachers began in the first half of the last century there were\nbut one or two public high schools. Boys learned their Latin and Greek and\nmathematics preparatory to college in endowed academies.\nThe reformers of the time had only the common or district schools in mind\nwhen they established normal schools. The objective point in all their arguments was the improvement of the \"common\" or ^'free\" or \"district\" schools.\nThe dedicatory addresses at the opening of the early normal schools w^re\nalike in declaring that an auspicious day had dawned for the common schools.\nThus they became associated in the public mind with elementary education\nalone. There was a tacit assumption that special training was needed only\nfor the comparatively illiterate young persons who aspired no higher than to\nbe teachers in the common schools. Thus a stigma of educational plebeanism attached to the normal schools from the start, and professional training itself came to be regarded as a means of making up natural deficiencies or\nas a short cut to a low-grade career. To be sure, all the arguments used by\nthe advocates of normal schools and all the analogies from the other professions which they presented applied as well to the teaching in academies and\ncolleges; but this seems to have been wholly overlooked so intent was everyone\nupon reforming the common schools.\nWhile the normal schools were developing their work, the public high\nschools were taking the place of the academies and drawing their teachers\nfrom the same sources, that is, from the colleges. The teachers in these schools\nshared with their college instructors their contempt for normal schools and,\nwhat was far more serious, contempt for professional training. Not many years\nago a professor in Yale College was asked, \"What importance do the members\nof the Yale faculty attach to the science of education ?\" \"None, whatever!\"\nwas his prompt reply. And at about the same time the foremost college president asserted publicly that all the principles of education worth knowing\ncould be learned by any intelligent man in twenty-four hours.\nIt is not surprising, therefore, to find teaching in the secondary schools\nwhich violates every axiom of sound pedagogy. Some twenty years ago in a\nreport on the high schools of Massachusetts made to the board of education\nby one of its agents, the writer after giving some amusing specimens of class\n\n"} {"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n593\n\nteaching said, **My observation leads me to conclude that untrained teachers\nare much alike whether they have been graduated from a college or only from\na district school.\"\nI think no unprejudiced observer can escape the conclusion that the falling\nout from the high schools during the first two years is due more largely to the\npreponderance of these young college women than to any other single cause.\nIn the higher grades of the grammar schools from which these students have\ncome to the high schools, they have been under the influence of strong men\nand women most of whom have learned the science of teaching either in\nnormal schools or in the school of experience or more often in both. Going\nfrom skilled to unskilled teachers, the students fail to adjust themselves to the\nnew environment and then comes mutual misunderstanding. The friction is\nattributed to every cause but the right one — to weak and coddling methods\nin the grammar schools, to superficial teaching, to defects in the high-school\ncourse of study, to social interests, to the craving to be out in the world. Were\nthese causes real, their existence would only emphasize the need of better\nteaching in the early high-school years.\n2. Turning to inquire what these young collegians need to fit them to\nteach, no one who has seen any considerable number of them at work but\nknows that what they need most and right away is knowledge of elementary\npsychology and of the simplest principles of pedagogy. This is what all persons need who are preparing to teach, and in this respect there is no difference\nbetween teachers in elementary schools and teachers in high schools.\nTo acquire in the most simple and direct way knowledge of the mutual\nactions and reactions of the mind — any mind — and its environment, knowledge\nof the relations of the mind and body, knowledge of the way the mind acts in\nacquiring knowledge and shaping conduct under its own impulses and under\nnatural conditions, and how its actions may be modified under the impulses\nof a teacher and under the artificial conditions of a school — to acquire this\nknowledge is the beginning of the special education of all teachers. College\ngraduates, because of their longer training, should have greater power of concentrated and sustained thought and should be able to acquire this knowledge\nquicker than persons in the ordinary normal schools, but the essential thing\nis that it should not be clouded by metaphysics nor obscured by the complexities ofscientific method.\nWith only so much knowledge as this, the young teacher beginning in a\nsecondary school would be saved from many mistakes. What is more important for him he would know that to be a good scholar is not all that is required\nto become a good teacher — a bit of knowledge that not one secondary schoolteacher ina hundred had ever heard of, or read of, or dreamed of when he began\nto teach.\n3. Because the process of development becomes more complex with increasing years, because multiplied and varied experiences, subjective and\nobjective, need to be organized and utilized, the secondary-school teacher\n\n"} {"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nneeds to have his attention concentrated for a time upon the especial psychology\nof the high-school age. He needs to know how the function of the teacher\nchanges with changes in the pupil, so that he may waste no time in false starts.\nOn the school side there is needed some elementary knowledge of the principles ofschool organization and of school and class management.\nOn this common foundation for all teaching may be built a structure of\nprofessional training as broad and generous as circumstances make possible —\na structure to which all previous college work may be made to contribute.\n4. While the elementary knowledge thus briefly outlined is essential to the\nteacher's success, to stop with it would be disastrous. Unless a teacher in any\ndepartment gets a broader view of the scope of his work than can be obtained\nby looking at his pupils simply as pupils and studying them with relation to\ntheir place and work in his classroom, he has no element of the masterworkman.\nThe most important lesson which his training can afford him is the distinction between education and schooling, between a man or a woman and a\nscholar. To come to discern the higher functions of the teacher and the course\nof study and the school in view of the larger life, is to reach a view-point necessary to the teacher equally for his own dignity and for his power to inspire his\npupils. It is at this point that the secondary school should make its most\ndistinct contribution to the public. Because the high-school age is peculiarly\nthe age of ideals and of enthusiasms, peculiarly susceptible both to worldly\nand unworldly impressions, the views of life held by the teacher are of supreme\nimportance, and the teacher's powers of insight and of influence need to reach\nthe highest standard both in quality and in degree. It is an important part\nof the training of the secondary-school teacher to bring these facts vividly to\nhis attention.\n5. Another distinct line of work in the preparation of these teachers is\nstudy of the secondary curriculum. Assuming that these prospective teachers\nhave acquired a working knowledge of the subjects which they will have to\nteach, they need to be taught how to fit them to the student.\nThey need to know the value of a subject for knowledge and for discipline\nand how to make it most effective for both. They need to know it as a\nwhole and in its parts and to be able to distinguish between the essential and\nthe nonessential, that is, they need to have a sense of proportion developed\nin judging the relation of different subjects and of the parts of one subject\nto each other.\nThey need to know how to use the different activities of the mind in\nmastering the subjects. And they should be taught how the same goal may\nbe reached by different routes, but that there may be a choice of routes. All\nthis may be summed up in one word, method.\n6. The work thus far suggested is all elementary in its character. A part\nof it is identical and another part is parallel with that given in normal schools.\nBeyond this the work should develop on the philosophical and historical side.\n\n"} {"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n595\n\nEducation as a function of society is a subject which should appeal to college\ngraduates with great force. If they have become interested in sociological\nstudies, this will prove one of the most fascinating; and, if they have not been\ndrawn in this direction, it will serve as a most attractive introduction.\nThe chief advantage of this subject is that it is equally useful for cultural\nand for purely professional or vocational ends. As a part of the outfit of a\nman calling himself educated, it ranks by the side of the study of politics or\nreligion or literature or science or the family.\nIt may be studied in accordance with the same scientific method as these\nother subjects, and it may have the same broadening effect. To a young\nperson engaged in preparing himself by special study for a special calling, it is\nof the greatest value to learn how that calling is a part of a larger whole, to\nsee that one who enters upon it is not narrowing himself but is in reality entering\none of the great fields of human endeavor, that the problems at home are\nparts of larger problems to which in all time men have given their supreme\nefforts.\n7. It is at once the misfortune and the shame of the profession of teaching\nthat so few of its members have attempted to think beyond the petty problems\nof their own classrooms, having lost themselves in the maze of schemes and\nmethods and devices. I once spent a whole day with a company of distinguished\nsecondary-school teachers out for a pleasure excursion, who used all the time\nbefore dinner, at dinner, and after dinner in discussing, weighing, measuring,\nand anathematizing some recent changes in the Harvard entrance requirements. The study of which I am speaking is not the so-called history of\neducation which forms a part of the curriculum of many normal schools and\nteachers' reading circles. That is too scrappy and disconnected to have any\nvalue either vocational or cultural. Nor is it the study of great teachers and\neducational reformers. That is instructive and inspiring to teachers in any\ngrade of schools, but, in my judgment, would better form a part of the teacher's\nprivate reading than be introduced into a training-school curriculum.\n8. The work in psychology, general and special, the work in secondaryschool method, and the* study of school organization and management cannot\nbe successfully conducted without adequate opportunities for observation and\npractice. Psychology abstracted from child-life and dealt with only as a\nsubject can never be made to enter in any vital or vitalizing way into the mind\nof the student preparing to teach. Only as his psychological concepts reflect\nhis own experiences and the experiences of children and youth whom he is\nstudying will they be of any value to him in shaping his own teaching.\nThe student's observation should include children of all ages and in all\ngrades of school at work and at play. Especially should it include the work\nof good secondary-school teachers. It should be directed equally to pupils\nand teachers that the observer may learn how a good teacher brings pupil and\nsubject together and uses the subject to develop mental power. The student\nshould be directed to observe the reactions between the personality of the\n\n"} {"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nteacher and the personality of the pupil, and how the skilful teacher adapts\nhimself and his work to the different personalities in his class and to\nthe varying moods of the same pupil. These are subtleties of the teaching\nart which can only be conceived as they are exhibited in the classroom.\nIncluded in the training there should be some opportunity for each pupil\nto try himself- in the conduct of a class in one or more of the subjects of the\nsecondary curriculum. The proper conditions of such experimental practice\nare similar to those required for practice in elementary schools and need not\nbe detailed here.\n9. Were all people in agreement as to the necessity for some preparatory\ntraining for teachers in secondary schools, and did the lines of work which I\nhave sketched appeal to all, there would still remain the questions, Where can\nthe training be best given ? Should it be in a normal school which is also\ntraining teachers for elementary schools, or in a separate normal school, or in\na department of a university ? Each has its advantages. Much of the work\nof the existing normal schools is adapted equally to teachers in all grades of\nschools. The elementary psychology and the observation of children which\naccompanies it is general in its application, and most of the principles of\nschool management apply equally to all schools.\nBesides this the student would be in an atmosphere sympathetic toward\nprofessional training. The presence of a body of college-trained students\nwould also react favorably upon the other classes. One objection to connecting this work with a college or university, namely, lack of sympathy on\nthe part of the college faculty and authorities, is gradually losing its weight.\nThis is shown by the recent action of the Ohio legislature in establishing a\nTeachers College at the State University at Columbus, and the more significant action of Harvard in establishing education as a department coordinate with philosophy of which it has heretofore formed a part. When\neducation in its theory and practice comes to be regarded as legitimate a subject\nof collegiate study as are other lines of human thought and social endeavor, a\nschool for training teachers may without humiliation to its faculty and students\nbe organically connected with any university. So placed, the school would\nhave some advantage. The use of college libraries and laboratories, the association with scholars, the cultural traditions would be useful on the side of the\nscholarship of the prospective teacher, and so placed the school might win its\nway more directly to the interest and sympathy of secondary-school teachers\nin whose schools and classes the work of observation and practice would have\nto be carried on.\nOn the. other hand, both the university connection and the special school\nare open to the objection that they tend to perpetuate the caste spirit which\nin many quarters is now so strong. That secondary-school teachers should\nassume that for any reason they are a class apart is most unfortunate. What\nthe public schools need is some unifying influence which shall obHterate all\ndistinctions based on such accidents as age and grade and curriculum, and\n\n"} {"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n597\n\nwhich shall unite all teachers in the study of common problems and in the\nadvancement of common interests. Some such influences are already at work.\nIt is doubtful if it would be possible or wise to prescribe a universal rule\nas to the associations under which teachers should be trained. That will\nprove to be the best place where, under a faculty broad enough to have studied\nall the fields of educational effort, with opportunities for observation which\ninclude children and youth of all ages and for practice in secondary schools of\nacknowledged excellence, in an atmosphere sympathetic toward every form of\ntraining, the students will come to feel that they are members of no mean\nprofession, and will grow to some adequate conception that the work demands\nand is worthy of and will repay the most earnest and strenuous endeavor.\n\nM. V. O'SHEA, PROFESSOR\n\nOF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION,\nOF WISCONSIN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n1. Requirement of professional interest and intention. — In the improvement\nof* the high-school teacher it is imperative that teaching in the secondary school\nbe regarded as a serious profession, which cannot be entered on the spur of\nthe moment by persons who are without other emplo)rment. In respect to its\nteaching force, the high school is now too much of a half-way station between\nthe university and the bar, the hospital, the counting-room, and other interests.\nIn this matter we can learn useful lessons from Germany, France, and other\nEuropean countries. All our efforts at training secondary-school teachers\nmust prove more or less ineffective until candidates come to us in some such a\nframe of mind and with such intentions as those usually have who are preparing for law or medicine or engineering or commerce. It is believed that if\nthe requirements indicated in the following theses be met, the need expressed\nin this first one will be realized.\n2. Requirement of native fitness. — Speaking generally, but slight attention\nis now given to personal characteristics in the selection of high-school teachers.\nConsequently they are very frequently defective in qualities of leadership.\nMost colleges and universities have no effective method of choosing those\namong their students who are by native endowment well equipped for teaching.\nPractically all who have secured a diploma, and completed the small amount\nof required study in the department of education, are certificated, regardless of\ntheir natural fitness for this special work.\nIt is imperative that the institutions that train high-school teachers should\n' On a number of occasions the writer has expressed his views in considerable detail respecting various\naspects of the training of the high-school teacher, and it seems appropriate at this time to treat the subject\nassigned him by presenting a series of theses without elaboration. If any reader should be interested in the\narguments upon which these theses are based, he might glance over the following: \"Teachers by the Grace\nof God\" {Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. XIII, igoo); \"Concerning High-School Teachers\" (The School Reviezv,\nVol. X, 1902); \"Psychology in the Training of Teachers\" (Elementary School Teacher, November, 1904);\n\"The Function of the University in the Training of Teachers\" (The School Review, Vol. VIII, 1000); \"Universities and Normal Schools in the Training of Secondary- School Teachers\" (Part I, of Fourth Yearbook\nof the Society for the Scientific Study of Education).\n\n"} {"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nadopt a plan whereby they may early discover candidates who do not meet\nthe personal requirements, and dissuade them from striving to become teachers.\nThe opinions of all who have had to deal with the student during his academic\ncareer should be secured, but the department of education should be specially\nresponsible for the task indicated in this thesis. Altho the problem is a peculiarly difl&cult one, and cannot be solved completely under existing conditions\nin colleges and universities, still if the need be felt deeply more can be done\nthan is now done in most places. But the universities must act in unison;\nno single institution can make great headway against the academic tradition\nthat one can teach in a high school if only he has amassed a sufiScient amount\nof formal knowledge in any subject.\n3. Requirement of scholarship. — One cannot teach a subject unless he\nhas thoroly mastered it. He must have a real, vital grasp of it, and not merely\na formal or verbal knowledge of it. Teachers are often found giving instruction in subjects which they have acquired for purposes of securing a certificate\nand such instruction is always shallow, mechanical, ineffective. It amounts\noften to little more than memoriter drill on unintelligible technical terms.\nTeachers in secondary schools should be certificated to teach not all subjects\nwhatsoever, but only the subject in which they have shown special proficiency.\nTo meet the necessities of teaching in small high schools, it will often be necessary for teachers to teach more than one subject; but in such case, the certificate should indicate the major subject (the candidate's specialty) and the\nminor subjects, not to exceed two in any case. The several departments of\nthe university should be made solely responsible for determining which of\ntheir students have acquired such a genuine mastery of their respective subjects that they may be certificated to teach them.\nA teacher's mastery of a subject must include an understanding of what\naspects thereof are most appropriate for secondary-school students and what\npoint of view in presenting the subject will prove most effective. To this end\nevery teacher should be required to complete a teacher's course in the subject\nhe is to teach, and this course should be conducted by one who is thoroly\nfamiliar alike with the subject, and with the nature and needs of secondaryschool pupils. Mere advanced, technical courses should not be regarded as\nin any sense teachers' courses, as is now the case in some universities. The\nteacher's course should be regarded as graduate work, as indicated in the\nfollowing thesis.\n4. Requirement of studies in education. — The experience of nations has\nshown that in order to achieve the highest success teachers should understand\nthe subject as well as the material of education, and should become possessed\nof what is known respecting methods of economy and efficiency in organizing\nand managing a class or a school or an educational system. Further, the\nteacher is a servant of society in a very vital sense, and he should be made conscious of his opportunities and duties in this respect. To meet these requirements, then, every teacher should complete courses treating of the principles\n\n"} {"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmen]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n599\n\nof human nature in general, and of the nature of secondary-school pupils in\nparticular. He should also complete a course treating of the psychology of\nlearning under the conditions of school education. These courses should\nconfer upon him greater efficiency in adjusting his subject as a whole and in\neach part to the needs and capabilities of his pupils. Next, he should complete\ncourses treating of the history and principles of education, so that he may\nrealize what are the aims of educational work, viewed in the light of contemporary thought, and how these aims have been developed. These courses\nshould make him conscious of the supreme ends to keep in view in his teaching,\nand what should be the relation of his subject to the other w^ork of his pupils\nand of the school as a whole. Finally, the teacher should complete a course\ntreating of his proper relations to the extra-school interests in the community in\nwhich he teaches.\nThese professional studies may best be pursued as graduate work. The\ntraining of the secondary-school teacher will be seriously defective so long as\nhe completes both his academic and his professional studies during his undergraduate course. The courses in education described above should occupy\ntwo-thirds of a graduate year. If the candidate spends no time in graduate\nstudy, as is the case generally at present, then these professional studies should\noccupy an equivalent of one-half of his senior year.\n5. Requirement of observation and practice. — It is universally recognized\nthat effective instruction in medicine, law, engineering, agriculture, and the\nlike requires opportunities for concrete demonstration, and for practice to a\nlimited extent at least. Teaching is no exception in this regard. It is, however, afact that education, concerned as it is with the exposition of principles\nfor effective instruction^ is more seriously handicapped than any other subject\nin observing the principles it expounds. There is need in the first place of an\neducational museum, wherein may be displayed specimens of all useful educational appliances, illustrative materials, textbooks, etc. It is imperative, in\nthe second place, that there be in every institution training high-school teachers\na fully organized and well-equipped school typifying the school system in which\nstudents will teach. This school should be constantly utilized to give definiteness, concreteness,' and vitality to instruction in every phase of educational\ntheory and practice. So far as feasible it should be utilized also for the testing\nof educational theories at present in dispute. Finally, it should.be utilized\nfor the purpose of initiating the novice in the practice of his art. It will not\nordinarily be possible or desirable to perfect him in technique, but his special\nneeds can be discovered, and he can be put in the way of curing his faults by\nhis own efforts while he is actually in service.\nThe schools of observation and practice should be regarded as laboratories\nfor the work in education, and in no sense as schools preparatory to the university. They should be under the control of the department of education,\nwhich should be responsible for curricula and methods of teaching and discipline. So far as possible the department of education should secure the\n\n"} {"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nactive co-operation of all departments of the university having in charge subjects taught in an elementary way in the schools in question. The teachers'\ncourses in the university should be presented with constant reference to the\nwork done in these schools.\n5a. Wherever it is at all feasible, the university should enter into relations\nwith the high schools in its vicinity so that candidates may have some practice\nunder ordinary public-school conditions. The university should contribute to\nthe salaries of a certain number of teachers in these high schools, to the end\nthat unusually competent persons may be secured, who may serve the university as critics of practice teachers. These critics should be appointed by\nthe university, upon the recommendation of the department of education, and\nsubject to the approval of the board of education in charge of the high school.\nPractical work of the character indicated should occupy at least one-third\nof the time which the candidate devotes to professional studies, and it should\nbe regarded as absolutely essential to the efficient training of high-school\nteachers.\nXII {special)\nREQUIREMENTS\nFREDERICK\n\nE. BOLTON,\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION,\nOF IOWA\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nI. Requirements for High-School Certification.\nII. The University and the College as Training-Schools for High-School\nTeachers.\nIII. Standards in Germany.\nIV. Standards Suggested for American Schools.\nIn beginning to prepare this paper an attempt was made to secure thru a\nquestionnaire statistics showing the specific kind of training and experience\nwhich the high-school teachers have actually had in a number of typical states.\nThe inadequate returns received made any exhaustive statistical study impossible. In only a few states has any attempt been made to gather such data.\nSome state superintendents replied in such a way as to indicate their probable\nfeeling that such information would be entirely superfluous. But not until\nthe statistics can be arrayed so as to show the glaring lack of uniformity and\nhow many teachers are below even moderate standards can we expect to improve\nconditions. School boards and legislatures must be convinced thru unequiv^ocal testimony that woeful deficiencies exist often where the public boasts\nthe most. About buildings and grounds the popular mind may have some\nintelligent opinions, but the ordinary school public does not discriminate\nbetween the expert teacher and the time-server. In the minds of the people,\nso long as friction is avoided, any teacher is considered a good teacher.\nFailing to secure the adequate data concerning the actual preparation of\nteachers in service, I have investigated the laws of all the states to find the\n\n"} {"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n6oi\n\nlegal provisions concerning high-school teaching. We should bear in mind\nthat the actual preparation made by many, even a majority, is much better\nthan that demanded by statutes. Local demands in the better cities are\nnaturally in advance of legislation. Statutory provisions can seldom be\nsecured until the wisdom of the requirements has been rather generally demonstrated. There is very little constructive legislation, especially school legislation. Legislative bodies in old-settled states are very conservative and\nmerely reflect what they believe to be public opinion by confirming thru\nstatutory provisions what is well established in practice. Since they are\nusually so ignorant concerning educational needs it is seldom possible to convince them of desirable legislation until long after various localities have\nproceeded way beyond the measures enacted. In new states where traditions\ndo not fetter and public opinion is little crystallized much more constructive\nlegislation is secured than in the older states.\nAs was believed, most of the states were found to be without legislation\ndifferentiating the high-school teacher from any other. In many school codes\nthe term high school does not appear. This branch of the public school\nsystem is a product of evolution which has come largely without legislative\nenactment. Localities developed at first simply ''upper rooms,\" ''higher\ndepartments,\" etc., and then bestowed the name high school without waiting\npermission or measurement by state authority.\nThus, singularly enough, in most states, altho state certificates and diplomas\nare awarded to those who seek them, yet nobody is required to have them.\nLegally, the one possessing the lowest grade of county or town certificate may\nteach in the highest grade of school. Many cities have secured state authority\nto regulate the certification of their own teachers and usually have differentiated the certificates for the various grades of work. There is a crying need\nnow for all states to make the differentiation. There is also great desirability\nof securing uniform laws in all the states so as to secure inter-state comity in\nmatters of certification.\nA few pioneer states have secured desirable legislation relating to the certification of the various grades of teachers and it might be parenthetically\nobserved that these states are already forging ahead in educational matters\nin a variety of ways.\nI. REQUIREMENTS\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCERTIFICATION\n\nIn the following paragraphs mention is made mainly of those states which\nhave specific legislation determining the qualifications of high-school teachers.\nIn general, where the laws simply state that all teachers must possess a legal\nlicense and do not distinguish between elementary and secondary no mention\nis made of the states. A few others are mentioned because it was possible to\nsecure definite statistics concerning the teachers in service.\nIn Arizona only those holding the diploma ot the Territorial Board of\nEducation or the Board of Education of the Noriiial Schools of the territory\n\n"} {"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nare eligible to teach in the high schools. Diplomas and state certificates from\nthe other states may be recognized by the Territorial Board.\nColorado demands that all who teach in the high schools of that state shall\ntake a county examination covering all the branches taught in the high school.\nIn the District of Columbia all high-school teachers must have a special\ncertificate which qualifies the holder for that grade of work only.\nIn Connecticut there are 4,316 teachers in the state of whom about 1,400\nare normal-school graduates and about 400 graduates of colleges and universities. Most of these 400 are teaching in high schools. Inasmuch as\nthere are only 66 high schools in the state it is probably true that most of the\nteachers in the high schools are college or university graduates.\nCalifornia has set the highest pace in the United States with reference to\nthe qualifications for high-school teachers. Under statutory provisions the\nState Board of Education grants all certificates for teaching in the high schools\nof the state. These may be obtained by examination or otherwise but \"no credentials shall be prescribed or allowed unless the same, in the judgment of\nsaid board, are the equivalent of a diploma of graduation from the University\nof California and are satisfactory evidence that the holder thereof has taken an\namount of pedagogy equivalent to the minimum amount of pedagogy prescribed bythe State Board of Education of this state, and include a recommendation for a high-school certificate from the faculty of the institution in\nwhich the pedagogical work shall have been taken.\" California accepts the diplomas from all the universities belonging to the Association of American\nUniversities, and also from fifteen other selected colleges and universities\nthruout the United States, provided the graduates have taken courses in the\ntheory of education, or have had actual practice in teaching under supervision\nof the pedagogical faculty, equivalent to twelve hours per week for one-half\nyear. Graduates of all the accepted colleges not belonging to the Association\nof American Universities must have completed subsequent to graduation onehalf year of advanced academic or professional (pedagogical) work, in residence, either at the same institution or at some other accepted institution, or\nin lieu of such graduate study, have taught with decided success, as regular\nteacher or as principal, at least twenty months in any reputable school,\nelementary or secondary. After July, 1906, at least one-third of the prescribed pedagogy shall consist of actual teaching in a well-equipped trainingschool of secondary grade, directed by the department of education. After\nJuly 1, 1908, practice teaching in a school of the grammar grade in connection\nwith the California state normal schools will be accepted as an equivalent.\nIn Florida, high schools cannot be recognized as such unless the teachers\nemployed to give instruction therein are competent to teach the subjects\nrequired by the official course of study, and no school will be granted state aid\nunless such teachers are provided. While it is not now deemed practicable to\nrequire all such teachers to hold state certificates, it is recommended that\npreference always be given by boards to the holders of such certificates.\n\n"} {"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n603\n\nIn Iowa, the most democratic and individualistic state in the Union, there\nis utter lack of uniformity. All depends upon local autonomy. The term\nhigh school does not appear in any legislative enactment, there is no definition of the term except that which each community chooses to give to it, and\nthe state superintendent's ofl&ce has no authority to regulate its courses or\nprescribe qualifications for the teachers employed. Any one possessing a\nthird grade county certificate may legally teach in any high school in the state.\nNotwithstanding this chaotic condition of educational legislation the state\nhas many high schools which are unexcelled anywhere. The wealth of the\nstate, the life in small cities possessing large rural population within a ra ius\nof a few miles of each, the uniformity of nationality, the lack of slums and\nfactory districts give natural advantages which would easily give it with\nproper legislation the greatest school system of the United States. The state\nis suffering because of its prejudices against any form of centralization of\npower.\nThere are in the state about 650 graded schools which call themselves\nhigh schools. Nearly all of these might become high schools if the proper\nteaching force were employed, proper equipment secured, and a little effort\nmade to enlist the interest of the rural population in the immediate vicinity.\nThis has been demonstrated in many small villages where they have become\nawake to the possibilities. As it is, not more than 250, judged by proper\nstandards, have any right to be called high schools. There are 185 schools\non the accredited list of the State University. In these there are 879 teachers,\nincluding the principals and superintendents. Of these 453 are university or\ncollege graduates, 189 have had from one to three years in some college, 84\nare normal-school graduates only. The remainder have had very little\nacademic or professional training. Regrettable as it is, one in fourteen or one\nteacher in every third accredited school has had no institutional training\nbeyond that afforded by the high school, and that usually in the home school.\nOf the total number employed 332 had been teaching ten years or more, 265\nhad five or more years' experience, while 61 were beginners. Statistics from\nall the schools which have any claim to the title of high school would show a\nmuch smaller number of college graduates and many more raw recruits.\nLouisiana definitely recognizes high schools and makes an attempt to\nsecure the best quality of teachers for these schools. In. 1892 a law was\npassed imposing a penalty on all local school boards who failed to give preference to state normal-school graduates and graduates of colleges when\nemploying teachers.\nIn Maine, according to the laws of 1904, the highest grade of state certificate isnecessary to teach in any free high schools of the state. Candidates\nwho are college graduates or graduates from the college preparatory course or\nits equivalent in a first-class academy or high school, and whose average rank\nis 90 and whose rank in any subject is not less than 70 will receive a certificate\nof the highest grade.\nOthers who are not graduates but whose rank is excep-\n\n"} {"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "604\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntionally high, who can teach high-school subjects, including at least one ancient\nand one modern language, and who have taught successfully in high school,\nmay receive a certificate of highest grade.\nMassachusetts has 262 high schools requiring 1,820 teachers. Altho the\nlaws do not specify any particular grade of certificate the sentiment of the\npeople has secured a high grade of teachers. Of the teachers in the high\nschools 1,410 are college graduates. It is safe to assume that the remaining\n410 are at least normal-school graduates. Only 98 have taught for less than\none year.\nMinnesota requires that any teacher employed in a state high school must\nhold a first-grade professional state certificate, issued either on a collegiate\ndiploma or upon examination. However, the state superintendent may issue\na permit, valid for one year, to high-school teachers who have not had the\nnecessary teaching experience in Minnesota to entitle them to a first-grade\nprofessional certificate but who are otherwise qualified. A first-grade state\nprofessional certificate may be obtained by graduates from the University of\nMinnesota or from another university or college of equal rank. The applicant\nmust first have secured a state first-grade certificate and must also have taught\nwith success not less than nine months in a public school in a state. Applicants who are not graduates must have the teaching experience and the firstgrade certificate noted above, and, in addition, will be required to pass a\nsuccessful examination in the following branches: astronomy, bookkeeping,\nbotany, chemistry, English literature, general history, geology, history of\neducation, logic, moral philosophy, political economy, psychology, rhetoric,\nschool economy, school law, solid geometry, trigonometry, zoology. A state\nprofessional certificate of the first-grade is valid to teach in any public school\nof the state, including high* schools. It is made valid for periods ranging\nfrom one year to life, according to the merit of the holder. A certificate of\ngraduation from the department of pedagogy at the State University enftles\nthe holder to teach in any public school in the state for a period of two years\nimmediately following graduation. At the end of such period the certificate\nmay be indorsed by the president of the State University and the state superintendent ofpublic instruction, when it becomes a life certificate. It is of\ninterest to note that graduates of Minnesota state normal schools or other\nnormal schools of equal rank outside of the state, are not entitled to teach in\nthe high schools. They receive first temporary and then life certificates which\nare valid in any public school in the state below the high school department.\nThe state teachers' first-grade certificate, valid for five years to teach in any\npublic school in the state, will not qualify the holder to teach in the high\nschool or even for the principalship of a state graded school. These rigid\nregulations have raised the quality of the teaching force and the salaries of\nteachers in Minnesota very materially.\nAccording to figures furnished by State High-School Inspector Aiton, there\nare 192 high schools in the state employing 870 teachers, including the super-\n\n"} {"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n605\n\nintendents. Of these 733 are graduates of a college or a university and only 56\nare graduates of a normal school. It is well known that very generous state aid\nis provided, whereby each standard high school receives $1,500 from the state\ntreasury. This state aid affords better salaries and attracts better teachers.\nThe state aid and the high standard of scholarship demanded have put Minnesota in the very front rank educationally.\nIn Montana it is provided that no person shall be employed as a teacher in\na high school or as the principal teacher in a school of more than two departments who is not the holder of a professional county certificate or the holder\nof a life state diploma issued by the State Board of Education of Montana, or\nwho is not a graduate of some reputable university, college, or normal school.\nNew Jersey provides that all teachers in the high schools must possess\neither a first-grade county certificate, a first-grade city certificate, or a state\ncertificate. The first-grade certificate requires an examination in the theory\nand practice of teaching. New Jersey school law, the history of education,\nand general history, in addition to the usual branches required for a secondgrade certificate. The lowest grade of state certificate involves an examination equivalent to that required for the first-grade county certificate and, in\naddition thereto, psychology, plane and solid geometry, literature, botany,\nand free-hand drawing, or in place of one or more of these subjects such other\nsubjects as the State Board of Examiners may require. This lowest or thirdgrade state certificate is valid for seven years.\nIn Nevada no one may teach in a high school who does not possess either\nthe county high-school certificate, which is good for four years, or a state certificate granted from the Nevada State Normal School or by a reputable university or college from which the bachelor of arts degree has been received.\nPedagogy is also required in the course. The state life diploma also is a valid\nlicense to teach in any public high school.\nNew York will not allow teachers to hold positions in the high schools\nunless possessed of some specified grade of certificate. At the present time\nthey accept for high-school teaching what are known as the training-school\ncertificate, the state certificate, the state special certificate, the normal diploma,\nthe college graduate certificate, and the college-graduate professional certificate. College graduates are given a provisional certificate valid for two\nyears. If they pass an examination upon psychology, history of education,\nprinciples of education, methods of teaching, during those two years they may\nbe awarded a permanent certificate. Those college graduates who have\ncompleted a course in pedagogy outlined by the state receive a certificate valid\nfor three years, at the end of which the same may be indorsed by the state\ncommissioner of education and made a life certificate. In New York 39 per\ncent, of the high-school teachers and 43 per cent, of the principals are college\ngraduates.\nNebraska has taken a most important step toward providing competent\nteachers for the high schools of that state. On and after September i, 1907\n\n"} {"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nno person shall be granted a certificate to teach in the high-school department\nof any high-school district or in the high-school department of any city school\ndistrict in the state who is not a graduate from a regular four-year course of a\ncollege or university, or a graduate from the advanced course of a college,\nuniversity, or normal school in the state authorized by law to grant teachers'\ncertificates, or who does not hold a professional state certificate obtained from\nthe state superintendent on examination. During the interim between now\nand August, 1907, high-school principals and city superintendents may obtain\na first-grade county certificate, valid for three years, which will make them\neligible to teach in any high-school district or city school district until September\nI, 1910.\n\nOhio, which long lagged behind in the matter of educational legislation,\nhas probably outdone all other states in several respects. One of these is in\naccurately defining high schools and colleges. Then, to be consistent, the\nqualifications of high-school teachers have also been thoroly defined. All\nteachers in the high schools must possess some form of a high-school certificate.\nThis certificate may be issued either by the county or the state. All county\nhigh-school certificates must include the usual branches required for a thirdgrade certificate, and, in addition, literature, general history, algebra, physics,\nphysiology, and four branches from the following list: Latin, German,\nrhetoric, civil government, geometry, physical geography, botany, and chemistry. In addition, the certificate must show that the candidate \"possesses\nan adequate knowledge of the theory and practice of teaching.\" Special\nhigh-school certificates are issued, valid only for the branches mentioned in\nthe certificate, but it is further provided that no person be employed as a\nspecial teacher of music, drawing, painting, penmanship, gymnastics, German,\nFrench, the commercial industrial branches, in any elementary or high school\nwho has not a certificate of good moral character and a certificate of proficiency inthe theory and practice of teaching. Cities which have the power\nto grant certificates must observe similar conditions. The state certificates\nare, of course, of a still higher grade.\nTexas allows cities of five hundred or more school population to establish\ntheir own boards of examiners which issue different classes of certificates\ncorresponding to the grade of work to be taught. The high-school certificate\nis a prerequisite to teaching in the high school and is valid for high-school work\nonly. State certificates are recognized by these boards. Diplomas from the\nState University which certify to the requisite amount of pedagogical work\nare valid as state certificates.\nIn Washington, D. C, certificates are hmited to special grades of schools.\nThe certificates are issued by the city. Only a special certificate will be\naccepted for high-school w^ork. Graduation from the Washington normal\nschools and other approved normal schools is recognized toward certification.\nIn Wisconsin all teachers must have some form of state certificate to be\nqualified to teach in the high schools of the state. The state certificates are of\n\n"} {"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n607\n\ntwo grades — the limited five-year certificate, and the life certificate. These\ncertificates may be gained by examination or thru countersignature of state\nnormal-school diplomas, college diplomas, or university diplomas. A diploma\ngranted upon the completion of a collegiate course in the State University of\nWisconsin or from the full course of any Wisconsin normal school is valid as a\ntemporary certificate for one year and after countersignature b,y the state superintendent isvalidated as a life state certificate. Diplomas granted by other\ncolleges and normal schools, within and without the state, whose course of\nstudy are equivalent to those recognized in Wisconsin may be recognized in\nthe same way as those issued in the state. Life state certificates issued by other\nstates may be countersigned by the state superintendent of Wisconsin upon the\nrecommendation of the State Board of Examiners, and thereby become life\ncertificates in the state. The diploma granted upon the completion of the\nelementary course of the state normal schools qualifies the holder only for\npositions as assistants in four-year high schools or as principals of three-year\nhigh schools. All principals and all teachers of four-year high school courses\nmust possess an equivalent of the life state certificate. Assistants may secure\na special state certificate by first securing a county certificate in the county\nwhere they desire to teach and in addition passing a state examination upon\nall branches which they teach and which are not included in the county certificate. Superintendents must all possess the unlimited state certificate. It\nwill be thus seen that the entrance to teaching in the high schools of Wisconsin\nis very carefully guarded. The rigid provisions have raised the qualifications\nfor teaching in Wisconsin very materially.\nThe following figures show the qualifications of teachers in the Wisconsin high13schools\n9\nfor 1903 and 1904 : ^\nAttended the Wisconsin State University\nAttended other colleges\n\n94\n45\n\nAttended a normal school\nHold life certificates\n\n71\n3\n\nTotal\n\n_74\n\n213\n\nTable showing number of teachers including principals in the four-year free high\nschools with highest school attended:\nAttended the Wisconsin State University\nAttended universities and colleges outside the state\n....\nAttended Beloit College\nAttended Lawrence University\nAttended Ripon College .\nAttended Milton College\nAttended Wisconsin normal schools\nHold licenses and certificates of approval or state certificates on examination\nTotal\n'Eleventh Biennial Report of the Department of Public Instruction, 1904, p 85.\n\n229\n85\n30\n40\n13\n3\n268\n131\n799\n\n"} {"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nConcerning qualifications of principals of three-year high schools in the year 1903-4Attended a normal school and hold normal-school diplomas\n.\n.\n23\nAttended a normal school and hold elementary certificates\n.\n.\n3\nHold life certificates\n5\nHolds a limited state certificate\ni\nHolds a university diploma\ni\nTotal\n\n.^\n\n33\n\nProfessional requirements for high-school certificates. — Statistics concerning\nthe actual amount of professional training of teachers are even more difficult\nto secure than those concerning academic qualifications. In those states\nwhere no differentiation is made between the licenses required of elementary\nteachers and high-school teachers there is little incentive to gain high-class\ncertificates. In Iowa the third-grade certificate is the only legal requirement\nand a comparatively small number apply for state certificates. The main\nincentive to secure the state certificate is the fact that the state certificate is\nvalid in any county of the state. Now that the county certificate will be valid\nin any county in the state the number of state certificates will doubtless be still\nfurther decreased. It is also desirable in many states when teachers move\nand find the state certificate necessary in the new state.\nCounty certificates in all states include some test on the theory and art of\nteaching, or didactics, as it is frequently called. But most county examinations in the theory of education are a perfect farce. The questions seldom\nrequire any technical knowledge of pedagogy. Anyone with an ounce of common sense could answer them correctly. Most frequently when books are\nprescribed in the reading circle or by the superintendent as a basis for the\nexamination some general book like Jean MitcheWs School or The Evolution\nof Dodd \"s selected. While these are good enough in their way and would\nafford a few hours pleasant reading and stimulate the better emotions, yet\nthey give no real principles upon which to base a theory of education. Even\nin the state examinations the primer of the subject has scarcely been touched.\nIn a few states cfefinite syllabi are prepared giving an outline of the subjects,\nparfcular books to be read, etc. This plan gives the candidate a definite\nplan of work and sometimes happily convinces them that the surest and\nsoundest method of preparing is to go to some good institution where they\ncan receive proper training.\nWithout exception all states include some professional work in the examinations for life certificates. A few (New York, for example), grant provisional or temporary state certificates to college graduates, even tho they\nhave not included professional work in their course. Thus all who secure\nthe life state certificates have gained some insight into pedagogical subjects.\nThe subjects prescribed vary greatly, tho the history of education and psychology are usually included. As indicated above, the amount required is\nvery meager.\nQualitatively it is usually antiquated.\nIn most states which validate college diplomas as state certificates a year's\ndaily work in psychology and education or a year in the latter, following a year\n\n"} {"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n609\n\nin the former, is required. Even in those states the professional work required\nwhen the certificate is gained by examination is very meager. It is in no way\nthe equivalent of the work done in the year or more in college. Any college\ngraduate could prepare for the professional examination ordinarily given\nthru two weeks' continuous careful reading of some elementary texts. This\nis entirely wrong and very inconsistent. The examinations in other subjects\nlike botany, physics, and mathematics are put upon a technical basis and\ngenerally the questions are modern in nature. But the professional examinations are decidedly irritating to modern teachers of those subjects. Even an\nimperfect knowledge of a primer of the history of education, psychology, and\nof method would enable the candidate to pass.\nNew York state has taken an advanced stand on the matter of professional\ntraining and prescribes the following work for the state certificate: in addition to graduation from college, general and educational psychology, ninety\nrecitation hours; history and principles of education, ninety hours; methods\nin teaching, sixty hours; observation, twenty hours. This would make a\ntotal of about seven hours a week for a year, or fourteen semester units. As\npreviously mentioned, graduates may receive a provisional certificate for two\nyears if they have not had the professional work, but before it can be made a\npermanent certificate they must pass an examination upon the professional\nwork indicated. Those who secure state certificates by examination are\nrequired to pass a rigid examination in the professional subjects. This\nexamination is made thoro if we are to judge from the syllabus issued by the\nstate department. The syllabus contains a good outline of all the subjects\nand a fine list of references. It is thoroly technical and academic in character,\nand it sets a high pace for all other states. Several universities in New York,\nand doubtless several colleges, have arranged their work in the department\nof education to correspond with the state requirements. I have at hand\noutlines of the work as prescribed at Cornell, Syracuse, and at Columbia.\nAll who receive the Teachers College diploma at Columbia must have\ncompleted three semester units of psychology, three units of educational\npsychology, three units in the history and principles of education, and three\nun\"ts in the theory and practice of teaching some special subject. Those who\nreceive a degree from the College of Education in Chicago are required to include\nfor graduation eight majors in education, including the history of education,\nprinciples of education, educational psychology, and a course in general\npsychology.\nThe University of Wisconsin, whose diplomas are recognized as state certificates, provided prerequisite professional work has been included, requires\nten semester units — three units in psychology, three units in either the history\nor principles of education or advanced educational psychology, and four\nunits which may be elected from either the department of philosophy or the\ndepartment of education.\nThe state of Texas recognizes the diploma from the University of Texas,\n\n"} {"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6lO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nprovided the prerequisite professional training has been included. The university prescribes as the professional work two semester units of school management, four units in the methods and principles of teaching, four units in the\npsychology of education, two units in the psychology of development, and six\nelective hours in the department of education.\nCalifornia not only accredits the work of the university toward the state\ncertificate, but will not grant a certificate to teachers in the high schools\nunless the candidate is a graduate of the university of California or an\napproved equivalent institution. In addition to the work required for the\nbachelor's degree the candidate must have completed at least one year of\ngraduate study in the University of California, or an approved university.\nThis year of graduate study shall include one-half year of advanced academic\nstudy, part of the time at least being devoted to one or more of the\nsubjects taught in the high school, and the remainder of the time must\nbe spent in a well-equipped training school of secondary grade, directed\nby the department of education of the approved university. This represents the high-water mark of requirements, both academic and professional, for teaching in the high schools in the United States. The\nprofessional work required by the department of education in the University\nof California includes three semester hours of the history of education,\nthree hours in a study of secondary education, two hours of methods,\nand four hours in practice teaching. The department urges the study of\nphilosophy and psychology as prerequisites, but does not require them.\nThe Teachers College of the University of Missouri, whose diplomas are\nrecognized as life state certificates, requires candidates to complete three\nsemester hours of experimental psychology, and twenty-four hours of education. The work in education must include three hours in the history of\neducation, the theory of teaching three hours, and from three to nine hours of\npractice teaching. In addition to the psychology and education requirements, each candidate must complete at least eighteen semester hours in each\nsubject in which the special certificate is sought. This gives almost ideal\nrequirements for the state certificate to teach in high schools.\nn.\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nAS\n\nTRAINING-SCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHERS\n\nEver since secondary schools were first founded the university and the\ncollege have been training-schools which have furnished the majority of their\nteachers. The German secondary schools have always been manned by the\nbest products of the German universities and that tells the story of Germany's\nenviable position in secondary education. Since the time of the founding of\nthe \"great public schools\" in England, Oxford and Cambridge have furnished\nall the teachers for them. Tho they have not had the professional training of\nGermany's matchless schoolmasters, yet they have been men of fine culture and\nbroad training. In America Harvard and Yale in New England and William\n\n"} {"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeat]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n6ii\n\nand Mary in the South at once began to place their graduates in the ''grammar\nschools,\" like the Boston Public Latin School, and later in the academies.\nThe influence of these men representing the best culture of the times has had\na marked eflfect. In the secondary school where inspiration and outlook are\nso essential to the life of the school the breadth of view which comes from\ncollege life is indispensable. It is lamentably true that these zealous young\nmen and more recently women have often been woefully lacking in pedagogical\ninsight, but their scholarship and vital touch with life have been more valuable\nthan the mere drillmaster's arts.\nWith the advent of the normal school in 1839 an attempt was made to\ncorrect the deficiency in the pedagogical training of teachers. Naturally the\npendulum swung a long way in the other direction and methods and devices\nbecame a fetish. The normal schools went to seed on methods. Devices\nand details were eagerly pursued when principles should have been sought.\nThe drillmaster became the ideal class teacher and the machine methodmaster the ideal superintendent. Normal-school graduates everywhere in\nthe eighties and nineties began to teach in the high schools and to occupy the\nsuperintendencies. When I was graduated from a Wisconsin normal school\nin 1890 graduates did not think of looking for a grade position, unless they\nhappened to live in a large city. High-school positions and good principalships and superintendencies were readily secured by the men. Similar conditions obtained in all adjoining states. At the present time conditions are\nso changed that it is only in exceptional cases that the graduate of a normal\nschool begins in a high school. Occasionally they begin in a small high school\nwhich does two or three years of high-school work. But usually the normal\ngraduate commences in the grades or goes to some university to complete work\nfor graduation. This makes quite an ideal course of training, for at the normal\nschools they become imbued with the teaching spirit and their university\nwork gives them a scholastic baptism. Happily a new era has dawned in\nnormal schools with reference to methods. They have been touched by the\nnew spirit in psychology and child-study and are now, in general, seeking\nprinciples instead of devices.\nThe normal school, generally speaking, is not fitted to train high-school\nteachers. There are, of course, some schools which are much better equipped\nthan others. There are some large and aspiring ones which are lengthening\ntheir courses, providing laboratory and library facilities to such an extent that\nthey are better able to accomplish this work than the one-horse colleges, but\nthe organization of a normal school must ever be such as to limit its function\nto the training of elementary teachers. Just as soon as it transcends this\nfunction it ceases to be in the highest degree effective in training elementary\nteachers, for which they have all been designed. It then becomes an additional state college or university, a duplication which most states do not desire.\nThe high-school teacher needs, above all, a broad outlook upon life, deep\nand thoro scholarship, and liberality of attitude which is best promoted by the\n\n"} {"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nuniversity atmosphere. The normal school, with its ten-weeks' courses and\nceaseless flitting about, its many exercises per day, the constant emphasis\nupon method rather than content, th^ excessive attention to the little details\nsuch as are largely necessary in training the immature and those who are to\ndeal with details of elementary work, all militate against sound scholarship\nand liberality of mind. Most normal schools are so organized that students\nare admitted from the country school. These students are in constant contact with the most advanced. This necessitates leveling down to the plane\nof the most immature.\nThe only place where the science of education can be adequately taught\nis in the university or in the few colleges. The institution must be equipped\nwith a department devoted solely to education. No man straddling the chairs\nof philosophy, psychology, logic, ethics, and education can even have come to\nan independent educational philosophy, much less develop it in others. One\nburdened with several chairs and all the subjects within each may have students\nrecite from textbooks but it is lame teaching. The work in education cannot\neven be done well where one man is required to cover all subjects within the\ndepartment.\nPresident G. Stanley Hall says:\nI think preparation of secondary teachers should never be permitted in a normal\nschool where primary teachers are trained, but should be entirely given over to the university. This is essentially the case in Germany\nI think there is very little in common\neither in methods or matter in the curriculum proper for these classes of teachers. ^\n\nProfessor DeGarmo says :\nThe most obvious distinction between the normal school and the university as a training ground for secondary teachers is that the normal school is obliged by its conditions,\nits primary aims, and its traditions, to devote its chief energies to the preparation of elementary teachers. Only in a large and general way can it devote more than a fraction of\nits attention to the training of teachers for secondary schools. =•\n\nThese differences he regards as so fundamentally opposed in nature that\nany attempt to unite the two will result in the decreased efficiency of the\nnormal school.\nPresident Van Liew, who speaks on the question after much experience\nas a normal-school man and who is a scholar of distinction, says :\nThe weakness of the normal schools, especially in the matter of training secondary\nteachers, lies in its inability to supply large general culture. So far as secondary teachers\nare concerned, at least, it ought not to try it. 3\n\nCharles B. Gilbert wrote:\nThe ideal place for the training of secondary teachers is a teachers' college of some\nsort attached to a university as a co-ordinate part, utilizing all the scholarly advantages\nof the university and adding the special training needed to make teachers. 4\n\nPresident Thompson of Ohio State University, in discussing the great\nneed of developing teachers' colleges in connection with the universities, said:\n' Fourth Yearbook, I, p. 84.\n■ Ibid., p. 89.\n\n3 Ibid., p. 92.\n♦ Ibid., p. 102.\n\n"} {"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeit]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n613\n\nI think it goes without discussion that for the cause of education the teachers in our\nhigh schools should have the university spirit and that they ought to have college training.\nThis argument is based not so much upon the particular subject studied as upon the superior\nvalue of association with university faculties and university methods. Our high schools\nhave suffered for lack of such teachers on the one hand, and on the other hand they have\nsuffered from having too many teachers whose normal-school training or other education\nhas not been with a view to training them for high-school work. It would seem, therefore,\nthat in some form the teachers' college ought to be a part of the university organization.!\n\nIn the same meeting President Babcock of Arizona, who has also had long\nexperience with the Minnesota and California systems, said:\nIf the normal schools are going to train their students for grade- work frankly, honestly,\nwithout any pretensions or conceit, those who desire to go on for high-school work must\ngo to the university, to the colleges or teachers' colleges, which provide that sort of training. 2\n\nMy own belief in the necessity of university training for high-school teaching was definitely developed before I became a member of a university faculty.\nImmediately upon graduation from one of the best normal schools in the\ncountry I became a h gh-school principal. I soon came to the belief, and\nmany times expressed it, that normal-training was insufficient preparation\nfor such work. At the earliest possible moment I supplemented my training\nby a university course before re-entering the public-school service. Later I\nwas for two years a member of the faculty in the same normal school. I\nbelieve my colleagues there will bear witness that I continually urged that\nour graduates ought to complete a university course before beginning highschool work. That the function of the university and the normal school must\nbe different, I believed then as firmly as I do now. 3\nThe experience of the New York State Normal College ought to be valuable\nin determining the suitability of the normal school or the college in preparing\nhigh-school teachers. The Normal College was granted a charter in 1890\nempowering it to confer degrees in pedagogy, hoping thereby to attract college\nand university graduates who would spend at least a year in post-graduate study\nalong strictly professional lines. Those expectations have not been realized.\nDuring one year forty such students were in residence, but the number has\ndeclined because pedagogical courses in the meantime have been developed\nin colleges and universities.\nIt was thought, too, at the time when the Normal College was chartered that the\ngraduates from the classical courses offered at the Normal College would find positions\nin the high schools, but the demand for teachers of more liberal culture has increased so\nmuch since 1899, that probably not more than one-half of the graduates have found employment in the secondary schools of the state. Consequently, the Normal College has not\nbeen able to meet the expectations or the demands of the state for college-bred teachers\nwho have a proper knowledge of the science of education and the principles of pedagogy.\n. The belief of educators, philosophers, and educated people alike has\ncrystallized into the conviction that teachers who are to be employed in the high school,\nnormal schools, for teachers' training-classes, for teachers, and as instructors in manual\nI Trans, and Proc. Nat. Assoc, of Slate Universities, 1904, p. 43.\n» Ibid., p. 64.\n3 My views of that time may be seen in an article in Education, May and June, i8q8.\n\n"} {"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLSecondary\n\ntraining, domestic science, art, and other special subjects should be college graduates with\na thoro knowledge of the general principles of pedagogy and the most advanced and\nmost valuable methods of teaching their specialties. ^\n\nThe report points out that the normal schools are not equipped for preparing teachers for the high schools. In consequence all of the elementary\nwork at the State Normal School has been abolished, the requirements\nfor admission made equal to those maintained in eastern colleges, and a\nfour-years' course of study in the liberal arts and in pedagogics has been\nestablished.\nTho there are many splendid teachers in our best high schools and a few\nin the smaller schools, yet the fact remains that our boys and girls in the most\ncritical period of their lives are in control of immature, inexperienced youngsters. Some of these youths have large native ability, and special potential\nteaching qualities, and ultimately become good teachers. Some have good\nacademic training also and after expensive experimenting upon the children\nbecome iSrst-class teachers. Their enthusiasm, vigor, cheerfulness, and\ngeneral culture are all qualities that we ought to retain, but the fact remains\nthat our optimism regarding secondary-school teaching must come from\nviewing the select few rather than from conditions as a whole.\nThe greatest defect in our American schools is the lack of uniformity of\nrequirements for teaching. Under our ultra-democratic notions some properly fitted teachers enter the work, but they are obliged to come into competition with a majority who are unprepared. Frequently because of ignorance\non the part of boards and often because of nepotism the incompetent cheap\nteachers drive the worthier ones out of the market or force them down to the\nlower level of salaries. The inadequate compensation is the great deterrent\nwhich keeps thousands of the most promising from ever entering into the\nundesirable competition.\nWe are greatly in need of legislation in all states which will permit only\nthe absolutely well-trained to enter the ranks. The cry frequently raised\nagainst such legislation that the schools would be without teachers is sheer\nnonsense. When our colleges and universities can find such abundant supplies of doctors of philosophy for every subordinate instructorship there need\nbe no difficulty in securing all the adequately prepared teachers necessary,\nif liv'.ng salaries are offered. Legislation eliminating the unfit would raise\nthe salaries. In all those states having laws requiring teachers to possess\nhigh-grade certificates the salaries are demonstrably above the average paid\nin those states without such protective legislation.\nAlthough the statutory provisions are very insufficient in requiring adequate preparation for teaching in the high schools, yet many cities have made\nregulations which require all to be college graduates. In Ft. Dodge, Iowa,\nfor example, all are required to be college graduates and to have had two\nyears' experience.\nThere are hundreds of cities large and small where either\n» An. Rep. Ed. Dept., p. 274.\n\n"} {"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n615\n\ndefinite legislation to this effect has been enacted or else the practice has\nbecome local common law.\nThe North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schoo's has had\na very marked effect in raising standards of teaching in the high schools. No\nschool can become accredited unless all the teachers are col'ege graduates\nor the equivalent\nOne high-school inspector wrote me :\nWe have about fifty high schools on the north central list and many more are trying\nfor admission. This requirement has been most wholesome in its effect on our schools,\nand has done more than any other one provision in our recent educational history. Of\ncourse there has been a gradual increase in the number of college graduates occupying\nhigh-school positions, but it has simply been the law of evolution, a sort of triumph of the\nfittest. The normal school .... has in the past filled a good many positions, and\nmany of the school authorities have been unable to distinguish between them and graduates\nof other institutions. The influence of the North Central Association, the increased efficiency of our denominational colleges and the gradual increase of salaries have all contrived\nto drive them (the normal-school graduates) out of the field of the best schools except in a\nfew isolated cases.\nm.\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nIN GERMANY\n\nThe training required of the German secondary-school teacher is much\nmore ideal than that demanded of teachers in the same kind of schoolwork in\nthe United States. In Germany advanced, critical, academic, and professional\nscholarship are absolute prerequisites to teaching in the secondary schools.\nNo deviations are allowed. No mere pull with the board will suffice, for the\nmatter does not rest with the local board, but with the state authorities.\nIn Germany all secondary-school teachers are university trained, as they\nought to be everywhere. The candidates for a position in the secondary\nschools must have had at least three years of university study before being admitted to the examination for the state certificate, which all must possess. This\nmeans a high grade of academic scholarship since university entrance is conditioned upon graduation from the secondary schools, which is fully equivalent to the completion of the sophomore year in our very best colleges. Therefore every teacher in the German secondary schools has done work equivalent\nto that required for our masters' degree. As a matter of fact, the majority of\nGerman secondary-school teachers have studied more than three years in a\nuniversity. The majority are possessors of the doctorate degree which cannot\nbe secured with less than three years of university work and usually requires\nfour or five. Each teacher is required to present a major line of work and a\nminor. The examination in the minor must reveal complete comprehension\nand mastery of the subject far beyond any limits to which it is taught in the\nsecondary school. Even with this preparation they are not permitted to give\ninstruction in that branch in the advanced classes of the school. In the\nmajor subject not only thoro mastery is required but there must be evidence\nof critical and exhaustive research to the extent of becoming not only a master\nbut an authority. A thesis in the major must reveal independence of method,\nacquaintance with the history and literature of the subject.\nThe thesis and\n\n"} {"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe examination are intended to test the candidates' knowledge of its philosophic aspects. In a genera' way we may say that the academ'c training of\nthe German secondary-school teacher is quite on a par w th the attainments\nof instructors in our best colleges, and the majority are comparable wuth wellseasoned professors. Promotions are so slow there that the majority are\nabout thrty years of age before securing permanent positions.\nKnowledge of subject-matter, however, is happily deemed insufficient for\nany German teacher. All teachers in the secondary schools are required to\ninclude psychology, philosophy, and theoretical pedagogy in the state examination. In addition, they must take a two-years' course of professional\ntraining. This can be begun only after passing the state exam nation.\nIV.\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nSUGGESTED\n\nFOR\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nI. As minimum requirements it seems fair to ask that all teachers who\nenter high-school work should have had at least the equivalent of a college\neducation. To accept less is to place the schools in charge of immature,\nunscholarly boys and girls and undeserving place-hunters. The high schools\nare the people's colleges and should ever remain centers of liberal culture.\nThat they can never be when in charge of teachers who have never learned to\nlove scholarship. I am of the firm belief that only in exceptional instances\nshould teachers be permitted to teach in our high schools who have not actually\nstudied in a standard higher institution. Those who preferred to acquire\ncertificates thru examination only should be required to pass most search ng\nexam nations. What if an occasional deserv ng individual were thus debarred ?\nIn most states the right to practice med'cine is w thheld from all except those\nwho have studied in a reputable medical college. No mere private study and\ncramming for the examinations will suffice. The right to enter the examination,\nas in Germany, is conditioned by previous study for a term of years i a reputable institution. The theory is— and perfectly sound — that no one can ga'n\nadequate knowledge of modern methods of medicine without coming directly\nin contact with properly equipped laboratories and skilled teachers. Thru\nprivate study of books the diligent might accomplish much, but the rsks to\nsociety are too great to admit of trifling. Hence the necessity of measures\nwhich will protect society. Many states have similar protective legislation in\nthe profession of law.\nAre the needs not as great in teaching? The results of mistakes are not\nalways so immediately apparent to the public in education as in medicine,\nbut to the specialist in education they cannot be hidden. Why intrust the\nmost precious possessions of the human race to the ruthless hands of ignorant\nbeginners and confirmed quacks and charlatans ? Every poor teacher helps\nto spoil scores of children every year, while the quack doctor of medicine\noccasionally harms an indiv dual. The malpractice of the inexpert teacher\nis tenfold more harmful to society than that of the quack doctor. The teacher\nguilty of malpractice dwarfs, and distorts, poisons the mind and body of the\n\n"} {"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n617\n\nbudding, developing child, while the quack doctor merely fails to cure bodily\ndisease. The quack teacher sows the seeds of disease, the quack doctor\nsimply fails to cure.\n2. From the professional side the minimum requirements should be at\nleast one full year of daily work in education subsequent to a half-year of\nwork in psychology. It would be still better, and not excessive, to demand\nthat one-sixth of the college course shou'd be given to educational and philosophical subjects. This should be so distributed as to give about one-half\nyear daily to general psychology, a full year daily to the principles of education and child-study, and the remainder of the time to the history of education,\nmethods, school systems, etc. If one-fourth of the 120 units of the college\ncourse could be professional, the following arrangement would be desirable:\npsychology, 6 semester hours; principles of education, 6; child-study, 2;\nmethods, 4; h'story of education, 4; secondary education, 4; observation\nand practice, 4.\nThe Germans are wise in requiring actual residential study in a university\nas a prerequisite to teaching in the secondary schools. (Normal-school study\nis required of all who teach in the elementary schools.) It \"s practica ly\nimpossible for one to gain modern ideas of scholarship without institutional\ntraining. Even if possible, other methods are too uncertain and expensive.\nPrivate study may give one certain book facts but nothing can be substituted\nfor the laboratory methods of the modern institution. The teacher who is to\nteach classes by modern laboratory methods must first have been thru the\nlaboratory work himself. The teacher who is to teach literary and historical\nsubjects must know what libraries contain and how to utilize them. This can\nonly be secured thru contact with them. It is preposterous to think that men\nmay be intrusted to equip laboratories and libraries when they know nothing\nof them. Yet such things are permitted and encouraged by our inadequate\nprotective legislation.\nThe Honorable J. Sterling Morton eloquently emphasized the importance\nof professional training for teachers when he said:\nWe demand for Nebraska educated educators. We demand professionally trained\nteachers, men and women of irreproachable character and well-tested abilities. We\ndemand from our legislature laws raising the standard of the profession and exalting the\noffice of the teacher. As the doctor of medicine or the practitioner of law is only admitted\nwithin the pale of his calling upon the production of his parchment or certificate, so the\napplicant for the position of instructor in our primary and other schools should be required\nby law to first produce his diploma, his authority to teach, from the normal schools.\nWe call no uneducated quack or charlatan to perform surgery upon the bodies of our\nchildren lest they may be deformed, crippled, or maimed physically all their lives. Let\nus take equal care that we intrust the development of the mental faculties to skilled instructors of magnanimous character, that the mentalities of our children may not be mutilated,\ndeformed and crippled to halt and limp through all the centuries of their never-ending\nlives. The deformed body will die, and be forever put out of sight under the ground, but\na mind made monstrous by bad teaching dies not, but stalks forever among the ages, an\nimmortal mockery of the divine image.\n\n"} {"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nXIII\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n{special).\n\nPROFESSIONAL\nPREPARATION\nOF\nSECONDARY\nTEACHERS IN THE FIFTEEN SOUTHERN STATES'\n\nEDWARD\n\nFRANKLIN\n\nBUCHNER,\nPROFESSOR\nOF PHILOSOPHY\nUNIVERSITY\nOF ALABAMA\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nThis report attempts to sketch the conditions relating to the preparation\nof secondary teachers prevailing n the southern states of the Un'ted States.\nIt is based upon information gathered by a circular letter of inquiry distributed\nin April 1906. School officials, ncluding state superintendents of education,\npresidents of state universities, principals of (state) normal schools, and superintendents ofpub I c schools in the larger and more representative c t es stated\nsuch requirements as were in actual force and described such customs as were\npracticed in the matter of the preparation of teachers for high schools. The\nstates of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississ'ppi, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee,\nTexas, Virginia, and West Virginia, and the city of Wash ngton, D. C, were\nabout e ^ually represented among the replies sent in. Extensive information,\nfurnished by the United States Commissioner of Education, based upon returns\nto his office two and more years ago, has also been used in the preparation of\nthis report.\nThe interest n this inquiry concerning the requirements and customs\npertaining to the preparation of secondary teachers centered around the four\npoints mentioned in the letters of inquiry.\n1. What scholastic preparation and what pedagogical training are required\nof high-school teachers in your state or city ?\n2. What courses of academic instruction, especially for high-school teachers,\nare given in your institution ?\n3. What courses of pedagogical instruction for high-school teachers are\ngiven in your institution ?\n4. Can high-school teachers in your state, city, or institution get actual\npractice previous to regular employment ?\nThese four quesfons can well serve us as guides in telling the story of the\npreparation of high-school teachers in the South as practiced today. The\nexact statements in the replies are used as far as possible in the hope of making\nthe report more historic than it would be if it presented only a general summary\nof present tendencies.\nTHE\n\nREQUIREMENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nAlabama: In this, as in most other southern states, the high school is a non-legal\ninstitution. It is not named in the educational laws of the state. The first-grade teacher's\ncertificate specifies by law, among other subjects, three high-school subjects: algebra,\n' Legislative enactments relative to high schools made in some states during the interval between the\npreparation and\" the publication of this report render some of its statements purely historical. The\nimmediate design of the work of the committee would be seriously modified if the attempt were made\nto incorporate these laws into this survey of existing conditions.\n\n"} {"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN SOUTHERN\n\nSTATES\n\n619\n\ngeometry, and physics. But any teacher holding the lowest (third) grade certificate may\nlegally teach in any high school in the state. Such specific requirements as exist are\ndetermined by the city systems acting under their own educational charters. While\nBirmingham reserves the right to examine all applicants for high-school positions, it also\nhas a general rule which requires applicants to be college graduates. In Mobile the teacher\nmust be a graduate of a college or university \"of good standing,\" or pass an examination\non algebra, geometry, trigonometry, Latin, general history, Alabama history, English and\nAmerican literature, rhetoric, physics, physiology, and pedagogy. In Montgomery the\nteacher to be eligible for appointment must hold a high-school certificate, which requires\nan examination in algebra, arithmetic, geometry, higher English, Latin, physiology, and\ntheory and practice of teaching.\nArkansas: There is no legal specification as to what examinations secondary teachers\nshall be required to stand, either academic or pedagogic. The custom relative to these\nrequirements may be exhibited by the practice of three cities. Hot Springs requires the\nteacher to \"be a Bachelor of Arts or a Master of Arts from our best colleges or universities\nwith successful teaching experience;\" Little Rock mentions \"college education — successful\nexperience or normal-school training;\" while in Pine Bluff the teacher \"must be a graduate\nof a standard high school, normal school, college, or university, possess a knowledge of\nat least three standard works on pedagogy, and experience during one session as substitute\nworker.\"\nFlorida: \"^he law specifies requirements of principals of high schools in terms of\nthe first-grade certificate. This is issued to teachers of some experience (at least two years)\nwho pass examinations in geometry, trigonometry, botany, zoology, physics, rhetoric,\nliterature, general history, Caesar and Vergil (two books each), and psychology. Only one\ncity reports attempts on its part to get college graduates as its high-school teachers.\nGeorgia: There is no legal requirement beyond the customary certificate necessary\nfor teachers in state-aided schools. Augusta requires that the teachers \"should be graduates of a reputable college and a specialist in the department.\" Columbus requires\n\"specialized university training for departmental work;\" while Macon simply specifies a\n\"diploma from a first-class college or university.\"\nKentucky: Kentucky has made no legal provision for, and neither supports nor\ncontrols high schools. The requirements in practice vary with the cities employing\nteachers. \"Some accept state certificates, state diplomas, or degrees from colleges.\nOthers hold special examinations.\" \"An A.B. degree and three years' experience or a\nnine-months' course of pedagogical training is required. The degree must be from an\naccredited college, or recognized by the Regents' Board of Examiners of New York\"\n(Covington). In recent years \"a college degree is required of all high-school teachers\nin Louisville not in the manual department. No definite pedagogical training is required.\nHeads of departments must have had previous successful experience. Untrained assistants\nare frequently employed.\" Paducah requires only the \"equivalent of a four- years' university course.\"\nLouisiana: \"There is no provision in the school law regarding the qualifications of\nhigh-school teachers as distinguished from other teachers; but high-school teachers are\nusually either college graduates, graduates of the state normal school, or holders of the\nfirst-grade teachers' certificates. The examination for this certificate covers a highschool course of study with some pedagogical subjects added.\" Another report on the\nprevailing custom says, \"usually u normal-school graduate, often a college graduate is\nchosen.\" \"They are required to be college graduates, or the equivalent, and to pursue\nprofessional study during the summer\" (Baton Rouge). \"Applicants for positions in our\nhigh schools are required to pass an academic examination, and to have had three years'\nteaching experience or a certificate from a normal training-school\" (New Orleans).\nThe high-school faculty of Shreveport is composed \"of college and university graduates\nwith years of practical experience.\"\n\n"} {"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nMaryland: \"Most of our high-school teachers are college graduates; the equivalent\nis pretty generally demanded. Not much pedagogical training is expected — rarely any.\"\nBaltimore states its requirements thus: \" Fitness for appointment to teach in the high schools\nshall be determined by careful scrutiny of such diplomas or certificates of graduation as\nmay be issued by colleges of good repute, or by an examination, oral or written, disclosing\nequivalent qualifications in the subject or subjects which the candidate proposes to teach\nProof of success in the actual work of teaching as well as the possession of the requisite\nknowledge will be considered.\"\nMississippi: Beyond the usual certificates, the state has no regulations. Columbus\nrequires \"a first-grade teacher's license on the state-required studies, and at least one year's\nexperience.\" \" Greenville requires that high-school teachers must have at least four years'\ntraining in a university or approved college.\"\nMissouri: This is the only southern state in which the development of the high\nschool has reached such a stage as to be made interesting by the acute opposition between\nthe state department of education and the highest educational agency in the state for the\ntraining of teachers. The state on its part regards the public high school \"as thoroly a\npart of the pubHc-school system,\" but it makes \"no specific provision by law for the training of high-school teachers.\" It \"is unalterably opposed to creating an institution for the\nspecial purpose of preparing high-school teachers.\" High-school teachers must hold \"a\nfirst-grade county certificate, a state certificate, or a normal-school certificate — but this\nis not specified by law so as to distinguish them from elementary teachers.\n\" From now on high-school teachers who have charge of departments must be college\ngraduates. No requirement has yet been formulated in regard to their pedagogical training. Practically we employ no one without experience\" (Carthage). In Hannibal \".a\ncollege, university, or normal-school training\" is required. St. Joseph mentions a preparation of a \" grade of a reputable college, with specialization on line taught,\" while St.\nLouis seeks \"usually a suitable university degree and evidences of successful experience.\"\nNorth Carolina: Beyond the certificate issued by the county superintendent upon\nexamination, no special preparation is required by law. Asheville has instituted \"the\nhigh-school class \" of teachers, which shall comprise \" graduates of an approved university\nor normal college, with three or more years of successful experience in a city graded system\nof known efficiency,\" and teachers who \"have taught seven years in the Asheville schools\nor its equivalent in a good city school system elsewhere and present evidences of systematic\nwork and study under the direction of some person or institution of accredited worth.\"\n\"All our high-school teachers are graduates of reputable colleges. We do not require\npedagogical training, but encourage it in our selection of teachers\" (Durham). Raleigh\nhas no rule in this matter to guide in the selection of teachers; but \"all are elected because\nof some particular qualifications for the work to be done.\"\nSouth Carolina has been working on a legislative bill for the organization and aid\nof high schools. The provisions for the preparation of teachers proposed therein hardly\nbelong to this report of present conditions. Columbia represents the situation thus:\n\"No regular standard has been established, but we always get the very best teachers\nwe can secure for the salary paid.\" Another city laconically notes the single fact that\n\"greater care is exercised in selecting high-school teachers\" than the teachers for lower\ngrades.\nTennessee: The law regulating the certification of teachers in this state implies\na recognition of the high school. Its certificates are classed as \" secondary \" and \" primary.\"\nThere are three kinds of the former: first-grade secondary (on diploma), first-grade secondary (on examination), and second-grade secondary (on examination). Graduation from\nthe state Peabody Normal College meets the requirements for the first kind of certificate.\nBeyond this implication, the requirements for high-school teachers are left wholly in the\nhands of the local school boards. The usual custom in the cities, as described by one,\n\"is to secure as far as possible graduates froon the University of Tennessee or Peabody\n\n"} {"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN SOUTHERN\n\nSTATES\n\n621\n\nNormal College.\" In the language of another the custom is that the teachers shall be\n\"graduates of some reputable college.\"\nTexas: The requirement is merely \"the possession of a city or state teacher's certificate ofa first grade or a permanent grade, sometimes of a college diploma.\" \"There\nis no law in this state which specially prescribes the scholastic preparation or the pedagogical\ntraining of high-school teachers.\nEvery city and town is a law unto itself in this matter.\"\n\"There is an unwritten law not to employ any teacher in the Austin high school\nwho is not a college or university graduate.\" Dallas seeks \"to secure thoroly educated,\nwell-trained teachers of successful experience.\" Fort Worth \" as far as possible gets graduates of colleges — these being better than the normal-school graduates.\" Without any\nrequirement being in force, \"most of the teachers of the Houston high school are graduates\nof the State University of Texas or of some institution of equal standing.\" San Antonio\nselects its teachers \"from an ehgible Hst who pass the high-school examination.\" Waco\n\"rarely elects a high-school teacher who does not hold a diploma of a recognized college\nor university; some experience in teaching (in lower grades or in a high school elsewhere)\nis required.\"\nVirginia: The following legal requirement obtains: \"Persons desiring to teach in\nthe public high schools of Virginia shall be examined on such public high-school branches\nas they may be required to teach; provided, that graduates of colleges and universities of\napproved standing and reputation, shall be permitted, without further examination, to\nteach in such schools the branches in which they have been graduated.\" Pedagogical\ntraining other than theory and practice (\"usually as found in some one single text on pedagogy\") isnot required.\nDanville makes no requirements. Even in the absence of a rule, all teachers in Lynchburg are college graduates. Norfolk requires them to be \"graduates of a satisfactory\nuniversity or college on the subjects they are to teach.\"\nWest Virginia. In the absence of a state law, the custom in the best high schools\nof requiring the Bachelor of Arts degree in a high-grade school has become \"nearly universal.\" Among the others, normal-school graduates are chiefly in demand. The training\nrequirement is badly overlooked by all of them. Usually experience has been had in\nthe lower grades. A majority of the teachers in Charleston, Fairmont, Huntington, and\nParkersburg are college graduates. \" The recent practice in Wheeling has been to appoint\nonly college graduates with experience in teaching.\"\nWashington, D. C., specifies two requirements: \"(i) College degree and passing\nan examination for high-school teachership; (2) Normal graduates with five years' experience as a teacher in a high school, except possibly as to graduates of local normal schools.\"\nACADEMIC\n\ninstruction\n\nPROVIDED\n\nESPECIALLY\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe information gathered by the second question is very meager. There\nare but few institutions (probably three) in the South which attempt to prepare\nhigh-school teachers by devising courses of study particularly adapted to such\npreparation or by indicating something of the work which ought to be taken\nas a part of such preparation. Partly to indicate the existing attitude toward\nthis factor, and partly to record existing conditions in the academic training\nof secondary teachers, detailed mention will be made of this information,\neven at the risk of greater monotony of record than in the preceding section of\nthis report.\nAlabama presents no academic instruction especially designed for high-school teachers.\nThe usual high-school subjects are taught in high schools, normal schools, and some of the\ncolleges, but not with a view to the preparation of the teachers of them in high schools.\nThe standard conception seems to be that going over these subjects in the.progress of one's\n\n"} {"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "62.2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\npursuit of the secondary curriculum is sufficient preparation for giving instruction in the\nsame subjects.\nThis remark applies to almost all other southern states with equal force.\nArkansas yielded no information, and even showed some misunderstanding of the\npoint involved. One city reports: \"Latin, modern languages. Our high school is the\nregular accredited high or secondary school.\" Another conducts \"reviews once each\nmonth on English, mathematics, science, history.\"\nFlorida: The University of Florida, lately reorganized, has under way an A.B. course\nin pedagogy. The academic work will, at the end of the sophomore year, qualify for the\nstate certificate which requires examination in geometry, trigonometry, botany, zoology,\nphysics, literature, general history, Caesar and Vergil (two books each), and psychology.\nGeorgia: Beyond the usual courses of study in all the higher grades of institutions, which\nare open to and taken by those who may become, and who may now be, high-school teachers,\nno courses of study are offered for such preparation. In one institution regular college\nelective courses are significantly regarded as especially designed for high-school teachers.\nKentucky: The State College offers two courses designed to prepare teachers for\nhigh-school work. One is a college course (four years) and leads to the degree of Bachelor\nof Pedagogy. \" The entrance requirements to the freshman class are on a par with those\nof other colleges in the South.\" The other is the state-diploma course, and covers the\nwork of the high school and about the first year in college. There is much psychology\nand theoretical pedagogy in each coarse. The completion of either course entitles the\nperson to a life-certificate to teach in Kentucky.\nLouisiana: Although a high-school course of study has been graded, outlined, and\nadopted by the State Department of Education, no institution has devised instruction\nespecially designed for the academic preparation of secondary teachers. The new department of philosophy and education in the Louisiana State University introduces academic\nsubjects of collegiate grade in its four-years' course leading to the Bachelor of Arts degree,\nbut they are only the courses given to all other academic students.\nMaryland: \"The state normal schools offer no courses. Several colleges are state\naided, and supply many secondary teachers; but they offer no course especially designed\nfor secondary teachers.\"\nMissouri: The State Department is opposed to such instruction. But the University\nof Missouri has notably developed a Teachers College'originally intended to prepare highschool teachers. Recently it has added instruction designed to prepare elementary teachers\nas well. For the preparation of high-school teachers it provides (in addition to courses\navailable in the department of liberal arts, the usual undergraduate courses) the following\nacademic courses: agronomy (3 hrs.), manual training for high-school teachers (6 hrs.),\nadvanced algebra (3 hrs.), trigonometry, and analytical geometry (3 hrs.), physiography\nof North America and Europe (3 hrs.), meteorology (3 hrs.), physical geography (3 hrs.),\nbotany (two courses 6 hrs.), elocution (3 hrs.), EngHsh (two courses 6 hrs.), German\n(3 hrs.), Latin (Cicero and Vergil 3 hrs.), Greek (Anabasis 3 hrs.), Greek literature in\nEngHsh translation (3 hrs.), history of Greece (3 hrs.), history of Rome (3 hrs.), the evolution of cultivated plants (3 hrs.), general physics (3 hrs.), and experimental physics (3 hrs.).\nThis plan of work is not committed to, but tends to prepare for, departmental teaching in the\nhigh school.\nCape Girardeau Normal School claims to be \"a teachers' college and offers a full\ncollege course in the languages, mathematics, history, English, and the sciences, in addition\nto its professional courses.\" But none of this is specified as designed for the secondary\nteacher. Warrensburg State Normal School: \"We grant our diploma to graduates of\nA.B. courses or of first-class four-year high schools without much requirement along\nacademic lines.\"\nNorth Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee offer nothing beyond the\ncourses provided for all students in universities, colleges, and normal schools.\nTexas: The University of Texas has a school of education, but not a teachers' college\n\n"} {"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN SOUTHERN\n\nSTATES\n\n623\n\nThe idea that the 'future teacher in a high school needs special preparation prevails here\nto a certain extent, but not in a completely differentiated form. This is evidenced by the\npolicy, waived in exceptional cases, of recommending persons for high-school positions in\nthe state of Texas only when they have completed specified academic courses, and also\nby the practice of urging students preparing to be secondary teachers to take certain courses\nwhile receiving their academic training. Thus, before a person is recommended as a\nsecondary teacher of Latin he must have taken in Latin three full college courses; in\nGerman, four and two-thirds full courses or their equivalent; in English, four full courses;\nin mathematics, three full courses; while in chemistry the student is urged to take nine\nfull and partial courses.\nVirginia offers no courses especially for high-school teachers.\nWest Virginia University \"offers sixteen courses for high-school teachers and\nothers\" in its department of education.\npedagogical instruction provided for secondary teachers\nAlabama: The University of Alabama provides junior and senior years' courses\non genetic psychology, principles of education (presupposing psychology, logic, and ethics),\nand history of education, in which the problems of secondary education receive considerable attention, but the courses are not specifically designed for high-school teachers in\npreparation for their work. In common with like institutions in Georgia, North Carolina,\nTennessee, and Virginia, it has a faculty member, maintained by the General Education\nBoard, who devotes his efforts to establishing in the state a policy of public high schools.\nSome of the instruction given in these state universities mentioned below results from this\nmovement of the General Education Board. The normal schools give the usual courses\non psychology or psychology in education, history of education, theory and practice of\nteaching, school management and methods, but not for high-school teachers as such.\nProbably most of this instruction, as elsewhere, pertains to the lower grades of school work,\nwhen not treating of \"education in general.\" The larger cities sometimes have means\nfor pedagogical work on the part of high-school teachers already in the service. This\nusually consists of \"monthly meetings of teachers where some author on pedagogical subjects or school management is studied.\" The superintendent or principal selects the\nworks which are thus read and discussed.\nArkansas: Pine Bluff has bimonthly meetings of teachers for regular courses in psychological reading and instruction.\nFlorida: At the University of Florida, students in pedagogy devote from one-fifth\nto one-fourth of their time on psychology, methods, school economy, and history of education.\nGeorgia: The University of Georgia provides courses for junior- and senior-year\nstudents on history of, science of, and principles of education and school management,\nincluding the general subject of secondary education. The latter considers \"especially\nthe relation of the high school to the common schools, the colleges, and the community at\nlarge, its course of study, organization, and methods in America and the leading European\ncountries.\"\nKentucky: Nothing is offered in the state beyond \"the usual professional\" courses.\nLouisiana State University by its new department of philosophy and education\nattempts, among other things, \"to aid in increasing the scope and development of high\nschools, to qualify teachers for the higher grades of work in high schools and junior colleges,\nand to prepare teachers as supervisors, principals, and parish superintendents.\" The\npedagogical courses are so arranged and balanced with required and elective academic\ncourses as to occupy from one to four years, and lead to the Bachelor of Arts degree. In\naddition to the usual courses on education and cognate subjects, it has one course on\nmethods (one year) \"especially in secondary subjects\" which also treats of the \"aim, scope,\nand function of the high school.\"\n\n"} {"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nMaryland: \"None offered in the state.\"\nMississippi: A decade or more ago the University of Mississippi actively began a\npolicy of fostering high schools in the state and extending their courses of study with a\nview to meeting college-entrance requirements. It has done little, however, on the pedagogical lines of interest in this inquiry.\nMissouri: The Teachers College of the State University offers the most extended\nfacihties along professional lines for high-school teachers to be found in the southern\nstates. In addition to several courses designed for elementary teachers, the following are\ngiven especially for high-school teachers: educational psychology (half year, presupposing\nhalf year of experimental psychology), principles of education (half yr.), secondary\neducation (half yr), practice teaching for high-school teachers (i yr.), the teaching of\nGerman (2 hrs., half yr), teaching of Latin and Greek (half yr.), teaching of Greek and\nRoman history (i hr., half yr.), the teaching of mathematics (2 hrs., half yr.), the teaching\nof physics (2 hrs., half yr.), the teaching of geography (2 hrs., half yr.) in part for\nhigh-school teachers, and the following which are open to such teachers but are not\ndescribed as designed for any specific grade of teachers: teachers' conference on botany\n(2 hrs., half yr.), the teaching of English (2 hrs., half yr.), teachers' course on elocution\n(i hr., half yr.), and the teaching of art.\nWashington University offers five courses on pedagogy, but not specifically for secondary teachers. The City of Carthage requires \"two promotional examinations,\" or one\nexamination and one term in a summer school approved by the superintendent.\nNorth Carolina offers nothing.\nSouth Carolina: The University of South CaroHna offered a new course last year\non the \"Pedagogics of the high school, a two-hour half-year course, elective to junior and\nsenior students, which comprised the work of seven co-instructors, treating of secondary\neducation, and of English, Latin, history, mathematics, geography, and nature-study in\nthe high school.\nTennessee: The University of Tennessee offers besides the usual pedagogical courses\n\" a course in secondary education, including the psychology and pedagogy of adolescence,\nthe history of secondary education, the comparative study of secondary schools in America\nand the principal culture nations of Europe, and some specific high-school problems in this\nsection.\"\nTexas : The University of Texas, in addition to the usual courses in general method,\npsychology, child-study, school management, history of education, and philosophy of education, designed to aid secondary teachers, principals, and superintendents of schools, offers\nthe following \"professional\" courses: secondary education (3 hrs., one-third year), botanical method (3 hrs., one-third yr.), the teaching of elementary mathematics (3 hrs., onethird yr., partly for high-school teachers), the teaching of Latin (3 hrs., two-thirds yr.), and\nthe teaching of manual training.\nVirginia: The University of Virginia offers a one-year's (3 hrs.) course in each of\nthe following: secondary education, philosophy and psychology of education, principles\nof education, history of education, and school administration. These are not primarily\ndesigned for high-school teachers.\nWest Virginia University offers nothing beyond what was mentioned in the second\nsection of this report.\npractice teaching in the high school previous to employment\n\nThe existing condition is best described by the prevalence of the custom\nwhich either neglects this element in the preparation of the high-school teacher,\nor, if recognized and insisted upon, is relegated to some other institution or to\nsome distant high school, if not frequently to training and experience in lower\ngrades of schoolwork.\nThis is probably the factor most foreign in the training\n\n"} {"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN SOUTHERN\n\nSTATES\n\n625\n\nof secondary teachers. Even many training or normal schools recognize the\nfact that many of their students have had ''experience\" in school teaching\nbefore taking up their courses of study, and, consequently, lighten or lessen\nthe amount of work done in practice teaching.\nAlabama: The Troy Normal College Practice School does \"some high-school work\"\nin its last grade, and to this extent its graduates have practice before employment. Birmingham requires heads of departments to have had experience in teaching before appointment. In Mobile some teachers are promoted from the grades to the high school without\nhaving had high- school practice; some high-school teachers have had experience in highschool work elsewhere.\nArkansas: Cities in this state commonly have a \"cadet class, the members of which\npractice in the schools as substitute workers.\"\nGeorgia: \"Chiefly in common schools during course.\" Augusta depends \"on\nother colleges for the training of our teachers.\" Macon requires \"practice work two hours\na day in our school. After they complete a normal course, we use them a year (probation)\nas supernumerary teachers, and afterwards employ in our pubhc schools as regular teachers\nthose whose work is satisfactory.\"\nKentucky: State College: \"Some limited practice is given to students in regular\ncourses, but it does not constitute any part of the required course.\" Louisville: No.\n\"We usually employ some one who has had previous experience in some other school\nsystem.\" They found that employing college graduates (in the Girls' High School)\nwithout previous practice did not give good results.\nLouisiana: \"Not as yet,\" as one writer puts it.\nMaryland: Only the practice \"designed to prepare elementary teachers,\" as one\nreturn very frankly puts it.\nMississippi: The custom is not based on as good practices as in other states, this\nstate not having any normal schools, even.\nMissouri: Most Missouri high-school teachers are college graduates \"who have thru\nsummer schools and the regular terms of our state normals or Teachers College, received\npedagogical training.\" \"Missouri is unalterably opposed to creating an institution for\nthe special purpose of preparing high-school teachers. Our best high-school teachers are\nnot those who have been specially prepared for that work. They are our best educated\npeople who grow into the ability to manage high schools thru having managed lower grade\nschool work thoroly\" (State Department of Education.).\nIn the high school connected with Teachers College of the State University, provision\nis made for definite practice teaching in high-school work in the training of the teachers.\n\"Before certificates to teach in high schools are given, candidates must prove their ability\nto do work in those subjects for which they wish certificates. Three to nine hours' credit\nis required.\nThis is done under the immediate supervision of the professor of theory and\npractice of teaching, assisted by others of the Teachers College faculty\nThe school\nis, in a sense, experimental, as inexperienced teachers are called upon to test theories and\nmethods suggested to them.\"\nCape Girardeau State Normal School plains the introduction of high-school practice\nin its training of teachers a year hence. Outside these schools, the general plan in this\nstate for securing practice in high-school teaching is by serving as \"apprentice teachers\nin the schools of a large city.\"\nNorth Carolina: The plan begun last year at Durham is this: \"We take a few\nprospective teachers and give them practice work in our high school. Such applicants must\nbe college graduates. They join our training class and spend their time in the classrooms\nwhile the school is in session.\"\nSouth Carolina: \"No provision for such practice is known.\"\n\n"} {"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nTennessee: \"Unfortunately there is not opportunity for students to get such\npractice.\"\nTexas: The State University and normal schools have made no provision for practice\nteaching nor for adequate observation. \"In some cities by means of a system of supernumerary teachers they can.\" Austin: \"We do not employ teachers who have not had\npractice.\"\nDallas: \"We do not employ inexperienced teachers for high-school work.\"\nVirginia: \"No.\"\n\" In our grammar schools\" only. \" Practice at our normal schools.\"\nWest Virginia: The Huntington Normal School admits students of the training\ndepartment who expect to do high-school work to the classes of the regular academic\ndepartment, which more than covers the high-school courses, and practice teaching under\nthe superintendent of the training department.\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nREPORT\n\nAt the request of the chairman of the committee, the following is offered\nin response to the two nquiries.\n1. What professional preparation is desirable for southern secondaryschool teachers ? and,\n2. What professional preparation is possible under existing conditions for\nsouthern secondary-school teachers ?\nThe high school of the South possesses problems which are not marked by\nany geographical pecul arity. These problems are national and not local.\nIf any peculiarity obtains it is due primarily to its historical descent from the\nold-time southern classical academy. This historic connection will, in large\nmeasure, explain the presence of the classical or literary flavor which obtains\nand also the custom of college graduates becoming secondary teachers. The\nindustrial or technical high school in the South is the exception.\nIt is also a mistake to assume or maintain that the secondary school in the\nSouth materially differs from that in other sections of the United States. The\nfactors of waste in the population and the economic conditions for developing\nnative resources and sustaining human industries do not, aside from imiting\nthe material resources of high schools, determine the question of the southern\nhigh school for the whites. It is chiefly the high school for the negro which has\nits questions determined by those conditions as related to the negro.\nOne fact which indicates that southern high schools cannot be regarded as\nsui generis is the employment in them of teachers prepared by northern institutions. The pursuit of studies in the latter by native southern teachers\npoints in the same direction. The demand for professional secondary\ntraining is therefore the same in the South as in the North; or, to be more\naccurate, is growing to be the same. The above report on existing conditions\nindicates the widespread recognition of this demand.\nThere are a few features in secondary training made desirable, if not\nnecessary, by reason of their intimate relation to successful secondary teaching.\nThe best high schools of the day are, and all high schools of the future will be,\ndepartmental. This is required for efficiency, and indicates the degree of\nscholarship needful for high-school work. But secondary teaching tends to\nbecome too exclusively departmental so as to prevent the teachers getting a\n\n"} {"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN SOUTHERN\n\nSTATES\n\n627\n\nsufficient knowledge of the pupil as an individual who has passed up thru\ndefinite school processes. High-school teachers forget the childhood of the\npupil which has been passed in the grades. No less do they lack a sense of\nthe unity in the work of the high school as a whole. Correlation of all the\nsecondary-school factors is necessary, and this can be made real only thru\nadequate professional training.\nUnder existing conditions there are three means, suggested by actual\nexperience in the administration of high schools, available for equipping\nteachers more effectively for the high school:\n1. City systems could require that college graduates aspiring to high-school\npositions should become elementary teachers, for a time at least. This would\nmake the schools responsible for \"professionalizing\" their own teachers.\n2. Normal schools could add to the work they are already doing a department designed to prepare secondary teachers. This is possible in all the states,\nexcept Arkansas and Mississippi, where state normal schools do not exist.\n3. Colleges and universities could add a year's course of study, which,\npresupposing the Bachelor's degree, would provide special preparation for\nthe secondary teacher. This work would be an intensive study of what I\ncall the pedagogy of the high school. This would include the history of the\nhigh school (particularly in the United States), the psychology of adolescence, methods of recitation in the high school, review of elementary-school\nprocesses, review of secondary subjects for specialization in the light of the\nforegoing and in the interest of effective correlation of departments and subjects, and the ethics of adolescence as related to the development of the institutional tendencies peculiar to the high-school student and American ife in\ngeneral. This work would not treat the high school as an isolated part of the\npublic-school system. This work could also presuppose much of the work\nnow done in education as a part of the prov'sions for the Bachelor's degree.\nThis postgraduate work could then lead to the Master's degree in education,\nand thus become somewhat of a profess onal degree for teaching, corresponding\nto sim ar degrees in engineering, law, etc. This is possible in view of the\nfact that numerous leading high schools have already established for themselves the custom of giving preference to applicants who possess the Master's\ndegree, even on the basis of the usual academic work.\n4. Practice teaching in a model high school is probably not demanded as a\npart of this professional training. Where possible, visitation, observation,\nand, perhaps, some teaching in the school where one is to be employed, could\nbetter replace the model practice. At least the widespread custom of probationing new secondary teachers strongly indicates the necessity of each school\nfashioning its own teachers finally in accordance with its own best spirit and\ntraditions.\nInto the question of professional requirements after the secondary teacher\ngets into service it is not meet for these suggestions to enter. Most of the\nforegoing suggested requirements are now practically recognized in many\n\n"} {"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nlocalities, and it is possible under existing conditions to standardize them\nthruout the South and the nation at large.\nXIV {special)\nCAPACITY AND LIMITATIONS OF THE NORMAL\nIN THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS\nJOHN\n\nW.\n\nCOOK,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nNORTHERN\n\nILLINOIS\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe battle for the professional preparation of teachers for the elementaryschools is substantially won. The educational people are of one mind with\nregard to it and the general public approves the action of its representatives\nin making appropriations from the state treasuries for the establishment and\nmaintenance of normal schools. While these institutions are not limited,\nordinarily, by their charters to the preparation of elementary teachers, at least\nnot in this country, the extreme demand for teachers of that class has furnished such a practical limitation in the great majority of cases. Here and\nthere, however, a normal school has been influenced by college traditions and\nhas developed so strongly on the academic side that many of its graduates\nhave become teachers in secondary schools.\nThe marked advantages that have come to the elementary schools thru\nthe professional training of their teachers has awakened a warm interest along\nsimilar lines among the high-school people. This is the most logical of consequences, and the practical question that is now up for discussion with them\nis with respect to the instrumentalities that should be employed in the technical\npreparation of teachers for their schools. Certain of the normal-school principals believe that their institutions are admirably equipped for such service\nand submit a statement of what they have been doing in that direction for\nsome time in proof of the wisdom of their contention. Others hold that the\nneeds of the two classes of teachers are so divergent that it is unwise for the\nnormal schools to attempt to cover both fields. In attempting to discuss this\nquestion I have the possible disadvantage of being connected with a school\nwhich has no particular ambition in the way of preparing secondary teachers.\nIn our study of the question it will be well to set the demands of the two classes\nof school as near each other as possible and thus to determine by such a juxtaposition the degree of variation and its bearing upon the problem.\nI. GENERAL\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\nInstruction is one of the necessary functions of the teacher. It may be\ndefined as the canceling of the inequality in knowledge that exists between the\nteacher and the pupil. The inequality, therefore, is presupposed. Nothing\nmore certainly and more quickly undermines the respect which the pupil should\nfeel for his teacher than the suspicion that he is not a respectable authority\nin the subjects in which he attempts instruction. As Rosenkranz aptly remarks: \"His authority over his pupil consists only in his knowledge and\n\n"} {"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n629\n\nability. If he has not these, no external support, no trick of false appearances\nwhich he may put on, will serve to create it for him.\" He richly merits the\ncontempt which his presumption and dishonesty will inevitably provoke. A\nwide gap in knowledge between the teacher and the pupil is demanded, not\nalone in the interests of accurate and inspiring instruction, but, as well, by all\nof the ethical relations of the school.\nThe immediate demands for knowledge in the two classes of schools under\ndiscussion are widely variant. The curriculum of the elementary school is, of\nnecessity, narrow and superficial when compared with that of the high school.\nThe first four years are mainly confined to the acquisition of a fair degree of\nmastery over the tools of culture. In the last half of the course there is an\nascent into the elements of the knowledges, but, usually, the grammar school\nleaves off where the high school begins.\nIt goes without saying that, other things being equal, the broader and more\nthoro the scholarship the better the teacher, regardless of the grade in which\nhe is employed. The imagination fondly dwells upon what would be possible\nif in every school there were a liberally educated teacher. That is an inspiring\nideal to nourish as we press on to better things, but its realization is entirely\nout of the question at present and will be for an indefinite time to come.\nWhere the highest welfare of human beings is concerned it is a rude shock\nto our fine idealism to have such material considerations as a mere lack of\npecuniary resources determine matters of such supreme and far-reaching\nmoment. They will push themselves into prominence, however, and will determine in large measure the course of events, whether agreeable to our ideas\nor otherwise.\nWith regard to the matter of general scholarship it may be said that graduation from a high school having a good four-year course implies an academic\npreparation which answers the needs of the elementary school very well. It\nfurnishes, also, a good basis for the normal school to build upon in the professional training of teachers for that grade. If such a condition were the rule\nthere would be a radical improvement in the educational status of the Middle\nWest. The superintendent of public instruction of the State of Illinois, in his\nlatest report, 1903-04, furnishes the interesting information that there were\nteaching in 1904, in seventy-two counties of the state, 4,428 persons whose\ntraining had been acquired wholly in the elementary schools. Such conditions seem deplorable enough, yet their case would be paralleled by teachers\nin secondary schools who have had only high-school training.\nIf the contention for a good high-school course as an academic preparation\nfor the elementary teacher be justified, a college or university course, or its\nequivalent, would seem-to be demanded by the same logic as a foundation for\nthe high-school teacher. This is not unreasonable and is rapidly becoming\nthe rule. Because of the relatively small number of high schools the scholarship problem for their teachers is not a very grave one; at least it is far less\ndifficult than the corresponding problem for the elementary schools.\nIndeed,\n\n"} {"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[berondary\n\nthe reasonableness of this higher discipline demand is so apparent that an\nargument in its defen e seems quite unnecessary. The work of the pupil\nshould be seen in sufficient perspective to bring out its meaning or it is likely\nto fall into a hopeless formalism. There are certain phases of school work\nthat are purely mechanical and that may be conducted after a fashion by any\nof the pupils of a given class. The Jesuit schools employed the idea advantageously asthey were conditioned, but Bell and Lancaster worked it to death.\nSuch crude attempts at educating children had some defense a century ago\nbut they should long since have become obsolete. Unhappily they are still\npresent, and very much in evidence, too, as is proved by the statements quoted.\nIt ought not to be difficult to save the secondary schools a similar fate. Happily\nthe studies are of such a character as to make it comparatively easy to detect\nthe incompetents in scholarship, for they are quite sure to meet with early\ndisaster in their attempts to teach what they do not know.\nn. SPECIAL SCHOLARSHIP\n\nThe advantages arising from an intensive study of subjects, in the interests\nof departmental instruction, are so apparent that many of the elementary\nschools have adopted that method of teaching. In consequence, children of\nten or twelve, or even of tenderer years, march from room to room like young\ncollegians, to receive the instruction of teachers who are specializing, whether\nthey are specialists or not. They are thus anticipating the experiences of the\nhigh school and college. It is quite possible that our sympathies for the\norphaned neophytes maybe misplaced, but there can be no doubt of the wisdom\nof applying the method in the high school. I am not disposed to object to its\napplication in the upper grades to a limited extent, but the amount of specializing in the elementary schools will not be great for some time to come. We\nhave come to expect the teachers of manual training, of music, of domestic\neconomy, and possibly of drawing, to be specialists. For the ordinary\nbranches, however, one teacher of real ability has many advantages over a group\nof specializers. The children need continuity of control and a warm and\nintimate relation to one person. There may be something in the remark of a\nlittle girl who had been a pupil in a normal training-school and was transferred\nto a city school under a single teacher. She was \"tired to death by seeing the\nsame teacher in the same dress all day long.\" But she must be classed among\nthe exceptions. The subjects of instruction are within the reach of fair scholarship. The lessons are neither long nor difficult. Where specialization is\ndemanded it is of a simple sort and yet ample in its extent and thoroness for\nall of the needs of the elementary school.\nWith the secondary school the case is quite different. It has become in\nreality what it has sometimes been called, the people's college. With its\nmodern equipment of library and laboratories and shop and kitchen and\nsewing-rooms and business department and all of the rest, and with its extended\ncourse of literary work beside, it has outrun the old-fashioned college of fifty\n\n"} {"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n631\n\nyears ago in many directions. While the transition from the eighth grade\nis a trifle abrupt, perhaps, and the freshman year may be a Kttle bewildering,\nthe pupil is well established by the beginning of the second year and is soon\ndoing a kind of work that a teacher cannot handle satisfactorily without more\nthan the ordinary general training that the college does. Ancient and modern\nlanguages, mathematics, literature, science, and others of the high-school\nsubjects call for teachers who have done a good degree of special intensive\nwork. This is also the view of most of the high-school people who are conducting really superior schools either as preparatory to the university or as a\ntraining for life.\nI know that the young doctors of philosophy quite often make a sorry mess\nof their teaching, carrying the methods of the university into the high school;\nbut that is because of their lack of training in teaching, a discipline which many\nof them regard with lofty disdain. Their scholarship is an extremely desirable\nqualification and when they have learned to use it advantageously they will be\na great blessing to their pupils. The high-school boys and girls need the\nvitalizing contact with genuine scholars and they will never be more susceptible\nto their influence than when in the high school and within the hero-worship\nepoch.\nni. NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nCan the normal schools meet the demands of general and special scholarship which have been suggested as essential to the best success of high-school\nteachers ?\nThat depends upon the character of the normal schools. Indeed, there is\nno normal school, but there are normal schools. In no other group of educational institutions will there be found such infinite variety. Included under\nthe term will be found schools that are as widely separated as the Superior\nNormal School of Paris and some of the small private \"normals\" that maintain a precarious existence from the fees paid them by ambitious boys and girls\nwho want to get enough of the \"common branches\" to enable them to get a\nsecond-grade certificate to teach a country school. The former is in a class\nby itself. Perhaps the same is true of the latter. Its faculty has enrolled\nmany of the most notable French scholars of modern times. Names like\nPasteur's adorn its cata ogues. No American normal school has approached\nit in the extent of its academic curriculum. As to the ability of such an institution tofurnish general and special scholarship for teachers of high schools or\nof colleges there can be no doubt.\nA fair number of our western normal schools, anxious to compete with the\ncolleges or even with the universities, in the extent of their courses of study\noffer a training in scholarship that ought to qualify their graduates, in that\nrespect, for instruction in secondary schools. I quote from President Seerley,\nin the Fourth Year Book of the Society for the Scientific Study of Education,\nPart I, who discusses the \"Relative Advantages of Universities and Normal\nSchools in Preparing Secondary Teachers.\"\nHe says:\n\n"} {"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe record of the Iowa Normal School is cited, not because its scheme of work is ideal\nnor its plans perfected, but because its organization permits the training of all classes and\nall kinds of public-school teachers. This condition has existed for only a few years and yet\nits graduates have taken an active part in the work of secondary education. It is true\nthat they are among the more successful teachers, and that their influence upon the spirit\nand tendencies of education is unequaled by any equivalent number of teachers who have\nreceived their training in other kinds of educational institutions.\n\nHe then proceeds to show that there are nineteen high-school principals,\ntwenty-three city superintendents, fifty-eight department teachers, ninety-one\nvillage principals, and fifty assistant principals who have received all of their\npreparation in that institution. Here are 241 persons, a sufficient number to\ngeneralize with regard to that particular school, ''whose influence upon the\nspirit and tendencies of education is unequaled by any equivalent number of\nteachers who have received their training in other kinds of an educational\ninstitution.\"\nIt would be interesting to know just what preparation these pupils had\nwhen they entered the Iowa State Normal School, how long they remained\nthere, and what courses they pursued, to what degree they specialized in the\nbranches which they are teaching. Possibly President Jones, of Ypsilanti,\nand President Kirk, of Kirksville, may have similar statements to offer, for\ntheir schools give advanced instruction in high-school subjects. I may add\nin support of the general proposition implied in President Seerley's statement,\nthat some of the best high-school teachers of my acquaintance and som^e of the\nbest city superintendents in this country received all of their school training\nabove the elementary grade in the Illinois State Normal University, at Normal.\nThe former have been teaching in the same schools for many years and have\ndeveloped their work by their private study, while t\" e latter owe rather more\nto their experience, I suspect, than to the school.\nThis widening of the academic instruction of the normal school is by\nno means a modern innovation. It is rather the original conception of the\nideal method of training teachers. • Such a system was in operation in New\nYork when the first American normal school was established, at Lexington.\nThe discussion between the advocates of the two systems — an independent\nnormal school, on one hand, and a normal department as an attachment to an\nacademy, on the other — was protracted and intense. It is an instructive\nchapter in the history of American normal schools. It was finally decided, in\nMassachusetts, to adopt the former plan and normal schools generally, in this\ncountry, have followed the Lexington leadership, not excepting the New York\nschools. Where there has been but one normal school in a state there seems\nto have been a stronger disposition to accent the academic aspects than where\nthere are more.\nWhat objection can there be to such an organization of the normal school ?\nThat fine things have been done by schools having such an organization must\nbe admitted in the presence of testimony that is so convincing. It is assumed\nin this discussion that the primary purpose of such an institution is the pro-\n\n"} {"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n633\n\nfessional preparation of teachers, as the primary purpose of a law school is\nnot general culture but the professional preparation of lawyers. I suspect\nthat this proposition will be admitted by all normal-school faculties. • The\ndivergence will come when the method of preparation is up for discussion.\n'If this is a correct view of the function of the normal school the constant and\ninsistent preoccupation of everyone connected with the management of the\ninstitution will not be general or special scholarship of an academic sort, but\nwill be special scholarship relating to the teaching art. Anything, then, that\ntends to minimize the main interest of the school, or what should be its main\ninterest, must be regarded as hostile to the fundamental purpose of the institution.\nWhere there is a strong accentuation of the academic idea and a rich\ndevelopment of it at the expense of the professional idea it ought not to call\nitself a normal school, but an academy or college with a pedagogical annex.\nI do not forget that I shall be accused of thinking more of an equipment of\nmethod than of an equipment of subject-matter to which to apply \\t. Such\nan accusation would be unjust. I have no faith in pure form; indeed, such a\nconception is beyond my capacity. I assume as thorogoing scholarship upon\nwhich to found the pedagogical instruction as any advocate of the \"academic\"\nnormal school. I plead for the time which ought to have been spent in other\nschools of a different character and that should be presupposed, in order that\nit may be spent in a sincere and rigorous study of the science and art of\neducation.\nThe simple truth is that it is far easier to run along the old lines, long since\nmarked out by the colleges, than it is to develop a satisfactory course for teachers. Because such courses are yet in the formative state and require the most\npersistent effort and the most laborious investigation, if they are to be of real\nworth, there is no little scepticism, even in some of the normal schools, as to\ntheir making much of a demand upon the intelligence of the students. I\nquote from one of the most eminent of the advocates of the academic scholarship idea, a man whose success is the strongest argument for his view: ''If\nthe students getting ready for a teacher's career get nothing from a normal\nschool except professional instruction and technical training, it is quite certain\nthat a majority of them would mentally perish from the monotony of the\neffort, and would find it necessary to decline to continue such unpalatable\nwork.\" This seems a strange utterance for a normal school president and\nimplies that, in his opinion, pedagogy has not developed enough in the way\nof a fruitful content to become the predominating subject of instruction in a\ntechnical school.\n\nIt seems to me to be more than probable that the strictly professional\naspects of training will be neglected in an institution that engages largely in\nthe pursuit of the knowledges for their own sake. The great majority of the\nteachers in such schools will devote themselves to their mathematics and\nliterature and science and the rest and, in consequence, the pedagogy will\n\n"} {"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nget scant attention. On the other hand, if the. school is really absorbed in\nwhat would seem to be the characteristic function of a genuine normal school\nthere* would not be space nor inclination to furnish the general and special\nscholarship in the knowledges that must be presupposed in any good scheme\nof professional instruction. My conclusion, therefore, is that the normal\nschool is not well adapted to the work of the college, and to the extent that it\nattempts it there will be a falling-off in the quality of the work along professional lines which it was especially organized to do if it was sincere in the\nselection of its name. There will not be that unity of sentiment, that enthusiastic devotion to the study of childhood, that open-mindedness with regard to\nthe course of study, that willingness and desire to submit the methods of the\nclassroom to the test of the most rigorous criticism in the light that has been\nthrown upon teaching by the sciences that relate to the correlated life of body\"\nand mind, that ought to be found in a teacher's seminary.\nIV.\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nVS.\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCan the normal schools having the ordinary organization give satisfactory\nprofessional training to secondary as well as to elementary teachers ?\nIt is quite generally conceded, at last, that the normal schools are doing a\nfair piece of work in the preparation of elementary teachers. If it is really\npossible for them to do as well for secondary teachers the agencies are at hand\nfor the solution of a problem that is pressing with growing urgency upon the\nminds of the educational people whose chief interests lie in the secondary\nschools.\nThat the training that elementary teachers now receive would be of great\nvalue to secondary teachers I do not for a moment doubt. The high school presupposes the elementary school, hence it presupposes the first twelve or fifteen\nyears of the life of the child. To have a fairly accurate conception of what has\nbeen going on in these wonderful years is to have a most admirable preparation for the high-school period. Many of the colleges and universities have\nbeen so favorably impressed with the work of the state normal schools that\nthey are willing to admit to their junior classes such of the graduates of their\ntwo-year courses as were ready for the university when they entered the\nnormal school. With suitable work in the higher institutions, in the way of\nliberalizing their scholarship, such persons become admirable teachers for\nsecondary schools. Their professional training identifies them very thoroly\nwith the teaching idea. Their disciplines in the university redeem them from\nthe narrowness of a limited grasp of the higher development of the knowledges, and stimulate them in a most interesting way along the lines of superior\nscholarship. No students are more enthusiastic and few are so ambitious\nfor professional scholarship with all that it implies in the way of general and\nspecial scholarship in the knowledges. Of course they have much to learn\nabout the high-school boy and girl and of the educational values of the secondary curriculum. But they are extremely desirable, as a general proposi-\n\n"} {"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n635\n\ntion. Large numbers of them are extending their courses of study in this\nway and are doing fine things, in consequence, for the high schools. Their\nuniversity work is done with the thought of teaching running thru it all, and\nthey thus have the advantage of assimilating and estimating notions. Their\ntraining and experience along professional lines give them the apperceiving\nconceptions by which they can make the most of their new disciplines. Where\nthey are willing to do more postgraduate work in the teachers' colleges they\nbecome quite ideal and indicate to us what is really meant by a professional\nteacher.\nThat the normal schools must prepare elementary teachers is, I think,\nimiversally conceded. If they should not do this they ought to surrender\ntheir charters and reorganize as teachers' colleges. Now the thing of all\nthings that is fundamentally necessary to the grade teacher is the warmest\nsympathy with child life and the clearest understanding of the best methods\nof its motivation. She must make up her mind to live with childhood. She\nmust shorten her step to its slow intellectual pace. She must content herself\nin her school work with the simplicities of elementary knowledge, so far as\nher teaching is concerned. She cannot hope to have her recitations filled\nwith the intellectual delights that come to the teachers in the secondary and\nsuperior schools. The demands made upon her are peculiarly exhausting,\nsince alertness, vivacity, constant watchfulness, genuine mothering, are the\nprice of any success with young children. Real comradeship with them, in\nany reciprocal sense, is hardly possible. Because of these trying conditions\nthe normal school must be suffused, surcharged, saturated, with interest in\nthe young child. In a very true sense he is clay in the hands of the potter.\nAn unsuitable position for a considerable portion of each day may mean\ncurvature of the spine, with all of its attendant penalties. A neglect to attend\nproperly to the quantity and disposition of light may result in defective vision,\nwith all of its embarrassing handicaps. Windows carelessly left open may\nentail catarrhal troubles with all of their evil and offensive consequences.\nImproper desks mean possible round shoulders. Everywhere there is physical\nplasticity, but a vanishing plasticity, leaving behind it symmetry, if the\nteacher is wise and watchful, or deformity, if she has been neither.\nIn the mental life there is the same impressibility. It is a time of beginnings and relative helplessness. Nothing is easier than a maladjustment of\ntasks against which the child is too ignorant to file a conscious protest. Few\nthings are more difficult than a generous understanding of the opening life,\na discovery of the employments most suitable to its successive stages, and a\nproper adaptation of the latter to the former.\nWhen the high-school stage arrives a radical change in the development\nof the pupil is at hand. New ambitions are awakened. The old routine, for\nwhich the growing child has a very hospitable place in certain periods of his\nunfolding, has become inexpressibly irksome. Individual initiative succeeds\nimitation or obedience.\nThe social instincts are quickened.\nSentimental\n\n"} {"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nattachments suddenly blossom out with exaggerated efflorescence. In brief,\nthe multitudinous phenomena of adolescence, with all of their iridescent\nchanges, appear and childhood is a thing of the past.\nHow can a school whose main prepossessions are in the directions of\nchildhood meet in the most satisfactory way the demands of a school whose\nmost absorbing interests should be in the unstable, emotional, transforming\nepoch of the adolescent ? How can it furnish the atmosphere and the requisite guidance for two such dissimilar stages of growth when each seems to\ndemand, in the interests of the best results, the exclusion of the other ? Let\nus remember that we are seeking not fairly good conditions, but the best conditions. This is one of the aspects of the secondary teacher's preparation that\nthe normal school seems not well fitted to give.\nBut the intellectual attitude changes quite as radically as the emotional.\nThe teaching, or instruction, must be greatly modified in its method. It is\ntrue that in the higher grades it approaches that of the high school, but in the\nlower grades it is quite radically different. Imagine the primary teacher\nemploying the Socratic irony ! Yet in the high school it has a legitimate place\naltho not a prominent one. The young child has slight critical capacity upon\nwhich the teacher can bank. His drawings of the human form lack necks\nand attach the arms to the side of the head, yet they do not offend his notions\nof accuracy. The high-school pupil needs the challenge, the cornering, the\ndefeat, perhaps, as well as the sympathetic attitude of praise and agreement.\nHe has found footings which give him confidence to hold his own against the\ncontention of a teacher, perhaps. Scholarship is a possible passion and the\nsubjects of instruction more and more absorb his mind. The studies are new\nand demand a new emphasis. The younger child is chiefly occupied with the\nindividualism of the world, but the high-school pupil seeks more and more to\nfind the unity as well of the phenomena of the world. To state it a little\ndifferently, the high-school age is the stage in which the pupil is entering upon\nthe epoch of conscious reflection; he is beginning the more explicit identification of himself with the genius of the modern world, which is essentially\nscientific. These epochs of growth are so generally recognized that I need\nnot follow this line of thought further than to say that the method of observation and illustration must now give way in a growing degree to\nthe method of demonstration in which the necessity of the relations is made\napparent.\nIt may be answered that the normal school is capable of adjusting itself to\nthese varying conditions by organizing separate departments which shall\nnot overlap each other. But this is only another way of saying that the two\nclasses of schools may exist side by side under the same general management.\nThat is true enough, but that will make a sort of university of the normal\nschool and there will be necessitated an elaborate and distinct equipment for\neach. As there must be a training-school for the elementary teachers so there\nmust be, for the highest success, a parallel opportunity for the secondary\n\n"} {"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n637\n\nteachers. I do not advocate an exact parallel, but an application of the same\ngeneral principle.\nI must content myself with one additional suggestion. It is quite possible\nfor the normal school to present the general features of a pedagogical philosophy. Itmust be very general, however, to be comprehended by all. It\nmay be carried to higher and higher planes as the ability of the pupil renders it\npossible, and such a development of the subject is extremely valuable in toning\nup the general character of the institution. But each subject of the curriculum\nneeds a method treatment which unfolds its inherent logic and its adaptation to\nthe needs of the developing pupil. For illustration, arithmetic must be studied\nfrom a new point of view. The normal student had his last contact with it in\nthe grades of the grammar school while on his way to the high school. He\nwas then too young to be conscious of his own generalizations or to rise to any\njust conception of the unifying ideas that make it a science. The subject\nmust be re-examined from the standpoint of its logical organization so that\nthe student can look down upon it as it emerges in all of its seeming complexity\nfrom a few very simple principles. This is what is meant by the normalschool people when they declare that their work upon the subjects of the course\nof study is not academic but professional.\n.What has been said with respect to arithmetic is to be considered as said\nwith regard to the other subjects of the elementary school. But the subjects of\nthe secondary school need a similar treatment and such a suggestion implies an\nacademic preparation that a college course will barely cover. If we are to have\nreally superior teachers for the secondary schools we must not be satisfied with\nanything short of what Germany is doing for her schools of that grade. It is\nabsurd to expect our existing normal schools to accomplish any such results.\nMeanwhile, these institutions are the only existing agencies, except the teachers' colleges and pedagogical departments of the universities, that can afford\nany great relief at present. The latter are so few in number that they can\naccommodate very few relatively. The former are fewer still but they are\nhaving a profound influence. Until the present ferment shall have aroused\nthe public mind to the necessity of making the secondary schools as attractive\npecuniarily as the colleges — and why should they not be ?— men and women\nof superior ability and preparation will not select them for life-work except in\noccasional instances where principalships pay a living wage. A few miles\nfrom where I am now writing is a township high school. Its principal is a\ngraduate of the Illinois State Normal University and of an excellent Ohio\ncollege. He is a professional teacher in all that the name implies, and the\ncommunity regards him as a good bargain at something like thirty-five hundred dollars a year. He took his professional course before his college course,\nbut he served a long apprenticeship as an assistant before he rose to the\ndignity of principal. He is a good illustration of what I have had before my\nmind as I have written of the secondary teacher and of his preparation, altho\nthere should be an educational institution which could do for him in two or\n\n"} {"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthree years what he did for himself in several times two or three years while he\nheld a subordinate position.\nI have made an incidental reference to the practice school as a feature of\nthe institution that will prepare secondary teachers. Doubtless the work of\nthe normal student in actual teaching under normal conditions, altho done in\nthe elementary grades, will be of material help in high schools. There should\nbe an opportunity to study a model high school and also to do actual teaching\nwork as a part of the preparation of the secondary teachers, however. The\nproblem is far more difficult than in the elementary school because of the\ngreater maturity of the pupils and of their more fully developed consciousness\nof the work of their teachers. It can be done and well done if deferred until\nthe scholarship and maturity of the teacher are of such a quality as to win the\nconfidence of the pupils. What is at first lacking in skill can be compensated\nfor by a fine culture and attractive personal qualities. Persons of such attainments understand the meaning of criticism and accomplish in a few weeks\nunder such conditions what would otherwise cost months or even years of\nexperience, if they were ever able to achieve it at all.\nI have not dared to discuss those other very desirable qualities of the secondary teacher which are matters of individual personality rather than the\nresult of professional training.\nMy conclusion as the result of my experience and study is that the normal\nschool as generally organized at present is not the best possible agency for the\npreparation of secondary teachers.\nXV {special)\nPROFESSIONAL\nTRAINING\nOF\nTEACHERS\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY\nCHARLES\n\nDEGARMO,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nTHE\nSCIENCE\nCORNELL UNIVERSITY\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF\n\nADMISSION\n\nTO\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nFOR\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nEXAMINATIONS\n\nThe so-called secondary schools of Germany cover a period of nine years\nin the educational life of the student; roughly from nine or ten to eighteen\nor nineteen years of age. The first three years of this course may be said\nto belong to elementary, the next four years to secondary, and the last two\nyears to higher education. To be trained for such a school, the candidate\nneeds the professional preparation of the elementary, the high-school, and the\ncollege teacher. To meet such conditions the Germans divide their certificates in the various subjects into first and second and third grades, the\nscope of which will be explained later.\nIt takes some sixty closely-printed pages to describe all the requirements\nfor the granting of these certificates in Prussia alone. Many of them relate\nto social, economic, and educational conditions which find no counterpart\namong us. For this reason, the statement of what is required in the German\n\n"} {"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nGERMANY\n\n639\n\nprofessional preparation of teachers for this class of schools may be greatly\nabridged.\nOne of the fixed ideas in Germany is that the candidate for teaching in the\nhigher schools must first be brought to the stage of productive scholarship.\nTwo antecedent conditions are therefore prescribed for eligibility for the\nlater professional examinations.\nThey are as follows :\n1. Graduation from the full course of a Gymnasium, a Real gymnasium or\nan Oberrealschule, each of which is nine years long, and admits to the\nuniversity.\n2. Evidence that the subjects in which the candidate wishes to qualify\nhave been studied in an orderly manner for at least three years in a university.\nWhen these and a few other minor conditions are satisfactorily met the\ncandidate is admitted to the examinations for certification.\nTHE\n\nEXAMINATION\n\nCOMMISSIONS\n\nThese commissions are composed mostly of university professors, together\nwith a few secondary school men, all of whom are named by the minister of\neducation and serve for one year. In general, there is a commission in each\nuniversity town, there being ten of these bodies in Prussia. The candidate is\nrequired to present himself before either the commission located where he\nspent his last semester of university residence, he having already completed\none other term there, or the commission in the district where he proposes to\nteach. Provision is made to prevent too many candidates from being admitted\nin any one district by transferring their applications to other commissions, and\nalso for the reception of candidates coming from other German states or\nforeign countries.\nSCOPE\n\nAND\n\nCHARACTER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEXAMINATIONS\n\nThe examination consists of two parts, one general and one special.\nThe general subjects are philosophy, pedagogy, and German literature;\nalso for those who expect to teach religion, the doctrines of the Evangelical or\nof the Catholic church.\nThe special examination is upon the subjects the candidate expects to\nteach, which are to be divided into majors and minors, examination in at\nleast four being required.\nThe subjects chosen must be taken in the following combinations:\nLatin and Greek; French and English; history and geography; religion\nand Hebrew; pure mathematics and physics; chemistry with mineralogy and\nphysics; or, instead of physics, botany and zoology, with the understanding\nthat German may take the place of either of the subjects in the first three\ngroups or of Hebrew in the fourth. Applied mathematics is also a subject\nfor examination, to be preceded, however, by pure mathematics.\nThe minimum requisite for any kind of a certificate is that the candidate\nshall be satisfactory in the general examination, and shall obtain first rank in\nat least one subject and second rank in at least two of the others.\n\n"} {"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nFirst rank in any subject entitles the holder to teach it thruout the nine\ngrades of the school. The holder of a certificate of second rank in any subject\nis entitled to teach that subject only thru the first six grades, that is, up to and\nincluding unter secunda.\nIt is in general expected that the candidate will select at least two majors\nand two minors. He may, however, select more of either or both, supplementary examinations being subsequently allowed in order to enable\nhim to extend the range of subjects he is certificated to teach. Dean\nRussell states that few teachers ever secure first rank for more than three\nsubjects.\nBoth the general and the special examinations are partly written and\npartly oral. The written work, however, is quite unlike the sort we are\naccustomed to in this country, for it is prepared at home in the form of essays\nwith full liberty to use books to any extent desired. Only personal assistance\nis forbidden.\nOne essay is upon some theme in philosophy or education; other essays\nare upon themes selected from the candidate's major subjects. Six weeks are\nallowed for each essay, with a possible extension of the time to six weeks more.\nIn this written work the design is to test the sufficiency of the applicant's\nknowledge, the adequacy of his judgment, and to show whether or not he is\ncapable of a logically arranged, clearly and adequately expressed exposition\nof the subject in hand.\nIn the oral examination upon the general subjects, the following points are\nto be established:\n1. In religion, whether or not the candidate shows himself well acquainted\nwith the content and connection of Holy Writ, has a general knowledge of the\nhistory of the Christian church, and knows the chief doctrines of its confession.\n2. Whether or not in philosophy he is acquainted with the important facts\nof its history, with the important doctrines of logic and psychology; and also\nwhether he has read one of the more important philosophical masterpieces\nwith comprehension, such as Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Berkeley's Principles of Human Knowledge, Kant's Critique of Pure\nReason, or Schopenhauer's Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung.\n3. In pedagogy, whether or not he has grasped its philosophical basis,\nknows the important stages of its historical development since the sixteenth\ncentury, and possesses some understanding of the problems of his future\ncalling.\n4. In German literature, the examination is to show whether or not he is\nacquainted with its general development, especially since the beginning of its\nspringtime in the eighteenth century, and that since leaving school he has\nread with understanding its more important works.\nNeedless to say, the oral examinations in the subject-matter to be taught\nare the most searching and thorogoing of all. The candidate need not expect\nthat the examiners will not sound all the depths and shallows of his knowledge.\n\n"} {"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nGERMANY\n\n641\n\nAn idea of the range of the examination may be gained by the prescriptions\nfor those who would teach English.\nAs a preliminary the candidate must show that he has a good elementary\nknowledge of Latin and can correctly translate the easier writers, like Caesar,\nat sight. Then come the regular requirements, as follows :\n1. For the second grade: Knowledge of the elements of phonetics, correct\nand ready pronunciation; acquaintance with the etymology and syntax of the\ngrammar; possession of a sufficient vocabulary of words and phrases and considerable practice in the use of the speech; outline of the course of development of English literature since Shakspere and reading knowledge of the\nimportant poetic and prose writings of recent times; capacity for facile translation of well-known authors into German, and the power to compose in\nEnglish without gross errors.\n2. For the first grade: Oral and written use of the language, not only\nwith the grammatical accuracy arising from scientific grounding in the grammar, but also with more extensive acquaintance with the vocabulary and\nidioms, as well as a capacity to use them with a facility adequate to the demands\nof instruction; general knowledge of the historical development of the language from the old English period; knowledge of the development of the\nliterature united with a thoro reading of a number of eminent writings from\nthe earlier periods to the present; insight into the laws of English versification, both in early and in late periods; acquaintance with the history of\nEngland, as well as with the proper exposition of texts in use in schools.\nIt is remarked that an especially excellent knowledge of modern English\nliterature or an unusual mastery of the tongue as now used, may be\naccepted in lieu of corresponding deficiencies in any of the foregoing\nrequirements.\nShould a successful candidate receive third grade in any subject, he is\npermitted to teach this subject only in the first three grades of the school, i. e.,\nin the elementary classes.\nThe final certificate covering the various subjects is ranked according to\nthe number of first-, second-, or third-grade ratings received. A first-rank\ncertificate means that the holder has received upon examination either two\nmajors of first grade and two minors of second grade, or two majors and one\nminor of first grade, and it entitles him to future appointment to the position\nof head teacher, with the title of professor.\nA second-rank certificate means that the holder has not reached the\nminimum above described, and that he will be restricted to the position of\nordinary teacher (Oberlehrer).\n(See Russell, German Higher Education,\npp. 352-369-)\nArrangement is made for various supplementary examinations to make up\ndeficiencies.\nIt requires at least a year after leaving the university to prepare for and\npass these various written and oral examinations.\n\n"} {"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\nSEMINARY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nWORK\n\nAfter all examinations are out of the way, the candidate is required to pass\none year in so-called seminary training, either at one of the twelve state seminaries for this purpose, or at some one of those established at Gymnasiums and\nReal gymnasiums by the rescript of 1890. From three to seven candidates\nsuccessful in the examinations constitute the students in a given seminary for\nthe year. They are under the charge of the director and one or two of his\nablest teachers. The aim is to make the candidate thoroly acquainted with\nthe work of the school with which the seminary is connected, and to give him\nopportunity to do some trial teaching under the guidance and criticism of the\ndirector and his chosen assistants. The first quarter-year is spent in observation in all classes and in all subjects. During the second quarter he makes\nhis j&rst attempts at teaching according to the directions of the leaders in\ncharge. From these beginnings he gradually enlarges his teaching-sphere\nuntil he gives lessons during the whole hour, and often for a succession of\nhours, but always under the inspection of one of the regular teachers. The\ncandidates are also intrusted with the examination of written work of the\nvarious classes. The instruction in any given subject closes with a sample\nlesson, at which the other candidates, the director, and the other teachers are\npresent. Following this lesson at a suitable time there is a critical discussion\nof its merits and defects. At least two hours a week must be devoted to a\nsession with the candidates, usually led by the director. There is much\nlatitude allowed as to the choice and treatment of subjects at these sessions.\nFormal reports are relieved by informal discussions.\nToward the close of the year the candidate hands in a somewhat extensive\nessay upon some concrete pedagogical or didactic problem assigned by the\ndirector. At the end of the year the director sends to the provincial school\nboard an elaborate report of the year's work. Upon the basis of this report,\ntogether with the results of previous examinations, the board admits the\ncandidate to his final test, the year of cadet teaching in some Gymnasium to\nwhich he shall be assigned.\nThis is called the Probejahr.\nTHE YEAR OF CADET TEACHING\n\nDas Probejahr\nFor the year of trial teaching the candidates are assigned in pairs to the\nvarious Gymnasiums or Oberrealschulen, when they teach from eight to ten\nhours per week under the guidance of older teachers. They must do a certain\namount of supervision, attend faculty meetings and identify themselves in\nevery way with the life of the school.\nUp to the end of this year they have received no pay whatever, but if their\nrecord is approved at the end of the trial year, their names are enrolled on the\nlist of teachers eligible to appointment in the higher schools of the province.\nWhen so appointed they are teachers and state officers for life, assured that\n\n"} {"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nGERMANY\n\n643\n\nwith reasonable diligence they will have employment so long as they are able\nto work and then — a pension for the remainder of their lives.\nCOMMENTS\n\nThat all teachers in German secondary schools are men is a well-known\nfact. It may well cause astonishment in the United States where the number\nof men teachers not only shows no proportional increase, but suffers rather\nan absolute annual decrease, that any country can by any possibility induce\nenough men of approved quality to meet conditions so strenuous as to knowledge and professional training. The minimum is as follows: three years in\nthe primary schools, nine in the Gymnasium, three in the university, one in\nexaminations, one in the seminary, and one in trial teaching — eighteen years\nin all, not to speak of the one year of military training exacted of all able-bodied\nyoung men. Yet the seminary year was added in 1890, not so much that there\nmight be more training, as that there might be fewer candidates.\nTo understand a situation like this, one must bear several facts in\nmind.\nIn the first place, the secondary schools are not democratic in our sense of\nthe term, for the common schools, in which nine-tenths of the children of\nGermany are found, do not open into them at all. The Gymnasiums and hence\nthe universities exist therefore not for the people as a whole, but for the\neducation to those who form the professional and official classes. As a rule,\nit does not occur to a German university graduate that he might go into industrial life, and even if the idea did occur to him, it would soon be dismissed, for\nhis training has been professional and leaves him unfitted for success in any\nother field. Broadly speaking, there is nothing for the German university\ngraduate to do except to practice the profession for which he has been trained.\nIf this chances to be teaching, a teacher he must be — or nothing.\nIf now it should be the case that candidates for the professions, teaching\nincluded, should increase faster than the population increases, it may easily be\nseen that what Bismarck called an educated proletariat would be formed.\nThat is, a class of men who have their skill and nothing else to offer, and who\nmight, indeed, become Hungercandidaten.\nWhat are the facts? In the period from 185 1 to 1861 the number of\nstudents in the German universities was 335 to each million inhabitants. This\nratio remained substantially unaltered until 1871. From 1871 to 1876 the\nnumber rose to 386. From this time on, the development has been rapid.\nBy the end of the year 1880 the number of students had risen from 13,029 in\n1836 to 28,861. By the end of 1890 the number had risen to 32,756, and by\n1905 had reached a total of 42,435, or over 705 per million inhabitants. This\nmeans that during the last thirty years the attendance at the universities has\ngrown twice as fast as the population, and that consequently the demand for\nplaces in civil offices, in law, medicine, theology, and teaching has enormously\nincreased.\nThere are in general two applicants for every place, and, further-\n\n"} {"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmore, a class of applicants who must have the kind of places they have been\nprepared for, since they are unfitted for anything else.\nIn American universities at present it is difficult to get good men to consider teaching as a career, the transition to industrial life being so easy and\nits prospective monetary rewards so attractive. That we could successfully\nimpose the German conditions for entrance upon the work of high-school\nteaching is not to be imagined. Few men would apply, and the public would\nrevolt in the case of women.\nFurthermore, we have no means for carrying out any general system of\ncadet teaching, since local autonomy would place this matter at the individual\ndisposition of the various school boards. It remains to be seen whether we\ncould not by some system of benefits to individual and community induce\nhigh schools to undertake this much needed work. Candidates would serve\nfor little or no salary, if only they were assured of a reasonable expectation of\nemployment at the close of their cadetship, while school boards would consent\nto this arrangement if it were evident that on the whole the schools and the\ncommunity would thereby be educationally benefitted.\nXVI {special)\nTHE\n\nPRESENT\n\nEDWIN\n\nG.\n\nDEXTER,\n\nTRAINING\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF TEACHERS\nSCHOOLS\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nFOR SECONDARY\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nILLINOIS\n\nThe task assigned to me in the preparation of this general report is one\nwith easily defined limits. It is a study of fact pure and simple, entirely free\nfrom speculation with intent to discover the facilities for pedagogical instruction within the colleges and universities of our country. If we are to accept\nthe rapidly growing feeling that these are the only educational institutions\nadequately equipped in their academic and scientific departments for the\npreparation of teachers for secondary schools, the study is one of the professional preparation of these teachers.\nThe sources of information are threefold :\n1. Recent reports of the United States Commissioner of Education,\n2. College and university catalogs as well as special -reports of all sorts from those\ninstitutions.\n3. A considerable mass of correspondence with various college officers, mostly professors of education.\n\nFrom the study of the first of these sources of information it was found\nthat 219 colleges and universities reported (Rep., 1904) students enrolled in\ncourses in pedagogy. The merest inspection of the list convinces one of its\ninexactness since several having successful departments of education are not\nincluded. Such institutions are, however, included within the study. On\nthe other hand, a careful study of the catalogs of the institutions named in the\ncommissioner's report discloses the fact that 21 of the number make no mention\n\n"} {"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n645\n\nof any pedagogical offerings. An attempt was made, thru correspondence\nwhen necessary, to secure the catalogs of all the 219 institutions mentioned,\ntho without success in 50 instances.\nOf the 169 institutions whose catalogs were studied a limited number (16)\noffered so-called \"teachers' courses\" in specific subjects, as Latin, English, or\nmathematics, which were plainly but rapid reviews, useful as ''cramming\"\ncourses for teachers' examinations; but since no offerings were made along\nstrictly pedagogical lines, these were omitted from the study. A few institutions mentioned by the Commissioner are special schools for the deaf or blind\nand were excluded as plainly beyond the scope of this paper.\nWith such substraction and with the addition of institutions known to offer\ncourses in pedagogy, but not mentioned in the list, we have as the basis of this\nreport 148 colleges and universities of widely varying educational merit and\nelaboration of organization.\nA considerable number of these institutions, altho classed by the Commissioner as\"higher,\" offer academic and scientific courses scarcely higher\nin grade than those of the sophomore year of the better universities and perhaps theoretically should be excluded from this study. Practically, however,\nthey must be included since they are the sources of supply for the teaching\nforce of the secondary schools tributary to them.\nIn the statistical study of these institutions immediately following, made\nfor the purpose of showing in a general way the facilities for pedagogical instruction, the following facts are presented:\n1. Number of instructors of professional rank offering pedagogical courses.\n2. Number of instructors of lesser rank offering such courses.\n3. Number of instructors of both these classes who are also officially connected with\nother departments of instruction.\n4. Total number of pedagogical courses offered.\n5. A rough classification of such courses, (a) Courses in educational philosophy.\n(b) History of education, (c) Administration and method, (d) Educational psychology\n(where these courses are not offered in the department of education or pedagogy but by a\nseparate psychological faculty they are not included), (e) Observation and practice\nteaching.\n(/) Seminars,\n(g) School hygiene,\n(h) School law.\n\nBy the term \"course\" is meant the offering of a single subject for one\nterm. For the purpose of this study it was deemed inadvisable to take into\nconsideration, either the varying lengths of courses (usually either two or\nthree to the college year) or the varying number of exercises per week. To\nhave done so would, in some ways, have increased its value but only at the\ncost of very greatly increased complication.\nThe question of classification of subjects under a reasonable number of heads\nwas not an easy one to settle. More than one hundred different statements\nof courses were found. Whether the classification I have used is the best\npossible I should not wish to say. I am, however, stating it with sufficient\ndetail to make it ful y understood :\n\n"} {"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nClass A: All courses of a general philosophical nature. These are frequently under\nthe title \"Philosophy of Education.\" Courses entitled \"Principles of Education\" are also\nincluded when from the description it is plain that the emphasis is on the philosophical\nside; \"Educational Classics\" when the emphasis is not on the historical side. Courses\nin the philosophy of particular educators, as Herbart, Rousseau, Froebel, etc.\nClass B: All general courses in the history of education. All special studies of the\nschools of particular periods or countries except those in present organization and methods.\nEducational classics when the emphasis is historical.\nClass C: A very wide range of courses is covered by this group. Roughly, they may\nbe divided into two divisions: (i) courses in organization and administration; (2) courses\nin methods of teaching, either general or in the teaching of particular subjects. Under\nthe first division are the following: School organization, general pedagogy (not theoretical),\nschool administration, the present organization of foreign school systems, etc. Under the\nsecond division comes general method and all courses in the teaching of special subjects,\nas Latin, mathematics, etc. These courses are frequently offered by instructors in other\ndepartments than that of education.\nClass D : No courses in psychology were included which had not plainly a pedagogical\napplication. Among those covered are the following: Educational psychology, genetic\npsychology, child-study.\nClass E: These courses are fully discussed later in this report.\nClass F: This group of courses were plainly for advanced students. Educational\nphilosophy, history, and administration are included tho the latter predominates. The\ntitles of the other two divisions are sufficiently expressive and need no explanation.\n\nIn the tabulation of data everything is excluded which applies specifically\nto the work of the elementary schools. Whatever applies to school in general\nor to secondary schools is retained. The University of Chicago and Columbia\nUniversity offer many courses in elementary-school training, and many of the\nsmaller colleges offer some work that must be excluded for the same reason.\nSuch subjects as manual training, music, drawing, household science, physical\neducation are not included because adequate data are obtainable from very\nfew institutions.\nThe facts disclosed by the study of the 148 colleges and universities are as\nfollows: Within them 357 different instructors offer courses of a pedagogical\ncharacter. Of that number of instructors 278 are of professional rank. That\nso large a number are of this rank is due to the fact that within the smaller\ninstitutions, which predominate in the list, there are but comparatively few\nofficers of a lower grade.\nOf the entire number of instructors (357) 278 are officially connected with\nother departments in which they also give instruction. This fact is also\nlargely due to conditions in the smaller institutions in which the pedagogical\ninstruction is frequently given by the professor of philosophy. The custom\ntoo, even in the larger institutions, of having the courses in special methods\ngiven by instructors in the academic and scientific departments, is of influence\nhere.\nThe total number of courses of the nature covered by the classification\nalready given was found to be 935. The classification of these courses is as\nfollows :\n\n"} {"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSchook\n\nClass A\nClass B\nClass C\nClass D\nClass E\nClass F\nClass G\nClass H\n\n(philosophical) 37\n(historical)\n123\n(organization and method) 148\n(psychological) 47\n(observation and practice) in 36 schools.\n(seminars)\n27\n(school hygiene)\n15\n(school law)\n13\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n13\n\nCourses\n\nPer Cent, of\nTotal Number of\nCourses\n8\n21. 2 1.4\n\n469\n196\n93\n74\n\n50.7\n\n2.2\n20\n\n9.8\n\nThe exact nature of the work done in the particular subjects covered by\nthis classification it is not easy to determine, either by the printed catalogs\nor correspondence. In the smaller institutions it is almost entirely thru7.6 the\nuse of the textbook, and in the larger ones mainly so. In the former the\nsingle course offered is usually designated as ''pedagogy\" or \"school management.\" The number of institutions offering courses in class A is0 largely\n7\naugmented by a requirement of the Kansas law to the effect that all candidates for the teacher's certificate must be proficient in the philosophy of education. That being the case, all of the colleges of the state offer that subject.\nFor class E (observation and practice) it was impossible to determine even the\nnumber of courses offered since the work is so often done in connection with\nother definite offerings.\nThe following institutions, however, profess to offer some facilities for the\nwork. Just what is done in some of these institutions is shown later in this\nreport.\nBerea College\nBrown University\nBethany College (Kan.)\nUniversity of Colorado\nColumbia University\nUniversity of Chicago\nCornell College\nDrake University\nFisk University\nHoward University\nUniversity of Idaho\nUniversity of Illinois\nIowa Wesleyan University\nKnox College\nKentucky State College\nUniversity of Missouri\nUniversity of Nebraska\n\nUniversity of Nashville\nUniversity of Nevada\nOhio State University\nUniversity of Rochester\nRoger Williams University\nSyracuse University\nThroop Polytechnic Institute\nUnion College (Neb.)\nUniversity of Utah\nUniversity of Washington\nUniversity of Wisconsin\nWest Virginia University\nWestern Reserve University\nNew York University\nDartmouth College\nHarvard University\nNebraska Wesleyan University\n\nThe following table shows with some detail the conditions of pedagogical\ninstruction for a selected list of colleges and universities taken from the larger\nlist of 148. Only those institutions were included for which conditions could\nbe fairly well determined. Any inaccuracies may be ascribed to the difficulty\nof classifying the offerings.\n\n"} {"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\nIf\n\nTABLE\n\nen\n\na\n\nSchools\n19\n14\n\n13\n\ne\n\n0.2\n\n19\n\n14\n\n24\n\n2\n\nI\n\nII\n\n8\n3\n\nI\n\n0\n0\n\nJ3\n17\n\n35\n\nlb\n\n6\n\n0\n\n>.\n\n6\n5\n\n2\n\n2\n\n21\n\n12\n\n18\n\n9\n4\n\n20\nI\n\nI\n\n12\n\n4\n9\n\n6\n3\n3\n3\n\n2\n\n2\n\nII\n\nII9\n2\n\n6\n8\n\n9\n8\n\nI\n\n26\n14\n\n2\n\n7\n8\n\n12\n\n15\n7\n15\n28\n\nI\n\n6\n\n2\n\n29\n16\n\n6\n\n25\n\n2\n\n2\n\n2\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\n3\n\nI\n\n5\n3\n\n16\n48\n\n2\n\nI\n\n3\n3\n5\n4\n\n3\n\n2\n\n2\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n7\n\n•S\n\n2\n\n10\n\nI\n\nI\n\n3\nI\n\n92\n\n3\n4\nI\n2\n\n3\n\n2\n\n55\n15\n4\n\n5\n\nI\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE\n\nI\n\nno\n\n4\n\n2\n\n2\n\n5\n8\n\n12\n\n3\n\nI\n\n4\n4\n\n3\n3\n\nI\n\n2\n2\n\nI\n10I\n\n5\n3\n8\n4\n4\n8\n\nI\n\n3\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n2\n\nI\n\nI\n\n5\n\n3\n\nI\n\nI\n\n3\n\nI\n\n22\n\nOBSERVATION\n\n0\n\n3\n8\n21\n5\n\n4\n6\n\n10\n\n1>\n\n8\n\n133\n\n4\n6\n4\n\n6\n\n6\n3\n7\n8\n4\n\n3\n\n1\n\n515\n\n29\nI\n\n27\n\n2\n\n3\n3\n\ntj\n\n15\n17\n\n23\n\n1\n\nH\nHarvard University\nUniversity of Illinois\nUniversity of Michigan . .\nUniversity of Missouri. . .\nUniversity of Iowa\nNew York University. . . .\nUniversity of Chicago\nColumbia University\nUniversity of Washington\nUniversity of Nebraska. .\nUniversity of California. .\nUniversity of Colorado . .\nLeland Stanford Jr. Univ,\nUniversity of Rochester . .\nDartmouth College\nUniversity of Wisconsin. .\nIndiana University\nOhio State University\nWest Virginia University.\nUniversity of Texas\nBrov?n University\nUniversity of Minnesota . .\n\nId\n\nW\n\n1\n\n13\n\n.2\n\nI\n\n1 1 1 II1\n\n^^\n\n[Secondary\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1\"\n\nNATIONAL\n\n648\n\n-a\n\n•32\n\nTEACHING\n\nyes\nyes\nno\nyes\nno\nno\nyes\nyes\nyes\nno\nyes\nyes\nyes\nyes\nyes\nyes\n\nThe normal schools 32of the country have, from their inception, been cenyes\ntered very largely in the practice school. On the other hand, university\nyes\ndepartments of education have developed the instructional and theoretical\nsides first and are only just now beginning to give adequate attention to the\npractice school. It is probably truer than many of us would wish to acknowledge that it is as yet largely on paper. The following pages, setting forth\nwith some detail the observation and practice facilities in a considerable number\nof institutions, were taken, in some part, from their printed announcements\nbut more largely from correspondence with officers of the various departments\nof education.\nThe University of California and Leland Stanford Jr. University are\nrequired by state law to give training in observation and practice to matriculants for the state certificate; \"at least one-third of the prescribed work in\neducation shall consist of actual teaching in a well-equipped training-school\nof secondary grade directed by the department of education.\" This law went\ninto effect June, 1906.\nThe University of California has been doing this for some years, using the\ncity schools as a medium. So far the work has been chiefly in the grades.\nThe university will soon maintain a high school of its own. Temporarily\nthe Leland Stanford Jr. University will arrange for practice work in the San\nJose Normal School.\nBrown University possesses excellent facilities for the practical training of\n\n"} {"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n649\n\nteachers thru an arrangement with the school authorities of the city of Providence. Practice teaching is done under the supervision of the director of the\ntraining-department of the Providence High Schools, who is also the professor of the theory and practice of education at Brown University. The\ndirector confers with the principals of the high schools and the supervising\nteacher as to the arrangement of hours and classes assigned to the student\nteachers. He visits these classes frequently and confers with the principal in cases of discipline arising in connection with the work of student\nteacher-.\nThe director nominates supervising teachers from the regular teachers\nemployed in the high schools. The nominations must be approved by the\ncommittee on high schools in order to become valid. The university pays\neach supervising teacher fifty dollars for each student teacher of the first\ntype assigned to such supervisor for full time. Any supervising teacher is\nentitled to free instruction at Brown University, tho the courses taken may not\ncount toward a degree unless tuition is paid.\nStudents who wish to be enrolled as student teachers must hold the degree\nof Bachelor of Arts or the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy from some reputable\ninstitution. They must be satisfactory to the superintendent of public schools\nand to the professor of education of Brown University. They must take certain prescribed courses in education at Brown University and such courses may\ncount toward the Master's degree. Those who complete their work in the\nschools and in the college receive a teacher's diploma from the university.\nWeakness in discipline or in scholarship is sufficient cause for withholding\nthe diploma.\nEach year the committee on high schools appoints at least six student\nteachers (usually three of each sex), from a list of candidates who have fulfilled\nthe requirements for student teachers in general. These students are termed\nstudent teachers of the first class. The city pays them four hundred dollars a\nyear for their services and they are subject to the same regulations as the\nregular teachers except as to the amount of work they are required to do.\nTheir work is arranged in accordance with the plan adopted by the committee\non high schools.\nStudent teachers of the second class serve without compensation. They\nmust do at least one hundred and twenty-five hours' observation and individual instruction under the supervision of competent teachers. The plan\nof their work is determined by the superintendent of public schools and the\nprofessor of education. The university requirements are the same as for\nstudent teachers of the first class. When they have received the teacher's\ndiploma they have the same status before thie committee on high schools as if\nthey had been student teachers of the first type. In the appointment of regular\nteachers of the first grade, preference is given to those who have completed\nthis course of training.\nThe University of Wisconsin offers no specific work in practice teaching\n\n"} {"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntho the department of German makes some provision for such work in connection with the elementary classes in that language.\nAt Dartmouth College the professor of education and the graduate students\nin education spend one week each year visiting the high schools of Boston.\nStudents are also urged to visit the local high school. A number of students\nare employed as substitute teachers in the Hanover schools and a number\nassist in different college courses. Such work is carried on in connection with\nthe graduate courses which such students are pursuing.\nThe University of Rochester does not attempt to give opportunity for\npractice teaching, tho the students in one of the Latin courses occasionally\nconduct the recitation of the class. Most of the students who intend to teach\nare given positions in the city evening schools, where they work under expert\nsupervision. Some of the work in the evening schools is superintended by\ninstructors from the university. The university furnishes substitute teachers\nfor the day high schools.\nAt Harvard University all students in course \"Education 3\" must visit schools\nregularly the first half-year and they must make weekly reports of these visits.\nThe reports are written and are at first made to cover a wide range; later\nthey must cover the field of work of special interest to the individual student.\nDuring the first half-year the students visit and report on the work in every\ngrade from the primary school thru the high school. During the second\nhalf-year the inexperienced students of the course teach for practice in the\nupper grammar grades and in the high schools of Cambridge, Newton, Brookline, and Medford; each student, teaching continuously some one class or\nsection in some one subject for the half-year, being entirely responsible for the\nclass or section of which he has charge, just as if he were the regular teacher.\nAll the work in observation and practice is in the direct charge of one of the\ninstructors in education from Harvard University. He discusses with the\nstudents their work, giving aid in outlining the lessons the students are to\npresent.\nThe experienced students visit schools thruout the year, giving special\nattention to administration and organization the second half of the year.\nThis course is open only to seniors and graduate students. The university\noffers one free course to one teacher for each student teaching in a given school\nup to the number of ten courses in any one year.\nDuring one term (twelve weeks) an opportunity is given the students in\neducation at West Virginia University to observe the high-school work of the\nMorgantown schools. About twelve or fifteen exercises are observed. For\nstudents who have taken a number of cotirses in education, there is a seminar\nor practucum which meets twice a week for twenty-four weeks. Each student\npresents at least six lessons in the city schools, being informed some days in\nadvance just what lesson is to be presented in a given subject. One student\nprepares a lesson plan and presents it for criticism. Each member of the\nseminar also prepares a tentative plan of the same lesson, the entire class being\n\n"} {"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n651\n\npresent when the lesson is presented. After the presentation of the lesson\nthe instructor holds a conference of students for the purpose of criticism.\nIn 1904 the University of Missouri estabhshed the Teachers College High\nSchool which now enrolls about one hundred students. Nearly all the teaching\nis done by senior students of the Teachers College, who receive credit for their\nteaching the same as for any regular university subject. Students who are\nto receive the teacher's certificate must do practice teaching (from two to nine\nhours' credit) one semester. The practice work is under the direct supervision of the professor of theory and practice of teaching, who is also superintendent of the Teachers College High School, assisted by the heads of\ndepartments of the Teachers College. The high school is under the immediate\ndirection of a principal, the girls being in charge of a lady assistant\nThe University of Ohio conducts no courses in observation but some\ninstructors arrange for such work in the city high schools.\nThe University of Washington has no practice school but students who\nintend to teach are requested to do a semester's work in observation and\npractice in the Seattle public schools. One of the university courses which\ndeals with secondary school curriculum requires students to devote one afternoon each week to observation in the city schools, under the direction of the\nprofessor of education. In connection with a course in supervision, students\nvisit local schools to study the problems of organization and management.\nThe University of Chicago maintains a secondary school. The teachers\nare experts and students have an opportunity to study the workings of the\nschool and the methods of instruction. The announcements of the university\nstate that practice teaching is required in certain courses in mathematics;\nhowever, no information could be obtained as to where or how the work is\ndone.\nAt the University of Colorado observation and practice teaching are carried\non in the city schools and in the state preparatory school. The work in the\ncity schools is in charge of the professor of education. The general direction\nof the observation and practice teaching is left to the head master of the\npreparatory school.\nObservation and practice teaching at the University of Nebraska.\nEXTRACTS\n\nFROM\n\nThe Projessional Training oj Teachers.\nMacmillan.\nG. W.\nProfessor of Education, University of Nebraska.\n\nA. Luckey,\n\nBy an arrangement with the public-school authorities of Lincoln, the universitystudents are given opportunity for observation and practice under direct supervision, covering both elementary and high-school grades. In order to obtain this privilege the student\nmust have reached the rank of senior and be within one year of the requirements for the\nuniversity teacher's certificate.\n\nStudents are required to take certain courses in education.\nPartly for their convenience and partly on account of their strength, the students are\ndivided into two classes, cadets and student teachers.\nThe former give attention only to\n\n"} {"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nobservation of the regular schoolwork and to the assisting of the regular teacher in the\nclasswork; the latter, in addition to the work of cadets, are called upon as substitutes,\nor supply teachers, to fill temporary vacancies. Cadets receive no pay, but student teachers,\nwhen supplying, receive pay at about one-half the usual salary. There are fifteen publicschool buildings in the city, to each of which may be assigned one or more cadets or student\nteachers, depending upon the size of the building and the number of students registering\nfor practice-work. Students visit the building to which they are assigned at last twice a\nweek, spending two hours on each visit. They report to the principal for duty and are\nsent by her to one of the rooms, where they make themselves useful by assisting the teacher\nin the seat and classwork of the pupils, in distributing material, etc. In this way they become\nfamiliar with the general plan of the schoolwork, with the names of most of the pupils;\nso that, when later they are called upon to supply temporarily the place of any teacher in\nthe building to which they have been assigned, they feel at home, and the pupils look upon\nand respect them as regular employees or teachers.\nWhen two or more students are assigned to the same building, they arrange to have\ntheir visits come at different hours. The position of student teacher calls for more responsibility than that of the cadet, since the former may be called upon at any time to supply\nin the building to which he has been assigned, tho the supply-work of any student teacher\nwill probably not exceed ten days per year.\n\nThe city superintendent of schools is a university lecturer on school supervision and he has the practical direction of cadets and student teachers.\nA limited number of advanced students who are carrying fewer hours of university\nwork are employed as regular assistants and readers in the high school. They give daily\nservice and receive pay for the same at the rate of twenty-five cents per hour.\n\nAt Columbia University two practice and observation schools are maintained. In one of these opportunity for practice teaching is given. The\nother charges a high rate of tuition and the work is in charge of expert teachers.\nIn the school first mentioned all work is in charge of special teachers who\nsupervise the work of the student teachers. The second school affords opportunity for observation.\nThe English department requires twenty-four hours of ^English as a prerequisite to admission .to the training-course. Students who have never\ntaught are required to teach two or three weeks. This work is carefully\nprepared for and carefully supervised. All students are required to make a\nstudy of the work in the Horace Mann School; to make accurate and deta'led\nreports of what they have seen, and to participate in critical reports of\nwhat they have seen, and in critical discussions on this work. The\ngreat need of the department is more time for practice. (Professor Baker\nthinks that, instead of one or two weeks, at least a month of such teachng\nshould be required of each inexperienced teacher.)\nThe department of mathematics has a two-hour course in observation and\npractice. About one-sixth of the time is allotted to observing the teaching in\ncertain classes, and five hours to general observation in the Horace Mann\nSchool. The rest of the time is devoted to teaching. All work is under the\ngeneral control of the head of the department, who visits the classes as opportunity permits, and it is under the immediate supervision of an adviser of\nexperience who meets daily each student who is observing or practicing.\n\n"} {"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n653\n\nThe department of Latin follows two methods in the training of teachers.\nA certain amount of time, equivalent to about six weeks, one period per day,\nis devoted to observation in the various classes under the guidance of the\nteachers; they observe and report on the work that is done, and sometimes lay\nout the plans of lessons for the following day, which they can criticize in the\nlight of the actual lesson. Finally, the students are given a certain amount\nof actual teaching. So far each student has been able to have but one or two\nweeks of actual practice in teaching. In the department of geology no attempt\nat practice teaching is made.\nStudents who expect to teach physiography in secondary schools do observation work. They also assist instructors in preparing laboratory materials\nand devising laboratory exercises and in an instance to individuals in group\nlaboratory work.\nAt the University of Illinois, the Academy (situated upon the campus) and\nthe city schools of Champaign and Urbana are utilized for observation and\npractice purposes. A two-hour course in observation is open to juniors and a\nthree-hour course in practice is open to seniors. In the former, students are\nassigned particular courses, largely in the academy which they visit regularly\nfor from four to six weeks, carefully noting the work done and having weekly\nconferences with the regular instructor and a member of the department of\neducation of the university who is in charge of the practice-work. Students\nin the practice course teach regularly for some weeks a class assigned them in\nsome one of the schools.\nCERTIFICATES\n\nA number of institutions offer a teacher's certificate upon the completion\nof a certain number of hours' work in specified departments. The University\nof Michigan appears to have been the leader in this movement and nearly all\nthe courses leading to this type of diploma are similar to the requirements for\nthe teacher's diploma of the University of Michigan.\nIn general, certificates are based upon three sets of requirements, viz. :\na) Special knowledge in the subject or group of subjects the candidate wishes to teach.\nh) Professional knowledge. This includes courses in pedagogy and education, and\nusually psychology and logic.\nc) General knowledge of science, mathematics, English, foreign languages, history, etc.\nThis requirement is intended to secure as broad culture as possible.\n\nThese three groups of requirements will probably cover the demands made\nby all the institutions which grant such certificates of qualification to teachers\nin secondary schools. The courses differ in the amount of work required in\nthe different groups. In several states the university certificate is honored\nas a teaching certificate and, after the holder has taught a certain length of\ntime, the state superintendent of public instruction issues a permanent certificate to teach. Below are given extracts from the regulations of several\nUniversities which grant diplomas. No attempt is made to study the requirements of the many small colleges which offer certificates.\nTheir\n\n"} {"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncertificates are usually given to undergraduates, while the certificates here\nstudied are issued at graduation or to graduate students.\nUniversity of Wisconsin: Special, major subject; general, same as for regular course\nleading to degree; professional, ten hours.\nA law enacted by the legislature of 1901 states:\n\"A diploma granted upon the completion of a regular collegiate course of the University of Wisconsin, if accompanied by a certificate that the bearer has completed the course\nof pedagogical instruction prescribed by the university for all persons who intend to teach\n.... upon presentation to the state superintendent shall entitle the holder to receive\nfrom that officer a certificate which shall authorize him to teach in any public school for\none year.\"\nSection 458 h and d of the Revised Statutes provides that after one year of successful\nteaching the diploma of a graduate of the university may be countersigned by the state\nsuperintendent, and that when so countersigned the diploma shall have the force and effect\ngiven by law to the unlimited state certificate, and may be honored as a teaching certificate.\nUniversity of Nebraska: Special, twenty hours (varies); general, quahfications for\nB.S. or B.A. degree; professional, eighteen hours.\nThe university teacher's certificate is granted to graduates of the university who\nhave satisfactorily completed the work outlined below and have shown marked proficiency\ntherein.\n\"The professional work required for the teacher's certificate may be elected by regular\nstudents above sophomore standing, by experienced teachers, and by unclassified students\nwho satisfy the heads of departments that they are qualified to pursue the work.\n\"Under section ten of the school law of Nebraska, as amended in 1897, the state\nsuperintendent of public instruction is authorized to grant permanent state teachers'\ncertificates after three years' successful experience in teaching. The certificates are also\nrecognized by the authorities in a number of other states as sufficient evidence upon which\nto grant teachers' licenses without examination.\" They be may honored as a teaching\ncertificate.\nUniversity of Missouri: Special, same as for major subject; general, regular requirement for graduation; professional, twenty-four hours. Gives right to teach. Life-certificate to teach in high schools. Same general requirements as for the degree of Bachelor\nof Science. As part of the twenty-four hours in education, the following courses must be\nincluded: 16, or 2, 5a, 19a or 19&, and at least one special course on the teaching of some\nsubject of high-school instruction. As part of the academic work, the candidate must\nelect at least eighteen hours in each subject which he expects to teach.\nUniversity of Illinois: Special, major subject; general, graduation; professional,\nfourteen hours.\nDoes not give right to teach.\nThe School of Education grants no degree, power to recommend such residing in the\nparticular college in which the student is registered. It has, however, the power to recommend the granting of a special certificate, the university certificate of qualification to teach.\nUpon this will be stated the major or majors of the recipient, whether definite subjects\nor instruction, special subjects for supervision or general supervision. All candidates\nfor the teacher's certificate must take the following courses: elementary psychology\n(psychology i or 2, 3 hours); principles of education (education i, 5 hours); high-school\norganization and administration (education 6, 3 hours), and three hours of work selected\nfrom the offerings of the department of philosophy.\nUniversity of CaUfornia: Special, twenty hours; general, graduation, four groups;\nprofessional, twelve hours.\nSpecial knowledge, twenty units, normally, in the subject or group of closely allied\nsubjects that the candidate expects to teach, the ultimate decision as to the candidate's\nproficiency resting with the heads of the departments concerned. (In some departments\nmore than twenty units are necessary.)\n\n"} {"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n655\n\nGeneral knowledge, courses sufficient to represent (with the inclusion of special studies)\nfour groups from the following list: Natural sciences, mathematics, English, foreign languages, history, philosophy. This requirement is intended to secure, so far as is possible,\nbreadth of culture and sympathy with the various lines of high-school work.\nFor teacher's certificate the requirements are the same as for group elective, except\nthat in the fifteen units of advanced courses candidates must include iia, either 14c or\none part of 23, and one other course from the list 1 1 to 14. If, however, they are combining\nadvanced studies in economics, politics, history, or jurisprudence with English for their\ngroups, they may sutstitute for this requirement of three philological courses, any one course\nfrom iia to 145 and two in debating (7a to 7c). Courses 9, 10, 11 to 14, 17, 18, 21, 23, and\nthe graduate courses are especially adapted to the needs of students who desire to teach.\nBeginning with December, 1905, a final examination will be required of candidates\nfor the teacher's certificate in English. The emphasis will be laid, not so much on detailed\ninformation as {a) on grasp of the subject of English in its twofold aspect — the language\nand literature, and (6) on scholarly methods and workmanship. The candidates will be\nexpected to satisfy the department of EngHsh that they have: i. A scholarly acquaintance\nwith each of the three main periods of the English language and with the history of the\ndevelopment to the present time; 2. Familiarity, obtained at first hand, with the chief\nmasterpieces of English literature, with the history of its development, and with the principles and methods of historical study; 3. Satisfactory special knowledge of one of the\ngreater authors or of one of the main literary movements; 4. Training in the principles\nand methods of poetry and prose requisite to the advanced study of literature; 5. Skill\nin organizing and presenting thought, orally and in writing. Candidates are warned against\nsupposing that the purpose of the examination can be attained by mere accumulation of\ncourses in English. It will always be presupposed, however, that candidates presenting\nthemselves for examination have an equivalent of twenty-seven units of English to their\ncredit.\nTeachers' certificates. The department will, in general, recommend, as qualified to\nteach mathematics in high schools, only such graduates as have passed with credit in courses\n2, 4, 5, 6, 9, II, 12a, 126, 13, 18. It is also of great importance that the prospective\nteacher of mathematics should be well informed on the relation of mathematics to other\nsciences, and he should to that end devote a considerable portion of his time to at least one\nof the closely related sciences. The department further reserves the right to exact a practical\ntest of the candidate's ability to present a clear and interesting exposition of subjects taught\nin the high schools. For those preparing to become teachers . and investigators, the individual aims of the student will determine, after the fundamental courses have been taken,\nwhat advanced courses should be selected. The minimum for the teachers' recommendation is I (lectures only), 2, 3, either 4, 5, and 7 and 17.\nStudents who desire the teacher's certificate should do not less than eighteen units\nof group elective work in German, including courses 6a, 6h, \"ja, 12, i8a, and 186. The\nrecommendation for the certificate is not, however, given in course, but only for high scholarship and general proficiency in German, as judged by the department. Applicants for\nthis certificate will be required to take, in addition to the elementary courses, at least ten\nhours of junior and eight hours of senior work, but the formal compliance with this requirement does not necessarily entitle the applicant to the certificate; and in any case a fair\nspeaking knowledge will be a requisite. Twenty-four units of physics will be required for\nthe teacher's recommendation. Applicants for the recommendation in physics, in making\nup this number of units, must include in their work the equivalent of courses i and 3, with\neither course 4 or 2a. See statements under these headings, and under course 18. In all\ncases proposed combinations of courses should be submitted for approval to the professor of\nphysics. The requirements for recommendation by the department are (a) 12 units of\nadvanced work in Latin; (&) course 4; (c) Greek, course A (or its equivalent), but until\nMay, 1907, a reading knowledge of French may be substituted; {d) a reading knowledge\n\n"} {"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof German; {e) an acquaintance with Roman political history; (/) the distribution of the\n12 units of advanced work in such a way as to show acquaintance with ante-classical and\nimperial Latin, and with poetry as well as prose. Students will be recommended for\nteachers' certificates who, at graduation, or after, shall have completed with credit course\n6 in addition to twenty-one units of university work in Greek. Graduate students will\nbe recommended on proof of having creditably completed work equivalent to that required\nof undergraduates. Training-course for students intending to become teachers of chemistry, hours,\n4\nthroughout the year; i hour lecture, i period (3 hours) assisting in laboratory\ninstruction, and 2 periods (6 hours) of laboratory work. The instruction will be participated in by all the department instructors. Prerequisites: Courses 5a or 56, 8. Courses\ni> 2, 3, 4, 5a, 8, and 28 are prerequisite for a teacher's recommendation in chemistry.\nA discussion of the teaching of history in secondary schools, with special emphasis\non the methods and materials. The course is designed for seniors and graduates expecting\nto apply for a high-school teacher's certificate in history: Two hours, either half-year,\nTuesdays, 3. Prerequisite: Courses 52, 54, 64, 63, and 73, and poHtical science i.\nThe department of history will recommend for high-school teachers' certificates only\nsuch students as have completed at least six units of each of the following six subjects:\ngovernment, ancient history, mediaeval history, modern European history, English history,\nand American history. Those desiring teachers' certificates are advised to take courses\n4, 5, and 9, with the prerequisites, but should consult with the head of the department\nearly in their course. Lecture courses in summer session are equivalent to course i in\npart and credit will not be imposed each half-year for each laboratory course. This rule\napplies to courses 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14.\nUniversity of Texas: Special, major subject (eighteen hours); general, graduation;\nprofessional, ten hours (3! courses), permanent teaching certificate; 2 years state: 2 courses\nin education and 3 other full courses; 4 years state: 3 full courses in education and 3 other\nfull courses, 3 in education and diploma. Diplomas conferred by the board of regents\nupon academic graduates completing courses i, 2, 3, 4, and one other full course or its\nequivalent in the School of Education. Corresponds to teacher's certificate of other universities. Teachers' course, a review of preparatory Latin authors and prose composition.\nCourses 3 and 4, at least, are prerequisite. Teachers' course in botanical method: This\ncourse will involve discussions of the botanical content or subject-matter of nature-studies\nfor the grades, elementary agriculture for rural schools, and the more substantial course\nin botany for high schools; a short review of the fundamental relations of the science to a\nrational teaching method; consideration of the technical details of high-school laboratory\nwork. Prerequisites, botany i, or its equivalent, and where credit is desired in the School\nof Education, courses i, 2, 3, and 4 in that school. The teaching of elementary mathematics: This course is intended for those wishing to become teachers of mathematics.\nThere will be a discussion of the underlying principles and fundamental concepts of the\nsubject showing the bearing of such principles and concepts on correct methods of teaching.\nA practical application of these discussions will be made to public-school work. It is\nhoped that this course will be of benefit to prospective teachers and superintendents.\nSpecial attention will be given to the teaching of mathematics in secondary schools. This\ncourse will be open to those who have had mathematics i or mathematics 2.\nUniversity of Michigan: Special, major subject; general, graduation; professional,\neleven hours. By authority of an act of the state legislature, passed in 189 1, the faculty\nof this department gives a teacher's certificate to any person who takes a Bachelor's,\nMaster's, or Doctor's degree, and also receives a teacher's diploma as provided above.\nBy the terms of the act, the certificate given by the faculty shall serve as a legal certificate\nor qualification to teach in any of the schools of this State, when a copy thereof shall have\nbeen filed or recorded in the office of the legal examining officer or officers of the county,\ntownship, city, or district.\nUniversity of Iowa: Special, major subject; general, graduation; professional, eighteen\n\n"} {"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n657\n\nhours. May be honored as a teaching certificate. Students who have completed the\nfollowing work and who have met the other requirements stated shall be awarded a teacher's\ncertificate in education: i. Twelve semester hours in education, including the courses in\nprinciples of education and in child-study. 2. Six semester hours in psychology. 3. All\nother requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in the college of liberal arts in this\nuniversity. 4. The recommendation by the department of education and the vote of the\nfaculty upon the basis of superior work, apparent aptitude for teaching, and the fulfilment\nof other requirements.^\nUniversity of Kansas, 1903-4, p. 82, teacher's diploma: The teacher's diploma of\nthe university may be given to A.B., A.M. and Ph.D. graduates of the university on the\nfollowing conditions: The completion of at least four years of college- work in the subject,\nor the closely allied subjects, that the candidate proposes to teach; the ultimate decision\nas to the candidate's proficiency to rest with the head of the department in which the major\nwork is taken. The completion of two and one-half terms' work in the department of\neducation. The candidate for the A.B. degree, who is at the same time a candidate for\nthe teacher's diploma, shall be required to offer twenty-five terms (about 125 semester\nhours) of undergraduate work. The teacher's diploma shall be granted only to graduates\nwhose scholarship in the twenty-five terms' work offered for the degree and the diploma\naverages as high as grade 11. On presentation of the university teacher's diploma the\nstate board of education will issue a three-year state teacher's certificate. At the expiration\nof the three-year certificate a life-certificate will be issued, if the candidate has taught\nsuccessfully during two of the three years.\nNo observation or practice teaching.\nCornell University: A state certificate upon graduation good for three years, and renewable for life without examination, is granted to those who successfully complete a course\nin the science and art of education.\nThe university prescribed work is as follows : i psychology, general and educational,\n90 hours; 2, method in teaching, 60 hours; 3, history and principles of education, 90 hours;\n4, observation, 20 hours.\nStudents who do not complete the foregoing may receive a temporary certificate upon\ngraduation good for two years, but renewable only upon state examinations in professional\nsubjects constituting a full equivalent for the university courses required in the first alternative. The subjects for this examination are as follows: psychology, general and educational; history and principles of education; method in teaching.\nUniversity of Chicago (The College of Education): A diploma is granted after two\nyears' work, but the regular course of preparation covers four years. As a prerequisite,\n3 units of English, 2\\ units of mathematics, 3 units of foreign languages are prescribed\nfor admission to the college. The remaining 6J units for entrance may be selected from\nthe rest of the official list. Thirty-six majors (4 years' work) are required for graduation.\nThe prescribed work of the first two years is philosophy, i major; psychology, i major;\nEnglish, 2 majors; mathematics or science, 2 majors; electives, 6 majors; work in some\nspecial department, 6 majors. The work of the last two years (senior college) requires\n18 majors.\nACADEMIC\n\nPREPARATION\n\nThere is a great difference of opinion among instructors as to the exact\namount of v^ork a student should do in any particular before he may be recommended as teacher of that subject. Institutions which grant teachers' diplomas\nhave definite requirements. Sometimes the requirement is uniform. More\nfrequently there is some variation in the number of hours required in different\n' This certificate may also be awarded to graduate students who complete the work in education and in\npsychology and who receive the recommendation of the department of education and the vote of the faculty.\n\n"} {"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsubjects. Frequently a minimum number of hours is required but provision\nis made for the including of related subjects with the major subject. Some\ninstitutions have no set standard of recommendation, the matter being left\nentirely to the discretion of the individual instructors. The number of hours\nin the special subject is left to the instructor but not more than twenty-five\nhours may be required in one subject.\nAt Brown University recommendation is largely a personal matter with\nthe instructor and is not an act of the university.\nAt Harvard the same plan is followed. In chemistry two courses are\nrequired, but two more should be taken. In history about five courses in\nhistory and government might sufl&ce. In mathematics three courses are\nrequired and, in addition to them, there should be an additional course in\nmathematics, or in physics above freshman grade. However, recommendations are sometimes made even if the candidates have not met the full requirement.\nIn French four years' work entitles to only a moderate testimonial. For a\nrecommendation without reserve the candidate should have not only four full\ncourses, but also one or two higher courses in the literature and should have\ngood pronunciation.\nIn the department of zoology two courses are required, but most students\nexpecting to teach the subject take much more. The English department\nseldom gives recommendations as a body, this being considered an individual\nmatter with the instructors. The instructor uses his discretion in recommending candidates, basing his recommendation upon his personal knowledge\nof their ability. Latin and Greek have no very definite requirements but they\nmust be pursued at least thru the sophomore year and the student must be\nfamiliar with Greek and Latin composition. Including the work the student\nhas had in the preparatory school, this standard means about six years of Latin\nand from three to five years of Greek. The teachers of Latin must be well\nup in Greek.\nThe department of geology does not prepare many men for high-school\nwork. Altho there is no definite standard, four courses would probably be\nsufficient to secure recommendation. The department of German requires\nthree full years of work.\nAt the University of Wisconsin the department of history requires thirty\nhours; mathematics thirty-six; English forty; Latin twenty-six; and physics\ntwenty-two hours. In some of the departments it is thought that more work\nshould be taken if the student wishes to specialize.\nDartmouth College has no definite system of recommendation but it is\nprobably safe to say that the scientific departments will want a man to have\nall the elementary courses and one or two advanced courses in his chosen\nsubject, before he may be recommended as prepared to teach in a secondary\nschool.\nThe University of Texas requires eighteen hours' work for the major sub-\n\n"} {"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n659\n\njects, but the heads of some departments demand more work from subjects\nwho expect to teach. In botany thirty hours (five courses) is recommended,\ntho twelve hours might be sufficient for the student who will teach botany as a\nminor subject. The English department asks for six hours of higher work\nbesides the eighteen hours nominally required.\nThe language departments demand more work, German and Latin each\nasking for thirty hours. Greek should be accompanied by an extensive course\nin Latin. Mathematics requires about twenty-four hours, while in physics\nonly sixteen hours are required. Physiography and zoology demand only\neighteen hours.\nAt the University of Rochester thirty hours or one-sixth of the work required\nfor a degree is the minimum preparation for the teacher of a special subject in\nthe high school. Of this work in the special subject from five to fifteen hours\nare required, the other courses in the subject or group of subjects being elective.\nThe university has no specific regulation as to the recommendation of its\ncandidates but the plan mentioned represents very closely the standard\napplied to judging the fitness of a student for high-school work.\nAt Indiana University the major-subject requirement usually represents\nthe amount of training that is the basis for recommendation to teach in good\nhigh schools. The major subject requires forty-five hours in the departments\nof Latin, English, history, physics, mathematics, and botany. In modern\nlanguage the requirement is sixty hours. Besides the regular requirement in a\nsubject the department may control twenty hours, in work closely related to\nthe major subject. By permission a student may do more work than the fortyfive hours required in the special subject. Students (special) who are specializing in certain subjects will usually receive preference in recommendation as\nteachers of those subjects. Students who do not graduate may receive a\nstatement of the amount of work they have done in any department. Where\na teacher is required who can teach several subjects the student is required to\nmajor in but one subject. Two years' work would be sujQ&cient in any subject\nthe candidate might be expected to teach, with the exception of modern language not studied before entering college.\nWest Virginia University requires thirty hours of English, twenty hours of\nhistory, and ten hours of physics. In Latin the student should, at the very\nleast, have read all of Caesar's Gallic War, eight of Cicero's shorter orations,\nbesides his letters De AmicUia and De Senectute; Virgil's Aeneid, together\nwith the Eclogttes and Georgics; the Odes and Epodes of Horace, and one book\nof Livy's History oj Rome. No one charge should attempt to teach Latin\nuntil he has enough Greek to read the Anabasis, the Iliad, and the\nOdyssey.\nThere is a difference in opinion among the instructors of Ohio State\nUniversity as to the exact amount of work that should be required of a student\nwho intends to teach a certain subject. About thirty hours (22 U. of I.) or\none-sixth of the total amount of work required for graduation will probably\n\n"} {"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nrepresent an average of the requirements. Some instructors require students\nto take teachers' courses in the subjects they expect to teach.\nThe State University of Washington adapts its requirements to the grade\nof high school needing teachers. There are about seven high schools of the\nfirst class in the state. For recommendation to teach in this group the student\nmust make the special subject he is to teach his major. To teach in schools\nof the second class he must also have about two years' work in any other subject he may be required to teach. To teach in schools of the third group,\ncollege preparation is required in two or three subjects but no definite standard\nis set.\nThe University of Colorado requires thirty hours' work, but this need not\nall be absolutely in one course or department; it may be in closely allied departments. Teachers of English and of foreign languages must have twenty-five\nhours' credit.\nThe School of Pedagogy of New York University prepares mainly for the\nwork of the elementary schools. The institution has no definite requirement\nas to the amount of work a student must do to receive recommendation for a\nposition as teacher in secondary schools.\nAt Columbia University the prerequisite for admission to secondary training in English is twenty-four hours in English. This work must include courses\nin composition and in literature. The literature studies must have included\nboth the historical and critical phases.\nThe student must take six hours' work in the professional course which\nincludes a study of the subject-matter from the teacher's point of view and a\nstudy of teaching. The student must also take the prescribed work in observation and practice teaching.\nThe minimum requirement for mathematics is eighteen hours but the best\nstudents usually exceed this amount. Many take from sixteen to twenty\nhours more than the amount required. The university requires six hours'\nwork in the professional or training-courses. A graduate training-course of\nfour hours may be taken.\nA teacher of Latin should have a fairly complete and accurate reading\nknowledge of the language. He should understand the syntax and structure\nof the language and, in addition, should be versed in the auxiliary subjects of\nantiquities and literature, sufficient for the necessary illustration of his teaching.\nEighteen hours must be taken before the student may be admitted to the\ntraining-courses.\nTwelve hours' work is required.\nThe official minimum requirement for the student who expects to teach\ngeography is. three years' work, three hours a week. This course includes a\ncourse in general geography covering the elements of mathematical geography,\nmeteorology, and climatology, the land forms and the ocean, in which study\nthe endeavor is made to go beyond the scope of these subjects as presented\nin any one of the leading textbooks. In addition to this, each student is\nrequired to make a special study in the course, of the origin and classification\n\n"} {"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n66 1\n\nof land forms, of the climate of the United States, and dynamical geology in\nthe more advanced courses in the department of geology of Columbia\nUniversity.\nThe minimum requirement should be supplemented by work in economics,\ngeology, and advanced work in physiography.\n\nXVII {special)\nWILL\n\nJOHN\n\nTHE SAME TRAINING IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL SERVE\nTO PREPARE THE TEACHER FOR BOTH ELEMENTARY AND HIGH-SCHOOL WORK?\nR.\n\nKIRK,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF STATE\n\nI. GENERAL\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nKIRKSVILLE,\n\nMO.\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n1. It is unwise and wasteful to classify prospective teachers at the beginning\nof their professional preparation because they all have inherited traits and\ncapabilities which should be the criteria for their differentiation into classes.\n2. It requires two or three years of instruction, intermingled with experimentation, todetermine what these qualities are.\n3. From the nature of the case, two or three years in the normal school or\nteachers' college should be devoted to such general courses of instruction and\nexperimentation as will reveal to the student what his talents are.\n4. The final differentiation into elementary teachers and high-school\nteachers should probably take place during the fourth year in the normal\nschool and in the teachers' college. Even then it is doubtful whether the two\nclasses of teachers need to be separated very widely. Perhaps 90 per cent, of\nall the professional or technical instruction and preliminary experience in the\npreparation of teachers should be common to the two classes under consideration.\n5. The most effective and practicable scheme in the preparation of all\nteachers furnishes academic and professional instruction side by side and in\nthe later periods joins with these some constructive experience in teaching.\nII. BASIC\n\nPACTS\n\nProfessional preparation for all teaching below the college is predetermined\nby the following facts:\n1. Adolescence frequently begins pretty low down in the elementary school\nperiod and ends early in the high-school period. It sometimes begins late in\nthe high-school period and continues beyond the time of high-school\ngraduation.\n2. As to aptitudes and disposition, children differ among themselves in\nthe elementary school fully as much as they do in the high school.\n3. Elementary-school children manifest in some degree practically all the\ntraits and impulses discovered in high-school children.\n\n"} {"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n4. The subjects in the curriculum (whether for elementary schools or\nhigh schools) are relatively simple and easy, while the children to be taught\n(whether in elementary school or high school) are infinitely varied and exceedingly hard to understand and direct.\n5. Sound scholarship in the content of the school curriculum is essential.\nBut it constitutes only part of the teachers' burden of thought and study. The\nparamount problem is the school child.\nIII. ARGUMENT\n\nTraining is a bad word for our purpose. It savors too much of studied\nimitation, of conscious repetition, and the exaltation of routine. It suggests\nthe substitution of drilling for thinking. It signifies prescriptions and rules\ndictated by instructors and acquired by would-be teachers. The dog and\npony show illustrates what can be done by training. The prospective teacher\nneeds instruction and practice in constructive thinking more than he needs\ntraining. He needs frequently to apply and test his knowledge in concrete\nexperience of his own. He needs direction and exercise in the use of his constructive ingenuity. Opportunities for application and test of his knowledge\nare many and varied. In the great cities the potency of mechanism stifles\nspontaneity and power of personal reaction. In the country at large there is\nmuch opportunity for wholesome professional growth thru practice which is\nnot overdirected. This may be in practice schools, or thru substitute work\nin schools of villages and small cities, but, best of all, in rural schools.\nThe typical graduate of the normal school and of the teachers' college goes\nabout his work in too large a degree conscious of rules and prescriptions\nlearned by him while undergoing training. But he should be nearly unconscious of acquired methods. He should attack his work with his energies\ncentered upon the curious, inquisitive, kaleidoscopic group of persons given\nhim to teach or exploit. During his professional preparation his skill in\nadaptation and his creative imagination need stimulating to the utmost. By\neffort he should acquire the ability to lose himself in guiding the learner and\nin adapting knowledge to the use of the learner. There is something in all\nthis infinitely better than the thing we call training.\nThe curriculum used in educating children is relatively simple and stable;\nbut the children furnish a varying stream of thought and action exceedingly\ncomplex and difficult to comprehend. We count out a few hundred facts to\nbe taught in the high school. We classify, tabulate, and label them. We give\nample reference to bibliographies. Most of the high-school teachers have\nspent some years in college learning the contents of the curriculum. We permit\nthem to make diagnoses off hand and administer the medicine with reckless\nunconcern. Our prescriptions are dealt out chiefly by the rule of cut and\ntry. No one has attempted to classify, measure, and label the children of the\nhigh-school classes.\nCustom compels the elementary teacher to learn the natural traits of\n\n"} {"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n663\n\nchildren and to appeal to the children thru things which are known to them.\nBut custom allows the high-school teacher tolerably free rein to follow his\ntastes and inclinations. Hence he usually patterns after those who taught\nhim. With somewhat better scholastic acquirements than the elementary\nteacher has, he is frequently a narrower person, living more within his limited\nspecialties, and teaching subjects, not persons. He is sometimes woefully\nignorant of the child to be taught.\nWe are not likely to make progress, excepting in spots, until some parts of\nour educational creed are reconstructed. One of them innocently promulgated\nfrom the circles of higher education is to the effect that a half-educated person\nis good enough to teach children up to and including the last day in the elementary school, while a fully educated person is needed to take charge of the\nchild on the next day in school, i. e., the first day in the high school. By this\ntenet the typical normal school graduate with insufficient academic attainments and much dogma stands for the half-educated person, while the university graduate crammed and surfeited with ill-digested facts and theories\nacquired in college lecture rooms represents the fully educated person. This\ncreed is convenient and practical. It is more easily lived up to than a better\ncreed would be. It is damaging to all education.\nI think we should repudiate these invidious discriminations, for if anyone\nneeds a college education it is the teacher who guides the children thru the\nvaried subjects used in the grammar-school grades. If anyone needs critical\nand available knowledge of human nature in the uncertain period of childhood and the stormy stages of adolescence it is the teacher of the high-school\nchild.\nMost of the normal schools offer limited courses which high-school graduates finish in two years. This custom precludes separation of students with a\nview to preparing them for different kinds of service, because it is impossible\nin so short a time to differentiate and test the students sufficiently to determine\nthe kind of teaching to which they are severally adapted. Out of a lot of\ntwo-year-old colts a horse-trainer, judging from structure, may select the\ntrotting horse or the roadster or the one to pull the beer wagon ; but we cannot\nso classify prospective teachers. One professor of education in a great university informs me that the girls entering his department have already decided\nto be high-school teachers. There is an educational caste in his state. He\nsays the graduates of his department would be humiliated were they required\nto teach in elementary schools; but some of these prospective teachers are\nby nature and acquired traits adapted to the work of primary teachers and\nnothing else; others among them are versatile, forceful persons, adapted to\nthe varied life of the grammar-school teacher and wholly unfit for the confining\nspecialties of secondary education. But it requires many months of time to\nclassify these persons and so direct their study and work that no part of their\nprofessional lives shall be wasted. It therefore seems clear that a teachers'\ncollege or normal school offering such a short cut to professional life as a two\n\n"} {"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nyears' Qourse should devote itself to general courses of instruction and practice,\nleaving final differentiation to be determined after graduation.\nBut some normal schools offer academic courses covering the college\ncurriculum, about two-thirds of the student's energy being devoted to academic\nsubjects; about one-third, to professional preparation. Such schools offer\nspecial courses for the different classes of teachers. But they find that a very\nlarge part of all that the elementary teacher should know is needed also by the\nhigh-school teacher and vice versa. They find that the high-school teacher\nshould not be ignorant of the phases of life in elementary schools; for it is\nimpossible to guide with certainty the high-school student if the teacher is\nignorant of the preliminary stages thru which the student must have come.\nAs an illustration, suppose a would-be teacher detaches himself from ordinary\nfamily life for a period of five or six years and isolates himself in university\nlife to delve in knowledge and perchance to write a hundred letters for research\nmaterial out of which to make a thesis. Will he not certainly get out of\nsympathy with the ways of child-life ? Is it not clear that he will have to serve\nan expensive apprenticeship in order to reinstate himself in the Meals of\nchild-life ? Must he not learn by wasteful experiment to interpret the inherited\nand acquired qualities in the victims of his empiricism ?\nThe facts seem to show unmistakably the unsoundness of the doctrine\nthat a child may at one time have for his teacher a sensible, practical, resourceful person of meager academic attainments and at another time a teacher of\ndeep scholarship in a few specialties and dense ignorance in more vital things.\nAnd surely the typical normal school should stand for better scholarship in\nits graduates; but the university should remove the strong hand with which\nit clutches the high-school teaching corps. The normal school should look\ninto and master the requirements of high-school instruction. The university\nshould have a higher conception of the preparation of all teachers. It should\nbe as close to the elementary school as to the high school. The university\nnow stands for knowledge as against processes in teaching. It should go to\nthe very foundations of that knowledge which appertains to the capabilities,\ninclinations, inheritances, and possibilities of the child and the youth to be\ntaught.\nThis paper presents no specifics, devices, schemes, or mechanisms for\npreparing high-school teachers. It seeks to make clear some conceptions of\nlife in education which ought to be wrought into the constitution of every\nwould-be teacher.\nThe school child from six to twenty is a child thru all his years of schooling.\nHe is the product of forces preceding him. His inheritances and experiences\nmake him what he is. Without knowledge of these potencies his teacher\ncannot with certainty direct his energies.\nWe have a somewhat top-heavy high-school curriculum. Higher education provides for that and sends out peripatetic pedagogs to enforce its dicta.\nThe typical high-school teacher lacks sympathy for and insight into the transi-\n\n"} {"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n665\n\ntion period of growing high-school children, too many of whom suffer with\nmental dyspepsia, being loaded with undigested and indigestible food for the\nmind. Fresh green graduates in the role of teachers are driving out our restless boys from the high schools. Girls being used to the cramping effect of\nconventionalities, cannot be driven from school by empiricism, tyranny, or\nroutine.\nYet they suffer much.\nTo meet the conditions teachers will have to be so prepared as to know\nthe background below the plane of consciousness in the high-school child and\nto see how things must look to him. They will have to be capable of worrying\nover his habits and deeds. They will have to be able to discover the avenues\nto his consciousness. By instruction and trial they will be obliged to learn\nhow to reach his consciousness thru its content in order to direct energy in\nthe mastery of things outside that content. They have no right to invade\nclassrooms with masses of knowledge all formulated and ready to transfer\nto the consciousness of the high-school child regardless of his previous knowledge and experience.\nEach boy lives in a world of concrete tangible things. These constitute\nthe soil in which to sow. But first they have to be discovered so that we may\nstart the boy from^ things known to him in his work and play. Conceptions\nof grammar are nearly impossible to some sensible boys because they have\nno kindred ideas to compare it with.\nThis paper, therefore, ventures to suggest some mental states or attitudes\nwith which efficient teachers by instruction or experience grow familiar.\nThese states or attitudes need not be known in any particular form; but\ntheir recognition, study, and use become part of the conscious or unconscious\nhabit of every efficient teacher in every school. Among these may be mentioned the following:\n1. The non-receptive or unimpressionable state of mind. Students at\ntimes do not hear what is said to them. Tho respectful in bodily attitude\ntheir minds seem inactive or non-receptive. At other times they are wakeful,\nattentive, thoughtful, in receptive attitude. Many of them are non-receptive\nbecause the only existing avenues to their consciousness are ignored. The\ninattention of children is usually not their fault. It is just a part of themselves.\nNo two are reached equally well at the same time thru the same avenues to\ntheir consciousness. Each child has a mass of concrete personal experiences\nthru which he hears and sees. He is receptive when approached thru these\nexperiences. When not so approached he is non-receptive. Skilful and\nsympathetic teachers never proceed without believing that those to be taught\nare in receptive attitude. And it is for prospective teachers thru instruction\nand experiment to gain insight into varied human nature so that tjiey may\nwith certainty secure this attitude even from the most indifferent students.\n2. Thru the recitative attitude we secure expression of the simplest kind\nof mental reaction. This attitude does not imply much thinking. It does\nnot require much.\nIt implies receptivity and just enough of mental reaction\n\n"} {"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto reproduce forms spoken or otherwise delivered or assigned by teachers.\nFrom primary school to college typical lesson assignments presuppose that\nlessons are to be looked at or heard and reproduced to the teacher in the way\nhe wants them delivered to him. And, altho the recitative attitude signifies\npoor teaching and vague conceptions of the teacher's relation to the one taught,\nit is still the pedagog's mainstay, his stock in trade, his source of greatest\npride. To lead young teachers to use it effectively and yet to realize its utter\ninadequacy by itself is one of the hardest and longest tasks in the preparation\nof all teachers.\n3. The reiterative attitude is the recitative with concentration a little prolonged. Itis based upon -good receptivity. But the reciter in this attitude\nis unduly conscious of the forms of expression. He lacks spontaneity. When\nstarted on a paragraph or a page which he is to reiterate, he is like a boy\ncoasting; it is disagreeable to be upset. He can't get another good start\nwithout returning to the point of departure. But I have visited many highschool teachers and college professors who rely chiefly upon the reiterative\nattitude and glow with enthusiasm when a poor parrot of a child can repeat,\nperchance in his own words, a long paragraph or a long lesson.\n4. Without a generation of college professors who know good teaching\nand practice it, the preparation of high-school teachers can never succeed\nvery well. So often the professor says to his students: \"Read the book and\nget the author's thought;\" or, \"Listen to me and get my thought.\" But\nreading is not getting another person's thought. Reading is thinking; and\nhearing-language is thinking. So long as teachers and pupils meet chiefly\nfor recitation their thinking is of a low type. Infinitely better than reciting\nand reiterating is cogitating. Every true teacher secures from each one taught\nthe cogitative attitude of mind. But the typical professor dislikes to be interrupted in his lectures. He desires students to hear and reproduce \"in substance\" what he says. He seems not to know that hearing-language and\nobserving and reading are all thinking processes requiring continuously the\ncogitative attitude of the mind. He is too commonly a recitationist; but he\ninfluences tremendously the high-school teachers. They follow his ways.\nHis apparent purpose is to produce reciters rather than thinkers. He thinks\nand formulates for them. They recite after him. How delightful it is to run\nacross those rare ones among us who are skilful in having students work out\nand think out and formulate subject-matter with them.\nIt is for normal schools and teachers' colleges to recast a great part of the\ncurrent conception of the teacher's function and by a large variety of teaching\nexperiments to bring all prospective teachers into a condition of constant\neagerness to teach skilfully thru utilization of the ever-varying attitudes of\nthose to be taught.\n5-7. The inquisitive^ skeptical, and critical attitudes of mind are suppressed\nin a large proportion of high-school and college classes. The typical recitation hearer does not enjoy them.\nThey savor too much of disrespect for his\n\n"} {"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n667\n\ndogmatism. They throw him off his*beaten track. They disturb his habit\nas a recitationist. They dislocate the adjustment of his oft-repeated story.\nThey are too much like common life outside the school; they turn the mind\nfrom form to content. They lead toward definite questions, answers, arguments, and conclusions. They force issues to finalities. They are the delight\nof the full-fledged artist teacher in every school of every kind.\n8. Another characteristic of good teaching is the combative or disputative\nmental attitude which implies living together as student and teacher and struggling with one another in friendly combat. In this attitude the student\nwould not hurt the teacher's feelings, the teacher would not play boss or dogmatist, both student and teacher delight in courteously making unlooked-for\ninterpretation of things, teacher and student live together in subjects, work\nout things together, indulge in sparkling, friendly cross fire, and welcome\nwitty retorts made in good temper. But how can normal schools and teachers'\ncolleges prepare teachers to skilfully utilize this state of mind ? Partly, perhaps, by instruction, but more by exemplifying it thru companionship with\nstudents in classrooms while teaching classes in the ordinary academic subjects. And the college professor should give us a square deal and do his share.\n9. The discursive or argumentative attitude of the mind is better still. As\na school inspector I many times longed to discover some difference of opinion\nbetween the high-school teacher and his students. The peaceful, monotonous\nharmony which commonly prevails in the high-school classes, means low\nmental vitality and wasted opportunities. It marks long and slow growth\ninto habitual credulity. Where the critical, honestly skeptical, inquisitive,\ncogitative attitudes are utilized, the many persons taught see and think of many\nthings which the one person who teaches cannot see or think of. Frank and\nhonest exchange of ideas as to how things look does not mean waste. It\nmeans joint action and larger thought product. It means divided responsibilities and definite conclusions. It does not mean opinions formed by teacher\nand taught to students. It means conclusions that stick forever because they\nare worked out in the friendly competition of many persons, each one's notion\nbeing tested by the criticism of many others.\n10. Best of all is the constructively synthetical attitude. It is seldom\nfound in the typical high-school recitation. It is sometimes found in the\ngrammar-school grades where alert, well-taught, masterful teachers dare\nallow their pupils to think for themselves, to struggle with subject-matter, to\nsum up or build up conclusions and declare where they are, how far they have\ncome, and what they anticipate in view of the mental structures already erected.\nThis list of attitudes is illustrative, not exhaustive. The typical normal\nschool delivers recipes and prescriptions for doing things. The teachers'\ncollege in the university is perhaps a little worse; it quotes from a larger\nbibliography. Both normal schools and teachers' colleges are consuming\ntheir best energies learning and reciting what some one has thought and formulated. But the poorest thing by which we deceive ourselves is the mechan-\n\n"} {"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nism called the recitation. It assumes the student to be a reflecting machine\nto receive and return ideas and impressions. Professors who rely chiefly upon\nthe lecture, the ''quiz,\" and the \"exam\" seldom appreciate any process above\nthe recitative. They assume receptivity. They are satisfied to receive back\nthe content of talks and textbooks. When, by repression and bodily inaction,\nstudents lapse into somnolent torpidity, then inefficiency finds relief in notebooks. Voluminous copies of profoundly obscureHectures are kept. Bodily\naction in note-taking keeps awake the students of many an inefficient professor.\nThere is fatal sequence. Stenographers copy into notebooks what speakers\nsay, put aside notebooks feeling free from w^orry of cogitation, and later on\nreproduce from notes exactly what was uttered. In like manner the pedagog\nsubstitutes transmission for cogitation, obstructs thinking, prevents face to\nface contact with living teacher and snatches away opportunity to comprehend\nand assimilate subject-matter while fresh and new.\n\"Quiz\" follows lecture, further disguising professional unfitness. \"Quizzing\" isnot teaching. \"Quizzing\" narrows thinking of many into channels\nof one. The \"exam\" concludes the hampering process. Much lecturing\nand \"quizzing\" call for much examining because teacher is ignorant of\nstudent's mental content and attitude. But lecture, \"quiz,\" and \"exam\"\nare the stock in trade of many a friend of ours who never dreams of\ncogitating, analyzing, questioning, arguing, and working out with students\nthe subject-matter to be dealt with, digested, and assimilated.\nIV.\n\nCONCLUSION\n\nAll teachers during their professional preparation need in common:\n1. To secure by instruction and experience a working knowledge of childhood and adolescence.\n2. To acquire in teaching the habit of basing daily instruction on the\nlearner's mental content and attitude in order to modify both his content and\nhis attitude and accustom him to the habitual and independent reorganization\nof his mental content.\n3. By trial in many phases of experimental teaching they need severally\nto discover themselves and what their several talents are, and in view of their\ntalents inherited and acquired, what they are severally destined to do best.\nTo do all this will consume by far the greater part of the time and energy\nwhich teachers can devote to initial preparation.\nProbably one-tenth of the labor in the professional preparation of teachers\nshould be devoted to special pedagogical aspects of subjects to be taught. In\nthese special aspects high-school teachers and elementary teachers, after\ndifferentiation and near the end of their professional preparation need separate instruction in such things as bibliographies, appliances, and the correlation ofeach separate subject with other parts of the curriculum.\n\n"} {"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nROUND\nB.\n\nTABLE\n\nAMMERMAN,\n\nHEAD\n\nTABLE\n\n669\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nMATHEMATICS\nADAPTATION\n\nCHARLES\n\nROUND\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN MATHEMATICS\n\nOF\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF\nST.\n\nMATHEMATICS,\n\nLOUIS,\n\nWILLIAM\n\nMCKINLEY\n\nMO.\n\nThe problem that is constantly before the teacher of mathematics is the adaptation of\nthe subject-matter to the pupil. Commonplace as the statement may seem, the problem\nis a comparatively new one. The effort has always been to adapt the pupil to the subjectmatter. Scholars in geometry and algebra have made certain organizations of those\nsubjects. The great mass of teachers has taken these organizations almost without question, placed them before their pupils, and insisted on their getting them, usually requiring\nall to get them in the same way. If this \"same way\" did not happen to suit some members of the class, the teacher complacently assumed that they had no mathematical\nknowledge or power, and graded them failures. Except where classes are small, and\nit is easily done, little or no allowance is made for individual mental makeup, previous\ntraining, or immediate environment. Pupils are herded, and the work is adapted in a\ngeneral way to the herd. One of the greatest questions before the teachers of mathematics is, how can two pupils in a same class be given mathematics when one requires\nan entirely different procedure from the other — that is, how the subject can be presented\nin a way adapted to the learning mind.\nThere is no subject in the high school in which so many pupils fail as in mathematics,\nwhich is only another way of saying there is no subject in the high school which is so imperfectly adapted to the pupils. You may examine the records of any high school you please,\nand you will find that where there is one failure in the languages or the sciences, the chances\nare there are four or five, or possibly more in algebra or geometry. I do not believe this\nshould be so. If a body of pupils has met the standard required for admission to a class,\nit is doubtful if 10 per cent, of them should fail. Many would make the per cent, smaller,\nyet 20, 30, and even 50 and 75 per cent, are sometimes compelled by the teacher to repeat\nthe work. I have in mind now a school which is typical in this respect. One of the teachers\nreceived pupils who had been given to understand that they had completed the work satisfactorily inthe preceding classes. The teacher, when I knew him, had gone over the\nwork for a number of years. He had the outUne and the details clearly in mind. He\nutterly lost sight of the fact that the pupils in the class had not been repeating this subject\nfor ten years, and that their experiences were very different from his own. So with the\nkeenness and the sarcasm that too often comes out of such a condition he usually told about\n40 per cent, of his class that they knew nothing about the subject, and that they would have\nto take it over, tho it was doubtful if that would do any good. This same teacher, as I\nremember it, took pride in the number that failed to do the work in his classes, and was\ninclined to boast of it. While the case I have described is extreme, it is not uncommon.\nI believe it is true in some degree in most of our high schools. The whole thing may be\nsummed up in the statement that the mathematics of any year should not be harder\nthan the pupils of that year can get, or presented in a way that the pupils cannot grasp.\nIf a large per cent, of failures exist, it is more of a reflection on the teachers' ability to\nadapt than on the pupils' ability to master. Teachers who take pride in the fact that\nthey make a large number of their pupils fail, or that they make it difl&cult, if not almost\n\n"} {"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nimpossible, for their pupils to pass in their work, will not be likely to look upon such a\nstatement with favor.\nTo make more definite what I mean in the sense of adaption, consider the subject of\nalgebra. While thinking about this question, I picked up one of the algebras on my desk,\nwhich is not especially different from most of the algebras in use, and found that the first\neighteen pages were devoted to definitions, and the next twenty-five or thirty to abstract\nwork. The definitions were generalizations, that are usually beyond the experience of\nthe pupil; the abstract work, or exercises, as they are usually called, go smoothly enough,\nfor if he sees a few of them work, he can easily get the others. These abstractions do not\nmean anything particularly; they do not stand for anything. After he has gained some\nmechanical expertness, he is given some applications, and every teacher of algebra knows\nhow difl&cult it is to have him grasp those applications. Ofttimes they have nothing wl- atever to do with his experience. Just now it is the proper thing to use problems in the field\nof physics, which is helpful, provided, as usually happens, the physics involved is not more\nobscure than the mathematical principle. A year or a year and a half of such work, which\nis largely abstract, is given, followed by about the same amount of geometry. A\nmajority of high-school students do not get mathematics during the senior year, except\nas they find it in some science, as physics. Then comes the college work, and many find\nthey have forgotten all they knew.\nLast Thanksgiving, the Central Association of Science and Mathematics met in\nChicago, and an instructive paper was read before the mathematics section on the mathematics of the entering students of the Wisconsin University. The writer stated that a\nvery large per cent, of the candidates made a very poor showing. He attributed this to\nthe fact that too many of them had had poor teachers in the subject when they were in the\nhigh school. I do not recall that he said any thing about an equal failure in the languages\nor sciences; it seems that the trouble was in mathematics mainly. The examination had\nten questions, eight of which were abstract and two concrete. The student had been\nexpected to recall something he had not had for some years and which had no meaning\nto him when it was first studied. Is it so surprising that so many pupils know so little of\nmathematics, when they enter college or better when they leave the high school ?\nI doubt if any abstract work should be given to an algebra pupil during his first year;\ncertainly none should be given during the first part of that year. Whatever is not concrete to him might as well be left out. I may work industriously on the definitions and\nabstractions usually given during the first lessons of algebra, and the pupil will not have\nas clear conception as he would if I said nothing about them, and got at once into the heart\nof the work with a problem something like the following;\nThe shortest railway route from Chicago to New York is 912 miles; how long does it\ntake a train averaging 38 miles an hour to make the journey ?\nSolution in words: The product of the average number of miles per hour and the\nrequired number of hours equals the whole distance traveled; that is, 38 multiplied by\nthe required number of hours equals 912. Hence, the required number of hours is one\nthirty-eighth of 912, or 24.\nSolution using abbreviations: If, instead of the expression \"the required number of\nhours,\" we use the word \"time,\" or simply the abbreviation \"2 ,\" the solution may be\nwritten: 38 x T = gi2.\nHence J\" =912 divided by 38 = 24.\nThe knowledge that the pupil has when he begins a subject should be made the basis\nof his work, rather than the knowledge of some learned man who made problems in physics\nor some other subject, which the pupil knows nothing about. The teacher of the past was\nsatisfied to deal with the logic of the subject; the teacher of today has a harder task before\nhim. As yet, most of us are satisfied to put the text into the hands of the pupil and accept\nresults. Perhaps we are satisfied because it is the easier thing to do. Many do not like\nto do otherwise.\nMany will not do otherwise, but the future demands a change.\n\n"} {"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nORIGINAL\nI.\nFLETCHER\n\nDEMONSTRATIONS\n\nPURPOSE,\nDURELL,\n\nROUND\n\nNATURE\n\nTEACHER\n\nAND\nOF\n\nMETHOD\n\nTABLE\nIN GEOMETRY\nOF\n\nMATHEMATICS,\n\nLAWRENCEVILLE,\n\nN.\n\n671\n\nPRESENTATION\nJOHN\n\nC.\n\nGREEN\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nJ.\n\nIt has often been said that working original exercises in geometry constitutes one of\nthe best means at our command of cultivating in pupils tlie power of clear, logical thinking.\nThe question now raised is whether there is not some way of giving this educational\ndiscipline a deeper significance, and making its fruits available to practically all pupils.\nIt is also a common remark that in geometry the pupil has before him a set of tools,\nviz., the triangle, line, point, etc., which he must learn to use; and that in working original\nexercises, he must realize what tools he has before him and learn to select that tool or\ncombination of tools best fitted for the work in hand. Perhaps something can be gained\nby carrying out this idea farther than is customary, by studying the utilities and properties\nof each geometric implement, getting the most practical order in which to master these\nimpleTients, and the most advantageous way of taking up each one.\nThe question at once arises, which tool occupies the primary place ? Which is used\nmost, is grasped most readily by the pupil, and logically occupies the most central position.\nAn examination of the 165 text theorems in a standard plane geometry shows that the triangle is used ninety-five times as an aid in demonstrations, while the next most common\ntool, parallel lines, is employed only forty times. Every attentive teacher must also have\nnoticed that after the pupil has learned the use of the triangle he prefers to use this tool\nwherever possible. The triangle seems to mediate between the simpler elements, the\npoint and line, on the one side, and the more complex, the polygon, the circle, etc., on the\nother. In like manner, far more applications are made of equal or congruent triangles\nthan of the triangle in any other form. It seems natural then in teaching originals in\ngeometry, to let the pupil master the use of congruent triangles first. Let this be done by\narranging the propositions of the text so as to use the triangle as early and freely as possible,\nand also by arranging original exercises in groups, putting first a group of exercises in\nproving triangles equal. If the pupil is weak and cannot use equal triangles in the seven\nor eight forms in which they appear, limit the subject matter at first so that he has to choose\nbetween only two or three of the tool forms of equal triangles.\nAfter the pupil has acquired the power of proving triangles equal, let him take up a\ngroup of exercises in which he utilizes this power in proving a pair of lines equal by means\nof equal triangles. This constitutes both a review and an advance. Next give him a\ngroup of exercises in which he is to prove a pair of angles equals by use of equal triangles,\nthus putting the tool whose use has just been mastered to a new application.\nAfter mastering the use of the first geometric instruments thoroly in this threefold\nway, the pupil can proceed more rapidly. The use of parallel lines comes next, both naturally to the pupil, and logically in relation to the subject, since two parallel lines and a\ntransversal form but a special case of the triangle. After this the pupil can be made to feel\nthat the locus for some purposes is a more efficient tool than the triangle. Thus ask him\nto prove that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other. He will naturally do so by the use of triangles. Then bring him to realize that the desired result can be\nattained with half the labor, or less, by the use of the locus, and he will give this new tool\na cordial welcome. At this point it is usually well to introduce from algebra the use of\na symbol for an unknown quantity and of the equation, and have the pupil realize that\nthese tools tho mastered in connection with another subject are useful in geometry also.\nSo far, no use of auxiliary lines will have been made. But now that we take up their\nuse, a group of exercises will be given each of which calls for one or more such Hues, and\nthe pupil will be kept at work at this tool till it is mastered thoroly. Similarly the mastery\nof various other geometric tools, as inscribed angles, similar triangles, analysis, symmetry,\n\n"} {"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\netc., may be acquired.\nOccasionally groups of miscellaneous exercises are to be introduced\ncompelling pupils to use in combination all the instruments hitherto mastered.\nIn some cases it is worth while to bring out the toolage properties of a single theorem.\nThus from the fact that two triangles are congruent if the three sides of one triangle are\nequal respectively to the three sides of the other, it follows that a triangular frame of iron\nor steel is rigid even tho hinged at the vertices. This is the unit of rigidity in girders,\nbridges, frameworks of all kinds, and is of vast practical importance. The value and use\nof this unit tool can be brought out by problems like the following: Will a quadrilateral\nframe hinged at its vertices be rigid ? Will it be rigid if two points, one in each of two\nadjacent sides, be joined by a bar, and if so, why ?\nSometimes tool relations (often reciprocal) can be mastered in groups. Triangles\n.are useful in proving the equality of lines and angles. Lines and angles are useful in proving the equality of triangles. Triangles are useful in proving lines proportional, and vice\nversa. Lines and points determine each other reciprocally; so of lines and planes and\npoints and planes. Some classes are much interested in making lists of the serviceable\nproperties of each geometric tool or combination of tools and making comparisons of these.\nBeside original exercises in direct demonstrations and constructions, of which alone\nwe have been speaking thus far, there are other original or semi-original exercises to which\nthe same method of treatment applies, the development of power to handle successive\ntools in these different lines being contributory to one common end.\nThus geometric drawing and observational geometry, even though treated in a very\nlimited way, may be made to illustrate the tool functions of the point and line. Geometric\ndrawing constantly illustrates the fact that two points determine an entire straight line,\nthree points determine three lines, and the greater the number of points, the greater the\npossible efficiency of each point.\nSo the drawing of lines and angles may be made to illustrate the utility meaning of\nthe axioms, and show that the axioms are to be regarded not so much as fundamental\nequivalences, as fundamental utilities.\nSimilarly, the economic functions of straight lines may be brought out from another\npoint of view by showing their utility in the mensuration of areas of volumes. To make\ntwo or three linear measurements of a tank involves far less labor than to dip oil out of the\ntank and count the number of gallons dipped out. Hence questions like the following arise.\nThe measurement of how many and what lines is adequate for the mensuration of the area\nof each plane figure, and for that of the surface and volume of each solid figure ? Under\nwhat circumstances is it advantageous to use one linear measurement, or one set of linear\nmeasurements, rather than another ? Thus, given that the mensuration of the area of the\ncircle depends on the measurement of one of three lines, the radius, diameter, or circumference, which of these three lines is it most convenient to measure in determining the\narea of the cross section of a pipe whose ends are inaccessible (as in the hot-air pipe of a\nfurnace) ? In so simple a case even it is with a distinct thrill of appreciation and sense of\nnew power that the pupil realizes that it is best to obtain the area by measuring the circumference.\nOther concrete applications give a new and deeper grasp of the toolage properties of\nlines in relation to other objects. For example, compare transportation by rail with that\nby water. A railroad train approximates the line in form and needs a comparatively large\nand scattered crew and much apparatus to manage it. A steamboat has three dimensions\nand is, so to speak, concentrated near a point, whence it can be managed by a small crew.\nThis difference is the chief source of superior economy in transportation by water over that\nby rail, and it is a principle which has important applications in many other fields.\nIn like manner the study of numerical exercises in geometry may be faciHtated and\nmade more significant by converting it into the mastery of a succession of tools. We may\nseparate the power to handle the formulas from the power to carry on difficult numerical\ncomputations and learn each separately.\nFirst have groups of exercises involving the\n\n"} {"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n673\n\nnumerical relations of various geometric objects in all their combinations and permutations,\nbut in terms of small and exactly related numbers. Afterward have exercises adapted to\ndevelop the power of carrying on a long and complicated numerical computation. In\nthis connection, but to a certain extent apart from it, groups of exercises adapted to give\nmastery of the most advantageous order of operations, of cancellation and other useful devices\nin computations, are to be worked.\nA word may now be said about the appHcation of the above method of studying original\nexercises to actual classroom work, and then something as to results obtained. In Book I,\nas soon as the pupil by study of the text propositions has become acquainted with hat\nis meant by a demonstration and with the use of the triangle, the class may be put to work\nexclusively on easy originals in proving triangles equal, and in proving lines and angles\nequal by means of equal triangles. From four to six exercises may be assigned at a lesson,\nand three or four more solved as sightwork, either at the blackboard by the entire class\nunder the supervision of the teacher, or on paper as testwork. Thus after the class Is\nunder way practically an entire group is covered at a lesson. After the class has learned\nto use congruent triangles in original exercises, we return to the study of text theorems, but\nin connection with each daily lesson thereafter, more or less original work is done in various\nways, as by assignment as part of the regular lesson, or as sightwork. At the end of Book\nI, more daily work in originals alone is taken up, and similarly thruout the subject.\nBy this means, every pupil who can learn any geometry learns to do originals, usually\ntakes more interest in the latter than in textwork and succeeds better at it. In my own\nwork, no pupil is passed in plane or solid geometry, or is certified as prepared to take a\ncollege entrance examination in these subjects, till he has passed a test in originals alone,\nas well as one in numerical exercises, and one in text propositions. Besides these direct\nresults, the method of treating the subject outlined above gives other results which are\nof interest. It seems to have a stimulating and vitalizing effect on the whole subject of\ngeometry. Many proofs which before seemed forced and arbitrary now become direct\nand natural. Every proposition comes to have meaning and value. The method seems to\nhave an invigorating and vitalizing effect on the study of branches of mathematics taken up\nsubsequently, as on trigonometry and higher algebra.\nSome help is given toward the solution of the problem of the relation of intuition to\nlogic in the study of geometry. For my part, I do not see how we can dispense with some\nintuition, that is, preliminary visualizing in geometry, or in any subject for that matter. For\ninstance, the idea even of a straight line or a circle, is a highly complex one when considered\napart from the intuition which we have of such an object. How do we know by pure\nlogic that it is possible for a Hne to exist, all points of which are equidistant from a given\npoint ? But if the pupil makes a start somewhere in geometry, as near first principles as\npossible, for the sake of clearly realized advantages, later he will be ready to deepen and\nsharpen his logic for the sake of other plain advantages.\nThe history of geometry comes to have new interest. It becomes the study of a progressive series of new and improving tools. As a result of such study the pupil sometimes\nimbibes some of the dialectic of history and is seized with the ambition to invent new tools\nfor himself. The problem of combining individual instruction with class instruction is\nalso partly solved. If originals be grouped as indicated, it is possible to assign as a lesson,\nsay three easier originals for the whole class, and two more difficult ones to be worked by\nthe stronger pupils only. The whole class advances together, but its more gifted members\ngain a wider and deeper grasp of the subject than the rest of the class. The method is\nthus an important economy to the teacher who has large classes to conduct.\nIn like manner, it prevents the somewhat narrowing effect which the study of geometry\nis apt to have. If a pupil forms the habit of acquiring the mastery of a succession of abstract\ntools whose values are consciously realized, he should be ready to welcome any new and\nbetter tool wherever found. Hence we arrive at a correlation of studies which is not superficial and concrete, and so full of varied detail that someone has termed it not correlation,\n\n"} {"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nbut conglomeration; but at a unification by means of underlying utility principles. For\ninstance, if the pupil in studying geometry acquires the habit of selecting the best Hnear\nmeasurements on which to make the mensuration of the circle, cyHnder, etc., depend, when\nhe comes to physics he will be ready to apply the same idea to the measurement of physical\nmagnitudes. If he learns to realize the advantage of using auxiliary lines in the vivid field\nof geometry, he should be ready to use auxihary objects freely in physics, chemistry, engineering, inethics, sociology, and in fact find in such use a principle having a hundred applications for him every day.\nBefore I close, allow me to say a word on one other aspect of the subject in hand.\nFor the past generation, educational theory and practice have been mainly inspired and\ncontrolled by the doctrine of evolution. The evolutionary philosophy of education has\ntaken up and dominated other ideas, as those of Herbart and Froebel. We owe to this\nphilosophy of education much of theoretic value and practical worth. But as a whole\nits tendency is brutal and materialistic. In the nature of things it is but a preliminary step.\nFor we no sooner announce the doctrine of the survival of the fittest, than the question\narises, what is fitness ? What is value ? What is worth ? Hence a new philosophy,\ntermed pragmatism is springing up, which is trying to answer these questions and give\na broader and higher view of things, which shall include the doctrine of evolution as a\nmere detail. Perhaps it may be possible to analyze fitness into the elements which compose it, find then devise economical and efficient ways of mastering these elements.\nPerhaps also after we have made this analysis we may be able to arrive at some more\nfundamental and inclusive category than fitness. Something worked out along this line\nmust, in the end, profoundly influence educational theory and practice.\nAs a step in the new direction, let us make a distinction between concrete and abstract\nutilities. The use of similar triangles to determine the height of a steeple is an example of\nconcrete utility, or of putting a geometric tool to a concrete use. The use of similar triangles\nto prove a set of lines proportional, or a pair of polygons similar, is an example of abstract\nutiHty. Now if the pupil's mind be fed on the concrete applications of mathematics alone\nor preferentially, a low grade and materialistic appetite is generated in him. His outlook\nand tastes are apt to be narrowed and he will be satisfied with nothing that does not have\nimmediate material application. If, on the contrary, he gets an insight into abstract\nutilities, he finds that these are comprehensive and enlarging. They include practical\napplications as details, and suggest other particular concrete, as well as other more general\nabstract utilities.\nNow the method of teaching originals presented above may be termed the method of\nabstract utilities, inasmuch as it puts abstract uses in the first place. Concrete utilities\nare brought in occasionally to sharpen and correct conceptions, and make interest more\nvivid, but abstract utilities are omnipresent and controlling, and fashion the development\nof the subject. When thus realized, the method which we here advocate is seen to have new\nand wider values than those mentioned hitherto. The ends which we aim at in the study\nof geometry are, first, practical results; second, general culture. The ancient Egyptians in\ntheir use of geometry in land surveying, temple building, and barn measuring, sought only\nthe former. The Greeks aimed only at the latter; we desire both. In attaining the mastery\nof abstract utilities we, in a measure, attain both. The idea of abstract values mediates\nand harmonizes both kinds of value, and causes them to interact in multiplicative ways.\nHence it is suggested that it is a method which has a field of application wherever we\nfind it desirable or necessary to combine technical and culture studies. In this age when\nnew arts and sciences are raining down from the sky so fast that one is kept busy dodging\nthem to save himself from destruction, if we can discover in each department a certain\nidealistic toolage, master this in one department and use it in others, it will be the source\nof much needed economy and uplifting power. It may be, therefore, that the method here\nsuggested is a step toward meeting some pressing educational needs in their larger aspect.\n\n"} {"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nII.\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nTIME\n\nJ. MELVILLE\n\nROUND\n\nOF INTRODUCTION\n\nMCPHERRON,\nHIGH\n\nTABLE\n\nAND\n\nHEAD\n\nOF\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES,\n\n6^s\n\nLIMITATIONS\nOF\n\nMATHEMATICS,\n\nCAL.\n\nI am not expected to make any argument in favor of the value of original work in\ngeometry. While some may dispute that the power of reasoning developed in the study\nof mathematics is available in other subjects, perhaps all will agree that the reasoningpower developed in the proper study of geometry is available in other branches of mathematics.\nFrank A. Hill, of Boston, in the Educational Review, some years ago said:\nOne peculiar advantage of right mathematical work lies in the completeness and\naccuracy of the results attainable. I am not underrating the value of study in English,\nin history, or in any of the vast, indefinite and never-to-be-compassed fields. I am simply\nsaying that the demonstration of a theorem in geometry, for instance, may be brought to\na kind of finish and completeness impossible in the study of a paragraph about the character of Henry VIII. or the causes of the Civil War, and that the student enjoys a unique\nconsciousness of power in mathematics when he brings a piece of work to a triumphant\nend. I have noticed that when boys and girls in geometry, for instance, become once\nimbued with a thinking, investigating, inventive spirit, and with that conception of a proof\nwhich gives the child who has it confidence to stand against the world, the subject has a\npeculiar fascination for them. They work with enthusiasm; the real student glow is\nthere; the inspiration continues operative away from the special influence of the classroom;\nand the emotional excitement of the \"eureka\" when the way has been discovered is hardly\nequaled in any other student experience.\nMy own experience and observation compel me to agree heartily with the author just\nquoted.\nWhen should this original work begin ? After many years of experience and, I confess, some experimenting, I am fully convinced that the time for this work to begin is when\nthe study of demonstrative geometry is entered upon. Surely the student is entitled to\nall the help and inspiration he can get from the beginning.\nI talked with one noted teacher and book-maker who advocated the plan of going\nthru the book, omitting the exercises entirely and then returning to the beginning and\nmaking a specialty of the originals. I am satisfied he was wrong on this point. I find it\nvery hard to interest pupils in original work, who have been over the propositions of which\nthe proofs are given in the book. It seems hard for them to appreciate the necessity, or\nthe advantage at that stage of the work of their doing anything themselves.\nAt first only easy theorems and problems should be offered, and some of these of a\npractical nature so as to enlist the interest of those pupils who do not take naturally to\npure geometry or to reasoning at all — and their name is legion. Put a Httle romance into\nsome of the problems. Great patience and sympathy are required in the beginning with\nthe average pupil. The teacher should put himself in the attitude of the investigator along\nwith the pupil.\nLet it be understood that we are seeking the solution.\nIf you have never tried it I think you will find it much easier to stimulate interest in\nthis way than to assume the attitude of being perfectly familiar with these things.\nAt a very early stage in the work pupils should be asked to give complete proofs without\nthe use of paper or blackboard. It is interesting as well as surprising to notice how some\nwill draw the figure, letter it, and give the demonstration as a purely mental exercise. I\nhave found this exercise helpful in securing the attention of the class. Frequently the one\nreciting will be corrected for misplacing a letter, or something of that kind.\nI think it is a great mistake to suppose that all valuable work done in geometry jr.ust\nbe original with the pupil.\nA glance at the textbooks in use 50 or 60 years ago will show that original work had no\nplace in the course of study and apparently it had none in the mind of the teacher.\n\n"} {"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondarr\n\nWhen the new plan was introduced, some went to the extreme that all work should be\noriginal, and they discarded the textbook altogether. Perhaps this was to be expected\nbut was none the less a mistake. The pupil has not the time to find the proofs for all the\nmaterial he will need in his future work. Besides it is very important to be able to take in\nreadily a proof given. Even when originals are required it is of great value to direct somewhat as to methods and plans. In problems of construction, I would emphasize the idea\nof assuming the problem done and then finding such relations as will lead to the correct\nsolution. I would also emphasize certain plans, as, for instance, when the hypotenuse\nof a right triangle is given as one of the hypotheses, it is always safe, as the first step, to\ndescribe a circumference on the hypotenuse as diameter.\nOr a little more generally, when the base of a triangle and the angle opposite the\nbase are given, construct the segment of a circle in which the given angle may be inscribed.\nThe fact that the proofs that the circumference and the arc are the loci of the vertices of\nthe triangles are so important and easy, adds to the value of this suggestion. These are\nof course only examples of many such plans.\nThese limitations for the mass of pupils leave abundant opportunity, for the full and\nfree exercise of the genius of the best pupils. In my own experience, even with all the\nhelps, suggestions, and devices at my command, while I have seen some good results and\nhad much encouragement, I still have all too frequent occasion to repeat the beatitude:\n\"Blessed is he that expecteth nothing for he shall not be disappointed.\"\n\nC.\nTHE\nMRS. ADA\n\nHISTORY\n\nNOTEBOOK:\n\nI. ATKINSON,\n\nHEAD\n\nROUND\n\nITS VALUE\nOF DEPARTMENT\n\nAND\n\nTABLE\nITS LIMITATIONS\n\nOF HISTORY,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOMAHA,\n\nNEB.\n\nGreat difference of opinion prevails among teachers in the secondary schools as to the\nvalue of notebooks.\nSome of you will maintain that a notebook is a positive hindrance; that a pupil is\nusually content to put into it what he ought and otherwise would put into his head; that\nit is not a crutch to support the cripple, but that it actually causes the infirmity it is intended\nto cure. And others will say that the time spent in making a notebook would be more\nprofitably expended in acquiring a better grasp of the subject-matter; that it is, therefore,\na waste of time. Worse than all this, it is said to create in the pupil a dislike of history;\nthat he rages, longing for the day of his deliverance; that the notebook is, to borrow a\nscientific term, a species of auto-intoxication, a natural and final putting to sleep of all\ninterest in history. And, finally, it is solemnly averred by these advocates of \"soft pedagogy\" that the notebook is physically injurious; that it has even been known to cause\nnervous prostration.\nThese, then, are the main objections: dependence, waste of time, dislike of the subject, physical injury.\nA formidable Hst, if valid.\nWhat, now, are the items on the other side of the balance sheet ? Of what use are\nnotebooks ?\nCan it be shown that the notebook fits into the general scheme of public education ?\nDoes it help attain the great object of education ? What is that object ? Many answers\nrise in your minds. Summarized, they perhaps come to something like this: \"The acquisition ofknowledge and the development of power.\" If inquiry should show that the\nnotebook adds to knowledge and increases power, it may claim a permanent place in the\nschedule.\nIn the course of this inquiry its value and its limitations will be incidentally defined.\nWaiving the discussion of the comparative desirability of knowledge and power,\nlet us look at a properly made notebook.\n\n"} {"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n677\n\nThe table of contents is well ordered in chapters with subdivisions appropriate to the\nt'tles; neatly lettered and accurately paged, this table, made from time to time, is, by the\nend of the year, a complete syllabus of the entire year's work.\nLet us see what one of the chapters contains.\nIt opens with a short, suggestive outline, furnished by the teacher, who wishes the\npupil to forsee what his study will make plain to him, and, to guard against one-author\nr.arrowness, here is a list of accurate references to both source and secondary authorities.\nStill further to point the way and give definiteness of assignment and preparation, here are\nquestions set as problems for solution, variously framed to effect their various purposes;\nsome of them grammatical, compelling the pupil to wrest the author's meaning from the\ntext; others cultivate the historical imagination; some develop the setting of the period,\nleading the pupil to see it as a reaction from previous conditions and circumstances;\nstill others lead to the grouping of facts; and some may even be beyond the ability of the\npupil to solve with his present knowledge. The student's first exercise is the making of a\ntext analysis as the basis for his further study. While the paragraph captions of the modern\ntext interfere in a measure with the benefit to be got from this exercise, it may be made helpful by insisting that the pupil supply original expressions for the main heads of the analysis,\nand by requiring him to express under each of these heads the substance of the author's\nstatements in the pupil's own words. The answers to the questions are next to be worked\nout; and in the recitation upon them we see that the pupil has gained by comparing his\nconclusions with those of his classmates; for here are class notes, set down, not in hiccoughing fashion, with dots and dashes to represent what he did not get, but in outHne form,\nintelligently grouped in main and subordinate heads. Could he do this without understanding the matter under discussion, without attention riveted on it ? Beside he is thus\nbeing taught to discriminate between main and minor points; he learns the beauty of tolerance; he tastes the joy of authoritative assertion. Moreover, by this exercise, that much-tobe-desired condition is secured of recitation by all of the pupils all of the time.\nNow come reading-notes from source and narrative history. The author, title, and\nportion of the work read are accurately noted, and a few clear, concise statements show a\nsummary of the pages covered. These notes are evidence that he has grasped the author's\nmeaning; they have arrested his straying attention; they have compelled him to abandon\nthe pernicious practice, too often indulged in, of penitential repetition of mere words\nwhich convey no clear idea to his mind.\nFrom the reading of a simple source he has taken a refreshing draught from the fountain of history and has had a glimpse of how history is written from sources. By comparing\nthe statements of different authorities and measuring them by a source he learns to be critical; he no longer accepts unquestioningly what is asserted; he ceases to be the puppet of\nthe demagogue; the editor can no longer satisfy him with blatant declaration; his mind is\nbroadened, his knowledge enriched; he learns to be accurate; he acquires the habit of\nauthoritative statement; he scorns mere assertion of unsupported opinion.\nAnd next, out of these various materials text analysis, reading-notes, and class notes,\nhe makes his logical, final outline of the period. Having constructed the skeleton, he is\nready to clothe it in a short narrative on some well-selected theme which calls into play\nhis newly acquired knowledge, but along fresh lines.\nHere is no dull repetition or plagiarism, clumsy and naive, but clear setting forth in\nhis own words of his own interpretations, sealed with the seal of original language.\nThe benefit from the narrative is great; it rests on the principle that only when\nknowledge has been expressed, orally, or in written form, or in thought may it be properly\ntermed knowledge. In this day of large classes, individual oral expression is necessarily\nlimited; the narrative furnishes the next best substitute. By it the pupil is brought face\nto face with what he knows, and, what is of quite as much importance, with what he does\nnot know. How often we hear children say, \"I know it, but I can't say it.\" Let them see\ntheir knowledge and their ignorance in the relentless mirror of expression.\n\n"} {"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary/\n\nI\n\nEach page is, we see, headed to show the nature of its contents, and in the margin of\nthe narrative are crisp, concise phrases summarizing each paragraph.\nAnd here at the end is an alphabetical index of the chief events and personages mentioned in the book.\nNow do you doubt that the pupil has gained both knowledge and power by the makii^\nof his book?\nUnderstand me, no claim is made for the notebook as a panacea. Tact, indeed, and\nthe judgment and skill of the trained teacher should guide the making; and, no doubt,\nin the hands of the tyro more harm than good would result; but, properly used, the notebook\nbecomes of manifest benefit to the pupil who sees in it a means of apprehending and assimilating knowledge not the mere exploitation of a fad.\nIt is a great mistake to suppose that young people do not enjoy doing a hard thing;\nthey like it, and are proud of their ability to do it. Moreover, as with the body, so with\nthe mind, exercise whets appetite. And it is this tough fiber which the citizen of these\nUnited States must develop in order that he may combat and conquer the difficulties which\nconfront him at the present time. Even to the superficial observer the times look threatening; to a student of history they are big with danger. It is the solemn duty of those who\nhave intrusted to them the shaping of the character, the training of the intellect of the youth\nof this great nation of ours, to prepare and fit them for their civic duties.\nI dare to cherish the hope that by this earnest conscientious, painstaking, loving work\nof making notebooks, these children are learning the fundamentals of citizenship; thoroness, accurracy, breadth of view; the power of neatness; the power to analyze; the power\nto construct; the power of sustained expression; the power of system; the power to carry\nout a plan; the power to look beneath the surface of an event for its cause; the power of\nsuspending judgment; the power of patience; the power of efficiency; the power of truth.\nThe notebook is of positive use in the acquisition of knowledge and the development\nof power. Its limitations are the metes and bounds of trained judgment and common\nsense.\nTHE\nE.\n\nPLACE\n\nI. MILLER,\n\nOF MODERN HISTORY IN THE\nCURRICULUM\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nHISTORY\n\nAND\n\nPOLITICAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCHICO,\n\nCAL.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSCIENCE,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nThe why of history teaching is a prerequisite to the what, the how, and the how much\nof history teaching. That is, it is essential first to know why history should be taught at\nall, what educational results are to be secured from teaching it, before we can know what\npart or how much of the limitless field to select and how it shall be presented to the\nstudents. Therefore the first thing is to determine what are the educational reasons for\nteaching history in the high school. The first part of this paper will be devoted to\na brief consideration of this question.\nIt must be said that in some respects the reasons for teaching history are the same\nfor the high schools as for the elementary school, and for the university. Of course there\nis some difference in the degree that these aims apply to the different grades, but the same\nideas are or ought to be considered.\nAll subjects of the pubHc-school course are in that course because they afford information or give a facility which will be useful in life, or a subject may give both information\nand facility. In some subjects the emphasis is on the information, in others on the facility.\nBut the information or the facility gained in the one subject cannot be carried over into\nanother, unless that other is similar in some way. That is, a power of reasoning in one\nset of ideas does not imply a power of reasoning in another set, unless that other set is in\nsome way like the first. Reasoning-power in mathematics does not imply reasoning-power\nin biology or in history; nor does the reverse hold good.\nHowever, reasoning-power in\n\n"} {"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n679\n\nhistory would to a certain degree, imply reasoning-power in other social sciences, as sociology, economics, etc. Without further discussion of this point, then, it is a legitimate\nconclusion from the foregoing statements, that one subject cannot wholly, if to any degree,\ntake the place of another subject; each contributes its own particular thing to the complete development of the individual Without claiming superiority of history over other\nsubjects in all respects, and without denying to other branches the educational values\nclaimed for them, let us ask what are the educational reasons for teaching history ?\nFirst, it furnishes much information of a practical kind. History is the record of\nwhat man has done individually and collectively, of the motives and forces that have\noperated to direct human actions, of the results of those motives and f rces upon the human\nrace. Can it be that the study of such records can be, as Herbert Spencer suggests, for\namusement only and not for instruction ?\nReturning to the statement that history furnishes much information of a practical\nkind, is it not of value to the young mind to have it add to its own direct experiences, the\nexperiences of individual and race in the past ? Is it not desirable to enlarge the mental\nhorizon by experience not directly had by each individual? Is it not desirable to teach\nthe individual those facts which help him to understand soinething of what he is, why he\nis what he is, and how he became such as a member of society? Is it not worth while\nfor the civilized person to know something of the process thru which civilization was\ndeveloped ? Is it not a thing of value for the individual to know something of how the\ncommonest things and institutions about him came to be? What they mean and why\nthey are of the form they are ? All these questions may be answered by a quotation from\nthe great thinker, Lecky, who says of history, \"It is one of the best schools for that kind\nof reasoning which is most useful in practical life. It teaches men to weigh conflicting\nprobabilities, to estimate degrees of evidence, to form sound judgment of the value of\nauthorities.\nReasoning is taught more by actual practice than by a priori methods.\"\nLife is a series of problems which as a rule each individual must solve for himself.\nThe facts to be considered in these problems are the acts and motives of men as individuals\nand in groups. How shall the individual be taught the facts and how to reason upon them ?\nHe can and must learn some of this by direct contact, by experience; but shall we not\nbroaden his experiences and prepare him for a safer adjustment of himself by giving him\nthe experience of others, and of the past ? How else can the race make progress but by\nusing the lessons of past experience ? But the study of these past experiences is one phase\nof history. History deals with man's past experiences, it shows and explains something\nof present forces, it points to future tendencies. Certainly, then, the more of this kind of\nhistory that is taught, the sounder the judgment that will result. The more the individual'\nwill gain experience and power to meet and solve the problems of practical life.\nWhat better way to make good citizens than to teach the youth practice in knowing\nand reasoning upon facts connected with government and the duties of the citizen toward\nthat government? The facts of history are valuable. They deai with practical everyday life. They give practice in solving problems everyone must, to some extent, attempt\nto solve. A wide acquaintance with the right kind of history is a valuable preparation for\ncitizenship. It is because the facts of history are so similar to those of everyday life that\nhistory lays such strong claims to giving information and training that will be of the greatest assistance in real life.\nSecond, history is a means of setting before students high types of character, and of\ngiving them high ideals. It is character-building. Keeping high types of character and\nhigh ideals before the students will not make all of the students pattern their Ha^cs after\nthem, but this method will do as much as any other to accomplish that end.\nThird, it is a culture subject. Culture is knowledge of the best the past has produced.\nAlong with this knowledge go refining influences of various kinds. By teaching knowledge of the habits, customs, institutions of other people, the ideals which lie back of them,\nand the struggles which these people have undergone to establish and maintain these things,\n\n"} {"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "680\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\na sympathy with the progressive movements of the past and of people other than our own,\nis secured. To quote from the report of the Committee of Seven, \"Many a teacher has.\nfound that, in dealing with the great and noble acts and struggles of bygone men, he has\nsucceeded in reaching the inner nature of the real boys and girls of his classes, and has\ngiven them impulses and honorable prejudices that are the surest sources of permanent\nand worthy refinment.\"\nFourth, it is a means of teaching patriotism. It is not the only way of teaching\npatriotism, but it is one way. Real, enduring patriotism is the outgrowth of an understanding and appreciation of the trials and sacrifices that made possible our free institutions\nand the privileges and opportunities they afford. As Professor Hinsdale once said, \"Study\nof the times that tried men's souls tends to form souls that are capable of enduring trial.\"\nA little of such appreciation is possible in the upper grammar grades, but it is in the high\nschool chiefly that this must be accomplished.\nFifth, history is a good moral teacher. It affords practical concrete illustrations,\nwhich may be so presented as to clearly point the moral, but not take the form of preaching.\nThe choice of material and the method of presentation will do much to determine whether\nhistory gives moral lessons or not, but it would be difficult for even the worst teacher to\nobscure the great moral progress of the race. The advance in civilization is a moral\nadvance. Any study of history must reveal moral progress as illustrated in rules of war\nin treatment of defective classes, in the abolition of slavery, etc. The student will have\ngotten little from his study of history if he has not seen these and similar evidences of moral\nadvance.\nSixth, history touches many interests. It deals with people of all ages and of. all\ntimes; it shows all phases of activity, political, religious, social, industrial, etc., and therefore, iffairly well presented, it appeals to a large number of people.\nEre this it must have become evident that the kind of high school in mind is the one\nwhich is really preparing its students to be good citizens, which is aiming to give that\ngeneral intelligence and those strong sterling qualities and virtues that characterize our\nhighest types of manhood and womanhood. No other kind of high school has any right\nto exist.\nA high-school course in history, arranged and carried out so as to secure the results\njust suggested, is perfectly practicable. Doubtless most of our high schools follow these\naims in part, some of the best ones completely.\nNow, let us see how the course in modern history as a part of the history program is>\nor may be, in harmony with the aims just stated.\nThe usual meaning of the term \"modern history\" as covering a period of European\nhistory from somewhere near the end of the fifteenth century down to the present, is here\nadopted. This paper does not depart from the commonly accepted period nor regions in\nwhat is to be considered as modern history; but it does contend that the subject-matter\nof modern history should be determined by its adaptability to securing the ends which have\njust been set up as the aims of history work in the high school.\nBoth the time and the country in which the school is located determine to some degree\nthe nature of the course in history, because the ideals of education differ from time to time,\nand from country to country. But it has been assumed that the American high school\nis the one under discussion here; hence the character of the course in modern history must\nbe determined from the point of view of the American high school. The reasons for\nteaching history in the high school as before stated, will be taken up in order, and the place\nof modern history in reference to them discussed.\nFirst, does modern history furnish information of a practical kind? Leaving out of\nconsideration American history as a part of modern history, because that has a special year\nin the program, modern history gives the foundation for an understanding of present-day\nAmerican institutions. It is today an almost universally accepted idea among educators\nthat American history and government are essentials of every school course, because of\n\n"} {"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n68 1\n\ntheir useful character in preparation for citizenship. But for four centuries American\nand European history have been closely connected. The foundations of American institutions and history being in Europe, a study of mediaeval and modern Europe is essential\nto an understanding of our history, i. e., to a preparation for good citizenship.\nIn a country where the population is made up of so many elements, where so many\nmodern nationalities and national characteristics are represented, as in America, some\nstudy of those nationalities and their characteristics must be made. How else can an\nunderstanding of our own institutions and ideas be reached save thru a study of the types\nfrom which they come, the conditions that have brought about changes, the forms of these\nchanges, and the difference between these institutions in America and in the country of\ntheir origin ? We must study modern European history in order to get the information\nnecessary to an understanding of our own history. Modern history does, then, furnish\ninformation of a practical kind.\nAgain, modern history gives the information most likely to furnish a sound basis for\nreasoning on important world movements. In the future, as a most active world-power,\na power which, whether we' wish it or no, must take part in the great world-movements,\nAmerica must be wisely guided. In a government such as ours, where public opinion is so\npowerful, the greater the intelligence on questions relating to history and government,\nthe greater the chance for intelligent direction and guidance. History will not make\nall people wise, but constant dealing with historical and governmental facts and notions,\nand practice in reasoning upon such things, will make the future citizen who is to influence\npublic opinion, more capable of forming sound judgment. Now, if the United States is to\nhave a larger and larger part in world affairs, is it not of greater import than ever before\nthat Americans understand more of the history, institutions, and ideals of other countries ?\nSome schools give a course in English history and that is very valuable for the purposes\njust mentioned; but that is not enough; for other countries besides England are also concerned, and it is modern history that gives the desired information relating to those countries.\nIt may be said that too few attend school as far as thru the second year of the high\nschool where modern history is taught, to make the question of intelligent citizenship important. It must be admitted that only a small percentage of the citizens of the United States\nhave now actually as much education as is represented by two years of high school, but\nthe time is at hand when that percentage will rapidly increase. Even if it should not, it\nis wisdom to do all that can be done for those who do take the work, however few.\nModern history, then, should have an important place in the high-school curriculum,\nbecause it gives information of a practical sort, information that will make clear our\nAmerican history, that will make better judgments on American questions possible,\ninformation that will make for general intelligence and better citizenship.\nSecond, does modern history, as history in general, afford abundant opportunity of\nsetting high types of character and high ideals before the students ? The names Pitt,\nGladstone, Cavour, Stein, suggest some of the higher types of character; the struggle for\nthe elevation of the middle and lower classes to a higher plane industrially, politically,\nsocially, the struggles for the overthrow of spscial privilege, the growth of general education; the struggle for humanitarian advancement, etc., suggest some of the high ideals.\nBut why illustrate further? Anyone familiar with the modern history of Europe will find\nno lack of material for this purpose.\nThird, is modern history a culture subject ? Tho ancient history is in some respects\nsuperior for this purpose, yet much of the best civilization produced in art, in music, in\nliterature, in government, in humanitarian institutions, in ideals of all kinds, is abundantly\nrepresented in modern history. Where is a better opportunity to give some of the elements\nof this culture than by teaching of these things and how they have been attained ? Modern\nhistory dealing with the struggles of men to reach the higher things of life, will broaden\nthe sympathies and refine the feelings.\nFourth, does modern history help to teach the American boy or girl to be patriotic ?\n\n"} {"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAmerican institutions and American lav/ are based upon certain ideas of broad human\nsympathy, such as the equality of men; that men have a right to life, liberty, and pursuit\nof happiness; that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed;\nthat when a government becomes oppressive the people have a right to change or abolish\nit; that there shall be freedom of worship and of speech, etc. These are the principles\nthat are held dear by the patriotic American. They constitute in large part the basis of\nhis patriotism. But how and why were these ideas adopted and established? This\nquestion can be answered by modern European history, and in part by that only. The\nstruggle of the people of Europe for religious toleration, for political freedom, for economic\nand industrial justice is one long commentary on the underlying principles of our own\nsystem. Will not a study of such things help toward the true appreciation of what we were\ngiven by the sacrifices of our fathers ? Surely we can more fully understand and appreciate\nour own institutions if we read of the struggles of the Third Estate in the French Revolution, or of the efforts to secure freedom of speech in the English parliament, or of the development of English political and religious liberty, or of the many struggles for representative\ninstitutions in the various countries, or for the realization of nationality in Germany and\nItaly, etc. But why multiply examples ? It must be clear to everyone that modern hisory,\nmay be made to teach patriotism to the American high-school student.\nFifth, as a moral teacher modern European history has no superior. Nowhere else\nare there more and better examples of the moral advance of the race and of the individuals\nof the race than in modern Europe. The rapid advance in civilization in modern times\nis due in large part to a moral advance in ideals.\nBut there is not time to illustrate further.\nSixth, as a subject of interest to a large number of American people, a people composed\nof elements from all races and nationalities of Europe, modern European history is superior\nto any other, unless it be American history. It therefore can fairly claim a place in the\ncurriculum on that ground.\nThe next important question is, what shall be the subject-matter of this modern\nhistory that it may be made to secure the results here claimed for it. At present no more\ncan be said than that the material must be selected from the points of view indicated in the\npreceding pages. Further discussion of this question is not possible in the time limit,\nnor indeed is it within the scope of the subject of this paper.\nNow, to sum up; because modern history gives information of a practical sort that will\nexplain our own American history, that will make possible better judgments on questions\nof actual life, that will make for better citizenship; because it furnishes to the students\nexamples of high types of character and high ideals; because it is a culture subject; because\nit helps teach the American boy and girl real patriotism; because it is a good moral teacher;\nand because it has great interest for many persons, it makes strong claim to a prominent\nplace in the high-school curriculum. But since the reasons just stated are the chief reasons\nfor history in the high school at all, it follows that modern history is entitled to an important\nplace in the history course. Because it is essential to an understanding of American history,\nand because it is more directly connected with our own civilization than is ancient history,\nit ought to be given more prominence than any other history save our own English- American\nhistory. And because it trains for general intelligence, culture, good citizenship, and\npractical life, generally, it makes a claim to being one of the most important subjects in the whole high-school course.\n\nDISCUSSION\nR. H. Hunt, principal of high school, San Jose, Cal. — I find it very easy and delightfully simple to express my appreciation of the well-prepared and thoughtful paper just\npresented.\nIt is a pleasure, moreover, to concur in Mr. Miller's main theses and thoroly\northodox conclusions.\n\n"} {"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n\nDepartment]\n\nHISTORY\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n683\n\nAll that remains for me to do, therefore, would seem^to be to add some weight of\nemphasis to a few of the propositions made, to recognize the difficulties of matter and\nmethod in securing the desired results, and to suggest a synthetic view-point as the best\nkey with which to open the doors of the great treasure-house of our past.\nI would particularly emphasize the identity of the history of Europe with American\nhistory. We have become accustomed to this concept of identity as applied to England\nand the United States; why not advance a step farther across the British Channel, if you\nplease, and understand that American colonial history can be rightly understood only\nwhen interpreted in terms of the history — politics and religion — of Spain, of France, of Holland, in fact of western Europe ? If the history of Virginia cannot be studied apart from\nthe asserted rights and prerogatives of the Stuart kings, neither can the occupation of California be understood without the colonial policy of Spain and the missionary zeal of the\nRoman Church, nor the vicissitudes of Canada and parts of the South be comprehended\nwithout the pathetic but significant story of the Huguenots and the early portents of revolution in France.\nNext I would add a word of emphasis to the thought that some European history\nshould be taught in the grammar school. No better time can be found than the sixth\ngrade for the creation of preliminary — yet not inaccurate — impressions of those great\ninstitutions like monasticism and feudalism, and those powerful movements like the Crusades and the Renaissance, and especially of commanding personalities like Charlemagne,\nAlfred, Luther, and a score of others, all of which had such profound influence in shaping\nthe current of universal history. Such instruction will admirably serve the double purpose\nof furnishing an important foundation for the systematic study of American history and\nof making possible the more intensive as well as more comprehensive study of European\nhistory in the high school. In this connection it is gratifying to mark the prominence\ngiven to western Europe in the \"Provisional Report on a Course of Study in History\"\nby the Committee of Eight from the American Historical Association,\nI must before closing at least make mention of two points that might well have been\ndiscussed at greater length in a consideration of our topic. The first is the practical\ndifficulty of teaching so intricate and complex a subject as modern European history.\nThis of necessity involves the most judicious selection and rejection of material in so vast a\nfield. For the purpose of this discussion I would date modern history at least back to\nCharlemagne and have it cover in general the field of the second-year history course as\nundertaken in most of our high schools. The difficulties of the subject when considered\nin the light of its importance demand the best-prepared and most skilful instructors as\nwell as the most advanced classroom and library helps. Our teachers in San Jose have\nfound the Heath History Syllabus well adapted to this work provided the library is furnished\nwith an abundance of suitable reference books; and for the next year we have decided to\nallow an option of three leading textbooks instead of requiring all pupils to buy the\nsame.\nThe last point I shall make is foreshadowed by a clause I have just used about selecting and rejecting material. What should be the subject-matter of this course in history\nthat is making such claims ? I have time to answer only categorically. It must not be\nchiefly military, nor must the merely political everywhere dominate. It must be partly\nbiographical, it must include much of the institutional, the industrial must be interwoven\nwith the political, the literary and the political must be studied in the light of the religious.\nIn a word, since history is the truthful record of developing humanity, having to do with\nthe whole of man's life and interests, the aim of instruction must ever be a social aim, and\nthe pupil must thus be led to that fundamental truth that history is a single, on- flowing current of human activity. Nowhere can the noble concept of the unity of history be more\neffectively taught, nowhere can the spirit of history be more advantageously inculcated\nthan in the course of moiern European history under the guidance of an instructor who\nis at once sympathetic, judicious, and scholarly.\n\n"} {"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nD.\nTHE\n\nVALUE\n\nAND\n\nGEORGE\n\nC. BUSH.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ngCIENCE ROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nLIMITATIONS OF QUANTITATIVE\nPHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY\nSUPERVISING\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\n[Secondary\n\nSOUTH\n\nPASADENA,\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nCAL.\n\nMuch has been said and written of late concerning the value and limitations of quantitative work in physics and chemistry. One has only to flip over the pages of such school\nmagazines as School Science to see that this kind of work has been the cause of much thought\nand discussion. Before entering into a consideration of this subject I wish to make a\nfew statements concerning the presence of physics and chemistry in the curricula of high\nschools. First, they have long ago established their claims as instruments of education.\nSecond, while unusually rich in opportunities for arousing interest and developing power,\nthey should not be expected to yield strange and marvelous results. They should be judged\njust like every other subject in the course. Physics and chemistry cannot be given with\na guarantee to make a student out of a failure in other subjects because of interesting apparatus and amusing phenomena. They sometimes do this thing and perhaps a little oftener\nthan textbook subjects — this on account of the laboratory method which enables the\nteacher to diagnose and prescribe for the individual rather than the class. Third, the\naim of physics and chemistry is to sharpen the observation, teach accuracy, develop\nreasoning, bring the pupil face to face with the unity and harmony of nature, give useful\ninformation with which these subjects are teeming — above all to develop power.\nThe charge has frequently been made, and by persons high in the educational world,\nthat these subjects are not as attractive to pupils as they used to be, especially physics.\nDr. G. Stanley Hall shares this view. They fnay not be as attractive, but we certainly\nbelieve that as they are now taught they are more powerful as instruments of education.\nI recall my own extreme enthusiasm in physics as a student in the high school fifteen years\nago, where nothing bordering on quantitative work was attempted, where we simply reveled\nin the recitation of the wonders of the science, and where on examination 1 worked a problem\nin momentum by multiplying the mass in pounds by the velocity in feet per minute and\nreceived a perfect mark, while the superintendent's son, who had a key, solved it by multiplying the mass by the velocity in feet per second and was marked wrong. We were fascinated\nby the subject except for the mathematics, loaded with erroneous ideas, made imaginative\nto a degree, deluded into thinking we knew a great deal about physics and anxious to learn\nmore, but, after all, left to learn at some future time the real science and to profit by its\ncourse of reasoning. I recall my struggle with my first year's work in university physics.\nQuantitative work may not give entertainment of the \"oh my\" type in which the science\nis lost in the confusion of mind likely to accompany the experiment. Quantitative work\nwell done will, however, give that inward joy, the feeling of power, the pleasure of the\nphilosopher that prompts the student to further and greater activity. This is a thing that\ncounts strongly in education. I do not mean to say that quantitative work has the advantage\nover qualitative in prompting additional efforts. The reverse is true, ordinarily, but\nquantitative work in doing this does infinitely more for the student in developing his powers.\nFor purpose of entertainment, for arousing that wild enthusiasm which we hear teachers\nonce were wont to impart to pupils, we will concede that quantitative work has its limitations.\nMore is demanded of us, however, than the creation of a desire to do some real work in\nthe subject somewhere, some day.\nThe term quantitative work, it seems to me, has taken on an exaggerated meaning,\nmade to embrace work bordering onto research, giving the notion that it is very technical\nand very difficult, and thereby bringing itself into disfavor as high-school work. Quantitative work does not need to be difficult — in fact it should be made as easy as possible and\nyet accomplish the purpose. In point of difficulty, intricacy and expense of apparatus,\nand in time consumed there should be no great difference between qualitative and quantita-\n\nI\n\n"} {"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n685\n\ntive experiments. There is likely to be a difference in difficulty on account of the teacher's\ninability to make the pupil get out of the qualitative experiment all that should be gotten.\nThe mathematical nature of quantitative experiments necessitates finer work and the\npupil is not slow to recognize this. It is surprising to see how much pleasure is manifested\nby pupils in being able to test the accuracy of their work. They soon come to prefer this\nkind of laboratory experiment. They say they know when they have finished. We all\nlike definiteness in a task.\nThe chief limitations of quantitative work result I think from the selection of experiments and the presentation by the teacher. The teacher is then, after all, if empowered\nto select the experiments, the cause of the limitations. I have no patience with the set of\n•arid, parched, and lifeless experiments which start out with work with the sHding scale,\nvernier and micrometer calipers, spherometers, chemical balances, etc.; not that these\nthings are not of value, but that the proper time to study them is when they are called\ninto use for a definite purpose. The vernier and micrometer calipers are not interesting\nto the average boy or girl and excite curiosity and respect only when the need is seen of\nexact measurements, which time may be late in the course, perhaps when the barometer\nis used and when the laws of strings and the resistance of wires are studied. The question\nof quantitative work is hopeful if the pupil can be led to the point where he wants to know\nand wants to do in order to find out more. He should then be given the opportunity to do.\nJames says that it is not in the moment of their forming but in the moment of their producing motor efifects that resolves and aspirations communicate a set to the brain.\nThe quantitative experiments should be selected not for their disciplinary value but\nfor their use in elucidating and verifying the work of the classroom for which purpose they\nare indispensable. Suppose, for example, we are beginning on a course in chemistry.\nOxygen and hydrogen have been studied. The law of definite proportions is then presented.\nWhat possible reason can there be for asking the pupil to accept this on faith. Why not\nlet him convince himself of its truth by a few simple quantitative experiments like burning\na known amount of magnesium and weighing the product, and decomposing a known\namount of potassium chlorate and getting the products ? Where is the difficulty in these\nexperiments that should bar them from the course? Why should a pupil be asked to\naccept the statement that one-fifth the air is oxygen when by means of a bottle, a graduate,\nand some pyrogallic acid he can soon demonstrate it ? With what joy he reports a result\nwhich approaches the accepted amount and with what positiveness he states it when later\nasked to give the composition of air. Is this not worth while ? A simple experiment like\nthis, however, requires the closest supervision of the teacher, without which any quantitative experiment is likely to fail. Guidance at every step is imperative.\nWhat would be thought of a course in chemistry that omitted a discussion of the combining weights of the elements and of the atomic theory. Why not introduce the pupil to\nsuch a theory by a series of experiments in hydrogen equivalence ? They have a right to\nask why when these laws and theories are presented to them. There can be no objection\nin point of time spent, difficulty, or expense, in finding the hydrogen equivalent of zinc,\nmagnesium, and aluminium that is commensurate with the great value of such experiments. And so on thru the entire course. Thru experiments of this kind one gets a\nreaHzing sense of the laws of nature by coming into direct contact with them. Confidence\nin nature is estabhshed.\nIn physics how can the exactness of an exact science be impressed unless quantitative\nrelations be demonstrated ? It seems to me that it would be Hke throwing away ammunition for a teacher to fail to make use of the many quantitative experiments possible in this\nsubject. They above all others, in addition to the light they shed upon the subject, afford\nto the pupil the means of developing observation, reasoning, and imagination. The\npersonal equation which enters so largely into every quantitative experiment adds attraction\nto it if reasonably accurate results are within the limits of possibility of the apparatus.\nIn no other way can accurate notions of the various physical units be impressed.\nA\n\n"} {"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfSecondary\n\ncalorie of heat means something after the specific heat of a few substances has been found.\nPupils may give with absolute accuracy the definition of a unit without understanding\nits real meaning. Why does a pupil go into the laboratory after making a fine recitation\nconcerning the insulating properties of cotton and wrap the cotton covered wire around\nthe binding post and expect a flow of current. I have watched this matter for eight years\nand have seen it happen again and again. Often the best pupils were guilty of this. Of\ncourse the mistake was often soon detected and corrected yet it emphasizes the need of\ndirect contact with the things under discussion to get a realizing sense of them.\nIn disciplinary value quantitative work excels. Keener observation, more cleanliness,\ngreater accuracy in manipulation, better reasoning, and a finer comprehension of the entire\nexperiment is necessary to success. The co-operative method of getting answers common\nto all departments of work finds little application in closely supervised quantitative work.\nThe classes, however, should be small and all computations should be made in the laboratory.\nI have already said that the real limitation of quantitative work is not the fault of the\nexperiments. The teacher is responsible for its shortcomings. I have taught classes in\nhistory, mathematics, and different branches of science and I am ready to say that there\nis no comparison between directing quantitative laboratory work and teaching other subjects. If quantitative work accomplishes what I claim for it, then a generous amount of\ngood hard work must be done by the teacher. I know from personal experience what\nwill happen if the teacher relinquishes even for a short time his hold upon the work. To\nbegin with, the experiments must be carefully selected to illustrate points that have come\nup for discussion in the class. The apparatus must be tested to see if sufficiently accurate\nresults can be obtained to illustrate the point. Sources of error must be removed or pointed\nout and then the most careful vigilance given in order to correct blunders, assist in difficulties, suggest modifications, direct the reasoning, and even to help frame conclusions.\nI would not burden the pupil with percentages of error. Perhaps you are saying, Why not\nlet the teacher do the experiment ? It certainly would be easier for the teacher and insure\nmore accurate results, but what is the course designed for, the science or the pupil ? We\nall recognize the fact that it is easier to do a thing ourselves than to teach others to do it.\nEven if the teacher does do half the work and the thinking, the pupil is better off than if\nthe teacher had done it all, expecting the pupil to follow it and grasp it. It must be remembered that we are using the subject-matter of physics and chemistry as means of education\nof the pupil. In the hands of a competent teacher, one willing to work hard and long, who\nknows all the weaknesses of the experiment by personal performance of it, quantitative\nwork will interest, instruct, and inspire.\nIt has been said that the idea of the grandeur of science has been weakened by too much\nquantitative work. One likes to revel, it seems, in the utter impossibilities and improbabiUties of matters scientific. Great good has been accomplished if quantitative work convinces that something cannot be gotten for nothing, that a vest pocket chemical fire\nextinguisher is a delusion, and electric finger rings a fake. Who it is that makes all the\nwild statements as to what will be .accomplished by electricity in a few years, how its application will be extended indefinitely and its price reduced to mere nothing ? Surely not one\ninvestigating its laws. A quantitative study of Ohm's law and associated laws might\ntake the poetry out of such dreams.\nQuantitadve experiments are doing a good work and will do more as teachers learn\nto use them. Too much has been undertaken both in extent and complexity. Too\nmuch attention is given every year to devising methods of making quantitative experiments\nout of everything. Heaven knows we have enough now. I believe in progress but I\nalso believe that the average boy or girl in high school has something else to do in addition\nto his physics and chemistry.\n\n"} {"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n687\n\nDISCUSSION\nW. A. FiSKE, instructor in physical science, high school, Richmond, Ind. — It has\nalways been interesting to me, as no doubt it has to others, to watch the growth and development of scientific work. Pick up a textbook in physics fifty years old and you certainly\nfind a book of great interest. It contains not a^trace of the word laboratory, not even a\nquantitative thought.\nThese things were left for Uter days.\nWhen we consider physics from a laboratory standpoint we find that three stages or\nperiods have existed: first, the period of no laboratory; second, the period when there\nwas a tendency to all laboratory; and third, a more conservative period, or that of a middle\nground, a return to more class and lecture work. When we think of this unsettled condition of affairs there comes to our mind an expression of Goethe. A friend once said to him,\n\"Why do you care so much for Homer when you cannot understand him anyhow?\"\nwhich this great German repUed:\n\nTo\n\nNeither do I understand the sun, moon, or stars, but as I look upon these mysterious orbs as they pass over me day by day, and as I ponder their wondrous ways, I think\nat the same time: When shall I ever be of any importance, and when shall I know the real\ntruth of things.\nThat is the main object we have in so often discussing these questions, to find a little\ntruth to which we may anchor our hopes and build for the future.\nThe purpose of laboratory work is not that of discovery, or not verifications in itself,\nbut as the writer of the paper has said, to bring the pupil to a realizing sense of things;\nto cause him to know, to think, and to do things that he may find out more.\nQuantitative laboratory work possesses a dignified nature. Such experiments give\nthe student the impression that he is doing something, and not that he is merely engaged\nin play.\nThis kind of laboratory work may have a bad application, if the experiment is made\nthe end in itself. All experiments should be worked in connection with the laws and\nprinciples which they illustrate and should not be delayed until the end of the subject in\nhand. The number of experiments should be few, as simple as possible, and easily\nwithin the grasp of the pupil.\nThe value of such experiments to the pupil cannot be overestimated. They teach care,\npatience, accuracy, cleanliness, skill, and careful and systematic thought.\nIt has been said by a writer in a recent scientific journal,\nIf a student is able to handle correctly a spherometer or vernier caliper, if he is able\nto measure the focal lengths of a lens without dropping it on the flo^r, or if he can handle\nany piece of apparatus, successfully, wipe it off, and lay it away as he found it, he has\nmade an acquisition for life.\nFinally, this kind of work, as has been suggested by the author of the paper, while\nbeing alone in the laboratory must have the constant care and attention of the teacher\nin order to make it of the greatest value to the pupil\nCarl I. Ingerson, instructor in physics. Central High School, St. Louis, M . —\nStudents seek the line of least resistance and find it in qualitative experiments. We have\nbeen kindergartenizing education. College presidents report entering students more\npoorly prepared than ten years ago. High-school principals report the same with regard to\nthose coming from the grades. We can help to make the students better thinkers by\nplenty of strong quantitative work.\nJ. Franklin Walker, principal of high school, Anaheim, Cal. — On the contrary,\nwork is much better done in the high schools today than it was ten years ago.\nC. M. Westcott, Redlands, Cal. — I beHeve a certain amount of qualitative\nexperiment should have a place. Any supposed weakness of the schools of today compared with those of ten years ago cannot be due to the introduction of qualitative work,\nsince there is today more and better quantitative work than there was then.\n\n"} {"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nA. B. Martin, principal of high school, Marysville, Cal. — We have used the plan of\ngiving one day to recitation on a given subject, then two days to laboratory work on the\nsame subject, followed by two days of recitation on the same subject.\nThe request was made at this point that the opinion of the section be obtained as to\nthe relative amounts of quantitative and qualitative experiment desirable. A vote was\nunanimous that in physics quantitative experiment should exceed 50 per cent, and onehalf present thought it should exceed 7^ per cent. In the study of chemistry it was voted\nalmost unanimously that quantitative experiment should not exceed 10 to 25 per cent.\nLewis B. Avery, principal of high school, Redlands, Cal. — Qualitative work in\nscience gives a philosophical view-point and is generally cultural in effect. Quantitative\nwork is purely scientific. I am of the opinion that a general view of any science should\nprecede its minute scientific study. In the Redlands High School we give a half-year preliminary cultural course in physics which is as nearly compulsory as may be, and follow this\nby an elective year with strong quantitative work. This preliminary half-year is conducted\nwithout textbook and is in the form of illustrated lectures and experimental answers to\npupil's questions. The requirement for entrance to the room each day is the prepared\nnotes on the preceding day's work. After a three-years' trial we are fully convinced of\nthe value of this general course for those pupils who get no more physics and for those who\ntake the quantitative work as well. The latter class know what they are doing and\nwhere they are going: they see the trend of the work that they do and its general bearing\nupon the whole subject.\nTHE\nI.\nWALTER\n\nM.\n\nUSE OF THE\nPURPOSE\nKERN,\n\nMICROSCOPE\n\nOF WORK\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSTATE\nDALE,\n\nIN BIOLOGY\n\nWITH\nNORMAL\nN.\n\nTHE\nAND\n\nCLASSES\n\nMICROSCOPE\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nELLEN-\n\nDAK.\n\nMuch is being said and written these days about the \"new education.\" Somebody\nseems suddenly to have discovered, what most of us are inclined to believe people always\nknew, that the child is dual by nature; that he possesses receptive and expressive faculties;\nthat they are intimately related, \"useless each without the other;\" that impression must\nprecede expression, and that the highest type of training is that in which both receptive\nand expressive faculties are jointly trained. The boy who works at the lathe, who turns\nfrom wood a cylindrical form, has fashioned his conception in the concrete. The finished\nproduct represents impression transformed into expression, and the mental training acquired\nin mastering the tool, in manipulating the power, instruments, and material, represents\nthat type of education in some quarters denominated the \"new.\" So with the microscope.\nThese two instruments have at least one point in common; they open up a new world to the\nexperimenter. They are the agents thru which his untried powers seek to try, to investigate, to know; by which the mind, thru the medium of hand and eye, acts and reacts upon\nthe unknown and untried; and the proper use of either may well represent that type of\ntraining in which the student's powers of initiative are developed in gaining knowledge\nat first hand, while their use indicates that we have gone back to Locke and Pestalozzi in\nour attempt to put in practice our educational ideal.\nThe microscope in secondary-school courses has played a various and diverse part.\nWe have had three types of science-teachers in secondary schools. The first of these\nbelonged to the \"old school.\" He was the teacher whose receptive faculties had been\nhighly trained. He knew his sums and he knew his texts. He believed all the wonderful\nthings that some compiler had written about nature. He knew the names, the pictures,\nand the derivation of much of the nomenclature of the flora and fauna described. He\nknew a few of the forms that greeted him afield. He had unbounded faith in his text.\nHe would believe it rather than the evidences of his own senses. It contained an excellent\nresume of what someone\nsometime, somewhere, thought about the things to which it\n\n"} {"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n.\n\nSCIENCE\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n689\n\npertained. It related in but a very minor degree to field and pond — to that nature with\nwhich the universe is alive. The teaching lacked the vital element; there was none of\nthat eager impulse that follows personal contact; and the students went thru life believing\nthat off somewhere in earth or sea or sky are more wonderful things than most men\nhave dreamed about. Of their own parish they were unfortunately ignorant. And this\nwas the old school which some of us have occasion to remember; happily passing into\nthe great beyond.\nAnd the second type is the opposite extreme; the university graduate who has been\ntrained in microtechnique and who is possessed with the idea that high-school pupils must\nof necessity be interested in whatever interests their teacher. There is a pond near at hand,\nbut material for class use is purchased from a marine supply-house because such a proceeding lends an air of dignity and superiority to the transaction. The course is planned\nto lead to the mastery of the microscope; the study of cell, chromatophores, crystal, rudimentary tissue, soft tissue, thick-angled tissue, stony tissue, milk tissue, sieve tissue, tracheary\ntissue, groups of tissue,' etc., exact measurements and drawings. Of the local flora and\nfauna; their life history, adaptation, and classification the student knows almost nothingHe does know much about the use of the microscope and microtome and is able to use\nthese instruments to some advantage. Such teaching is the result of an impatient zeal\non the part of an over ambitious teacher. The students have certain advantages. Their\nmarkings are accepted without question, but one is prone to feel, after all, that there is\nsomething foreign and irrelevant for the majority of the student body.\nHappily we have come to that state where, if our heads must be in the clouds, we realize\nthat we must keep our feet on terra firma. The third type of teacher attempts what Cicero\ndenominates the \"golden mean.\" The archaic teacher, intent on the text, makes no use\nwhatever of the microscope. The budding specialist makes it his vade mecum, the cardinal\npoint about which all knowledge revolves, the be-all and end-all of the secondary course\nin biology. It was to be expected that we would swing from one extreme to the other,\nbut since the balance has ceased to vibrate it is easy to approximate the correct position of\nthis instrument. Field work has a most fundamental place in the study of biology. Beginning with a clear distinction between organic and inorganic, it is the adamant upon which\nfuture comprehensive training must be built. The work of the student in the secondary\nschool must, of necessity, be introductory. He must be taught a method of work; must\nknow how to study; must appreciate the value and utility of materials. He must know\nthe local field and work thru it. He must know something of distribution and its causes;\nmust know adaptation; must have such a training in types as will enable him readily to\narrive at an approximately correct determination of a form's systematic position among\nthe orders. He must know something of the relationship existing between plants and\nanimals and between the different groups of each respectively; must be able to reason from\nstructure to function; must know morphology and physiology, and whatever purpose the\nmicroscope may serve in such a course will constitute its legitimate field. The extent to\nwhich it is used must depend in a large degree upon the locality and the view-point of the\nindividual instructor. If material is abundant, and if the instructor believe that emphasis\nshould be laid upon some special branch whose representatives are prevalent, such as the\narthropods or phenogams, the work with the microscope \"may be limited to the study of\nslides representing gross structure. Such a course may well proceed from the study of\nindividuals through family, order, class, and branch to the conception of a kingdom and\nembrace a systematic and logical body of knowledge. Or an equally logical and more\nextended course may embrace a knowledge of the leading characteristics of the chief\nbranches of animals and plants, and thruDUt the course the microscope may be a daily\nnecessity to the working student. Such courses are logical; their pedagogical content\nintensive; and in either the microscope has reached a sphere of usefulness that is at once\nproper and legitimate.\nPrimarily, and aside from the discussion of prevailing methods and the proper position\n\n"} {"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof the microscope there are at least four major fields which embrace the proper use of\nthis instrument.\n/. // introduces the stuiett to a new world. — There is a world beyond the range of\nthe unaided senses and into it the microscope ushers the student. It has been well said\nthat the purpose of education is always the same but that the means vary according to our\nconceptions of life. The microscope is one of the means to an end. Thru the avenue of\nthe eye we acquire most of our information concerning the things about us. Try as we\nmay, all our senses are limited, the perfectly-developed eye being no exception. The\nmicroscope supplements artificially the eye. It illustrates how man takes up and carries\nforward nature's work. All of our native senses are blundering, inaccurate, and crude.\nWith all our boasted knowledge and skill the great mass of physical phenomena lies beyond\nthe range of human sense. It has been said that the vast extension of human knowledge\nsince the days of Galileo and Newton, grouped broadly under the name of science, has been\nchiefly the exploration of the world that lies beyond our primitive senses. The microscope\nis the tool that introduces us to that \"unseen, unheard, unfelt, universe whose fringe we\nare just beginning to explore.\"\nII. It affords training in muscular control. — The student comes to this instrument\nafter the greater muscles have acquired a large degree of growth. All his life the student\nhas done things that called into service the larger muscles. Where use is made of them\nexpression is fairly accurate and creditable. The mind is gradually seeking to bring\nthe finer and more delicate human mechanism under proper control. It is training in\nskill versus strength; the light stroke at tennis versus the battering ram of the gridiron.\nWhether the student is proceeding analytically from the whole to the related part, or\nsynthetically is constructing the whole from the parts, he is at work in a field where delicacy,\naccuracy, and precision are required, and the results will depend upon the age, maturity,\nand efficiency of student and teacher and upon the proper handling of the tool with which\nthey must labor.\n///. It affords technical training in precision. — Carl Snyder is authority for the\nstatement that the aim of all scientific endeavor is to \" describe natural phenomena, including all visible and invisible things, matter, life, and mind, by simple mechanical laws expressible in simple mathematical equations.\" To this end instruments of precision are absolute\nrequirements. The period in the world's history during which the greatest relative progress\nhas been made in science extends over a comparatively brief interval and coincides with\nthe period in which instruments of accuracy and precision have been invented and used in\nexperiments and exact measurements. In the brief span of a few hundred years more\nhas been learned in the way of definite knowledge than in all the half-hundred centuries\nthat preceded them. Industrial inventions, mechanical appliances and instruments of\nprecision, underlie all modern scientific progress. They have made exact knowledge\npossible. Chief among them is the microscope. By means of it we have been able to\nestablish, verify, and reduce to a mathematical certainty much of that vast body of classified\nknowledge known as science, and the ability properly to use this instrument ^marks genuine\nprogress in the precise methods of modern research.\nIV. 'It trains the pupil to discriminate between what is and what seems. — This lies at\nthe basis of all training in science and leads to the higher processes of thought; comparison, abstraction, generalization, and critical definition. Isolated facts are of little value.\nIt is only when they stand in their proper relation to each other, when each assumes its\nproper place in a chain of experiences, that it flashes into full significance. The adolescent\nhas a tendency to overconfidence, to undue egoism, a state of mind that the critical study\nof nature is sure to relieve. Emerson may mean one thing to this student, another to that,\nand each with an apparently equal degree of certainty. A certain event in history may\nadmit of several interpretations and each may appear equally worthy of credence. Critical\nscientific training eliminates that trait of mind that leads to undue confidence in a mere opinion and to this end the proper use of the microscope contributes a large share.\nWith it\n\n"} {"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nf)QI\n\nthe student works his way from the known to the unknown; candidly ignorant; frankly\nteachable; critically exact; the attitude of mind that led Kepler to outline seventeen different hypotheses and seventeen different sets of laboratory observations and computations\nbefore he was ready to announce to the world that he had discovered the \"shape of the\npath of the planet.\"\n\n11. THE PURPOSE OF THE MICROSCOPE\nJ. B.\n\nLILLARD,\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF\n\nBIOLOGY,\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nWILLIAM\n\nMCKINLEY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMO.\n\nOne who has taught nature-study in the grades, biology in the high school and the\nuniversity, and has worked with candidates for advanced degrees in the subject, sees the\nvalue of the microscope varying from zero to one hundred. In the grades, where the work\nis mainly extensive, its use is hardly to be thought of. Possibly in the last two years of the\nhigh school and surely in the university, its use is all-important. In the last instance\nbiology would be a farce without it. But in most of the high schools of this country zoology,\nbotany, and human physiology are presented in the first two years of the course.\nThe purpose of the microscope whenever used is obvious. Our high schools are not for\nthe purpose of training pupils to become experts in the use of microscopes. I say this\nfully realizing that it has revealed a great body of biological facts, and that even those facts\nand principles which are not the direct result of microscopic study are nevertheless intimately linked and fused with the revelations of the lenses. I realize, too, that microscopic\nstudy is distinctly a biological method. In any scientific study the methods of the science\nare of great value. In some cases they surpass in. value even the facts and principles of\nthe subject itself. The omission of microscopic observation, when the child is mentally\nready for it, would find a parallel in the study of chemistry by totally disregarding qualitative tests or by completely eliminating the use of balances.\nIn the first two years of the high-school course we are dealing with children. We must\nemploy many means of approaching the subject. We must take into account the child's\nexperiences and previous preparation. Dissections, models of whatever kind, physiological demonstration, experiment, and observation, fieldwork, textbooks, illustrations, figures,\nlantern slides, lectures, recitations, question boxes, microscopes — simple, dissective, and compound— and what not, may all be used to advantage. But in every case it must be remembered that each of these and perhaps many other devices are simply means to an end in\nthe study of life. Not one of them should be used for its own sake, but only as a tool absolutely subservient to the needs of the course.\nI have seen the energy, time, and enthusiasm of a class dissipated in the search for\nsomething that could not be found. On the other hand, I have seen the indifference of the\nsame class suddenly transformed into intense eagerness as soon as a little obstruction had\nbeen removed by a single glance thru the eyepiece of a microscope.\nThe purpose of the microscope is to reveal what is essential to a clearer understanding\nof the subject. Whenever it becomes necessary to complete a chain in the development\nof a subject by supplying the microscopic link, then use it. This link will be plurahzed\n(if I may coin the expression) as we go from the first to the fourth years in the course\nbecause the character of the work will necessarily change as the pupil develops. But the\n\"big eye\" as it is termed in college slang, must lead us out of chaos not into it; it must be a\nhelper, not a burden; it must be looked thru and not at. In a word it must be a means\nand not an end.\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMICROSCOPE\n\nAssuming that biology is given in the first two years of the course (and my high-school\nexperience in the subject has been limited to this), I am compelled to discourage a wholesale use of the instrument.\n\n"} {"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nPupils entering from the grammar schools find difficulty in orienting themselves for\nreasons obvious enough to one who has had any practical experience in secondary-school\nwork. Taking it for granted that the pupil has learned how to manipulate the instrument\nand that there is plenty of time for the purpose, he may grope about for hours, yes even\ndays, in the vain endeavor to find anything. I have spent a great deal of time showing the\npupil what I wanted him to observe only to discover later that he had wasted much valuable\ntime on a bubble. It is a pedagogical crime to presume that the Agassiz method can ever\nbe used on a child at work over the microscope. It is my honest opinion that it would be\ndisastrous even in the senior year of the high school. However, this 'has not been verified\nby experience. Very few first- or second-year pupils have the power of sorting out the\nessential details. If the teacher finds it is possible he can always handle the exceptional\ncase. If the teacher is alive to the situation and employs the individual method as\nwe do in the McKinley High School, this exceptional case will in no way disconcert\nhim.\nReferring again to the inability of the average, yes, even the vast majority, of our firstand second-year pupils to sort out essential details, I would say that even as grown-ups\nwe form a mental picture and draw an interpretation rather than an accurate representation of the things we are studying.\nI have found that manual-training pupils have some advantages over their fellows in\nseeing fractional values. But this advantage is after all only sHght. And, as yet, how many\nactually get it? Nothing short of abnormal precocity can put a grown-up's head on a\nchild's body.\nWhenever the microscope is used the objects to be observed should be such as can be\nseen clearly. Much care must be used in selecting material that is not confusing. The idea\nthat the real thing must be seen to be fully understood is good both in theory and in practice\nbut to see the real thing, to see it as it is, and to see it in its proper relations is no easy task.\nWhen the boy or girl looks thru the eyepiece of a compound microscope he is looking into\na new world. It is much more difficult than looking thru a telescope at the moon. It is\nmuch farther removed from his experience; and readjustment and reconstruction are\nmuch more difficult.\nThe projection microscope may be used to some advantage. Yet here again we are\nconfronted with two handicaps: first, detail is generally eliminated; second, demonstration\nof minute structures is quite out of the question.\nI have found the lantern to be one of the most important aids in presenting biological\nwork to high-school pupils. The pictures are generally diagrammatic and interpretive;\nall unnecessary and confusing material is eliminated, and the pupil sees what is\nessential.\nNow, all that I have said refers mainly to the anatomical side of biology, for reasons\nobvious enough. But I want to emphasize my belief that the physiological side has been\nshamefully neglected both in zoology and botany; yes, and strange as it may appear, even\nin human physiology.\nTo recapitulate: The importance of the microscope will depend very largely on the\nposition of biology in the high-school curriculum, that is, whether it is offered in the first,\nsecond, third, or fourth year of the course; that whenever employed, whether in zoology,\nbotany, human physiology, or whether in that phase of both the last two, known as bacteriology, itis to be used only when necessary to supply an absolutely essential link in the\nchain of development. I believe it is indispensable for the most effective teaching, but that\nthe extent to which it may be used must depend on the mental development of the pupil;\nthat it is, after all, only one of the many ways we have of giving the student a glimpse\nat the most wonderful thing in the world-life and of acquainting him with the\nmost important contribution of modern biology to the philosophy of life — organic\nevolution.\n\n"} {"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nIII.\n\nTHE\n\nKINDS\nH.\n\nF.\n\nSCIENCE\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF MICROSCOPE WORK VALUABLE\nSCHOOL STUDENTS\n\nWEGENER,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTACOMA,\n\nFOR\n\n693\nHIGH-\n\nWASH.\n\nThe history of the development of the microscope as an instrument of investigation\nis so closely related to the history of the growth of the biological sciences that, in order to\nunderstand the latter, we are obliged to make ourselves familiar with the former. The\nimprovements in the one made possible the discoveries in the other.\nOf all instruments for scientific research none has such an interesting history as that\nof the microscope. If we compare the simple magnifiers used in the sixteenth century\nwith the complex instruments of today, what a wonderful change has it undergone.\nWith its gradual approach to perfection there was a corresponding expansion of its\nfield of application, until today there is no other instrument of investigation that can\napproach it in the variety and extent of its uses.\nSo greatly have these been multiplied that it is difficult to name an industry or field\nof research in which some form of the microscope is not used.\nA period of nearly 150 years intervened between the beginning of the use of the simple\nconvex lens and the evolution of the achromatic objective. It was not until 1830 that the\nmodern objective, in its cruder form, first began to be used. All we know about the\nminute structure of living organisms has been learned since that time.\nIt is true Lieuwenhoeck made some remarkable observations with his little globules\nof glass a hundred years ago and thereby drew the attention of the curious to the study\nof minute objects. His discoveries gave the stimulus and incentive to others and indirectly\nto efforts to make improvements in the instrument itself.\nIn this way many isolated facts were collected but no attempt to correlate this knowledge and make it a basis for scientific investigation was made until twenty years after the\nachromatic objective had been invented.\nThere was a time, in the memory of many of us, when the microscope was looked\nupon as merely a kind of scientific toy. Many persons interested in objects of nature and\nof an inquisitive turn of mind bought microscopes. For their benefit books were published\nbearing such titles as the following: Evenings with the Microscope, The Wonders of the\nMicroscope, The Microscope and Its Revelation, etc.\nSocieties were organized in which eligibility to membership consisted in the ownership of a microscope. A national organization, called the American Society of Microscopists, was formed. This society existed for a number of years and was finally merged\nas a section with the American Association for the Advance of Science. A similar society,\nbut of much earlier organization and counting among its members many men of great\nscientific attainments, was formed in England and called the Royal Microscopical Society.\nA great deal of the knowledge thus obtained was not of a scientific character. It was\nmerely a collection of facts about objects which could not be seen by the unaided eye.\nThey were interesting, because they were new and because they appealed to the curiosity\nof the observer. This sort of study had its value, however, for subsequent scientific purposes,\nfor the students learned and discovered many facts concerning the technic of preparation\nof objects for microscopic study. Many of these men became experts in the manipulation\nof the instrument and what they thus learned later on greatly aided the scientists in their\nwork of investigation.\nA large body of facts drawn from the realm of nature had thus been accumulated\nbefore any serious attempt was made to organize this knowledge and make use of it in the\npursuit of further scientific investigations directed in particular lines of research.\nThe introduction of the microscope as an instrument of research in high-school science\nin this country had its beginning with the appearance of the American edition of Huxley's\nElements of Biology in 1877.\nPrevious to this time the use of the compound microscope was deemed impracticable\n\n"} {"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfor the reason that high-school students were too young to learn to manipulate the instrument. As evidence of the feeling, I need but refer to the preface in Gray's Textbook of\nBotany, in which this is given as a reason why the study of the Cryptogams is omitted from\nthis book. On account of Professor Gray's position as a botanist in this country, his\ndictum was received without question, and for ten years longer few attempts were made to\nextend the study of botany in high schools to the lower forms of plant life.\nThe appearance of Sach's Textbook of Botany in 1884 with its new classifications of\nplant forms and the broader view it gave by including structure and function as essential\nto a correct understanding of plant life, made the use of the microscope necessary.\nTeachers began to learn that the difficulties in the manipulation of the instrument\nwere not so great but that students of high-school age, with a little instruction and practice,\ncould do profitable work. A similar change took place in our method of teaching zoology.\nThe new science, introduced by Huxley under the name of biology covering both fields,\nwas now given a place in the high-school curriculum.\nWith this brief historical sketch of the evolution of the microscope and its gradual application in scientific investigation, we are brought to the time when the modern laboratory\nmethods of teaching the biological sciences in our high schools had their beginning.\nIn describing the kinds and amounts of microscopic work valuable for high-school\nstudents, I shall confine myself largely to my own experience in teaching. I do not pretend\nto say that these are all the applications of the microscope that can be made in teaching\nthe subjects that I shall mention, but that they are such as I have found by experience to\nbe possible and valuable.\nThe fundamental fact that, in all our studies of living organisms, should constantly\nbe born in mind is this, that no matter how great the variety of form and structure of the\norgans which make up the individual as a whole, the life of the individual is the sum of\nthe life activities of all the cells. The more we know of an organism the better we are\nable to understand its various activities and the conditions under which it can live and\ngrow and multiply.\nSince it is impossible, on account of the time limit that is set to the various subjects\nthat are presented for study in a high-school course, to study many forms of plant and\nanimal life, it becomes necessary to choose for our study such forms as best represent the\ntypical structures of the different classes. There may be some difference of opinion among\nteachers as to what are the best types. Then, again, there is also the matter of availability of\nmaterial. It is not always easy to find the best types in the vicinity in which you happen\nto live and you are therefore compelled to choose some related type as the material for\nstudy.\nThe examples which I shall give, which require the use of the microscope, lay no claim\nto logical order of study but are merely given as illustrations of what may be done profitably\nby high-school students.\nBeginning with the plant world, I would choose, on account of its simple structure,\nits large transparent cells and its abundance in all ponds and slow flowing streams, the alga\nspirogyra. It lends itself as an interesting study of the phenomenon of cell growth and\ncell division, of the properties of chlorophyll, of starch production, of conjugation, and spore\nformation.\nIn Vaucheria, another one of the algae, we see a different but simpler structure with\na form or reproduction resembling that of higher plants. As an example of a unicellular\nplant, the protococcus gives us a view of multiplication by simple cell division with a\nmotile stage,\nA study of the fungi is valuable on account of their practical relation to household\neconomy. A knowledge of their growth and reproduction gives the housewife an intelligent insight and reason for the various means she uses for preserving fruit. The common green mold, penicillium glaucum, and the white mold, mucor mucedo, are the\nbest subjects for this study.\n\n"} {"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n695\n\nAnother plant whose product profoundly affects the welfare of man, is yeast. From\nits study we learn that it is a plant because it has the power of constructing protein from\ninorganic substances, that it multiplies by budding or gemmation, that it is killed by heat,\nthat it is the cause of fermentation in all liquids containing sugar, by decomposing the\nlatter and that the product of this decomposition is alcohol. It has a practical value for\nthe housewife in that it teaches her the secret of bread-making.\nThe liverworts, mosses, and ferns should receive attention because in these three\nclasses of plants we are introduced, besides difference in structure, to a feature in plant\nreproduction known as alternation of generation. Its two distinct sexual organs, the archegonia and antheridia, differing inform and very unlike the same organs in flowering plants.\nThe lichens, so frequently called mosses, deserve notice not only on account of their\nwide distribution in nature but as an illustration of that singular phenomenon called symbiosis in which an alga and a fungus keep house together and form a single organism.\nIn this connection, the historical fact may be mentioned that for 300 years the true\ncharacter of a lichen remained a puzzle to botanists until the riddle was solved by the studies\nof Bornet in i860.\nThe use of the microscope is essential in the study of the histology of the spermatophytes and the organs of reproduction, such as the stamens and the formation of the pollen,\nthe stigma, style, and ovary with its contents. The function of the leaf as determined by\nits structure, its epidermal cells, its stomata with their guard cells and their relation to the\nrespiration of the plant; the intercellular spaces, the mesophyll with its chloroplasts and\nother products.\nThe structure of the stem with its fibro-vascular bundles, its bast fibers, and sieve\ntubes.\nThe difference in structure of the Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous stem.\nThe structure of the root, with its rhizoids and their cells and the osmotic action of\nthe inclosed protoplasm.\nIn zoology, we need the use of the microscope in the study of all the unicellular organisms and in the histology and minute structure of the organs of the more highly organized\nanimals.\nI know of no better organism with which to begin this subject than the amoeba. We\nhave here a bit of protoplasm exhibiting all the manifestations of a living being in its simplest\nform, contractility, irritability, and the whole series of processes included under the term\nof metabolism.\nThis study has another value for those who subsequently take a course in human physiology for it makes clear to them the peculiar function of the leucocytes of the blood acting\nas phagocytes.\nTheir amoebid character and their mode of ingestion can only be understood by recalling to mind the study of the amoeba. Other unicellular organisms such as the vorticella\nand paramoecium, should follow to show differentiation of cell wall for special purposes.\nThe simple multicellular hydra, the fresh water sponge, the insect with its mouth\nparts, its nervous system, its spiracles and tracheae, the minute anatomy of the higher\nanimals such as the clam, the earthworm and the crayfish, all require the aid of the\nmicroscope to understand their structure.\nIn the study of the human body the function of many of the organs can only be understood by careful study of their finer structure. For this purpose, carefully prepared sections of the human skin, to show sweat and sebaceous glands, and sections of the small\nintestines to show the villi, should be studied.\nCihated cells of the air passage should be seen in order to show their relations to dust\nin breathing. The function of the kidneys is made clear by observing the structure of\nthe glomeruli and Henle's loops. The double character of the muscle fibers of the heart,\nand the structure of voluntary and involuntary muscle fibers should receive attention.\nThe circulation of the blood through the capillaries cannot be understood until your\npupils see it in the web of the frog's foot or the tail of a small fish.\n\n"} {"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIt is only by studying a thin section of a bone that we can realize that it is not a hard\ncompact body and that its growth and nutrition depends upon its porosity and the flow of\nthe blood and lymph through it.\nNerve cells and nerve fibers, sections of the retina, the composition of the blood, the\ncharacteristic structure of lung tissue, of hair and finger nails, of epidermal cells, etc., all\nafford valuable and interesting information.\nWith these examples as illustrations I believe I have sufficiently indicated the character and scope of the work that can be done by high-school students in the study of the\nnatural sciences that are usually included in the curricula of secondary schools.\nAnother subject that has not yet been accorded a place in such a curriculum but\nwhich, on account of the wonderful advances that have been made in it and also for the\nreason that a great deal of ignorance and error prevail in the public mind regarding the\nnature of the organisms which have been the subject of these investigations, should receive\nattention . is bacteriology. I know that I am venturing upon debatable ground when I\nbroach this subject but I feel that no more practical information than a course of this kind\ncan furnish our pupils can be found.\nThe labors of Pasteur, Koch, Bering, and a host of Other investigators, have established,\nbeyond a doubt, that nearly all infectious diseases are due to bacteria. It is further a\nwell-ascertained fact that bacteria are living organisms and therefore subject to such\nlimitations as food, temperature, light, and moisture. Every bacterium is the offspring\nof a pre-existing one, no matter how favorable the conditions for its growth and development are. No disease germ can come into existence without a progenitor. Filth and\ndirt cannot breed disease germs before a germ has been planted in them. But all bacteria\nare not harmful, the fact is that only a few of them are really dangerous to health. However their distribution in nature is so universal and they enter into our household economy\nat so many points that a knowledge of their nature, the conditions under which they live,\ntheir growth, and the means that can be used to counteract them should be in the possession of every intelligent person.\nNow, I take it that it is the function of the high school to prepare the students for\npractical life, to put them in possession of all those facts that shall enable them to protect\nthemselves against agencies that may handicap their usefulness, not only in the community inwhich they live, but also themselves and their families. Good health is essential\nto our happiness and well-being and depends largely upon wholesome food.\nWe know that all putrefactive fermentation is the result of bacterial activity and that\nbacteria are the chief source of the changes that make food deleterious to health.\nIt is said that seeing is believing and that nothing so effectively impresses itself upon\nour mind than an ocular demonstration.\nBy the aid of a properly prepared culture medium, a number of experiments can be\nmade before the class that will not only be highly interesting and instructive but will also\nput in the possession of the pupil a knowledge of the character of bacteria and their work\nin the economy of nature that cannot fail to be of great value to him in after life.\nAs an illustration, I will briefly state some of the facts that can thus be learned. The\nstudent can be shown that bacteria are in the air everywhere, that dust is the means of\nspreading them. That they are found in ice and that this is therefore a source of danger\nin drinking-water and iced tea.\nMilk is especially favorable to their growth and hence can be readily infected with\ndisease gefms.\nThe success in modern surgery depends wholly upon the care of the surgeon in excluding them from open wounds. It is a well-known fact that touching an open wound with\ndirty fingers or even picking a pimple with an unclean pin has been the cause of bloodpoisoning.\nIt can be shown that the common house fly may be the cause of spreading an infectious\ndisease such as typhoid fever and consumption by coming in contact with our food.\n\n"} {"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n697\n\nBacteria are found in the saliva and on our teeth thus causing their decay.\nThe whole process of sterilizing can be made clear and practically illustrated. The\nnature of disinfectants and how they affect disease germs, the effect of boiling, of freezing,\nand of light, all can be demonstrated by experiments.\nThese examples, which can be greatly multiplied, seem to me are a sufficient justification ofmy plea for a course of practical bacteriology to be given with every course in\nhuman physiology in the high school. That the knowledge thus gained is of great practical\nvalue cannot be denied. That it can be done has been proved by the experience of those\nwho have undertaken it.\n\nIV.\nC. T.\n\nWRIGHT,\n\nMISCROSCOPIC\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nPROJECTION\nGEOGRAPHY,\n\nIN BIOLOGY\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nREDLANDS,\n\nCAL.\n\nEquipment —\nCollege bench lantern with right-angle arc.\nFour condensing lenses 6 J\", 7\", 7^\", 9\" focal lengths.\nWater-tank to intercept heat.\nMicroscope stage with micrometer stage attachment for fine focus, three objectives,\nif\", 1\", and I\", two concave lenses for amplifiers, and substage condenser for highpower illumination.\nSmooth white plaster for permanent screen.\nSemi-transparent screen of tracing cloth mounted on a frame.\nDrawing-board and crayons.\nSlides, microtome, stains, etc., for temporary slides.\nOperation —\n(i) Project the object with rather low power to get general outlines and to locate part\nof special interest.\n(2) Use higher power for details, using substage condenser for strong illumination\nand micrometer stage attachment for fine focus. A field glass or opera glass\npreviously focussed on the screen is useful. For close study of details with high\npower use screen of tracing cloth, students grouped close on both sides.\n(3) Substitute drawing-board for screen and trace the part that is to be reproduced\nin notebooks. This may be done in the Hght while students are working on other\nthings by surrounding the drawing-board by a large box painted black on the\ninside.\n(4) Measurements are made by using a black piece of an old negative, cut to the size\nof a slide on which millimeter and fractional millimeter lines have been scratched\nby a needle mounted on the microtome. The length of a millimeter is indicated\nby an arrow on each tracing and also its length in milUmeters which is the magnifying power.\nAfter the student has made his drawing to any convenient size he measures it in\nmillimeters and using it as the numerator and the length of tracing as denominator he multiplies this fraction into the power indicated on the tracing and indicates\nthis result as the actual magnifying power of his drawing.\nAdvantages —\n(i) One microscopic\nattachment\nand one extra microscope for teacher's use is sufficient for the whole\nclass.\n(2) One slide of each subject and all working on the same thing at once instead of\nas many sets of sHdes as there are students in the class, or each student on a\ndifferent topic.\n(3) No eye strain.\n(4) No time wasted studying air bubbles and unessential parts.\n(5) The subject can be thoroly demonstrated before the class before the student\nbegins his work on it.\n(6) Teacher is sure that he and the pupil both see and discuss the same thing.\n\n"} {"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nRELATION\n\nE. W. LYTTLE,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nINSPECTOR,\n\nNEW\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nYORK\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTO INDUSTRIAL\nDEPARTMENT,\n\n[Secondary\n\nLIFE\n\nALBANY,\n\nN. Y.\n\nThe West is large; so is our topic. The industries that have created the\nWest and the interest of the West in schools have no parallels in history.\nTherefore our topic needs not to apologize for its presence.\nEnrolling i per cent, of the total population, employing upwards of 36,000\nof the most skilled, tho not of the most learned of our teachers, costing in\npublic support, in the private maintenance of pupils, and in the withdrawal\nof pupils from the industrial activity, about $200,000,000 annually, secondary\neducation in the United States appears already to occupy no small place in\nour industrial life.\nMoreover, the high-school industry is a growing one. Between 1890 and\n1904 public high schools and high-school enrolment each increased over\nthreefold. This increase was unusually large because of the rapid conversion of academies into public high schools, and recently has been checked by\nthe unusual demands of business and a high wage scale; yet the report of the\ncommissioner of education for 1904 shows an annual increase of over 5 per\ncent, of high-school enrolment. Today over 86 per cent, of these secondary\npupils are in public high schools.\nIf one may find the prophecy in present tendencies, it is safe to say that as\nsoon as the high school can be more perfectly adjusted to life thru the adoption\nof better courses of study and better methods thru the establishment of evening\nhigh schools and continuation courses, 5 or 6 per cent, of our population will\nbe enrolled in secondary schools.\nIt has been intimated that our high schools are imperfectly adjusted to life.\nWherever high-school courses are planned almost exclusively for the onethird of the graduates who prepare for college, and ignore the claims of the\nother two-thirds, that criticism will have value tho it is less valid than a\nmaterialistic age and a commercial spirit conceive it to be.\nAs high-school principals, we must crave the indulgence of the public\nfor a while yet. We have been so busy growing that we have had little time\nfor careful adjustments. Moreover, from the beginning, the public high\nschool has been the football of the educator politician and of the college professor whose little German is a dangerous thing. Without collusion or mutual\nagreement, these two have been kicking toward the same goal. Each would\nmake the high school a university, the one by enlarging the curriculum\nto include everything useful, the other by insisting that everything useful shall\nbe taught in a perfectly useless way. Apparently neither has comprehended\nthe educational axiom of the great apostle to the gentiles, \"When I was a child,\nI spake as a child, I thought as a child, I understood as a child.\" Under the\nstimulating efforts of these two friends, our educational system has so increased\nin stature that it appears today like an overgrown schoolboy whose trousers\nand waistcoat have parted company by several inches.\n\n"} {"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTO INDUSTRIAL\n\nLIFE\n\n699\n\nOur secondary teachers have been so isolated in their work, they have\nhad to teach so many things in so many different ways, that they have had\nHttle opportunity for co-operation or for reflection. It would be interesting\nto know just what per cent, of our high-school principals, even in the wildest\nflights of imagination, ever planned a course of study from the view-point of\nthe needs of their student body.\nToday the three greatest industrial interests, commercial, manufacturing,\nand agricultural demand a share of attention from the high school. Their\ndemands are not only just, but they have a compelling power behind them.\nProperly heeded, these demands may save the high school from becoming a\ncaste school. Lacking proper control, these same demands will despoil the\nhigh school of all that is best in it; for it still needs believing more than ever\nthat \"the life is more than meat.\" The high school is a large part of our\nindustrial life, but it is something far more. It is a large part of our political\nlife. It was no accident that Andrew Jackson and Horace Mann were contemporaries. Neither was that second revival of educational activity which\nfollowed the Civil War an accident. Future historians may find it profitable\nto turn aside from wars and treaties and congresses long enough to note some\nof the less obvious but more vital factors of a great nation's growth. Some\nday it may not seem presumptuous to claim that our public-school system is as\nmuch blood, bone, and sinew of the Republic as if it were recognized in the\nwritten constitution. If our present presumption is not really presumption,\nthen, in future, college influence may not crowd out history to enlarge the\nboundaries of linguistic studies.\nThe high school is also a large part of our social life. The rapid growth\nof the free high school is due in largest measure to the desire for social uplift.\nIf there is any one thing that marks the difference between the secondary school\nin America and the secondary school in Europe, it is the wholesome social\nspirit of the American high school. In our small cities and villages, especially,\nthe high school has become a center of social interest second to none.\nThe social aim of the high school is thought by many to be the creation of\nan aristocracy. Yes, but of such an aristocracy as the world has never seen.\nIts aim is not and must not be the creation of an aristocracy of culture. That\nwere little better than an aristocracy of birth or an aristocracy of wealth.\nFounded on a democracy of labor, the high school can only aim at an aristocracy\nof service.\nAgain, the high school is and must be a preparatory school for institutions\nof higher learning. It needs the college and the university above it, as the\ntree needs leafage and fruit. There are enrolled in colleges, universities, and\nprofessional schools of all sorts, nearly one-third as many students as are in\nour high schools. The high school is, therefore, bound to the college by ties\nthat it could not sever if it would. But while the more thoughtful college\ninstructors are everywhere recognizing the general truth that the high school\nis entitled to its own view-points and must meet its own psychological neces-\n\n"} {"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "700\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsities, practically thru textbooks, thru syllabi, thru entrance examinations,\nand thru instructions given in summer schools, these same college professors\nor their colleagues are trying to clothe David in Saul's armor.\nWithout going into details, we wish, for instance, to teach science as it\nshould be taught to high-school pupils, and we direct attention to the painful\nfact, that, while the utilities of science have been greatly m.ultiplied in our\ndaily life during the last ten years, the study of science in our high schools has\nsteadily decreased and is decreasing.\nDecry informational study as we may, it still has a place and no small\nplace in the high school. The technical school may be content to send out\nwell-qualified architects who say that the Romans knew little about architecture; the college of liberal arts may send out excellent teachers of English\nwho say that iron rust is a vegetable growth; but the high school should not\nbe satisfied with any such products.\nMany of the difficulties that beset the makers of high-school curricula are\ndue to the fact that the high school should be at the same time a school of\nintegration and a school of differentiation. As a political and as a social\norganism, as a school of general culture, the high school like the elementary\nschool must seek a product more or less uniform. It must aim to make wellinformed, honest citizens, and capable, industrious, and moral men. But in\nits relations to industry, the great work of the high school must be differentiation. It must send the scholar to college, the mechanic to the shop, the merchant to the store, the farmer to the field. The large cities can differentiate\ntheir high schools and some have done so. That is an easy and a cheap solution of the problem. It shifts responsibility from the school to the\nparent. It may be questioned whether such a solution is a wise one even\nin the largest cities. In small cities and in villages, such solution is\nimpossible.\nHeretofore many schools have made a serious mistake in trying to differentiate too soon, thereby cheapening and materializing high-school education;\nbut the greater number of high schools at present are making the mistake of\npermitting themselves to be simply a sieve to separate the scholarly from the\nnon-scholarly.\nFrom the magnitude of its work, it must appear even to the amateur,\nthat the high school needs more than four years to properly accomplish its\npurposes.\nWhat about the cost of all this education ? pertinently asks the tax payer.\nIt may become too great a burden. Probably it will become too burdensome\nfor public support and private philanthropy combined. That might be no\ncalamity for the high school. If a way were found to engage high-school\npupils for a part of the day in productive industry and for a part of the day in\nschool, it is not improbable that both scholarship and industry would be greatly\nbenefited. At any rate, indications are not wanting that thoughtful men are\nworking out a solution of these possible difficulties.\n\n"} {"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] MEANING\n\nAND\n\nFUNCTION\n\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nFUNCTION\n\nMEANING\n\nJ. STANLEY\n\nBROWN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nOF TOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\n701\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nJOLIET, ILL.\n\nHistory records the fact that John Locke, whose life was comprehended\nbetween 1632 and 1704, did not believe in public education, nor in a public\nschool; but he was the first to advocate manual training, and that for children\nof the laboring classes of England. The subject had small meaning then and\nit has waited more than a century and a half before it could begin to show\nsomething of its meaning and its function. Because the subject is somewhat\nundeveloped and in a condition of progression, no mere definition made today\nwould contain all the truth tomorrow. The meaning, however, is growing\nin extension, and has, we think, passed the stage of development when it is\noften referred to as a fad.\nThe performance of laboratory experiments requiring careful and accurate\nmanipulation of apparatus is manual training. The making of maps, the\nmaking of models, drawings, the manipulation of the typewriter, etc., are in\nthe broad sense manual training. In the narrower sense you must not speak\nof manual training unless you have in mind the shop, the forge, the lathe,\nthe chisel, the hammer, the plane, the saw, etc. It is perhaps unfortunate that\nto such work is applied handtraining because the hand does not perform\nits function, nor does it act at all except in response to the power behind the\nhand; and so manual training becomes mind training, and unless this is so and\ncontinues to be true, manual training has lost its chief function.\nWhat does manual training mean? It means that we have one more\navenue thru which to make an appeal to the boy and girl whom we have failed\nto reach by other means. It means that the budding power of a superintendent of construction, or some kind of engineer, may begin to unfold in the child\nwhile in the elementary school. It means that for hundreds the life's plan and\npurpose are determined by touching the mainspring of the child's or youth's\nchief interest. It means that the boy of mechanical turn does not leave the\nschool, play truant in order to go into a shop or factory to see how things are\nmade. It means that the boy or girl gets a broader, more practical notion of\nthe value of personal service. It means the awakening of the boy to possibilities\nof a technical education, and of the girl to the possibilities of and the completest\nmeaning of domestic science and household arts. It means a physical exercise\naccompanied by hard thinking and reasoning with concrete things. It means\nthat the recipient becomes a former of things. Horace Mann says that \"for\nall that grows, one former is worth one hundred reformers.\" If manual training\nwere systematically taught in all public schools thruout the course, we would\nsoon see the number of reform institutions for boys and girls reduced, truancy\nwould very largely disappear, and we would observe both a moral and intellectual uplift.\nManual training is not all of education, nor can anyone be completely\neducated by pursuing this subject only. This is only one phase of education\n\n"} {"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand will, of course, receive great emphasis at the hands of its ardent devotees.\nIf education is the life which fits for complete living, education itself must be\ncomplete, not segmental, not fragmentary.\nIt is estimated that more than three-fourths of the American people earn\ntheir living by some kind of hand labor. If we maintain, then, that all people\nshould be self-supporting, it is plainly one function of manual training to make\nthe citizen self-supporting. We say that about the only democratic institution\nleft in America is the public school. Manual training will increase the democratic principle by lending dignity to manual toil. When this work is properly\npresented, we find the son whose parents dwell beside the asphalt and the other\nson whose parents live just outside the factory gate, interested in the same\npiece of work, wearing the same kind of working equipment. The air of\nAmerican democracy pervades the room and it is certain that the aristocrat\nwould soon be stifled if he attempted to change the condition.\nWe have boasted in the presence of foreign representatives that we have\nno caste system, no classes, no titled aristocracy in America; but we cannot\ncontinue to so speak for an indefinite period unless we train to the highest point\nof efficiency the 80 per cent, who earn their living by toil with hand and brain.\nWe must extend the number of phases of education, the number of lines of\nwork likely to appeal to different young men and women, thereby increasing\nto the highest point their life's efficiency.\nAll boys and girls, if properly studied by parents and teachers, will exhibit\na preference for some particular line of work, and it ought to be the exalted\nprivilege of teachers in our secondary schools to assist the boys and girls in\ndetermining what they can best do as their life's work. The boys' bent cannot be known by reading or talking about something; it cannot be determined\nby the study of the lives of great men and women, no matter how valuable\nsuch a study may be. It must be determined very largely by the boy himself\nwhen he is brought into close personal contact with the different lines of interest\nrepresented in our different phases of education.\nThe mill, the shop, the factory, the counting house, the office, etc., all make\ntheir appeal to the youth, but only one will touch the mainspring of the boy's\nlife and that not until some phase of education has opened up the mind of the\nboy so that he realizes the significance of the associations of mill, shop, factory,\nlawyer's office, or physician's office. Life now means a single, definite purpose,\nand if manual training never does anything more for the youth than to act\nas one of the agencies in helping him to know his bent in life, the name of\nLocke and all his successors who have in any way contributed to this cause\nought to be forever held in sacred memory.\nAll the subjects of the curriculum may be roughly divided into two classes;\nthe one is the progressively living studies, the other is the retrogressively dying\nstudies; the one is invited to the front, leads the van, and finds its defense in\nthe ever-increasing demands for its enlargement; the other is relegated to the\nrear, brings up the procession, but with little enthusiasm.\nManual training\n\n"} {"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] MEANING\n\nAND\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n703\n\nbelongs to the first class, is daily increasing its defenders, and is rapidly taking\na position of domination.\nManual training came to America by way of protest against the one course\nof study for all, regardless of past, present, or future condition or expectation,\nand was preceded and followed by other phases of education, each seeking\nto meet the needs of the individual. This has been done, but in the doing\nit has been found impossible to have students take all the work offered, as in\nthe earlier time, and so, in response to a demand to meet this condition, the\nelective system was introduced, at first sparingly but latterly in large measure\nin both the school and the college. The claims of the individual have been\nrecognized, and because of this and other things which have come with the\nelective system, specialization has necessarily been moved down to the point\nwhere free election begins.\nThe course in agriculture, the industrial course, and the commercial\ncourse, have all made their contributions to the fund of knowledge enabling\nthe youth to choose wisely his work and according to his greatest interest,\nbut no study has made such great contribution in the solution of this problem\nas has manual training.\nFor many the solution of the ever-troublesome question of interest is found\nin manual training, and not only so, for many have magnified many times\ntheir interest in all their other work because of that particular interest created\nin manual training.\nMy observation and experience show that many students do better work\ncarrying sixteen hours' work, with four additional hours in manual training,\nthan they do if they omit the four hours' work in manual training.\nThe youth can never have complete education unless the mainsprings\nof his life are touched and thereby made to respond in the process of growth.\nGrowth begins not in stagnation but in activity. Manual training furnishes\nan indispensable part in any complete education, because body, mind, and\nsoul are affected directly or indirectly by manual training when properly\npresented. Hand and brain, muscle and intellect, body and mind cannot\nbe trained as distinct and independent entities, altho it is conceded that one of\nthese pairs may be affected in a maximum degree, and the other at the same\ntime in a minimum degree. Manual training will contribute its legitimate\nand indispensable share to a symmetrical development of the individual and\nto a harmonious growth of the body and all the mental faculties.\nThis harmony and symmetry need not be, and in very rare cases will be, a\nlife continuity, but we are having in mind, in this discussion of the place and\nvalue of manual training, the youth about twelve or thirteen years old who has\ndone six years of well-planned work as a child in the elementary school, and is\nnow beginning his next six years of work in his youth stage of the secondary\nschool. We are gradually and sometimes, I think, unconsciously reducing\nthe number of years of preparation, preceding specialization.\nIf this is true it is because the increase in the number of fields or phases\n\n"} {"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof education has enabled pupils, parents, and teachers by co-operative effort to\ndetermine earlier the bent of the student.\nWe often fail to reckon with heredity in assigning or advising a student\nto do manual-training work. If the youth's antecedents for generations have\nbeen intimately connected with machine or shop or mill, the slumbering talent\nmay never be aroused and cultivated unless some phase of education is forthcoming which will best and soonest bring out this talent.\nMany a first-class machinist has been utterly ruined by the advice of some\none to enter the profession of law or medicine. Far better have in society a\ngood carpenter, a good molder, a good mason, a good machinist, with a good\ngeneral education extending to the middle of the secondary school period, than\nto turn loose on society one more quack, one more shyster, and one more\nIchabod Crane. Manual training is exceedingly valuable in helping to determine what is the line of greatest usefulness for the young man and young\nwoman.\nThe variety of manual training may be selected to fit the particular needs\nof the community, i. e., if the town and the people at large are devoted mainly\nto industries requiring a knowledge of wood-working, the course in manual\ntraining may be planned with especial reference to this dominant industry.\nThis local flavor is of practical benefit but it must not dominate the coursemaker of the school.\nThe making of useful things at all stages of the work is more important\nthan shaping the work to meet the particular demands of the locality. The\nmaking of useful things has much to do with the making of men, and all education in sympathy with, and out of sympathy with, manual training must sooner\nor later admit this fact and arrange their courses of study accordingly.\nThe word ** service\" contains the quintessence of the newest and best education. Manual training very largely performs its function and manifests its\nbroadest meaning in training most directly for real everyday service.\nWe have attempted to show that manual training originated in the mind of\nJohn Locke, who was opposed to any kind of public school, but thought the\nchildren of the laboring classes might be benefited by manual training. The\nsubject today has passed the fad stage and is among those subjects whose\ncontent changes rapidly because they are continuously progressive.\nThe meaning and function of manual training are growing broader as\nbetter understanding of the child mind is shown. It is estimated that more\nthan three-fourths of the American people earn their living by doing work\nwith their hands. If we maintain that the ideal citizen should be self-suppoi;ting, it is clear that manual training ought to be found and given a prominent\nplace in public education.\nHorace Mann said that for all that grows one former of things is worth one\nhundred reformers. Manual training means that one great field of education\nappealing especially to the mechanically inclined must be cultivated. It\nmeans that one more broad avenue of approach to the youth is open to the\n\n"} {"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n705\n\nteacher. It means one more line of work toward perpetuating a true democratic spirit in public education.\nNo life ever reaches its upward limit of usefulness unless early in its growth\nsome well-defined work, suited to that life, is marked out to be done. Concentration counts for more than dissipation of energy.\nManual training performs one of its greatest functions in assisting the\nyouth to determine what is his work and thereby makes a great contribution\nto human happiness.\nMANUAL\nELLSWORTH\n\nTRAINING\nROBEY,\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\nCOUNTY\n\nOF INDIANA\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nKOKOMO,\n\nIND.\n\nIndiana is consolidating its schools and transporting the children. I\nbelieve that the commercial side must be touched in the schools. Of two\nfarmers living next to each other one who has been using every opportunity\nfor informing himself regarding the principles of agriculture raised last year\nninety bushels of corn per acre; the other forty-eight bushels per acre. They\nhad similar soil and similar conditions generally. This simply indicates what\nstudy will do. Corn clubs have been formed by the boys in rural schools. In\na certain county each boy in a club of one hundred twenty-five raised one acre\nof corn, one boy obtained 117 bushels from his acre, the lowest obtained 50\nbushels, the average for the entire club was 72 bushels per acre, the average\nfor the farmers of the same county was 37J bushels per acre. Of course each\nboy put a large amount of energy into that one acre of ground; but that points\na most valuable principle, farmers must soon learn to get the same crop from\nhalf the land.\nIn these clubs boys are taught what constitutes a good ear of corn. They\nlearn to test seed. Most of the work is done out of school. It is being carried\ninto high school in some places. By means of this work we are holding more\nboys on the farm. Of course, some ought to go to the city; but many would\nremain on the farm if their eyes were opened to the possibilities of the farm.\nIn the case of one boy who has carried on an experimental plot of ground on his\nfather's farm, the boy has been sought for as a speaker at farmers' institutes\nand his letters to the press are valuable and are read with interest. He will\ncertainly become a proficient agriculturist.\nDomestic science for the girls is found in some high schools and even\nin rural schools. County farmers' institutes take up domestic science work at\ntheir sessions.\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON AN EQUAL DIVISION OF THE\nTWELVE YEARS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS BETWEEN THE\nDISTRICT AND HIGH SCHOOLS\nBY\n\nGILBERT\n\nB.\n\nMORRISON,\nST.\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF WILLIAM\nLOUIS, MO., CHAIRMAN.\n\nMCKINLEY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe question of dividing the twelve years of the public-school course equally between\nthe primary and secondary schools, giving six years to each, presents a twofold aspect:\nthe first is educational or pedagogic; the second is economic.\nIn the consideration of the\n\n"} {"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfirst, the educational, it is pertinent to ask what would be the gain or loss to the pupils if\nthe time that now occupies them in the seventh and eighth grades in the primary schools\nwere employed in a school using secondary-school methods, that is, in a high school in\nwhich the course and work would be extended downward and adapted to meet the needs\nof children two years younger than those formerly admitted.\nIn approaching the pedagogic side of this question, we would first call attention to two\ndistinct phases in the process of learning. These may be called symbolic, or the acquisition\nof the symbols of thought, and substantial, or the exercise of thought processes that employ\nobjects of the physical world, showing their properties and relations to one another, and\nthat also employ human experience in its relations to the physical world and in the social\nrelations which exist between individuals. There is a growing belief that the schools\nof the past have drifted too far toward the purely symbolic. As an illustration of this,\nthe primary schools of our large cities, as shown by statistics of the United States commissioner ofeducation, have been, and still are, employing on an average 30 per cent, of\nthe whole time of the grades in the process of learning to read, and another 20 per cent,\non the formal process of learning to spell. This time is spent in formal reading and spelling exercises, in which the content of the lesson is incidental and the calling and spelling of\nwords are paramount.\nA majority of the committee are inclined to believe that the requirements of purely\nsymbolic training should be limited during the early part of a process of education to the\ntime necessary to acquire the power of calling ordinary words at sight. Words are the\nsymbols of thought, but the ready perception of them merely as words must be acquired\nsomewhat independently of the meaning that they convey. By this it is of course not to\nbe inferred that they should be studied apart from their meaning, but we here refer to\nthem simply as symbols to be recognized as units in sight perception. When this power is\nacquired, further continuation of the reading lesson, merely as such, is probably a waste\nof time, inasmuch as ever)' thought process which the exercises of the school furnish requires\nthe constant use of words. There is a growing feeling that much is learned in our schools\ntoday by great painstaking, which if left until the riper experience of tomorrow, would\nbe learned incidentally, and without conscious effort. It is further believed that the tendency to symbolize second-hand ideas early in the course is often continued into the higher\ngrades, and even into the high school in the form of nature-studies from books, and of textbook science. These general reflections prepare the way for the consideration of the\nquestion before us. From the standpoint of the pupils, there appear to be several advantages to be gained by a change both in method and in subject matter of the seventh and\neighth grades. This change might possibly be made in the schools without removing these\ngrades from the places they now occupy, and might be made by the schools themselves.\nBut, since the methods and the subject-matter to which reference is made, would be of a\nnature more in accord with those which are already familiar to the high-school teachers, the\nbelief seems to be growing that the incorporation of the seventh and eighth grades into\nthe high-school course might more surely accomplish the object sought.\nThe committee, after considerable correspondence, finds that while on the question\nof the proposed change there is not a complete unanimity of opinion, there are preponderating arguments in its favor. In presenting these opinions we wish to disclaim any intention either to disparage the work of the elementary schools or to praise the present work\nof the high schools. We are mindful that the most urgent need in making such a change\nwould be a better knowledge of the child than is usually displayed either by the grade\nteacher or by the average teacher in the high school. The reasons in favor of an equal\ndivision are as follows:\nI. This plan would give the pupils the advantage of being taught by teachers specially\ntrained for the different branches, such as English, mathematics, science, history, and\ngeography. Much gain would come from the better teaching that results from the adaptation of the teacher to work for which he is best fitted, and for which he has made special\n\n"} {"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTWELVE\n\nYEARS\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n707\n\npreparation. This, it should be understood, need not be in the direction of any tendency\ntoward requiring the pupils to specialize. It only means that a teacher, specially adapted\nby nature and education to teach a certain branch, can do more for his pupils in that\nsubject than when he is required to divide his attention among several branches for which\nhe is less fitted, and for which he has made no special preparation. It is within the last\ntwenty years that this principle has come to be recognized in high-school work. It seems\nclear that the better a teacher knows a subject, the better he will understand its real essentials, and better know what to omit as the work passes down to the elements. It is now\ngenerally recognized that an artist can do more to interest a child in drawing than can a\nteacher who has no talent or interest in art; that a physicist can arouse an interest in the\nlaws and phenomena of nature when the general teacher would fail; that the skilled mechanic can command the respect and interest in toolwork when the novice would become\nthe laughingstock of his pupils; that it takes a musician to teach time and harmony so that\nit will be appreciated. Altho there is not a consensus of opinion on this point, the belief\nis growing that it should not be different with the teaching of arithmetic, of geography, of\nhistory, or of grammar. Another effect of the suggested change would be to provide\ndepartmental study for many who do not enter the high school. Some significant data\non this question has recently been obtained by a questionnaire recently sent out by Mr.\nC. S. Ilartwell under the auspices of the Brooklyn, N. Y., Teachers' Association. Of the\n362 answers to the question as to whether the extension of departmental methods downward would provide such methods for many who do not enter high school, 268 answered\nyes, and 94 answered no. In answer to the question: \"Would you favor departmental\nteaching thruout the three last years of the grammar school at least in large cities ? \" out of\n451 answers, 324 answered yes, and 127 answered no. The individual opinions of your\ncommittee stand in about the same proportion, the majority favoring departmental extension at least to the seventh and eighth grades, especially in the large cities. In small towns\nand villages the additional expense would make the change more difficult. The objection\nto departmental methods and special teachers comes in the main from private schools in\nthe East, in which the teachers are college graduates. In these schools the English plan\nof form-master is thought to have advantages. The argimients in favor of departmental\nmethods have in the main come from the public schools, where we have to rely on women\nwho, however efficient they may be, have usually at best only normal school training.\n2. The departmental plan would give the children the advantage of daily contact withseveral personalities instead of that all-day association with one teacher which often breeds\nan artificial psychic atmosphere that savors of the abnormal. It requires more genius than\nis possessed by the average teacher, with a room full of children from ten to fourteen years\nof age, to preserve for six hours, an atmosphere perfectly wholesome and free from maudlin\nsentimentality on the one hand or from a carping artificial restraint on the other. The\napprehension usually felt at the untying of the apron string is quite unnecessary and results\nfrom a misjudgment of the true conditions. The consensus of scientific opinion is that\nthe dawn of adolescense calls for a change in the child's environment, that the period of\nlove of change, adventure, and individual initiative has arrived and should be indulged\nby giving him more freedom and elbow room than are usually accorded in the seventhand eighth-grade rooms of an elementary school where the child is made to sufifer the\ncramping influences of one teacher in a somewhat monotonous drill in which perhaps the\nthree R's occupy too much of the time. The change of teachers from hour to hour which\nthe child experiences in the secondary school under the departmental plan, answers a\nnatural craving for movement and variety which takes possession of him at the dawn of\nadolescence and accompanies him till its close. The committee desires to emphasize that\nit is presupposed that the teachers in the high school are exercising a co-operating oversight\nof the pupil, and that they consult together concerning his welfare and proper management.\n3. In the high school, the pupils would have the advantage of laboratories in which\nelementary science might be advantageously begun much earher than it is at present.\n\n"} {"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "708\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe science in present high-school courses is not elementary enough for beginners and\nshould be preceded by a year or two of simplified objective lessons which should form the\nbasis of written and oral expression. Such work done by carefully selected teachers and\nwith proper apparatus would greatly enrich the pupil's curriculum, and would give full\nplay to the practice and exercise of the common symbols of thought and would be in\nstrong contrast to the ancient methods of laboriously teaching the symbols as ends in themselves. This again is presupposing that this thoughtwork would be properly correlated\nwith the written and oral expressions in the English classes thru carefully prepared and\ncorrected note-books and essays.\n4. If in the high school, the manual-training shops could be modified, enlarged, and\nemployed to start the pupil in this work without sending him oflf to another school in another\npart of the city, the work itself, being under one head, could be unified and graded to better\nadvantage than at present, and its true relation to drawing could better be shown and\nbrought out.\n5. The work in the modern languages could be begun earlier and continued longer\nthan at present, thereby making it possible to learn the language naturally by means of\nconversation and primary reading before making the study of grammar and construction\nsuch laborious and strenuous affairs. Grammar is always in order, except when followed\nas a business. Many teachers are beginning to question the value of studying the modern\nforeign languages merely as dead languages by syntactic translations for disciplinary\npurposes. If our pupils could have a year or two of primary training in this line, a majority\nof your committee believe that the work now attempted in the high school would become\nmore efficient and less artificial.\n6. The downward extension of secondary school work would mitigate the present\nabruptness of the transition from the district school. The distinct break between the\nprimary and secondary schools, the radical change of method on entering the higher school\nconstitutes one of the chief evils of the system. This transition results in the withdrawal\nof 50 per cent, of those entering the high school during the first year. The committee\nunanimously believes that the downward extension of the secondary school might check\nthis enormous loss of pupils in what seems to be the critical period. We do not believe,\nhowever, that this downward extension would to any considerable degree shorten the school\nlife of the pupil or that the change should be undertaken with that end in view, but that\nit should be done rather to the end of fitting more thoroly the pupils for what is now the\nfirst year in the high school. There is no doubt that the numerous failures during the\nearlier years in the high school are caused largely by a lack of preparation for this work.\nThis preparation should be made thru departmental methods in an elementary form not\nwith a view to gaining time but for the purpose of that development, assimilation and\ngrowth needed for the grade of work now constituting the high-school course. The\nelement of growth that requires time should not be ignored and extension downward of\nhigh-school work should therefore be made for the piirpose of a better preparation for\nhigher work and not for the earlier beginning of it in its present form. Elementary science\nand observation lessons under special teachers, constructional geometry, concrete graphical\nnotions in algebra, elementary lessons in foreign languages by direct methods, and a\nlarge amount of easy English reading more for the purpose of inculcating habits of reading\nthan for learning rules of reading, should, we think, take the place of some of the reading,\nwriting, and arithmetic as now practiced in the seventh and eighth grades. Such a course\nwould be natural and continuous and it would lessen the abruptness that now exists between\nthe primary and secondary schools. Such a preliminary mastery of the elements would\nmake it possible to treat the subjects of the secondary school in a more leisurely and more\nsatisfactory manner.\n7. In the opinion of the Committee the six years' division would cause more pupils\nto enter the ninth year than do under the present plan. The present plan which is generally\nunderstood to constitute a completion of the three R's educates parents into the belief\n\n"} {"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTWELVE\n\nYEARS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n709\n\nthat this constitutes a common-school education and that it is complete in its preparation\nfor the ordinary duties of life. Since the common school is frequently regarded as a natural\nstopping place, many pupils end their school life at this point under the mistaken notion\nthat the work of the high school is merely ornamental and not needful as a preparation for\nthe duties of active life in gaining a livelihood. On the other hand, if the influence, the\nmethods, and the spirit of the secondary school could be begun two years earHer this erroneous notion of finality and completeness at any point in the system might in some measure\nbe avoided and pupils and parents be spared the fallacy that there is any logical stoppingplace in a process of education.\n8. An equal division of the twelve years would make the system more nearly selfconsistent. This is shown by the experience of other countries. Without accepting the\nideals of European countries or emulating their defects arising from social segregation, we\nmust admit the advantage which the secondary schools of England and Germany enjoy\nin introducing the appropriate study of some of the secondary school subjects even as early\nas nine years of age. The mistakes in these countries that have been made in this direction, resulting at times in an unwholesome cramming, are due not to the early introduction\nof secondary subjects but in the failure to introduce them in sufficiently elementary form.\nYour committee is of the opinion that whatever may be freely admitted as the evils of European systems, the early introduction of secondary subjects constitutes their one chief\nredeeming feature. In England the pupil is prepared for the secondary school in the\nso-called preparatory schools where departmental methods are employed two or three\nyears below the age of adolescence. A similar process is being successfully tried in certain\npublic schools in Chicago and New York and the beHef is growing among superintendents\nof city schools that the American practice of postponing the introduction of secondary\nsubjects to the age of fourteen sacrifices two years of valuable time.\n9. The downward extension of the high-school course would give the pupil time to\nprepare for college. While it is not the primary end and aim of the secondary school\nto prepare pupils for college it is now quite generally admitted that the culture, power,\nand practical knowledge that a thoro course would give to a pupil under favorable conditions would equally fit him for college. The requirements for entrance to colleges are\nconstantly increasing, and our best high schools with their four years can no longer meet\nthese requirements. Special work for those students who expect to go to college is now\nprovided in the form of work outside the regular course, and extra time is given to coach\ncandidates in order that they may reach the matriculation standard. This means that\nour high schools no longer hold their rank as secondary schools, no longer do the work up\nto the college. It seems evident that more time and more leisure are needed to reach this\nstandard. As pupils enter the high schools unprepared for its work, so do they knock at\nthe doors of the college before they are prepared for its requirements. The committee\nbelieves that the downward extension of the high-school course, if it would not shorten the\ntime of preparation and lower the age of college entrance, would accomplish the work\nmore effectively. This opinion is corroborated by the colleges themselves. In answer\nto questions sent to representative college presidents bearing on this phase of our problem,\nthe consensus of college opinion may well be quoted from the reply of President Eliot.\nHe says:\nThe proposed equal division of the twelve years in the public schools between the\ndistrict and high schools has an important bearing on the work of the University because\nof the better training which such a training would afiford. The lengthening of the highschool course at the lower end would tend to the earlier introduction of certain subjects now\ndeferred to the pupil's disadvantage, and it would at the same time admit the pupil sooner\nto the departmental system of instruction in these and other subjects — a system which\nmore and more high schools can afford, but which is often beyond the means of the district\nschool.\n10. The lengthening of the high-school course to six years would help to solve the\nproblem of the outward extension of the course of study and the crowded curriculum.\n\n"} {"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe enlargement of the secondary field in the last few years, that has brought in the mechanic and domestic arts and the commercial branches has increased the complexity of the\nproblem. The educational values of the newer branches are rapidly coming into recognition. But the beHef in the exclusive competency of the traditional branches to provide\nthe essentials of culture still holds sufficient sway to influence school authorities to retain\nin their curricula a sufficient number of these branches to somewhat overload the course.\nThe desire to take the practical studies and still to keep on the conventional highway to\nknowledge constitutes the transition process through which we are now passing. The\nadditional effort that this increase of work requires calls for more time, and the addition\nof two more years to the high-school course would give the leisure necessary to insure\nnormal growth. The committee believes that the reading, the writing, and the practical\narithmetic that are necessarily incidental and accessory to this work will be secured in a\nbetter way during these two years with the additional gain in actual knowledge and working-power.\nThe economic aspect of this question does not at first appear so favorable to the lengthening of the high-school course, for this would call for a greater proportion of high schools\nwhich are, of course, more expensive than primary schools. While the total number of\nschool buildings, including both high and primary, would not have to be increased, the\nadditional cost of equipment in a larger proportionate number of high schools would add\nsomething to the expense of the present arrangement. Whether this additional expense\ncan be afforded or is justified will depend on local conditions and on whether the necessity\nis sufficiently great. The amount that the American people are willing to tax themselves\nfor education seems to be limited only by the unnecessary and the undesirable. Whenever\na proposed improvement in our schools has appealed to the community as a necessity, it\nhas always been met by a ready and a willing response. Laboratory science, drawing,\nmusic, calisthenics, commercial branches, and manual training have, in their turn, been\nincorporated into our school curricula, each entailing additional expense. Even the\nadditional load of free textbooks seems to be borne without a murmur, wherever it has\nbeen tried. The same results will probably follow an appeal for additional high schools.\nWhenever the behef that they would add to the efficiency of the school system, and better\nequip the children for the duties of citizenship, they will be provided. The economic\ndifficulties involved in making the change suggested in the report would be greatest in small\ntowns and villages in which the smaller nimiber of pupils and the limited means for the\nmaintenance of schools make departmental methods difficult to secure. To this objection\nit may be noted that the necessities of a change in the smaller towns are not so great as in\nthe large cities which are deprived of many of the natural and stimulating conditions afforded\nby the country. We may therefore conclude that the change could be most easily made\nwhere it is most needed. The extensive laboratories, workshops, and museums in our\nlarge city schools may indeed be considered in part as an attempt to restore to the pupils\nthose forces, exercises, and experiences which are the inheritance of youth in the country.\nBut the immense inertia of custom to be overcome before this want becomes a part of\npublic consciousness will probably make this change slow in coming. For this reason\nthe committee believes that the inertia of the economic objection will gradually be overcome by conservative, even-tempered discussion and by further study of the problem.\nRespectfully submitted,\nGilbert B. Morrison, principal of McKinley High School, St. Louis, chairman\nWilson Farrand, principal of Newark Academy, Newark, N. J.\nEdward Rynearson, director of high schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nAlbert B. Graham, College of Agriculture, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio\nJ. H. Francis, principal of Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nCommittee.\n\n"} {"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Morning, July 9, 1907\n\nThe Department of Higher Education met at 9 : 30 A. M. in joint session with the departments of Secondary Education and Normal Schools. In the absence of President W. L,\nBryan, of Indiana University, Vice-President George A. Gates, of Pomona College,\nClaremont, Cal., presided.\nPresident Joseph H. Hill, of the State Normal School at Emporia, Kan., presented\na paper on the \"Preparation of High-School Teachers from the Standpoint of the Normal\nSchool.\"\nThe next paper presented was prepared by Reuben Post Halleck, principal of the\nBoys High School, Louisville, Ky., and was read by J. Stanley Brown, superintendent\nof Township High School, Joliet, 111. This paper was on the theme, \"Preparation of the\nHigh-School Teachers from the Standpoint of the High-School.\"\nThe third paper of the morning, which was presented by Alexis Frederick Lange,\ndean of the faculty of the college of letters. University of California, Berkeley, Cal.»\ntreated of the \" Preparation of High-School Teachers from the Standpoint of the University.\"\nThe papers were discussed by C. P. Gary, state superintendent of public instruction\nMadison, Wis, The discussion was continued by Robert J. Aley, professor of mathematics, Indiana University; J. H. Hoose, professor of philosophy. University of Southern\nCalifornia; John R. Kirk, president of State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.; A. O.\nThomas, president of State Normal School, Kearney, Nebraska; J. H. Hill, president of\nState Normal School, Emporia, Kan., and Alexis F. Lange, University of California,\nThe chairman named the following Nominating Committee:\nRobert J. Aley, of Indiana.\nW, O. Thompson, of Ohio.\nJ. H. Hoose, of California. ,\nThe department then adjourned.\nSECOND SESSION— Friday Morning, July 12\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report:\nFor President — Oscar J. Craig, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nFor Vice-President — W, O, Thompson, University of Ohio, Columbus, O.\nFor Secretary — Lillian Day Berry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.\nThe report of the committee was approved and the nominees were declared elected\nas officers of the department for the ensuing year.\nPresident W, O. Thompson, of the University of Ohio, presented a paper on \"The\nCare of Freshmen.\" The discussion was opened by Fletcher Bascom Dressier, professor\nof the science and art of education in the University of California and continued by Professor Robert J. Aley, of the University of Indiana; C. P. Gary, state superintendent of\npublic instruction, of Wisconsin; and Mr. Howard of the Los Angeles High School.\nThe second paper of the morning session was presented by Professor Wallace N.\nStearns, Wesley College, Grand Forks, N. D., on \"Religious Education in the State Universities.\"\n\n"} {"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nPresident W O. Thompasely utilitarian. As to the charge that vocational training\nis utilitarian, why should not the answer be one of *' confession and avoidance.\"\n\n"} {"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nSuch training is utilitarian; but why basely so ? Most men devote more than\nhalf of their waking hours to their vocations. Are their lives necessarily on\nthat account basely utilitarian ? Our war for independence had its origin in a\nquestion of taxation. Was it for that reason a basely utilitarian struggle for\nselfish ends ? Almost every great national policy involves some matter of\nindustry or commerce. Is our national life therefore unworthy of our loyal\naffection ? The intellectual and moral progress of the race has always been\nin large measure dependent upon material and commercial prosperity. Are\nthe achievements of the human spirit on that account insignificant or base ?\nAs a people we profess a belief in the dignity of work. Shall we hesitate to\nexempHfy our belief by making it possible for every man to find his work and in\nhis work to find a worthy means of enlarging and completing his life ?\nREMARKS\n\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nLEAVITT\n\nI believe that Mr. Burks has shown that initial steps in industrial training\nshould be given thru the agency of the present public -school system, whatever\nform of school may be added later, because an interest in and a respect for\nindustrial work must be developed in the boy before the age of fourteen if we\nwish to hold him in even an industrial school after the law permits him to go\nto work. This of course applies only to the boys for whom industrial education is urged. Mr. Burks has shown that after fourteen these boys should be\noffered substantial vocational training.\nJust what these vocational schools should teach, is, in most communities,\nyet to be determined by experimentation. That it must be practical and\n''real\" is certain. This much we have learned from the manufacturers.\nThey tell us that the work done must be submitted, as far as possible, to\nindustrial tests rather than to ''educational,\" that is to say \"cultural,\" tests.\nAt the works of the General Electric Company, Lynn, Mass., is what might\nbe called a modern apprentice school. From it we may learn much. Mr.\nAlexander's discussion will not only inform us 'of this interesting and valuable\nexperiment in vocational training, made by a corporation, primarily, we presume, for its own benefits and because of its own needs, but will give us many\nvaluable suggestions for our guidance in determining the nature and scope of\nany industrial training wnich the public school may undertake.\nINDUSTRIAL\nMAGNUS\n\nW.\n\nTRAINING\n\nAS VIEWED\n\nBY A MANUFACTURER\n\nALEXANDER,\nVICE-PRESIDENT,\nNATIONAL\nSOCIETY\nFOR\nTION OF INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION,\nENGINEER,\nGENER.4L\nELECTRIC\nCOMPANY,\nLYNN,\nMASS.\n\nPROMO-\n\nIt is generally conceded that the further development of American industries, and especially the mechanical trades, is endangered thru an insufficient\nsupply of properly trained skilled mechanics. The reason for this condition\nmay be found in the enormous expansion of these industries within the last\nfifteen years, which has made the demand for skilled workmen far exceed the\n\n"} {"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n797\n\nsupply, and in the growing tendency towards specialization which today\npermeates all fields of industrial activity. Where heretofore skilled labor was\nrequired in many processes of manufacture, specialization has permitted the\nemployment of large numbers of unskilled workmen. Manufacturers have\ntaken liberal advantage of this new economic condition, overlooking, however,\nthe necessity of training skilled mechanics who are capable of operating and\nmaintaining in good working-order the complicated machinery which specialization has brought into use, and who can act as leaders and subleaders\nin the ever-growing industrial army. Manufacturers rehnquished their\nresponsibility so much the more readily in view of the new attitude of the\npublic-school system towards the industrial needs of the country.\nWithin the last twenty-five years, the public-school system, recognizing\nthe necessity for semi-vocational and vocational training, introduced manual\ntraining, first in the high schools, and later on in the grammar schools. It\nbecame apparent, however, that the public schools were not answering adequately the demands of modern industries : manual training was not giving the\nboys the practical equipment that would enable them to enter industrial life\non any plane higher than that of a beginner.\nThe rapid changes of the industrial system, furthermore, made such demands\non the workmen that the educational system found itself unable to adjust\nitself quickly to their needs.\nManufacturers and educators are now alive to the seriousness of the problem\nof bringing the school system into harmony with the modern industrialism of\nthe country. The genuine interest manifested on both sides indicates a keen\nobservation of the situation and the desire for a proper solution. Hearty\nco-operation between the teachers who prepare the boys for life and the manufacturers and business men who employ them as economic units will hasten\nthe solution of the problem and bring about the desired results.\nEntering into the consideration are the workmen employed at the present\ntime in unskilled labor who might be elevated industrially by supplemental\neducation, and also the new recruits who are about to enter upon an industrial\ncareer. The latter class is, of course, of far greater importance than the\nformer, in that it determines the character of the future industrial army. The\nproper training of boys for their life's work will, furthermore, materially minimize the necessity for continuation schools and other supplemental education\nfor adults.\nThe principal agencies for training boys systematically for skilled work\nare trade schools and apprenticeships. The trade-school problem is primarily\nthe concern of the state, which should equip boys with such knowledge as will\nfit them to become self-supporting citizens. The school system of a community should offer industrial training for those activities which are peculiar\nto its locality. Although educational experts are giving much thought to\nthis problem, their ideas are by no means clarified into a consensus of opinion.\nSome advocate the establishment of additional technical high schools: others\n\n"} {"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nbelieve in manual training in the lower grades of the elementary schools;\nmany contend for a more practical training even to the extent of trade instruction; while some now urge the creation of elective industrial classes into which\ngrammar-school boys may enter.\nApprenticeship systems, on the other hand, are the concern of the manufacturers, who in this way train their own supply of skilled artisans ; and\naccording to the breadth of view with which manufacturers develop their\nsystems, they are contributing more or less to the solution of the problem of\nmaking the boy's educational equipment fit his industrial needs. Apprenticeship systems are flexible and can, therefore, adjust themselves quickly to the\nchanging industrial conditions; they present concrete examples of industrial training, a study of which will point out to educators the\nprinciples which should underlie an effective system of pubhc industrial\nschools, where skill and intelligence may be developed in proper correlation.\nA significant example of what may be accomplished by a well-conducted\napprenticeship system may be found at the works of the General Electric\nCompany at Lynn, Mass. The establishment of this system was the outcome\nof a careful study of existing apprenticeship systems. Thirty or forty years\nago when the entrance upon a skilled trade was universally made thru the\ndoor of an apprenticeship, a boy was apprenticed to a journeyman who\npracticed the trade in all its parts. Having a personal interest in the boy, the\njourneyman initiated him into the mysteries and arts of the trade, until\nthe apprentice after five or six years of tutelage took and held liis place by\nthe side of his master. The introduction of the factory system brought about\na change in the condition of the apprentice. He was now assigned to a department, the foreman of which was expected to teach Him as the journeyman master\nhad done heretofore. The shop foreman, who looked after a number of workmen and the work of the department in general, did not, of course, take the\nsame personal interest in the boy as the journeyman heretofore had done,\nand very often delegated his function of teaching to an assistant. As the shop\ndepartments grew and a larger percentage of unskilled labor was employed\nin the factory, the foreman or his assistants felt less inclined, and were in fact\nless able, to devote special attention to the training of the boy. They hesitated\nto put him on a machine, both for fear that he might injure the same because\nof insufficient personal attention, and also for reasons of production which •\nrequired the utilization of every machine to the fullest extent. The advantages\nfor an apprentice in one department, furthermore, were often unequal to those\nin another department ; this being due to the kind of work preformed and the\namount of production. In order to overcome these unequal conditions, a\nsupervisor of apprentices was appointed in some of the factories, whose duty\nit was to look after the interests of the apprentices and to transfer them from\none department to another without interfering with the prerogatives and\ndisciplinary supervision of the foremen; and to the extent to which the super-\n\n"} {"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n799\n\nvisor possessed special efficiency and tact for this work, he fulfilled his duties\nto the advantage of both the employer and the apprentice.\nIn this system, however, there remained a weakness, in that the apprentice was trained by the foreman or assistant foreman of the department who\nwere chosen for their positions on account of their skill and special fitness for\nthe work and not for any ability for instructing boys. It is a well-known fact\nthat few men in any walk of life, with the exception of professional teachers,\nare able to impart information in a satisfactory manner, although they themselves may possess knowledge and be able to apply it to their work.\nThe General Electric Company at Lynn, therefore, took the next logical\nstep in the development of apprenticeship systems. It appointed a supervisor\nof apprentices, but also placed him in charge of a special training-department\nwhere the boys might receive their initial training under expert supervision in\na thoro and systematic manner. The training-room is simply a part of the\nwhole factory, set aside for the sole purpose of training apprentices; and is\nprovided with a full complement of machines and tools and the-most instructive\nwork that the factory contains at any time. A separate training-room for\nmachinist and tool-maker apprentices and one for pattern-makers are in\noperation at Lynn, and it is the intention to establish another for molder\napprentices at an early date.\nUnder the system prevailing at Lynn, every boy who wishes to learn a\ntrade must serve a trial period of two months in the training-room. During\nthat time he is closely observed by the supervisor of apprentices, both as to\nhis mental and moral make-up and as to his ability for and attitude toward the\npractical work. Immediately upon entering the training-room, the young\ncandidate is put at a machine and required to perform useful work. If he\nproves, during the trial period, that he possesses the right qualifications, he\nis allowed to sign the regular apprenticeship agreement, which calls for a\nservice of four years for machinist, tool-maker and pattern-maker apprentices,\nand three years for molder apprentices. The time of the trial period is\nincluded in the total time of service. The apprentice remains now in the\ntraining-room for a period of about two years, according to his indi\\ddual\nability; and during that time, is given an opportunity to work with the different\nmachines and tools and to perform different operations on a variety of work.\nAt the end of this period, he has gained a general knowledge of the trade and\nan ability for the work which must now be rounded out by a longer experience\non a larger variety of work, such as the factory itself offers. The apprentice\nis, therefore, transferred from the training-room at the end of about two years\nto different departments of the factory, until at the end of the four years'\nterm he is well quaUfied to assume a position as regular journeyman at journeyman's wages.\nAll work performed in the training-room is of commercial character;\nthus the training of apprentices on such work is of commercial value to the\nboy, in that it trains him in, rather than for, industrial life, and instils in him\n\n"} {"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\na proper appreciation of the value of time and money. Some of the machines\nin the training-room are of the latest and most improved pattern, while some\nare second-hand tools, half of which have been rescued from the scrap heap.\nThe use of old machines serves a twofold purpose, the economic and the\neducational; it prevents the abuse and injury of high-priced modern machinery\nwhich is apt to occur with boys who have not had experience in the handling\nof machines; and it affords an opportunity for repairing machine tools, which\nis an excellent training for a future mechanic. The training-room, however,\npresents a splendid opportunity for stimulating the apprentices to develop\nlabor-saving devices and processes for the manufacture of dift'erent articles,\nthereby giving free play to the exercise of inventive ingenuity. The boys are\ntaught to instruct others; for it is the aim of the General Electric Company to\ncreate a supply of skilled mechanics from whom the assistant foremen, foremen,\nand superintendents of the company may be chosen. Each boy, therefore,\nmust help to break in a less advanced apprentice in one of the operations\nbefore he himself may advance to a more difficult task. Thus, if an apprentice\nhas acquired efficiency both as to speed and accuracy in the drilling of holes,\nhe is utilized as a boy-teacher in initiating another apprentice who has not\nyet learned how to drill holes, before he himself may receive instruction in\nthe tapping of holes, for instance, from an older apprentice. The regular\ninstructor, however, starts off the team of boy-teacher and boy-pupil and follows\ntheir joint work from time to time thruout the day; this arrangement permits\nthe instructor to supervise a large number of such teams, in addition to the\nregular work of the department. One instructor may easily take charge of\nfifty or sixty apprentices and train them well. The boy-teacher will naturally\nput forth his best efforts to impress the boy-pupil with his own achievements\nand the latter will often ask questions of the former that, out of false pride, he\nwould not ask of the regular instructor. From a business standpoint the economy of this arrangement is commendable. Pedagogically this pupil-teacher\nsystem is significant; for it tends to throw boys upon their own resources,\nthereby making them think for themselves; it develops in them the power to\nimpart information and make others perform the processes which they themselves understand; and, finally, it initiates them into the art of handling work\nand workmen, h possession of these qualifications determines to a large extent\nthe success of a foreman, superintendent and in fact any leader of men in\nwhatever walk of life.\nThe General Electric Company has arranged the wage scale for apprentices with a view of making them self-supporting from the beginning, even during\nthe trial period of service, so that any boy desiring to learn a trade may be\nenabled to avail himself of the opportunity regardless of the financial condition of his parents. In round figures each apprentice receives $5.00 per\nw^eek for the first year, $6 . 50 per week for the second year, $8 . 00 per week\nfor the third year, and $9 . 50 per week for the fourth year, with a cash bonus\nof $100.00 at the termination of the course when a certificate of apprentice-\n\n"} {"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n8oi\n\nship is awarded to the graduate. He is encouraged to remain in the employ of\nthe company at fair wages, but if he desires to acquire some outside experience,\nhe is not discouraged in his intentions. Experience has shown that most\nof those who, upon graduation, start on what used to be called in the old\nGerman guild system, ''Die Wanderjahre,\" return after a short while to\nthe Lynn works to their old friends and associates.\nAs previously stated, skill combined with inteUigence must be the basis\nof all effective trade trS^ining. To give this intelligence, the General Electric\nCompany has estabHshed a school in connection with the apprenticeship course,\nin which instruction of an eminently practical character is given for the purpose\nof supplementing and amphfying the practical work of the shop. Each apprentice isobliged to spend in the classroom six hours per week out of his regular\ntime of employment, during which time he receives the same wages as if\nhe were working at the bench or at the machine. This expenditure by the\ncompany, which has proved after all to be an excellent investment, removes\nthe temptation from certain boys to sacrifice an education and the opportunity\nfor future financial returns for the immediate small remuneration, minus a\nhopeful outlook. The teachers in the classroom who are selected from the\nstaff of engineers, draftsmen, and foremen of the General Electric Company,\nand devote part of their time to the work of teaching, are men of good standing in their profession, who have natural ability for teaching. They are chosen\nin preference to professional educators on account of their practical and\nintimate knowledge of the needs of the factory and the industries in general.\nTheir work covers instruction in that branch of mathematics, physics, engineering, and mechanical drawing which forms a necessary part of the equipment\nof a skilled artisan. The theory of these sciences is taught in reference to the\nconcrete problems of the factory, which makes the study not only interesting\nbecause real, but also more fruitful in that it initiates the apprentice into\nthe technicalities of the business he is to follow later on. Mathematics covers\ninstruction both in arithmetic and algebra, in the elementary processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division relative to whole numbers,\ndecimals, and common fractions, percentage, ratio and proportion, square\nand cube root ; it deals with that part of geometry which concerns the construction of geometrical figures and the calculation of their surfaces and cubical\ncontents; and it gives such an insight into trigonometry as will enable one\nto understand the elements of the science as applied to the solution of practical\nproblems based on the right and obHque triangle. Physics is taught largely\nalong experimental lines so that the boys may deduce therefrom the laws governing the simple machines, the lever, the screw, the inclined plane, the pulley,\nthe wheel and axle; instruction is also given in elementary magnetism and\nelectricity. Under the heading \"Engineering\" are explained the different\nforms of power transmission, the characteristics of the important materials\nused in engineering construction, and the use of the formulae by which the\nproper distribution of material may be determined to suit different conditions,\n\n"} {"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "802\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthe best forms of design of the principal machine parts, and finally the important\ngeneral and electric machines. Great stress is, of course, laid upon the study\nof mechanical drawing, which is, however, not pursued as much with the object\nof making machine draftsmen of the apprentices as with the aim of enabling\nthem to sketch the auxiliary tools, jigs, and fixtures needed in an economic\nmanufacture on a large scale. Every skilled mechanic should have a knowledge of tool design; and the work of the draftsman and the engineer will\nprove to be of more practical value if he has this proficiency. All thru the\ncourse the boy is taught to express himself both orally and in writing. This\nwork in English is found to be very essential in giving the boys that intelligence\nwhich should accompany skill.\nIn all this, personal instruction is emphasized. The needs of each apprentice are given special attention ; no boy is rushed thru the program for the sake\nof covering the course. As in the practical so in the educational work, each\napprentice must prove his efficiency in one process before he is advanced to\nthe next. The four years' course of apprenticeship, therefore, gives each boy\nsuch manual and mental equipment as is proportional to his individual\ncapacity.\nWhether the manufacturer is to provide the supply of skilled mechanics\nthru the apprenticeship system in the factory, or the public-school system is\nultimately to establish industrial schools for this purpose, there remains one\nfact highly essential in the consideration of industrial education — the boy\nmust first of all have a respect for manual work, which may profitably be his\nlife's occupation. The disincHnation of the American youth to enter the\nmechanical trades is one of the great causes of the scarcity of skilled labor.\nTo awaken in the boy a respect for, and an interest in, useful work is the great\nresponsibility of the teacher. Genuine interest in the industrial activities\nof the community in which the school is located and co-operation with business\nmen will greatly facilitate the teacher's efforts, as it will make him see clearly\nhis duty toward the vast majority of boys who are going to earn their daily\nbread at the bench or at the machine. Every gathering of teachers should\navail itself of the opportunity of listening to an address by a manufacturer\nor business man on what seems to him to be the defects of the school product ;\nas there should be, in my opinion, an eft'ort on the part of practical men to\nhear frequently from the teachers in regard to the aims of the schools and the\nhelp which the practical men may extend in achieving these aims. A visit,\nonce or twice a year, of the graduating classes of the public schools to the\nworkshops of the town or vicinity will awaken in many a boy a true desire\nfor his future work; he will start out with a purpose in life and will therefore\nsucceed better than the one who embarks upon the ocean of life's work without\nany definite aim other than that of making money. Let the teacher himself\nrealize that the occupation of the skilled mechanic is indeed a dignified calHng ;\nand he will have then no difficulty in making the boys see it in the same\nlight.\n\n"} {"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n803\n\nAlfred Guillou, Throop Polytechnic Institute Pasadena, Cal. — During the last\nfive years it has been my privilege to have been closely in touch with a high school and with\nan elementary school, both of which made the effort to carry on, and to a large extent\nsucceeded in maintaining, courses of study which very closely approximated the ideals\nthat have been discussed this morning. My three children have attended these schools\nand as I have had no connection with them beyond this fact and my interest in their\nmethods, I feel that I have been a fairly disinterested critic. I refer to Throop Institute,\nat Pasadena, which besides the old-fashioned title of institute retains for its high school,\nthe equally old-fashioned name, \"academy.\"\nBut both the elementary school and the academy are anything but old-fashioned in\npractice. The academy it is true, fits young people for college and is accredited — faults\nwhich are at least excusable — but, besides the ordinary academic subjects, it offers its\nstudents on the vocational side the following: drawing, free hand and mechanical, especially\nworking drawings, design, wood-carving, clay-modeling, cooking, sewing, woodshop,\nblacksmithing, pattern-making, and machine shop; on the scientific side it offers biology,\nzoology, botany, physiography, physics, and chemistry. Certain academic subjects are\nrequired if the student elects to take a diploma; if, however, as is the case with one of\nmy boys, he is indifferent to the glamours of graduation, the student has free election of any\nsubject in the curriculum, the only limitation being a maximum of three book subjects a\nday.\nIn the elementary school the right of election begins not in the sixth grade as suggested\nby Dr. Burks, but in the first grade. My little girl of eight years in her second grade enjoys\nthe right of election equally with her brother of seventeen in the fourth year of the academy.\nThe elementary school offers this election as to all the ordinary school subjects, also as to\nthese vocational subjects: cooking, sewing, woodworking, paper- box making, wood\ncarving, clay modeling, design, freehand and working drawing, and as to scientific work\nin elementary physics and chemistry. There is no reStriction as to grades, for elementaryschool children can elect academy subjects and grades to which they show themselves equal.\nI have stated these facts thus fully to show you how nearly this school comes to the\nideals of Mr. Johnson and Dr. Burks; and I may add that having in mind my own five\nyears practical experience with my own children and other children under this regime, I\nhave followed with both interest and amusement the theoretical hopes and fears that have\nmanifested themselves this morning. First of all let me assure you that your fears are\ngroundless. I have never met and never heard of any serious mistake arising from the\npractice of giving the elective right to elementary children. Per contra, I have seen very\ngreat good come from this method. My own children have exercised the right without\nrestriction either at school or at home; and they have never made a mistake, altho I\nwill confess that their parents have twice given them very bad advice, which fortunately\nwas followed only in one instance. There can be no question that my children's election\nof subjects is on the whole wiser than are my tentative selections for them.\nSecondly, let me dampen your hopes. Election is not the cure-all that some of you\nseem to hope. While the eighth grade is the largest at Throop, and the seventh is larger\nthan the sixth, many children drop out and go to work; it is the accretions that swell the\nupper grades. I am satisfied that election as to vocational subjects is not in itself a satisfactory preventive of children leaving school. I do not believe that any choice or arrangement of the subject-matter of the curriculum is enough in itself. This statement brings\nme to my third and last point.\nMy experience with my own and other children under the elective system convinces\nme that under that system quite as much as under the hard and fast system, the element of\nfirst importance is the personality of the teacher. Again and again I have known children\nto elect a subject because of their eagerness for it, and before their selection was made final\nby announcement, throw the subject overboard, because of the teacher assigned to the\nparticular class. I have known children who had taken a subject for a year and were\n\n"} {"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "804\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nanxious to continue it, decide not to do so, because of the personality of the teacher. This\nis, of course, a large. subject. Nor is it a very cheerful subject, but none the less it is\ntrue and it is vital. I will only say that I think the views of this morning have shared to\nsome extent the current fault of much of our modern work — an overvaluing of subjectmatter and a forgetting of the tremendous influence of personality. My boy of fourteen assures me confidently, \"A great many more kids leave school because the teachers\nare cranky and no good, than because they sour on the things that are taught.\"\nMay not this be deep wisdom from the mouth of a modern babe ?\n\nRATIONAL\nELBERT\n\nH.\n\nART AND\nEASTMOND,\nYOUNG\n\nMANUAL TRAINING\nSCHOOLS\n\nINSTRUCTOR\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\nPROVO, UTAH\n\nIN RURAL\nARTS,\n\nBRIGHAM\n\nLet US first consider mechanism from an evolutionary and psychological\nstandpoint to justify the correlation of art-study and manual-training work.\nThe conceptive in mechanism. — To strengthen and cultivate the powers\nof the brain of man is rightfully our greatest aim in education. Tho our ideas\nand methods change, we still hold that education means, first, mental development, whose produce is culture and aptitude, that give men and women the\nmost joy and power in life. Many enthusiasts of manual expression are eager\nfor the training of the hand and believe that the brain thru this activity will\nreceive its greatest strength. Others hold that the greatest good will result\nfrom the mind receiving the first stimulus. To the second class I belong.\nI desire the pupil or student under my direction to receive, first of all, training\nthat will tend to create conceptive centers in the brain. Such mental activities\nas the child in the kindergarten exhibits can be fostered and cultivated by\nwell-directed industrial work. I use the word ''industrial \" advisedly, because I\nbelieve that industrial training sliould precede the manual training that promotes\nskill of hand. I desire that the word ''industry\" shall suggest love for work.\nI believe in the muscles being in the service of the brain, and not the brain subordinate to the manual activities. I believe that all organized matter is conceived mentally before it is wrought out in material form. In all events, with\nthe development of the child, attention should be given to the conceptive\nfaculties, for the benefit of the imaginary and subjective possibilities.\nProduction thru necessity. — ^\\Ve all agree that necessity is the parent of\nindustrial activity and that especially in structural science do food, shelter,\nand clothing generate the idea of the cup and transportation vessel, as well as\nthe hut, home, temple; the coat of skin and rich mantle. Necessity will\npresent the purpose for a thing; all else is left to the brain, and its agencies\nof innate power, influence, and adaptation.\nExtern^ influence and creative processes. — It seems that as the brain\ndevelops, it becomes sensitive to outer impressions — to external impulses and\ncenters of interest. The sun has in all ages caught the interest of world children\ninsomuch that they have worshiped, because it is the great dispenser of heat\nand light. I believe that objective form in the world promotes the subjective\n\n"} {"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] ART\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n805\n\ncreation of form. All the beauties of this wondrous earth, in flower and leaf,\nform and color, in crystal and atom, have proportion and unity. Thus the objective world becomes a stimulus for concepts and the pattern for material\nstructure. Then we have the dreamer-builder man, who, whether conscious or\nunconscious of this objective agent, and naturally sensitive to all around him,\nworks in accordance with the structural universe. We take it for granted\nthat all the objective beautiful in the world is classified for educational purposes under nature-study. I have -come to the conclusion, that, from a psychological point of view, worthy, clean production evolves when the cell of\nthe brain has first been exposed, as it were, to art environment, to nature\ninfluences. Art-study and art-influence are especially adapted for good-taste\npromotion in regard to creative form. The sacred lotus of the Nile influenced,\nnot only the ornament of Egypt, but the form of the structure, especially in\ndetailed parts. The cave, seen by primitive man, has suggested the room.\nThe mountain stream with unseen chisel has shaped out the glen, and has\nsaid to the sculptor, in the words of the great Master, ''Go thou and do Hkewise,\" and he has responded to the command. Most of the world's sculptors\nhave lived the better part of their productive lives in mountain regions. Artists\npaint pictures because God has tinted beauty in the sky, and in the distance\nand in the river. I feel that educationally we can well afford to give some\nattention with the child to art-study and nature-study, at the same time when\nnerve cells are in the process of formation — not to the extent of creating any\nspecial aptitude, but merely to refine.\nFormation and its adaptation to conditions. — Then constructional art derives\nits form from two sources, geometry and nature, or nature and geometry.\nThru the evolutionary methods of construction in the world, the forms of\nnature that have fitted man's structural ways, have become typed and fixed —\ngeometric — until a basis has been formed for a means of building.\nI feel that thru inheritance a child is endowed mentally with, at least,\nembryonic knowledge of geometric form, insomuch that type forms are unconsciously produced by him before he can possibly receive external or geometric\ninfluence.\nAnimate forms continually change because of their station influence.\nBuilding in the world has been greatly influenced by reUgion. Altitudes\nand temperatures affect it.\nThe adaptation of energies in the scientific field continually changes the\noriginal form. Compare the locomotive or steamboat with their crude originals.\nIt becomes at once apparent that innumerable changes have been made for\nmore perfect manifestation.\nAU the fine lines of constructional art have derived their form decidedly\nfrom nature. A vase of clay may take the conventional or abstract shape of\nthe lotus lily or sego lily, and be good art, inasmuch as there is consistency of\npurpose. The basket may evolve from a fruit form, the dish from the lake,\nthus giving abundant opportunity for correlation of subjects.\n\n"} {"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nMeaning oj manual training in rural schools. — As we consider manual\ntraining two thoughts are prominent: first, manual training stands for the\nadaptation of muscular energy to life -benefit purposes; secondly, the educational recognition of creative and beautiful expression in material substances.\nWe congratulate ourselves in America on the effort put forth to maintain\nthe correlation of brain and hand, but must admit that the American commercial spirit has so far affected American art that we do not recognize the importance of structural stability. The transient art of the Columbian and Louisiana Purchase Expositions is in keeping with this thought. Far different is\nit with the art of the nations of northern Europe. To remedy this evil we\nmust look to the schools.\nArt and manual training means the combination, psychologically and\npedagogically, of the world aesthetic and even spiritual with the world active\nand constructive.\nThe wrong gage. — Manual training is in the public and rural schools not\nonly for the cultivation of the child with apt hand or talent, but it is established\nfor all children.\nIn so many instances do we exalt the genius as the criterion by which to\ngage the inapt child. Our exhibitions stand really for the work of a special\nfew and we give the impression to the observer that this work is done by the\nclass or school. Parents will tolerate coaching the genius of their boy or girl\neven to the extreme, and at the cost of nerve energy. I believe that it is just\nas injurious to a child to require or accept too much work done as it is to accept\ntoo little. It is soon enough in the high school or better yet, in the college,\nto recognize to any extent personal genius ability. Let us not specialize in\nthe elementary grades; that is, get the prevalent idea that a boy might, with\nall propriety be ''turned out\" a carpenter, or a girl \"turned out\" a dressmaker\nat the end of the eighth year. This idea is almost as absurd at the end of\nfour years of the high school. This manual exercise and manual training is\ndesigned to be of much help, nevertheless, to the practical cultivation of the\nchild who has special aptitude in structural lines. In this instance attention\nshould not be directed to the fostering of special aptitudes at the expense of\nfundamental collateral subjects.\nThe adaptation oj ideals. — Supervision experience of four years in a country\nof rural schools has made me practically conscious that a child should be\naesthetically developed and manually trained thru the possibilities of his own\nindustrial environment. I hold that wherever there is employment enough to\ngrant men a livelihood thru the labor of their hands and the honest sweat of\ntheir brows, there are, too, facilities for materials, tools, and exercises that\nwill be of the most industrial value to the children of such a location.\nManual training may be accomplished thru the use of woods from our own\nnear timber land, or thru the use of soil about the school premises, or thru\nthe use of local clays, fibers, and every-day household fabrics. Our children\nhave made beautiful models in wood prepared from personally hewn and cured\n\n"} {"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] ART\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n807\n\nstock; useful and beautiful baskets from willows or grasses or husks or straw\nor bark from the fields and groves near the school building. Knowledge of\nenvironment possibilities is thus introduced, to the child's benefit.\nWhat great people or nation is there that has not succeeded thru the\npossibilities of its station on the earth, and that has not gained strength\nin the finding of those avenues for growth ?\nImported materials are adapted to our idea courses only, and there is no\nquestion but that they give the opportunity for some hand training; they promote skill, it is true, but there is failure in their use with the child from an\nindustrial standpoint, especially in the rural schools. Faulty, indeed, was the\nnotion of a teacher in a western state, who wanted sand shipped from Vermont\nfor her sand table.\nThe selection of materials from other climes is of some benefit from a correlative standpoint, I will grant, but let us remember the knowledge gained\nby the boy or girl of the spot of earth that gives them life is of far more benefit\nthan the knowledge of a rattan growth on a far-away island. It is not in\nkeeping with industrial manual-training ideals, to benefit some house dealing\nin reeds and raphias, at the expense of the child educationally, who should be\ntaught to use the products of his environment.\nKind oj teachers. — Supervisors and teachers should be furnished by colleges,\nwho have a broad, well-trained knowledge that can be adapted directly to\nindustrial conditions. A teacher in art and manual training must be willing\nto sacrifice his petty likings for a certain line of tools or materials or work,\nshould that sacrifice benefit the child. It is true that any well-directed line\nof activity for the brain and hand will give general benefit and train to skill,\nbut now is the time when the most good in every way must be received at the\nopportune moment. Remember, teachers, it is not yourself that you are\nworking for, in the main. You are in the presence of constantly forming\nnerve cells and habits of industry that we hope are to last always. Some\nexpres ions and some ways of work may be forgotten and leave only the refined\nchannel thru which they have passed, but the training is done to stay, or to be\nundone by toil and pain at some future day.\nThe teacher should know that a child's activities need attention, and that\nthere is a hand and heart coupled closely with the brain to receive educational\nnourishment. This teacher should become acquainted with the industrial\nactivities of the locality. In the district where I live, farming and the manufacture ofwoolen goods are the chief industries. I cannot be a thoro manual\ntrainer from an industrial standpoint until I understand these lines of work.\nThe teacher must continually bear in mind that his work in the public schools\nis elementary to higher methods of construction.\nSuggestions as to aims. — Collections and classifications of native materials\nshould be made and adapted in all possible ways. Foreign materials should\nbe used correlatively. Tools and machinery should be introduced that will\naid the creative expression of the brain and hand.\n\n"} {"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe children should be encouraged to feel that cleanliness and neatness\nis necessary to all art expression.\nPositive position at work is necessary from a physical standpoint, that\nrest, where regulated by judgment, is beneficial.\nThe school surroundings should be aesthetical and adapted to mind construction.\nConscientious effort and product should always be recognized. Put a\npremium on original work.\nAim to have all models finished.\nAn exhibition at the close of the school year has great value as all art in\nthe world is to be seen.\nWell-directed exercise from a physical standpoint may be given that will\ndevelop the hands to skill. General physical culture should be considered\nas collateral with manual training.\nSuggestive course jor rural schools. — I am of the opinion that an impetus\nin art-work is helpful to the introduction of art and manual training correlation\nor constructive art expression. The emphasis of this conceptive generating\nsubject need not be felt by any others than the supervisors, teachers, and\ngeneral school management. Art study is very possible under a teacher\nwho knows his business. It is a subject that will report the activities of a\nchild in a manner that is gratifying to most parents.\nUseful, practical exercises possess educational value. I believe that a\nmanual-training product that has industrial benefit for a boy or girl should have\nthree factors in organization : first, the thing should be suggestive by the call of\nutility; secondly, it should have geometric basis; thirdly, it should be beautiful as to proportion and consistency of purpose. To beautify does not mean to\ndecorate in this instance; it means to use art principles and agencies to the extent, only, that the product is brought into harmony with the idea of its being,\nand becomes pleasing to refined taste because of the ornamentation or finish.\nThe art of a product of work should be in the work expressed, in the form and\nin the individuality of the skill displayed. All art, especially as a medium of\nculture in rural schools and public schools anywhere is simply creative expression, and soul expression. Drawing is the delineative part of the division of\nexpression that deals with materials and mediums in a graphic manner.\nFirst in art work, I recommend clay as a medium for general representation,\nand creative expression, especially in the primary grades. This medium is\npossible of supply in all localities and inexpensive. Most clays are selfdisinfecting. With careful thought and method this medium can be easily\nsupplied and be successfully handled in classes. This medium may be used\nagain and again. Just at this point, allow me to suggest that care should be\ntaken as to thie destruction of products before the little makers. Many times\nteachers unconsciously bring discouragement to the child, and suggest negative\nhabits by destroying the work in the child's presence. Following clay lessons,\nsubjective and representative work in paper cutting should be given. Then the\ncontinuation of delineation is presented by the child working with some large\n\n"} {"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "[\n\nDepartment] ART\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n809\n\nmedium, applied with brush perhaps — mass expression. As soon as you\nfeel that the child is prepared and anxious, introduce color.\nIt is not necessary that children have a medium in their hands for all art\nlessons. Color and beauty may be talked of to the child and an enjoyment\nreached. The appreciation of the world's beautiful and the world beautified\nis the greatest aim in the art education of children.\nKinds oj work possible of introduction. — Art and manual training in the\nrural school is established educationally that it may aid in the all-round development of true, clean individuality in each boy and girl. It should not be introduced with utilization aims to any great extent in the elementary ^school. For\nthe sake of emphasis, I repeat that all problems should have three general\nrequisites; consistency as to use, geometric basis, and an element of beauty.\nIn almost all rural localities, the following lines of work may be introduced\nwith slight tool equipment;\nART\n\nWORK\n\nPrimary —\nClay molding, with local clay.\nPaper cutting, design, representation, free hand.\nBrush drawing, objective and subjective.\nCharcoal and chalk painting.\nColor study.\nDesign cutting.\nPaper picture work.\nGrammar grades —\nSubjective expression with geometric motif.\nClay molding, objective, subjective, and illustrative.\nBrush drawing, line drawing.\nFree-hand drawing.\nSketching.\nCharcoal tone study, picture making.\nPencil painting.\nDesign.\nMECHANISM\n\nPrimary —\nSimple wood construction, with prepared stock and nails, local material.\nPaper cutting, folding, pasting.\nPaper construction.\nPasteboard construction.\nSpool knitting, braiding, weaving with twines and string that the children have\ncollected.\nTextile art work, primary.\nConstructional needle-work, primary, with material that is furnished by the child.\nGrammar grades —\ni\\ stock whittling.\nFret sawing.\nClay carving, wirework, grass, husk, straw, willow, or other fiber basketry.\nDesign.\nKnife carving.\nHeavy whittling.\nBench Sloyd.\n\n"} {"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8lO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nDomestic art, ornamental and constructional.\nGardening, primary agriculture.\nPerhaps at first at home of the child, on small plot.\nCooking, primary domestic science.\n\nThe above is designed to be correlative with all possible subjects of the\nschool.\nIt is not the design that all the course work mentioned be given at one time.\nThe work is selected by the district teacher with reference to possibilities.\nAs many phases of work as possible should be given the child during the\nelementary-school period, for by this means the hand receives a broader, more\nsensitive training.\n\nClean hands. — The influence of the great, the overwhelming, the aesthetic\nupon the imitative mind and constructive activities of the human being\nculminates in a feeling of universal consistency; as consciousness develops,\na love is established for harmony with the expressed truth in and thruout the\nAn appreciation of God's creations tends to moral stability.\nuniverse.\nTo direct all the expression work of the head and heart and hand to the\nend of making a moral, refined, and appreciative man and woman is the\ngreat end in view.\nThis is the science of the beautiful.\n\nMANUAL\nM.\n\nFRIEDMAN,\n\nTRAINING\nASSISTANT\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nINDIAN\n\nSUPERINTENDANT,\nHASKELL\nLAWRENCE,\nKANSAS\n\nSCHOOLS\nINDIAN\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nThe development of the hands and the motor activities to their highest\npowers, and the gradual unfolding of the potential gifts they possess from\nnature depends in no small degree on the training of the brain to usefulness.\nThe idea seems odd and yet the thought is profoundly true that the purely\nphysically inspired acts of the hand in work are ignoble and attain to true nobility and grandeur only when thought and reasoning and judgment determine\nthem. Take away from the unique and highly valued and tremendously\nuseful products of the hand the incentive and substantial thought furnished by\nthe mind, and those products alvvays slump to the commonplace, and mediocrity\nstamps their work.\nEvery educational system of shop instruction or industrial training should\nbe co-ordinated with intellectual development. We cannot, tho we often try,\nattain success with the one without, in some way, making progress with the\nother. They are inter-dependent, correlative, co-operative. Material development has its root in a high standard of national literacy and education usually\nprospers when the nation does.\nI have touched but Hghtly on the inter-twining necessities of head-training\nand hand-training because therein, in a most paramount way, depend successful results. There must be, because anything else is fatal to the best interests\nof both, harmony between the workshop and the classroom.\nIn organizing industrial work our endeavor at Haskell Institute has been\nto carefully put into practice certain guiding principles — elemental because of\n\n"} {"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nINDIAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n8ii\n\ntheir simplicity, but fundamental in importance. In the first place the end\nand purpose of our work is quickly to arouse the Indian to a material awakening\nby placing within his grasp opportunities for learning a trade of most usefulness to himself and to his people, and of his own choosing.\nCareful attention is given to the shop. This should be roomy, well lighted,\nand ventilated. A high ceiling of from twelve to fifteen feet is desirable, and\nthis and the walls should preferably be finished with brick or wood; or, if\nplaster is used, it should be a cement plaster. Lime plaster is easily damaged\nwhen struck by a piece of iron or timber. A light buff tint with a five-foot\nborder of the same color, intensified by the addition of a Httle red, has proven\na very satisfactory color. It gives a maximum of light and seems to be restful\nto the eyes.\nEach student should be supplied with a definite place to work and wherever\npossible should be given a place, under lock and key, to keep his ''kit\" of\ntools. This will create in the student a pride in his equipment and a desire to\ntake care of the tools intrusted to him. The indiscriminate use of the same\nedge tools by all precludes the probability that they will be taken care of by\nanyone in particular.\nIn all shop work a definite course of study and work should be mapped out.\nNo instructor can, with impunity, do his work in a shambling, harum-scarum\nmanner, trusting to fickle chance or the inspiration of the moment that the\nultimate result will be satisfactory, and therefore doing no planning for the\nmorrow or the month to come. Every student should have reasonable assurance before commencing on his work of the ground he is expected to cover.\nThis can best be done by the combined use of (i) a printed statement, (2) a\nseries of drawings showing the various steps in the work, and (3) a set of\nmodels showing the work itseK skilfully and accurately executed. Such a\nprocedure is not only highly important for the immediate information and\nenlightenment of the student, but, if system is to prevail, and a large number\nof students are handled, it is really indispensable.\nIn all work, economy of materials should be insisted on. Students are too\napt to become careless in this regard, spoiling a large board in order to cut off\na small piece, or cutting from a long iron bar, when the necessary material\ncould be had by examining the \"scrap pile.\" Boys get the idea — and in\nmany instances grown-ups do the same — that the government defrays the\nexpenses from its supposedly inexhaustible treasure store, and that consequently\nit makes no particular difference whether they waste or save. It is an evil\nhabit, and, begun early in life, would be difficult to eradicate later on in\nmaturity. This matter is of especial importance in Indian schools; Indian\nboys and girls are naturally wasteful and unless curbed in their youth will stick\nto the unfrugal ways of their fathers. Each industrial department should have\na ''scrap pile\" and students can soon be taught economical ways of using\nmaterial. When old material is taken out of buildings and is not decayed,\nuse can be made of it on the farm, or for outside improvements.\nI have taken\n\n"} {"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Trainin\n\nthis up at length because practical lessons in economy are invaluable to anyone, and especially t5 the Indian.\nIn carrying on industrial instruction in Indian schools two phases of the\nwork must be taken into consideration: (i) In every shop, of every Indian\nschool, productive work with a real market value must be done; repairs\non buildings and the school plant cannot be neglected except with great risk\nand attendant loss; equipment is urgently needed from time to time. We\nbelieve that a valuable opportunity in appHcation is presented and a fine lesson\nis learned by students in being required to do this work themselves. Their\neducation thus rises above the misnomer of a forced gratuity. They have\nreally put forth some legitimate personal effort to gain it. (2) Instruction\nmust be given regularly and systematically so that the students will become\nsomething more than imitators and automatons — will in fact become thinking\nworkmen, ever browsing about for the new, elevating themselves and their\npeople. Such men, with careful training, prove a blessing to the craft to\nwhich they belong, and raise still higher the honored name and calling of carpenter, blacksmith, machinist, mason, farmer, because of the lives they Hve\nand the works they perform.\nWhere mechanics with no previous teaching experience must be employed\nas instructors and, where instruction and production occupy a place side by\nside, our plan at Haskell may be of interest and hold something of suggestion.\nAll students work one half -day in the w^orkshop or on the farm and devote\nthe other half-day to classroom exercises. Out of the twenty hours per week\nin the shop three periods of one and a half hours each are set apart for active\ninstruction. During this time by talks, demonstrations, or individual work,\ninstruction is given in the principles and practices of the trade.\nA course of study and practice has been evolved which combines by\npractical exercises the essentials of the trade. We feel that this plan offers\nall the additional pedagogic advantages presented by a course of manual training in the public school. After the first few exercises in the use of tools, each\nsucceeding exercise presents a new principle to be mastered or something tangible to be done. We do not rest content with teaching the making of a lapjoint, a mortise and tenon joint, a dovetailed joint, a splice joint, et cetera.\nRather, we advance a bit farther and take a decisive step. After the pupil is\nable to make a joint he is immediately taught the application of that knowledge\nand skill by making a useful article of furniture, a household utensil, or some\npart of a house. Thus, he is daily receiving practical lessons in home-building.\nAnd so with welding, upsetting or bending at the forge, cutting or stitching in\nthe shoeshop,. chipping, filing, or turning by the apprentices in the machineshop.\nWhen the period of instruction is over and the students are detailed to the\nregular tasks of productive activity, the instructor keeps in mind the advancement of the pupil. If a boy during the previous lesson has been engaged on\nan exercise in planing he is later given productive work to surface which will\n\n"} {"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nINDIAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n813\n\ngive him experience and training in the use and care of the plane. If, perchance, the boy has been having exercise v^ork in nailing and cross-cut sav^ing,\nproductive work in laying pine floors, or sheathing the side of the house is\ngiven him to do. By the next lesson the students have necessarily made sufficient progress so that with rapidity the next advanced step in the trade is undertaken. Such a course is followed in all trades instruction.\nBy conducting the work along the lines I have mentioned, rapid and substantial progress can be made. This is not a highly colored picture or a silverlined theory of impracticability. The thing is practicable and is worked out\neach day of the school year at Haskell. Of course I understand that such a\nprocedure would be difficult in public schools where of necessity the time element must be considered, and where no productive work as such is carried on.\nBut even there it would be well to ponder such a course. Is there not right\nhere a possible suggestion for public-school work in the higher grades ? Should\nthe motor faculties be trained abstractly, and with no thought whatever to\nindispensable, practical ends ? Is the child of the white less in need of a training in the practical things of life than the offspring of the red ?\nFrom what I have already said you no doubt gain the central idea I wish\nto convey. Vitilize the instruction. Let it deal with the real things which\nthe student must know and face when his school days are over. The teaching\nof principles is vastly important ; but by all means, teach their practical application, or they will become meaningless and soon be forgotten. Let dow^n the\ncumbersome barriers that shut out the practical from view and get down to\nthe bedrock work of instruction.\nFrom time to time rather spasmodic attempts have been made in some of\nthe larger non-reservation schools to give instruction in mechanical drawing.\nFrom what I have been able to learn the results from these efforts have not\nbeen entirely satisfactory. And I believe I know the reason. Students usually\nenroll in Indian schools for a period of but three years. Local conditions limit\nthe time devoted to drawing-work to two or three hours per week. The education possessed by these students is of a very elementary nature. Their\nknowledge of arithmetic is exceedingly Hmited.\nIn many of the schools where drawing has been taught the pupils commenced on instrumental drawing. A period of time was then devoted to rather\nabstruse problems in geometrical drawing and this was followed by abstract\nrandom work in orthographic projection. What had been accomplished?\nThe student had just time to get a smattering of these branches when his term\nwas up and he left school. What he did learn did not increase the student's\npractical usefulness. As a bread-winner it did not give him additional equipment. The drawing, for instance, was not applied to his trade and consequently had no real significance to him.\nI do not wish to intimate that a draftsman need not be familiar with this\nfoundation work, but I must frankly say that it is not our intention to train\ndraftsmen.\nAs with the so-called professions this should be left to individual,\n\n"} {"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ninitiative, and private support. Our end is accomplished so far as this subject\nis concerned when the student can make a simple working-drawing in pencil,\ncan block out roughly any work which he wishes done, and can thoroly understand an ordinary plan when placed in his hands to execute in the shop. The\nIndian boy's education has not been sHghted if he is unable to paint a beautiful\npicture or make an elaborate architectural sketch rendered in ink and color.\nSimple colorwork can be taught, and is taught, but the best place for instruction\nin this is in the classroom.\nWe have made some progress toward the solution of this problem at\nHaskell. The drawing-work is divided into sections composed of students\nfrom the various trades departments. Each section devotes two periods each\nweek to the work. The carpenters form one section and the other sections are\nmade up of blacksmiths, masons, wheelwrights, painters, engineers, and machinists. The work given each class varies somewhat with the trade the pupils\nare learning.\nIn the beginning each section is called together in the drawing-room and\nclass recitations are given. This work comprises an explanation and study of\nthe rule and its use, the difference between a picture and a mechanical drawing,\nthe blocking-out of a wooden block with square corners, then of rectangular\nand other shapes. The students are gradually led to understand the plan,\nelevation, and sections, and learn to label and dimension working-drawings.\nAll this work, mind you, is at the blackboard before the eyes of the class and\nstudents are called upon to explain what they have done and the work is\ncriticized by the other students. Intense interest is aroused and the students\nlearn to make dimension drawings of simple objects which they have executed\nin the shop.\nThe instructor now gathers the pupils around his table and shows them\njust how to proceed to make a mechanical drawing with instruments by executing one himself. The instruments are brought forward, their correct use\nshown and the names given. These names are always written on the board\nand the pupils are required to copy them. This fixes the information more\npermanently in their minds. The boys are then sent to their individual tables\nto begin work. This beginning is the crucial time as habits acquired in the\nearly stages may be permanent obstructions to good work later on. The\ndrawings are made from models, each shop using actual work made by the\nstudents. From now on our own experience has proved that rapid progress\nand substantial improvement result.\nThis instruction in drawing has practically revolutionized our shopwork.\nNew interest has been manifested by the students. They do not complain of\nthe monotony of the work as they once did, and where formerly anxious to\nhear the sound of the whistle which ushered in the time of rest they now do\nextra work during their own time. It has also been the means of systematizing and unifying the course of work.\nAs I said in opening this paper there must be unity and correlation between\n\n"} {"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRIMITIVE\n\nHANDICRAFT\n\n815\n\nthe classroom and the shop. Let the literary classes visit the shop with the\nteacher so that the pupils can see the industries at close range. Let them see\nthe shoeing of a horse, the ironing of a wheel, the processes of furniture-making,\nstone-cutting, and brick-laying. I believe the day is coming when the workshop will be assigned a place wall to wall with the schoolroom, and rather\nthan detract from the efficiency of either this partnership will lift them both to\nrender greater service in the common cause of educating the children of men.\nRELATION\nRUBY\n\nM. HODGE,\n\nOF PRIMITIVE HANDICRAFT TO PRESENT-DAY\nEDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS\nTEACHER\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING,\nCAL.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nTwo years ago at the meeting of this association, Superintendent Maxwell\nof New York city said that the goal of American education was the ideal of\ndeveloping the highest individual and social efficiency of each citizen; or, in\nother words, the making of good citizens of the boys and girls who are intrusted\nto our care in the public schools. The fundamental basis of good citizenship\nis a trained intelligence to earn a livelihood, to become a respectable selfsupporting member of society.\nLet us look at some of the material from which we, as teachers, are to\nmake good ''American citizens.\" First, the normal American-born child —\nhe is very easily disposed of by the curriculum of the public schools; second,\nthe immigrant from Norway, Sweden, Germany, and the other countries of\nthe northern part of Europe, those from southern Europe, the child from across\nthe border-line of Mexico, the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans, all members\nof our public schools; third, the sub-normal child, or the child whose mind\nhas not developed in the same ratio as his body; fourth, the physically deficient;\nfifth, the feeble-minded or mentally deficient; then the deaf; the children who\nare obliged to leave school early to earn a living; and, last but not least, the\nchildren of nature, the Indians.\nLet us consider the immigrants for a moment. The people that come from\nnorthern Europe are more easily assimilated than those from the southern part.\nTheir customs and modes of living correspond somewhat to ours. They\nhave considerable freedom in their home government, and readily adapt themselves to our civilization.\nThe people of southern Europe, illiterate, accustomed to tyranny, low in\ntheir standard of living, gather themselves together in our large cities and\nfactory towns under conditions inimical alike to morals, to physical well-being,\nand to their intellectual advancement.\nClosely allied to these in customs and habits are the Mexicans, especially\nthe Cholos.\nThese are our special problem in southern California.\nThe homes of all of these people are simply places of shelter and, sometimes, not even that. From these homes come the children to the public schools.\nFortunately for them, the larger number enter the kindergarten.\nIn some\n\n"} {"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ncities receiving classes are organized. From these, when the children have a\nvocabulary of a very few words, they are promoted to the kindergarten.\nThe kindergarten and the school is a strange unknown world to them.\nThe children have no language with which to make their needs and wishes\nknown; their only thoughts are to execute their natural impulses; in fact,\nthey are little savages devoid of all training.\nThe children's interests are still especially concerned with the use of their\nmuscles and sensory organs. It is thru the training of the motor activities of\nthe hand that the mental capabilities of these children may be increased.\nHere handicraft plays an important part in the development of their mental\nactivities. The mental capabilities of the children must be considered. The\nteacher must be trained to understand the home life and environment, the\nhabits of thought, and the prevailing methods employed in that particular\nlocality. What is more pertinent to the foundation of good citizenship than\nthe study of home life thru handicraft and what appeals more to the children\nthan this never-worn-out subject ? Thru these means may be taught the first\nsteps in the respect for the rights of others, the basis of all good government.\nFor these little people handicraft may be in the form pf paper-folded models\nfor a doUhouse, cutting and folding of the animal life that surrounds the home,\nthe tearing of paper to represent pictures and animals. Patriotism may be\ntaught thru the cutting and coloring of our flag. For the industrial side, a\nvisit to the regular manual-training room, a carpenter's shop, or any industrial\nplace in the locality in which they live will result in paper-folding to represent\ntools. The child, with encouragement, will illustrate the industries in his home\nlife and thus forge another link in the chain which should bind the home to\nthe school. Thru the making of these articles, the child begins the building\nof his vocabulary. Together with the gifts and games, the result will be a\nstock of ideas and acts which later he will combine in new ways. These\nlittle immigrants that entered the kindergarten are now prepared, to a certain\nextent, to take up the regular work of the grades.\nBut what of the immigrant child, who enters school for the first time in\nthe United States, too old for the grade, perhaps with no previous schooling,\nor, at the most, a very meager one, with no knowledge of law and order, and\nwith no language in which to express himself. He is beyond the kindergarten\nage and must enter the first grade. In the first two grades we have a large\nnumber of this class. They are not settled in any place; they may be in this\nschool today and another tomorrow.\nStrange to say, these are as interested in the home life in the form of a playhouse as the younger ones. Yet these children require different materials\nand more complicated exercises than others of the class. The problem becomes, how to carry on the usual work of the grade and provide a suitable\nsupplementary course for them. Some form of handicraft may supply this\ndeficiency. The playhouse should be the center of interest. Additional\nenthusiasm may be aroused by the introduction of a city, or town, or even a\n\n"} {"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRIMITIVE\n\nHANDICRAFT\n\n817\n\ncountry home. Thus the child may be still more imbued with the ideals of\ngood citizenship.\nWith these as with the others, we must notice his experiences and environments; what materials has he with which to work, what are the methods used\nin the home and what is the work of the parents. We still have the problem\nof unity between the home and school to keep in mind.\nIf the immigrant is in the region of clay, he may build a house of clay,\nmolding the bricks in forms. Wooden boxes may be used if nothing else is\navailable. In all cities, pasteboard boxes are common. Models of furniture\nmay be constructed, for instance, from pasteboard, the patterns being given to\nthe children and the model sewed or pasted according to the mental capabilities\nand motor activities of the children. Weaving of rugs, bags, blankets, dolls'\nsweaters and hammocks may be done on looms, these being made in the regular\nmanual-training room, if possible. Very good results are obtained on cardboard looms. The standards for the hammocks should be constructed in\nthe same way. Models such as receptacles for ashes, garbage, paper, and\ncans may illustrate the local laws. Draperies, table-covers, rugs, carpets, and\nwall paper may be printed from block designs carved by the older pupils.\nStencil patterns is another form of decoration. Framing of the Perry or other\nstandard pictures, selecting suitable ones for the various rooms, may be made\na valuable exercise in patriotism as well as an exercise in developing artistic\ntaste and culture. Artistic forms and construction should be given a prominent\nplace in the work. Hallowe'en, Christmas, Thanksgiving, and St. Valentine's\nDay will be occasions for special lessons. This work should be correlated with\nreading, spelling, drawing, and color-work.\nThruout the next two years, or the third and fourth grades, we have the\nsame problems, together with the problem of the boys and girls whose minds have\nnot developed in the same ratio as the body. During the two former years\nwe have the same problem but it is not so noticeable and may be settled with\nthat of the immigrant. These children are ordinarily two or three years too\nold for their grade. They are physically stronger than the rest of the class and\nrequire more active exercises. They are the tyrants of the class, the ones whose\ninterest is the most difficult to hold.\nAt this time handicraft of the right nature is necessary for the growth of\nthe character of the child. At this period of his life he is intensely interested\nin all manual occupations. Learn to do by doing is his watchword. Thru\nthis interest we can infuse a spirit of loyalty to the home, to the school, and\nfrom these to his locality and country. We can inculcate a spirit of responsibility and usefulness, as well as habits of good thinking. The extra physical\nenergy will be worked off and the children will gradually gain poise and selfcontrol.\nTools and materials must be used, for these require the closest attention\nand this form of mental activity leads up to acts of judgment. The materials\nused must be of greater resistance.\nWhat more suitable material than wood,\n\n"} {"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmaterial produced by nature and used in combination with tools manufactured\nby man !\nThe child's experiences must be enlarged. This may be done thru visits to\nmills, factories, parks, beaches, chambers of commerce, and commercial centers.\nIn these places he will learn the value of community work, the results of law\nand order, and the outcome of obedience. His ambitions may be aroused,\nhis ideals of life raised. At this period the child begins to realize the commercial value of things, else why does the boy sell newspapers and black shoes\nand the gurl seek a place in a store or factory. Therefore he must be given\nsomething useful to construct, something that has a commercial value to him.\nAgain environment is an important factor. We must make use of the\nthings around him. As yet his experiences are connected with the home, with\nplay, and with games. The construction of dolls' furniture may be made a\nproblem in making t3rpes of furniture in miniature. This includes a study of\nconstructive designs and artistic effects, a training of the child in culture and\ntaste. Again the framing of some of the pictures of great men, together with\nthose of historical and literary value may be made interesting features. What\npride the boy takes in framing the picture that he has studied in the classroom !\nWith what pride does he point to the picture hung on the wall of his room as\nhe tells his father and mother the story of it and how he made the frame !\nIf anyone doubts the value of handicraft in connection with games and\nplay he ought to visit our kite contest held in late spring. The children gave\nmore thought to the pros and cons of kite-flying than to any subject in their\nschool curriculum. They learned more of poise, balance, power of the air, etc.,\nthan they would have learned in the graderoom in ten times the number of\nclassroom lessons. All forms of handicraft require organized thinking. Organized thinking comes when the individual sets himself a definite task to\ndo and then finds ways and means to do it. Too fine adjustment of motor\nactivities must be guarded against. Thought value must be paramount to\ntechnique. Thought should always precede technique, for as soon as the\nthought value is gone, the work becomes purely mechanical. Thoroness and\nhonesty in construction must be taught. As soon as the child sees the necessity,\ntechnique should be more carefully taught but should not be the end and aim\nof handicraft or of manual arts.\nThe discipline of these boys and girls in the workroom is still a mooted\nquestion. The kind of discipline that may be called good is well established\nin ordinary subjects but the most desirable kind is by no means established\nin the handicrafts and manual arts. Happiness is the key-note of all discipline.\nLet me quote the New View oj Discipline — the name of the author I have\nforgotten:\nA discipline that makes happiness first, that knows no repression but rather a guidance\nof energy from the bad into channels of helpfulness and good. Children are not bad.\nThey only do bad things sometimes. Build up and strengthen the wrong-doer himself.\nWrong-doing is the result of ignorance or disease and corrections may only be educative\nor curative, seeing the wrong only that it may emphasize the right.\n\n"} {"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRIMITIVE\n\nHANDICRAFT\n\n819\n\nHow to accomplish this depends upon the personality and training of the\nteacher.\nIn dealing with the immigrants and the sub-normal children, the teacher\nmust realize that she is an active factor in the development of the child; must\nrealize that she is a friend to the child and must work with him and not over\nhim. In a certain city the children, among themselves, were in the habit of\nspeaking of their teachers as '* biddies.\" The manual arts teacher approached\na group of boys just in time to overhear them speak of ''Biddie Brown,\"\nreferring to one of the teachers in the building. The teacher said, **Now I\nknow how you talk about me behind my back.\" One of the boys looked up\nand said, very innocently, ''You are not a biddie, are you?\" Evidently the\nboys regarded her more as a friend than a teacher.\nHow to educate the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Koreans is still a problem to be very thoroly considered. Should we have separate schools or should\nthey be allowed to enter school along with the other children ?\nIf they are sent to school at the proper age they are not a menace to the\nother children. The trouble comes only when they are much older than the\naverage child of the grade, and require attention of the teacher to the exclusion\nof the other children. Their education for generations has been memorizing\nand imitating.\nThey are very slow to speak English.\nThru handicraft and the manual arts they may be reached, for their\ninherent love for the work makes them apt pupils. In their desire for information they will try to speak English and thus increase their use of the language.\nLet us consider those that are physically deficient. In cases of children\nhaving certain diseases of the eye, handicraft has no part; in dealing with\nother cases handicraft is beneficial, especially in nervousness and pseudonervousness. The teacher, by careful watching, may readily detect nervous\ndefects. Certain kinds of handicraft will cause the nervous child to forget\nhimself and thus gain control of his nerves thru habit. The excess of nervous\nenergy in children of the motor type may be worked off in the exercises and\nfreedom necessary in handicraft. The child with defective hearing will often gain\nconfidence in himself when he finds one thing he can do as easily as the others\ncan.\nLet me digress here and pay a tribute to our ''school nurses,\" and the work\nthey are doing. Bathing facilities have been introduced into the schools in\nmany localities; the cleanliness resulting therefrom coupled with the beneficial\neffects of the nurses' attentions and remedies have made many an incorrigible\nchild into a normal one.\nHow many children leave school to help earn a living, leave for a part of\nthe school year, work during vacations, or work after school hours in factories\nand stores. Most of these will, eventually, earn a livelihood by means of the\nhands. What shall we do to educate these to make them self-supporting\ncitizens ? Shall we teach them to think thru the use of their hands, think in\nterms of material and labor ? Shall we acquaint them with the industries as\n\n"} {"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfar as their mental capacity will allow, or shall we teach them the regular\nbranches with only a general reference to their work after leaving school. If\none considers the number of children, especially of the foreign element, that\nleave before they reach the grammar grades, before they get enough of the\nrudiments to help them in life, then one sees that some provision must be made\nfor this class. As much as is possible handicraft and manual arts, together\nwith a knowledge of the industries of the locality in which they live, should be\ngiven them.\nIn Los Angeles we are fortunate in having the ungraded room in some districts for a certain class ; but not enough of them yet. Also those who are twelve\nand over are allowed the opportunity of the manual-training room. I think\nwe are on the right track and running in the right direction.\nThe feeble-minded are well taken care of in schools established for them\nin many places. Manual arts, handicraft, and domestic science occupy the\ngreater part of the curriculum. We still have some left with us in the public\nschools. Shall we turn these adrift or make some special provision for them\nalong the same lines as are used in the feeble-minded schools.\nThe deaf are cared for in special schools and in our public schools as well.\nHandicraft and manual arts take a prominent place in their training. Thru\nthese their vocabulary and ideas are increased. They are made happy, contented, and self-supporting.\nThe Indians are being well cared for at the present time. As I look back\nto the school I saw on the Hoopa Reservation some years ago, and compare it\nwith the Sherman Institute, I think that the Indian problem is very well\nsettled.\nAll honor to the men and women who have devoted themselves to this\nproblem.\n\n"} {"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nTuesday Afternoon, July 9, 1907\nA joint session was held with the departments of Elementary Education and Manual\nTraining.\n(For minutes see Department of Manual Training).\nWednesday\n\nMorning, July 10\n\nThe department of Art Education met in the First Methodist Church. Joseph Scott\npresident of the Board of Education, Los Angeles, welcomed the members of the department to Los Angeles.\nMiss Mary S. Morse, of Los Angeles, was appointed acting secretary.\nEugene C. Colby, supervisor of drawing and manual training, for the state of New\nYork and president of the department, delivered the presidential address on the \"Aim of\nArt Education.\"\nThe topic of \"The Relation of Art Education to Everyday Life\" was presented in\npapers by Miss Katherine L. Scobey of the University School for Girls, Chicago, 111., who\nspoke from the culture side; and by Arthur H. Chamberlain, dean and professor of education, Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal., who spoke from the utilitarian side.\nThe president appointed the following committees:\non nominations\nKatherine Ball, San Francisco, Cal.\nFrances Sterrett, Los Angeles, Cal.\nKatherine L. Scobey, Chicago, 111.\non resolutions\nA. B. Clark, Stanford University.\nMary A. Woodmansee, Dayton, O.\nEmily O. Lamb, San Diego, Cal.\nThe following took part in the discussion of the papers of the meeting: Katherine\nBall, San Francisco, Cal.; T. A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind.; Mrs.\nEdith Ingersoll, Evanston, 111.; A. B. Clark, Stanford University, Cal.; Harriet N. Morris,\nSan Diego, Cal.; T. L. Heaton, deputy superintendent of schools, San Francisco, Cal.\nFriday Morning, July 12\nThe department met in Berean Hall, Auditorium Building.\nA. B. Clark, Leland Stanford Jr. University, read a paper on \"University Entrance\nCredits in Drawing.\"\n\"Object Drawing\" was considered in a paper by Edna B. Lowd, teacher of drawing,\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nThe subject of the \"Third International Congress on Art Education\" to be held in\nLondon in August 1908, was presented by President Colby and discussed by several\nmembers.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:\n1. Resolved, That school boards be urged to require the same preparation in time and\nquality from art teachers that is required of teachers in other subjects.\n2. Resolved, That an important question for consideration next year be the correlation\nof the subjects of art and industrial education.\n3. Resolved, That the art teachers of this department indorse the plan of the exhibit\nof American art at the International Congress of Art in London in 1908, and that we\nrecommend individual financial support of the same.\n821\n\n"} {"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "822\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\n4. Resolved, That a committee of three, with power to increase their number, be\nappointed by the chairman of this meeting to correspond with educators concerned and\nto recommend reasonable university entrance examinations in art, the report to be made\nto this department in 1909; and further that an appropriation of thirty dollars for the\ncorrespondence expenses of such committee be requested from\nGeneral Association.\nA. B.theClark,\nMary A. Woodmansee,\nEmily Othout Lamb,\nCommittee on Resolutions.\nAt the suggestion of Superintendent W. H. Elson, of Cleveland, O., the following\naddition was made to resolution 4: \"The committee is to co-operate with other committees\ndoing similar work, such as that of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary\nSchools.\nThe resolutions, thus amended, were adopted and the following committee appointed :\nA. B. Clark, Leland Stanford Jr. University, California.\nHenry T. Bailey, North Scituate, Mass.\nMiss Florence E. Ellis, Supervisor of drawing, Cleveland, Ohio.\n. The nominating committee reported :\nFor President — George W. Eggers, Chicago, 111.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Mary A. Woodmansee, Dayton, Ohio.\nFor Secretary — Miss Florence E. Ellis, Cleveland, Ohio.\nThese nominees were elected and the meeting then adjourned.\nMary S. Morse,\nActing Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE AIMS OF ART EDUCATION\nE. C. COLBY,\n\nSTATE\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nIN THE PUBLIC\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTRAINING,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nThe evolution of the art feeling in this country has been nourished and\nadvanced by the rise and development of industrial activities. During the war\nfor independence, art was latent among the people, and the dormant germs\nof art only budded when the new republic looked to its own genius for the\nproduction of those things necessary for its advancement. And so the mills\nand the factories, the foundries and machine shops come into being, calling\nfor the creative faculties of the mind expressed in graphic and plastic art.\nThe builder needed his architectural drawings, the machinist his plans, the\nhousehold-decorator his designs, and training was necessary to produce them.\nIn the fine arts, the portrait- and landscape-painters, striving for expression,\nfelt the need of training, and were obliged to seek it abroad. There was no\nreal art education among our people in those days of primitive energies. It\nhad not entered into the minds of our educators that this training was so important in the fostering of our industries, and was still more important in developing the conscience and character of our citizens.\nIt has been truly said that\nEducation must prepare the individual for life in society. It must teach him to imagine,\nthat is, to form new combinations from the material supplied by observation and reflection,\nfor imagination is responsible for all progress in art or in science, in industrial or commercial\nenterprise.\nIt must give him a knowledge of what has been done and thought in the past.\n\n"} {"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "^\n\nDepartment]\n\nAIMS\n\nOF\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n823\n\nThe child must be taught to see that there is more in life than the mere struggle for existence. He must be given ideals by which he can Judge, by which he can guide his own\nactions, and in which he can find rest from the cares and temptations of everyday life.\n\nUntil recent years drawing in our public schools was a specialty, unrelated\nto the other subjects in the curriculum. It was introduced into the schools of\nNew England as a result of an industrial need without any thought of developing\nthe mental powers of the child. In the course of time, however, the necessity\nfor unification in the school curriculum became apparent to educational leaders,\nand efforts were made to place drawing on an educational rather than an industrial basis and to place it in the same rank with other studies.\nBut the reform was encompassed by many difficulties. It was necessary to\ndevelop the aesthetic value of the subject, to bring the child to the appreciation\nof the beautiful in works of art, nature, and his own surroundings. In a word\nit was necessary to develop all of the educational possibilities of art instruction\nand to so correlate it with the other subjects taught as to prove its value in\nplacing the child in a proper relation with his environment, develop his mental\npowers, and form a solid basis for special work in the extensive fields of pure\nand applied art. Toward this end we are working at present, and much has\nbeen accomplished notwithstanding many obstacles encountered. When the\nsubject was introduced from a foreign country by those who did not understand\nour conditions and needs, it was looked upon with suspicion by the people, ridiculed by artists, and by many regarded as a useless fad. But these obstacles\nto the development of art education have, to a large degree, been overcome.\nEducators and artists have watched the steady progress of new methods in\nart training with approval, and in response to public sentiment on the subject\nmany well-equipped art schools for the training of teachers have been established. Almost all of our larger cities now have directors of drawing and\nmanual training, and teachers are expected to be prepared to teach these\nsubjects according to the latest and most advanced methods.\nIt is now more generally understood by the people that the ideal art instruction in the schools serves to develop the latent talent for drawing, designing,\nconstructing, illustrating, painting, and also, what is more important, to develop\nmental power, securing accuracy of observation and power of comparison, the\nabihty to plan new combinations of objects and of thoughts, and the attainment\nof individuality of thought and expression. It brings the child new ideals\nand a new sense of the beautiful in nature and in art.\nCarlton Noyes says,\nIn its essence and widest compass art is the making of a new thing in response to a\nsense of need. The very need itself creates, working through man as its agent. This\ntruth is illustrated vividly by the miracles of modern invention. The hand of man unaided\nwas not able to cope with his expanding opportunities; the giant steam and the magician\nelectricity came at his call to work their wonders. The plow and the scythe of the New\nEngland colonist on his little farm were metamorphosed into the colossal steam driven\nshapes, in which machinery seems transmitted into intelligence, as he moved to the conquest of ^e acres of the great West.\nFirst the need was felt, the contrivance was created\n\n"} {"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nin response. A man of business sees before him in imagination the end to be reached, and\napplying his ideal to practical conditions, he makes every detail converge to the result\ndesired. All rebellious circumstances, all forces that pull the other way, he bends to his\ncompelling will and by the shaping power of his genius he accomplishes his aim. His\nbusiness is his medium of self-expression, his success is the realization of his ideal. A\npainter does no more than this, though he works with a different material. The landscape\nwhich is realized ultimately upon his canvas is the landscape seen in his imagination. He\ndraws his colors and forms from nature around; but he selects his details, adapting them\nto his end. All accidents and incidents are purged away. Out of the apparent confusion\nof life arises the evident order of art. And in the completed work the artist's idea stands\nforth salient and victorious\nThat impulse to creation which all men feel, the\nimpulse which makes the artist, is especially active in a child; his games are- his art.\nWith a child material is not an end but a means. Things are for him but the skeleton of\nlife, to be clothed upon by the flesh and blood reality of his own fashioning. His\nfeelings are in excess of his knowledge. He has a faculty of perception other than the\nintellectual. It is imagination. The child is the first artist. Out of the material around\nhim he creates a world of his own. The prototypes of the forms which he devises exist\nin life, but it is the thing which he himself makes that interests him, not its original in nature.\nHis play is his expression. He creates; and he is able to merge himself in the thing\ncreated. In his play he loses all consciousness of self. He and the toy become one, caught\nup in the larger unity of the game. According as he identifies himself with the thing\noutside of him, the child is the first appreciator.\n\nIf the child is the first artist, how needful it is for us to make his acquaintance in the early stages of his education. In the past decades educators have\nclosed their eyes to the broad fields of budding geniuses, have failed to realize\nthat among the teeming masses there are multitudes of children in whom are\nthe seeds of creative ability which only need the fostering care of experienced\nteachers to bear the most precious fruitage.\nIn view of the foregoing, the aim of art instruction in the public schools\nshould be to lead the pupils to observe, to think, and to study for themselves;\nto train the eye to see form, color, and tone values correctly; to develop the\nimaginative and creative faculties ; to cultivate a taste for and appreciation of\ngood art; and to give the hand skill that the children may express their ideas\non paper and in material. In a word that they may be able to create, to draw,\nto construct, and to appreciate the useful and the beautiful.\nThe need of drawing as a foundation stone in education should be apparent\nto every thinking individual. There is no other study in the school curriculum\nthat has a more important bearing on a pupil's future career than drawing.\nThere is not an important industry in our great country that does not depend\nlargely upon the creative faculties of the hands and minds of art-trained operatives. The foundries and machine shops all over the land depend for their\nprosperity upon the creative powers of the men at the draughting boards.\nWithout design there could be no beauty nor usefulness expressed in metals.\nIn the manufacture of textile fabrics the same rule applies to a wider degree,\nfor without design there can be no beauty. Turn in whichever direction one\nmay in the industrial world and it will be seen that the draughtsman is the\nsoul of all enterprise; without him the factories would cease to hum the merry\n\n"} {"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAIMS\n\nOF\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n825\n\nnote of prosperity. And the importance of the man who can draw and create\nthru his imagination increases as the years roll on and the industries of our\nwonderful land become the more and more colossal in their scope.\nAll the great undertakings of our time are carried on by inventive skill.\nOur modern system of industry depends entirely upon the skilled training of a\nvast and ever-increasing army of workmen.\nThe effect of industrial training as pursued in the school curriculum is\napparent everywhere in the United States. It is thru this influence having\nits root in the drawing and manual training in our schools, that commercial\ninterests, especially the cotton, textile fabric, and mechanical engineering industries are increasing with such rapid strides.\nHonorable Carroll D. Wright says very truly.\nInvention and the development of the industrial arts have raised those coming under\ntheir influence to a higher intellectual level, to a more comprehensive understanding of all\nthat makes for the best culture. Every new machine marks some progress in useful art,\nand it usually embodies something more than mere utility. There is a beauty in the\nmovement of mechanical powers that has a reflex action on the beholder. The highest\ncreative art enters into all these constructions — not an art, it may be, that paints a great\npicture or decorates a cathedral, but an art that bespeaks no less clearly the divine attributes of the mind that conceived it.\n\nArt instruction in the schools has a practical aim. It is to develop talent,\nmental power, character, ideals, and standards. More than this, the mission\nof art instruction is to exercise a moral power over the homes and lives of the\npeople.\nAs Dr. Munsterberg says it is\nto bring us that rest which is not fatigue from work, or — another desire of the ever dissatisfied mind — the rush of amusement; no, that rest which is complete harmonization of\nall our energies, complete fulfilment of our real personality.\n\nIt is to meet demands of an industrial progress never paralleled in the world's\nhistory that art must be elevated in our educational system to a higher plane\nby its unifica-tion with the school curriculum by which the children of our mighty\nrepublic may be developed into useful, well-rounded, practical, and intelHgent\ncitizens capable of taking a part in solving the problems of our wonderful age.\nTHE\n\nRELATION\nKATHERINE\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\nFROM THE CULTURE\n\nLOIS SCOBEY,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nTO EVERYDAY\nSIDE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE—\n\nFOR GIRLS, CHICAGO\n\nThe slogan of the century has been sounded ; from the armies of laboringmen and from the armies of professional men alike the cry resounds ; from the\ncivil, the social, and the educational classes it echoes with almost equal persistence. The challenge that meets one on every side demands, \"Is it practical ?\"\nand demands it with an imperiousness that brooks no evasion, and that is\nsatisfied with no other answer than absolute, convincing proof. The\nsocial settlements thruout our land are answers to the call for practical\nhelp to the poor.\nThe bureaus of charity found in our large cities are responses\n\n"} {"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nto the cry for a practical means of almsgiving. Pedagogical theories are not\nexempt from the demand to make good, not simply to be good; and religion,\ntoo, must today answer the ever-present query, ''Ts it practical ?\" for the spirit\nof man seeks a demonstrative principle to meet the problems of life.\nThe attempt to make our schoolwork practical is so influencing public\nopinion that more than ever before are aids to education found in unlooked-for\nplaces. In many cities the park boards are following lines of work which\ncannot but prove efficient help to the schools. In Chicago the system of small\nparks for crowded districts of the city is proving itself a potent factor for good.\nWe have long clung to some such sentiment as. No man can emerge from the\npark he has just crossed without some slightest change for the better. Very\npretty, no doubt; and if it is not true, it should be, and would be if men had\nbecome art-conscious. Granting its truth, we have there a power for good;\nbut may we not utilize that power to a greater extent ? are we complying with\nthe economic demand of the age that everything serve to the fulness of its\ncapacity for usefulness ? The idea of utilizing latent forces for good, which\nthe park boards have seized upon and made practical, is one which I wish to\nemphasize when I come to the immediate discussion of my topic.\nWe say that drawing and music, manual training, and domestic science, as\nbranches of school instruction, have met success, because they have been\nable to answer in the affirmative the question, \"Is it practical?\" But just\nhere we need a defining of terms. What do we mean by \"practical;\" what\nconstitutes a \"practical curriculum\" ? Before we attempt a definition, let us\nconsider the object of education. Francis Parker, after quoting the old maxim,\n\"Put into the school that which you would have in the state,\" once said:\nIn place of the training of subjects as is the case in the Old World, we have the problem of the education of the citizen for sovereignty. The weakness or strength of central\ngovernments is found in police or armies; in America it is found in individual character.\n\nAre not public schools, therefore, instituted primarily to rnsure good\ncitizenship? Is not the object of all education the development of right\nthinking and right doing ? How to obtain these ends is the goal toward which\nwe are all striving, and which, when attained, will solve the problem of education. You will grant, will you not, that any course which makes for the accomplishment ofthese ends is practical? Any branch of study, therefore, which\nwill promote the development of a stronger, purer manhood and womanhood\nis essentially practical; and any curriculum which sets in motion characterbuilding agencies is, and must continue to be, practical.\nThe point for our consideration is this : Does the study of art measure up\nto the requirements of a practical subject ? Is the relation of art education to\neveryday life a practical relation ? for, if not, it is valueless. Orville T.\nBright has said :\nToo little of what is aesthetic and ethical has come into the lives of children thru\nthe medium of the public schools. The narrow interpretation of the word \"practical\"\nhas oftentimes shaped courses of study for the sole purpose of aiding students to \"get on'\n\n"} {"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nCULTURE\n\nSIDE\n\n827\n\nin the world, or in other words, to make a living. This purpose is laudable if it does not\nstop short. The training should also make the living worth the getting, or the lives worth\nthe living. Certainly, whatever adds to the loveliness of a character, or enriches the\nthought content of a mind, or develops a perception of and love for what is beautiful, is\n\"practical\" in the highest degree.\n\nThe relation of art education to everyday life is a helpful one, because it\ndoes add ''to the loveliness of a character\" and does enrich \"the thought content'Of a mind,\" in a threefold fashion : first, by the study of biography; second,\nby the attempt to create objects of art; and third, by the study of masterpieces\nof art. The study of biography in connection with art is no longer a novelty;\ngood schools thruout the land make the study of the lives of artists an integral\npart of the art work. That the biographies of great-minded and simplehearted men and women are potent instruments in character-building is a pedagogical fact so often asserted, and as often demonstrated, that it has become a\ntruism. The attempt to create objects of art will, as Mr. Bright says, promote\na ''perception of and love for what is beautiful\" and may lead to the development of a talent that will add to the treasures of the world's art, altho the\nobject of teaching drawing never has been to make artists. The study of the\nmasterpieces of art is the subtlest, and perhaps the most far-reaching, of the\nthree influences.\nMr. F. J. Orr says:\nIt is the reflex influence of the best qualities of character represented in art that is\nto benefit those who study pictures [and he cites Lessing's words concerning Greek sculpture]: these beautiful statues, fashioned from beautiful men, reacted upon their creators;\nand the state was indebted for its beautiful men to its beautiful statues.\n\nSomeone has said that nothing is artistic which is not restful. If rest is\nan element of art, a study of great masterpieces should give the student some\nsense of rest, of repose. Is not that in itself a consummation devoutly to be\nwished ? Which one of you does not know some person who is in desperate\nneed of repose of manner, of mind, or of spirit ? Loud is the cry for mental\nrepose; and louder the call for spiritual. May it not be that even an outward\nsense of rest will help pave the way for mental and spiritual repose ?\nWhen I was a small girl, the minister of our church prefaced his sermon\nby a five-minutes' talk to the children. I remember that one Sunday after\nshowing us wooden plinths, triangular, square, hexagonal, and cylindrical, he\ncompared them to people. Some, he said, had so few interests that they\nmight be compared to triangular prisms which present such sharp corners to\nthe world. Other people were sufficiently well developed to be catalogued as\nsquare or hexagonal prisms meeting the world less angularly. But the wise\nman, he concluded, cultivates his mind on all sides; he is the cylinder, presenting no sharp corners to be rubbed off thru the painful but wholesome ministration of the w^orld's knocks. Art education is one essential to the rounding\nwhich makes the much-to-be-desired cylinder man. It is not the only one, nor\nthe most important ; but it is an essential because it brings out latent forces for\ngood.\nHere I should like to say a word about the richness of art work for correla-\n\n"} {"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ntion with other culture-producing studies. The biographies of the painters\nand sculptors not only furnish available reading-matter, but offer a fertile field\nfrom which both oral and written English work may be taken. Copies of the\nmasterpieces may be used, too, in direct connection with drawing and painting,\nfor they furnish concrete examples of perspective, of color, of composition, and\nof the massing of light and shade. At a recent elementary-school exhibition\nit was notable that the tints used in the painting, decorating, and designing of\nthe children were unusually soft and well blended. The customary brilliant\nprimary colors jarringly combined were absent. The secret of it lay, so I\nlearned later, in the teacher's pinning on the walls of the schoolrooms, colored\nreproductions of good pictures whose pleasant harmonies entered the minds\nof the pupils, and took root.\nIn the Books of Kings we read :\nAnd a great and strong wind rent the mountains and brake in pieces the rocks before\nthe Lord; but the Lord was not in the wind; and after the wind an earthquake; and after\nthe earthquake, a fire; but the Lord was not in the fire; and after the fire, a still small voice.\n\nThese words are peculiarly appropriate to the appeal of art, whose ''still,\nsmall voice\" is speaking annually in more and more of our schools. Many\nnoble-minded women, believing in the potency of the \"still small voice\" have\navouched the sincerity of their belief by banding themselves into such organizations as the \"Pubhc School Art Society,\" of Chicago, among whose activities\nwe find the management of loan collections to public schools, and the arranging\nof school talks on art topics. It is an impossible thing to estimate the cultureproducing power of such work as this ; but the unfeigned interest of the children,\ntheir conduct during a lesson on pictures or the lives of the artists are indices\nthat point to the fact that the effect is a good one. In my own room I have\nseen the so-called \"bad boy\" of the town sit quiet and attentive during a lesson\non Edwin Landseer or Jean Francois Millet, when every other topic found him\nrestless and uneasy.\nThe \"still small voice\" is speaking thru many avenues. The actual\ndrawing, painting, and manual training I have discussed least because they\nare best known, and because I feel that in addition to the concrete art lessons,\nthe teaching of art, like the teaching of morals, should be ready to grasp every\nopening for its presentation. The avenue of schoohoom decoration has of late\nreceived much attention. Harmonious tints in the calcimine and woodwork\nare no more expensive than jarring ones; colors suited to a sunny room are not\nthe same that should be chosen for the cool lights of north rooms. The\nslightest point that makes for artistic arrangement or harmony should be considered. Iremember well seeing a normal teacher go into a primary room,\narrange the window shades uniformly, and remark, \"No wonder Miss E. cannot control her children in a room that looks like this.\" The natural effect\nupon children of order and harmonious arrangement is a desire for order and\nharmonious arrangement in themselves ; and the desire is father to an increased\nanliness, gentleness of manner, and refinement of speech.\n\n"} {"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nCULTURE\n\nSIDE\n\n829\n\nArt instruction produces a certain amount of culture which is carried\nbeyond the school into other departments of life. Williams James says:\n''Every smallest stroke of virtue or of vice leaves its never-so-little scar.\"\nThe same is true in lesser degree of beauty and of ugliness. Let the eyes\nbecome open to beauty, and the heart v^ill soon follow. So Corot believed when\nhe wished that he might paint the walls of the prisons, because he felt that if\nhe could make the prisoners see the appeal of dawn in the woodland, the mystery\nof twilight and bright noonday, they could not but feel the loving-kindness of\nGod and obey his laws.\nCulture, widening man's experience, gives him broader sympathies, better\njudgment, more extensive interests, and a larger sphere of pleasure as well\nas of usefulness. Culture may transfuse an otherwise commonplace existence\nwith a light which makes rough places less rough, and heavy burdens less\nwearisome. Culture is the result of certain mental processes habitually active.\nArt education is a handmaid that can minister to the needs of the child by cultivating such habits as may best subserve the uses of culture. To quote Mr.\nJames once more:\nHabit is the enormous fly-wheel of society, its most precious conservative agent. We\nmust make automatic and habitual, as early as possible, as many useful actions as we can.\n\nArt education habituates the child to a recognition, nay, a search for beauty.\nHow much may be added to the thought content of a mind, to the joy of\nliving, by the habitual search for loveliness ! If the latent forces for good resident inart education are thus made use of, the child will become art-conscious,\nawake to beauty, receptive of its message ; and in very fact unable to leave a\npark or any other manifestation of beauty, without carrying with him some\ninfluence for good. You may have heard of the woman living in the slums of\nNew York whose sad life was made one ray the brighter by the perception of\ncolor. A settlement worker had called her attention to the beauty and variety\nof color to be found everywhere if one's thought is but open to it. A few days\nlater the woman came to the settlement with gleaming eyes, saying in her broken\nEnglish that the day's hard labor had been lightened by the beauty of color\nalways visible from her window, but never before perceived.\nTo the search for beauty we may add the habit of discrimination. Art\neducation promotes perceptive discrimination; and perceptive discrimination\nwidely cultivated promotes conceptional discrimination, which, of the two, is\nthe more assiduous worker for the growth of culture. One of our noted psychologists says that:\nAny personal or practical interest in the results to be obtained by distinguishing makes\none's wits amazingly sharp to detect dififerences. And long training and practice in distinguishing has the same effect as personal interest.\n\nSuch a statement is fuel to endeavor, especially to that of the manual-training\nteacher.\nWe may include the cultivation of memory in the good work which art\neducation is doing.\nIt is well known, psychologically, that those facts which\n\n"} {"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nare most closely interwoven with other facts lodge most securely in the grooves\nof memory, while isolated facts glide quickly over the smooth surfaces of mortal\nmind and are lost. To tell a pupil that Michael Angelo carved the statue\nDavid, will not fix the fact in mind; but show him a picture of the statue, tell\nhim how it was carved from a supposedly useless block of marble ; let him know\nthat it was the same David who used small pebbles with such telling effect;\nand you can be reasonably certain that the point has become a fixed quantity.\nThe relation of art education to everyday life is a very vital one, for art\neducation stands for the estabUshment of ideals of beauty. The child who is\nnaturally of aesthetic tastes should have his ideals of beauty broadened. The\nchild who seems devoid of aesthetic tastes surely needs the seeds of beauty\nsown in his mind that his Hfe may become more worth the living because of\nbeauty looked for and perceived.\nWe know that the truest beauty, and the permanent and the real, is of the\nspirit; and if art education in the schools can in even slight measure produce\nthat beauty in everyday Hfe, it will be rendering an inestimable service. Reform\nis ever from within. A disorderly child never becomes really orderly until he\nhas a love of order in his heart. He may be compelled to keep his room in\norder, for instance, but tho he does so, he is not, and never can be, an orderly\nboy thru compulsion. We can, however, do something to forward the birth\nof right desire.\nAs with reform so with beauty. For example, to be able to recognize a\nRembrandt by its chiaroscuro is alone of no cultural potency, were it not that\nthe ability to recognize the works of a master is perhaps the thin edge of a\nwedge which will open up a love of good pictures. The love may be followed\nfirst by some slight understanding that the artist had the beauty within before\nhe externalized it on canvas ; second, by a realization of the manifold principle\nthat beauty of thought creates beauty ; or it may beget a desire to create beautiful things, not necessarily pictures, nor poems, nor statues, but things of beauty,\nnevertheless ; and given a right desire, what cannot be accomplished thru education ?\nSurely beauty is practical, if it leads to the beauty of right thinking and\nhigh living. May we not remold Tennyson's words: ''Great is song used to\ngreat ends,\" into, Great is art used to great ends ? Let us use it for the establishment ofhigh ideals of beauty, for, as James L. Hughes says :\nIdeals transform individuals and ultimately transform national life. Ideals become\nvital in our lives by consciously choosing them. The child who is trained to choose consciouly the most beautiful things in his environment is being trained in the most effective\nway to consciously adopt true ideals in manhood. Art has a high moral influence because\nit tends to lift the race soul above materialism. Unless the material life can be spiritualized, man's tendency is towards the jungle. The spiritual in literature and music and art\nhas lifted the race slowly towards the divine.\nThis is the only true education.\n\nWould that the time allowed me to discuss my topic from the national\nstandpoint, because the relation of art education to culture is to ]:)ecome here in\nthe United States more and more intimate as the years go on, for the horizon\n\n"} {"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nUTILITARIAN\n\nSIDE\n\n83 1\n\nof American art already glows with the splendid promise of the day. One of\nour art critics has said,\nWhen the vast mind of America, expressed already in invention, speaks through art\nwill not the whole world jflin in its applause ? And may not the magnificent lead which\nAmerica has taken in mechanics be regarded as a prophecy of the time to come in art ?\n\nTo be sure Paris is considered the best place to study art now, but is was to\nMunich that our older men went, and before that time Rome was art's fountain\nhead. In the ceaseless shifting may not some American city become the next\nart center ? Not that it will come by chance ; it must be the result of growth ;\nand art education in our schools can do much to promote the growth which is\nto mean greater culture for our land. Even some foreigners look to America\nas the future art center.\nEdmon Aman-Jean, the French artist, says:\nMy conviction is that like Venice the United States will have one day, the most magnificent school of painting in the world. The Old World is efifete; the United States a splendid\nspectacle of activity. Venice also began by industry and commerce, had sailors before\npainters, and was obliged to acquire opulence and dominion before she could cry a school\nof art.\n\nThe natural resources of our country have been marvelously developed\nin the interests of industry and commercej but the growth of art is yet in its\nincipiency. We have as yet no national art in America, but that we shall have,\nI doubt not. Public opinion must first be changed, however, as must the\nattitude of our government. Let us hope that the children who are having the\nculture side trained by art education will grow up into a constituency which\nwill demand legislators who have ceased to look upon art as a luxury but rather\nas a necessity to the righteous growth of our nation ; legislators who recognize\nand demonstrate the patriotism of art as well as of courage ; legislators who\nperceive that a nation's ideals find permanent abode in her arts ; legislators who\nwill foster the arts even as they are fostered, nourished, and safeguarded in\nFrance and Germany, in Spain and Russia. Art education so relates itself to\neveryday life that the youth of our land when grown to man's estate can and\nwill think of something besides trade and traffic, will have some perception of\nthe \"strange, sweet beauty which came down to Raphael and the holy Angelica,\" and having that perception they will so work that one day we shall have\nour own Raphaels and Bellinis, our own Angelos and Tintorettos. Let us\nrejoice that we are facing the sunrise and not the sunset of our culture !\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION OF ART EDUCATION TO EVERYDAY\nFROM\nTHE UTILITARIAN SIDE\n\nARTHUR\n\nHENRY\n\nCHAMBERLAIN,\n\nTHROOP POLYTECHNIC\nCAL.\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nLIFE—\nPASADENA,\n\nOne is reminded at the outset of the definition of culture as given by Bosenquet.\nHe says:\nCulture is the habit of mind instinct with purpose, conscious of the continuity and\nconnection of human events, able and industrious, capable of discerning the great from\nthe trivial.\n\n"} {"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA TION\n\n[Art\n\nApplying this definition of culture to the subject of art education, I find it\ndifficult indeed to dissociate in thought the utilitarian view from the culture\nstandpoint. \"Culture,\" in the language of Bosenquet, ''is the habit of mind\ninstinct with purpose,\" and purpose points to utiHty; *t is ''able and industrious,\" and this again implies utility, or use; it is \"capable of discerning the\ngreat from the trivial,\" a consummation of the most truly utilitarian value. In\na word, the relation that art education bears to everyday fife from the culture\nside, that it bears also from the utilitarian side.\nBut what do we mean by the utilitarian in art ? When we endeavor to\nanalyze our conception of the term utility we have a task far from simple. We\nare prone to consider in an out-of-hand manner that the utilities are those\nthings, objects, or attributes that can be put to immediate material use. Anything that may be used to our own, or to the advantage of others, anything\nthat contributes to our physical needs would at once be classed as a utility.\nThe utilitarian view is, to the common mind, opposed to the educational or\nthe aesthetic side; it is the bread-and-butter conception. Utilitarianism in\nthe popular sense refers to trade ; it bespeaks the commercial spirit ; it has to\ndo with coal and iron, shovel and pick, cotton and coffee, steam and electricity.\nIf this view was, in any narrow sense, the true one, such a discussion as this\nnow before us were impossible. If culture and ability were two distinctly\ndifferent phases of our problem, art would have no relation to either. All\nlegitimate education is both cultural and utilitarian in character, for what is\ntruly the latter must, perforce, be the former, and the everyday life of the individual isinfluenced more than he can say by true art, whenever and however it\nmay appear. We mean by art education the appreciation and development\nof the art spirit in the schools and out of them.\nHow great an effect art education has upon the utilitarian side perhaps cannot be told. As a tool we think of language as the all-important element in the\nprogress of the race. President Butler says in his introduction to Chubbs's\nThe Teaching of English:\nFrom one point of view the significance of the development of modern education can\nbest be estimated by the progress of the mother-tongue toward the central place in formal\ninstruction. When the study of the mother-tongue and its literature is made the core of\nthe curriculum, education is something quite diflFerent from that training in which a\nforeign, perhaps an ancient, tongue holds the chief place. No people is intellectually\nindependent until it has a language and literature all its own, worthy to be an educational\ninstrimient and an educational end.\n\nJust as the language of a people, both spoken and written, furnishes the key\nto its future development, and, as President Butler says, should hold the central\nplace in formal instruction, so in a lesser degree and perhaps in a more fundamental sense, art performs the same function. It cannot be denied that a\npeople is intellectually independent only when it has an art, that is, an appreciation ofart, an appreciation so keen that the moral, intellectual, and commercial life is advantaged thereby.\nArt that is capable of making its appeal through utility will be appreciated ;\n\n"} {"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nUTILITARIAN\n\nSIDE\n\n833\n\nwhenever it is accepted as having value from the utilitarian side, it will make\nits appeal to culture. True appreciation is not simply a matter of development,\nof evolution, of education, altho the more complete the knowledge the more\nperfect the ideal. The real in art may be appreciated at once. This may\nperhaps be stating in another way, that only the real is art; hence true art can\nalways be appreciated.\nOur knowledge is a torch of smoky pine\nThat lights the path one little step ahead\nAcross a void of mystery and dread.\nTeach then the inward hght of faith to shine,\nWhereby alone the mortal heart is led\nUnto the thinking of the thought divine.\n\nPermit me therefore to take the ground that true art cannot exist aside\nand apart from the useful. This implies that all useful things are beautiful\n^Itho there are degrees both of utility and of beauty. But of two things,\notherwise equally good, the one most beautiful will serve its purpose best.\nThe crude clay -water jug of the primitive savage, fashioned around a basket of\nwoven rushes, was indeed an article of use, and not without artistic merit.\nThe delicately fashioned vase of the Greek, designed for exactly the same purpose and with a capacity equal to that of the clay jug, but combining symmetry\nand perfect lines, was by far the best piece of work from a utilitarian point of\nview. The water jug is forgotten by all save the archaeologist, but the vase\nform is used today as it has been used through all the centuries past. Because\nit pleases the eye, its market value is greater than that of the other, it will be\nused as a model while the other will not; it will have an effect upon the life\nof the individual that the other cannot have — an effect beneficial from both\nmental and material standpoints.\nThere is one glory of the sun, and a glory of the moon, and another of the\nstars; there is Hkewise an art of strength, an art of simplicity, an art of line,\nform, and color, and all combine in use, which is the art itself.\nBeauty in form, in color, in musical note, reached a high standard of perfection inthe hf e of the old Greek and Egyptian ; in fact, with all of the boasted\nsuperiority of our present-day civihzation we have never excelled the Greek\nin his power to depict line and form or the Egyptian in his abiUty to produce\nabstract color. Music, painting, and sculpture, have, however, until a recent\nday, been conceded to comprehend the fine arts. When architecture became\nan art, then, in a measure, was the utilitarian view considered. It remained\nfor the applied arts, or the so-called industrial arts, to clearly point the way of\nthe relation of art to utihty.\nWe have had pictured to us the master Angelo as he toiled day after day\nand month by month until the Sistine Chapel was complete, a marvel to all\nthe world and a monument to the creative powers of the man ; we have stood\nsilent before the incomparable Madonna of Raphael, being drawn again and\nagain to view, with reverence and wonder, this picture ; the chisel of Phidias\n\n"} {"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "8^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nhas left its impress upon the lives of a multitude ; the majestic lines of Schiller\nand Goethe, of Emerson and Shakspere, the music of Wagner and Beethoven,\nand the sentences of Chatham and Webster, are as fresh and inspiring today\nas they were in the time of our fathers. And in the effects upon our lives of\nthis contact and this experience, the least is by no means utilitarian in character.\nSince, however, art has begun to assume a broader aspect than that symbolized by the brush and chisel only, art education in the schools has developed\nand widened. William Morris says,\nMen fight to lose the battle, and the thing that they fought for comes about in spite\nof their defeat, and when it comes turns out to be not what they meant, and other men have\nto fight for what they meant under another name.\n\nFrom the time of William Morris and John Ruskin, the beauty of utility\nhas been more and more emphasized, and today the term art may be applied to\nwork in silver or gold, iron or copper, to wood, glass, leather, or paper. A\nbook or mantelpiece, a city street or a shop window may as clearly embody\nthe art spirit as a painting or a statue. Looked at from this view-point it is\neasy to see how art education may be a part of school life and how it may have\na distinctly utilitarian trend.\nArt may be appreciated from the negative as well as from the positive side.\nWhat has not been attempted frequently counts far more than what has been\ndone. I mean that much so-called art is overdone and its everyday effect is\nlost. Here again an analogy exists between language and art. Just as in the\nformer we may find our expression heavy or extravagant and our sentences\ncarrying us beyond the point at which we should give pause, so in art we are\naware of this tendency toward the extreme.\nAn illustration is in point: In many of the schools of Germany where\narticles of furniture or articles in wood are made, it is the custom to overlay\na given piece of construction with elaborate chip carving. This destroys the\ncharacter of the wood, the effect of the grain, covers from sight any imperfections in workmanship, and consumes much valuable time. This same method\nis seen to exist in certain types of German commercial life, where the chairs,\ntable tops, trays, picture frames, newell posts are all carved. Some of these\narticles are less useful after being decorated than they would otherwise be.\nThe moral effect upon the individual is bad, and utiUty is disregarded. In art,\nsimplicity goes hand in hand with utility.\nIt may safely be said, therefore, that use is a determining factor in art, and\nthat construction and decoration are the two fundamentals.\nI have spoken of the moral effect as being different and apart from the utilitarian. But this is impossible. Let me illustrate. I once taught a group\nof boys in Henry Street. Those of you who live in New York City and have\nundertaken to learn at first hand how the other half live, need not be told the\nlocation of Henry Street. The filth and poverty and disappointment of the\nEast Side, are resident in this locality; the pathetic and downcast mingle\n\n"} {"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nUTILITARIAN\n\nSIDE\n\n835\n\nhere with the gay and the boisterous; confidence and suspicion watch from\nopposite street corners. But with scant means, meager homes, and an unhappy\nenvironment there is a growling appreciation of the beautiful and an increased\nunderstanding of how to construct useful and beautiful things. I learned one\nof the silent causes of this appreciation when, on cHmbing to the attic of a\nHenry Street building, I entered a small room occupied by two of the young\nmen who were working with the boys of the district. On the walls were prints\nof the masters, simply framed; book shelves cheaply and serviceably made,\nand some home-bound magazines and books ; pieces of furniture made by the\nyoung men, and, scattered here and there, small articles of use, so simply and\nhonestly constructed as to be within the abiHty and reach of all. This delightful place the boys used to visit and from it radiated such an atmosphere of real\nart, that they carried with them a feeling for the useful and beautiful and the\nmoral as well.\nA decidedly wTong impression is prevalent with many educated and wellinformed people — an impression that a knowledge of art, unless one is to become\nan artist, possesses a sentimental value only. To most people art education\nimpHes lessons in drawing, perspective, Hght and shade, Ufe, cast, and perhaps\na touch of water color and a bit of clay. Indeed, most of our school people take\nthis view and what is still more to be deplored, the major portion of the art\nteachers themselves, teachers of drawing, so called, subscribe to this doctrine.\nIn point of fact only a small portion of the legitimate art education of the schools\nshould be classed as drawing or graphic expression. Applied art, constructive\ndesign in any material, metal craft, jewelry, enameling, pottery, bookbinding,\nleather, textiles, may properly be classed as art education, and the student who\nhas a real understanding and appreciation of perspective, pure and applied\ndesign, and the principles of construction will find he can use this knowledge\nto advantage in a thousand ways.\nThere is scarcely a profession, trade, or occupation in life where the value of\nthe rapid sketch is not daily seen; the binding of pamphlets, magazines, and\nbooks proves a great convenience to many; a knowledge of w^eaving and\ntextile work, if learned in their elements, will be of great value in later life;\ndecorated and tooled leather may be put to a variety of uses. In wood, many\narticles of furniture can be made, and there is practically no limit to the extent\nthat metal-work may be carried — lampstands and shades, screens, bowls,\nvases, buckles, pins, and the like, while wood and metal or wood and leather,\nin combinations, are adapted to many useful ends. And what is even more\nsignificant is the development which is the outgrowth of this experience —\na development finding expression in the everyday life of the individual.\nIt will be understood that in speaking in this connection of the applied or\nindustrial arts and of the crafts, the writer has not in mind the flimsy, piecedtogether work of the popular handicraft club or the society organization, but\nrather the substantial serious undertakings, considered from the standpoint of\ngood design and true construction.\nBroadly speaking, that which appeals to\n\n"} {"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nthe mass and continues to appeal to it, possesses the elements of utility. The\nsuperficial and shallow will endure for a day; that which is fine and true is\nlasting. In Germany the rich and the poor, the young and the old, the workman, student, and merchant, sit side by side at a Wagnerian production ; all are\ninterested, uplifted, instructed. No man has a corner on the appreciation of\nsuch music.\nIt appeals to the average man, as does real Hterature and true art.\nThe average man is the man of the mill,\nThe man of the valley, or man of the hill,\nThe man at the throttle, the man at the plow,\nThe man with the sweat of his toil on his brow;\nWho brings into being the dreams of the few,\nWho works for himself, and for me and for you.\nThere is not a purpose, a project, or plan,\nBut rests on the strength of the average man.\nThe man who, perchance, thinks he labors alone,\nThe man who stands between hovel and throne.\nThe man who gives freely his brain and his brawn,\nIs the man that the world has been builded upon.\nThe clang of the hammer, the sweep of the saw,\nThe flash of the forge — they have strengthened the law.\nThey have rebuilt the realms that the wars overran,\nThey have shown us the worth of the average man.\n\nIt is only that education which has a relation to life, day by day, that can be\nconsidered true education. The art that does not appeal to everyday existence\nis not the true art, altho that which at first glance seems useless and theoretical\nmay prove to be of the greatest material value. \"AVe live on the electricity\nin the air much more than we do on the food we put into our mouths,\" is another\nway of expressing the truth that the unseen forces are sometimes of the greatest\nutilitarian value.\nOur daily life is the life that counts and everyday art is the only variety that\nis effective. Everyday art for the everyday man should be the motto of art\neducation, and little by little we shall solve the problem of perfect utility, which\nmeans the ability and desire to be of the greatest assistance possible to our\nfellows and to work toward the uplifting of man and for the perfection of\ncharacter.\n\nKatherine Ball, San Francisco, Cal. — It has been said that of the art subjects,\nliterature interests the greatest number, music a lesser number, and art least of all. The\nreason is not far to seek. Art is profound. It does not appeal to the people at large and\nin our public schools it is but a sufferance. There is instruction in drawing, but art instruction is something quite different; it is the education of our noblest sense, the eye. Taste\nvaries from the lower to the highest according to the degree to which the individual has been\neducated, and it shows itself not thru words, which often mislead and do not express\nthe true character of the individual, but thru the atmosphere and environment that one\ncreates around one's self. We must create a true art atmosphere for ourselves. It is not a\nmatter of splendor but one of simple beauty. We Americans are materialists and fond of\ndisplay.\nBut with display art has nothing to do. We must discard our false ideas and\n\n"} {"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nUTILITARIAN\n\nSIDE\n\n837\n\nWe may teach drawing all our lives and yet\nstrive to see what is beneath the surface.\nknow absolutely nothing about art.\nI wish that there were some way of teaching art principles outside of the drawingclass. It is not enough to study masterpieces and the lives of artists, and to content ourselves with schoolroom decorations that may or may not be art. We need to bring art into\nlife thru the teaching of what is good in furnishings and decorations. We need art patrons\nwho know something of art. We need museums where good art of every kind may be\nseen and studied. Our superintendents must be educated to a greater appreciation of the\nvalue and possibilities of art, for their support is a necessary factor in our success.\nThere is a theory and a practice; and the theory is valueless unless it is apphed in\npractice. The eye is the only judge of what is good and what is not good. We must\neducate the eye and we must increase our knowledge of aesthetics.\nThomas A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Indiana, spoke from the\nsuperintendent's point of view and regretted that the value of art education should ever be\ncalled into question. Mr. Mott laid emphasis on the practical value of art education, not\nmerely as augmenting commercial values, but as developing that which is without price,\nthe highest qualities of human character.\nThe schools can do much in the development of ideals and a sense of what is beautiful.\nThe child quickly learns to distinguish good art from bad, and is capable of exerting a\ngreat influence on those around him. The influence goes out from the schools and affects\nthe entire community. To cite one instance, thru the work done in the schools of Richmond, the shopkeepers are compelled to sell an entirely different class of goods from that\nformerly handled. The people will not tolerate what is cheap and tawdry, because their\ntaste has been developed.\nThose who have had some art instruction make better workmen. Their knowledge\nof what is beautiful increases their efficiency and thus from a purely utilitarian point of\nview the subject has a value. In many other ways the industrial wealth of the nation is\nincreased thru a greater knowledge of beauty.\nArt education is thoroughly practical. There should be no need of discussion.\nThere should be art in every community, and that art should be centered in the schoolhouse, for from the schoolhouse the entire community may be influenced and everyone\nbrought to a realization that art has a practical value.\nBut apart from the commercial value, the greatest value of the subject lies in its opening the \"window of the soul.\"\nThis is its most practical value.\nMrs. Ernest Ingersoll, Evanston, 111., expressed the belief that there is a growing\ntendency toward a national art development and emphasized the truth that art is not a\nmatter for the few but for the many, and that it is after all simply an expression of what\nis within us.\nA. B. Clark, of Leland Stanford Jr. University, spoke optimistically of the development of art in the schools, and ventured the opinion that if the progress has been\nslow it is due to a large extent to mistakes on the part of the art-teachers. The essential\nis to develop an appreciation of simple beauty, and to show that it is not the cost that\nmakes a thing good. The interest of the children must be aroused, and art presented\nin such a way that it may be grasped by the common people, for it is thru them that the\nwork of the art-teacher must be accomplished.\nMiss Harriett Moore, of San Diego, spoke of simple work in color introduced into\nthe schools of Brooklyn, N. Y., may years ago, and expressed her gratification at the great\nprogress made in the teaching of color since that time.\nT. L. Heaton, assistant superintendent of schools, San Francisco, referred to the\nnecessity of teaching beauty in nature and in character as well as in art, and added that if\nthe superintendents have been backward in their support of the art-teachers, it has been\nbecause the latter have not included all of art in their teaching.\n\n"} {"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\nA. B. CLARK,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nENTRANCE\n\nASSOCIATP:\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCREDITS\nOF DRAWING,\n\n[Art\n\nIN DRAWING\nSTANFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nImportant articles on this subject appear in the published proceedings of\nthe Eastern Art Teachers' Association for igo6.^ Those by Messrs. Bailey,\nDana, and Perry and by Miss Sewell have direct importance. Also the Educational Bi-Monthly for June, 1907, published by the Chicago Normal School,\nis an almost complete treatise on the manual arts in schools.\nPresent condition oj drawing in the secondary schools. — Drawing realizes\ntoday, in the largest secondary schools, the dreams of the pioneer drawingteachers of thirty-five years ago. It includes under the titles representation,\ndesign, construction, and art appreciation, not merely one course, but several.\nRepresentation includes the grasp of form and beauty in both projective and\npictorial drawing of type solids, household objects, plant forms, landscape,\nmachine drafting and sketching; and the technique of pencil, crayon, and\nbrush.\nDesign and construction includes the principles of balance, rhythm, and\nharmony ; also the application of these abstract principles in designs, for book\ncovers, title-pages, simple illustrations, color schemes for room decoration, etc.\nAppreciation of the masterpieces of historical art; also modern civic art in\nparks, beautiful streets, and public buildings, is given attention in talks and\nlectures.\nWorking-drawings are made for objects involving both mechanical and\nartistic consideration, and in the manual-training shops, many of these, chairs,\ntravs, book racks; articles for school use, as scientific apparatus, benches and\ntables; work in w^ood, metal, embroidery, and stencilKng of fabrics, are actually\nmade. These objects in their production demand thought, and the designing\nand making react most beneficially upon each other.\nThe result as a whole is satisfactory and gives the pupils great capacity\nfor pleasure thruout their lives ; and cannot fail to exert a most healthful and\nrevolutionary influence upon the national arts and industries.\nSuperintendent Mott, of Richmond, Indiana, reported on Wednesday\nthat in his city there is no question of the practical value of art teaching in the\npublic schools, for during the past twenty years this teaching has revolutionized\nthat city, so that people buy and enjoy better things in clothing, furniture, wall\npaper, and pictures. The art stores cannot sell what they formerly could;\nthat the people so love beauty that examples of the best pictures and craftsman products of the land are taken to Richmond for the school exhibit each\nyear, that people may form their taste upon what is best; and that the expense\nof this annual exhibition is borne jointly by the school board, the common\ncouncil, and privately. The common council declare that no money they\nexpend is so practical in increasing the fame and wealth of the city.\nCity.\n\n• These proceedings may be obtained from Mr. Arthur W. Richards, 33 Central Park West, New York\n\n"} {"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENTRANCE\n\nCREDITS\n\nIN\n\nDRAWING\n\n839\n\nThis curriculum was not developed all at once, but by single phases as:\ncopy of ornament from print or cast; pictorial art, type solids, machine sketching, and abstract design have each been regarded as all-sufficient, and indeed\nare today so regarded by some schools. But the best schools approximate\nall the work above outlmed, and not only give pupils the fundamental principles in practice of drawing and design, but more important still, train appreciation in the uplifting, or art side of industries. Walter Perry says, \"it is more\nimportant to educate one hundred to appreciate art, than to educate one artist.\"\nUniversity recognition of creative instruction. — The larger universities give\none entrance credit in free-hand drawing, generally ; one in mechanical drawing, frequently; and one in architectural drawing, rarely. The nearest\napproach to a standard in free-hand drawing is the requirement of the College\nEntrance Examination Board. Their 1906 examination required two drawings :\nthe first,, a drawing of geometrical blocks to be drawn in accurate perspective\nfrom a described position, but with no blocks present, and with either line or\nwith shade and cast shadow^s; the second drawing had several options, from\nmemory, either a tool or detail of machinery, or a detail of an architectural\nornament, a natural history specimen, or a detail of the human figure ; or from\ncopy, the enlargement of a machine detail, or of a scroll ornament. This whole\nrequirement is reasonable as far as it goes, and it goes farther year by year ; but\nit regards drawing as subsidiary and technical rather than independent and\ncreative and thus omits its unique value in education as a complementary of\nanalytic and \"fact\" training.\nDefinition 0) art in life. — Nearly every person, including the brick-layer,\nloves art and spends a great fraction of his energy in seeking to possess it.\nThis statement may cause surprise, but it is true. A kitchen chair costs one\ndollar, the living-room chair from five to twenty-five dollars; a man's workingor camping-coat, from one to five dollars, and his best coat from ten to thirty\ndollars; a w^oman's sunbonnet or \"tam o'shanter\" fifty cents, and her best\nhat, perhaps, ten dollars, and so all thru. These are typical examples of the\nsurplus cost which people pay, partially for comfort, but more for appearance.\nThis surplus may be ennobling or degrading, but, 75 per cent, of expenditures\nfor clothing, furniture, and building is universally paid for art, either good or\npoor.\nArt needs an enlarged definition, it does not stand merely for pictures and\nstatues, found chiefly in museums, which all should, but which few people do,\nunderstand, but, as Mr. John Cotton Dana has pointed out, it includes taste\nas applied to everyday surroundings: landscapes, the pictures in the daily\npapers; street bill boards; stationery and business catalogues; store windows\nclothing, buildings; decorations for festivals and fiestas, and in hotels, theaters,\nand churches. In these matters all people are concerned and pay the price of\ngood art, but only the person of cultivated taste has ability to estimate real\nrather than spurious value, and so, ability to economize by striving only for those\nthings which will give lasting satisfaction.\nA large part of spiritual sweetness\n\n"} {"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n840\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ndepends upon ability to buy or to make things in door yards, houses, and\n[Art\nfurniture which are artistically good and which will last instead of being discarded after a season's wear, because like \"ragtime \" they have lost their novelty.\nGreater expenditure for art in pictures or in the applied forms enumerated\nis not so much desired as that the art which is produced shall be much better,\nand rightly enjoyed.\nGood art is sane and reasonable, not extravagant and pretentious. Never\nshould one assume that it concerns only dilettante. Art is for the humble as\nwell as for the rich ; it shows the beauty of the Parthenon, but also of the simple\ngarden trellis; it is not an addition to life but an essential expression of life;\nnot an addition to good building, but an essential part of good building; it\nincludes the whole conception of plan, structure, form, and color, and not any\nmere frippery of \"stuck on\" ornament; it concerns not merely the picture on\nthe wall, but the texture and color of the wall itself. The simple direct building\nin the type of house called craftsman and bungalow shows excellent art, which\nhas no ornament, but which requires the highest skill in its design.\nArt jneans, broadly, that quality in the application of taste and sense to\neveryday things which makes them peculiarly fit to arouse the higher spiritual\nemotions. The adequacy of art for this expression is proved by the knowledge\nof past civilizations which we learn alone from their art.\nMr. James F. Hosic says.\nThe spirit of art is the spirit of art, whether it works with the greatest possible freedom in presenting a madonna or, within narrower limitations, constructing, and finishing a\nclock case. In both, the human mind is seeking to realize its ideals and present to other\nminds, for their enjoyment, its own dream of beauty.\n\nIf our craftsmen have not as fine spiritual perceptions, respect, and pleasure\nin their. work as had the craftsmen of the Middle Ages, or as have the craftsmen\nof Japan, and if the customers of these crafts do not appreciate the spiritual\nquahties of craftsmanship, the schools are faulty, and are figuratively turning\ncraftsmen over to the devil, for where shall one get good ideals if not in school ?\nEducation has no other function than to teach the essentials of happy living\nand nowhere is this responsibility greater than in the manual arts.\nUniversity entrance requirements in general. — It may be instructive to\nexamine the general scheme of education as indicated by university entrance\ncredits. An average list follows, the numerals indicating the number of credits\nallowed in each subject :\nHumanities\n\nLangxiage\nEnglish\nLatin\nGreek\nGerman\nFrench\nSpanish\n\n4\n4\n3\n5\n5\n2\n\nTotal\n\n23\n\nHistory\n\n4\n\nPhysics\nPhysical\nGeography\nChemistry\nBotany\nZoology\n\nManual Arts\n\nMathematics\n\nScience\n\n4\n\nI\ni\ni\ni\nI\n\n5\n\nGeometry\nAlgebra\nIntermediate\nMathematics\n\ni\ni\ni\n\nPlane Trig.\nAdv. Algebra\n\ni\ni\n\n5\n\nFreehand\nDrawing\nMechanical\n\ni\n\nDrawing\n\ni\n\n2\n\n"} {"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nENTRANCE\n\nCREDITS\n\nIN\n\nDRAWING\n\n841\n\nFifteen of these units, or four years of study are required for university\nentrance. A pupil in preparing for college may have a daily exercise or test\nof his ability for four years in either English, or in an ancient language, or in a\nmodern foreign language, in history, in science, or in mathematics; but in\nformative art, which needs as continuous training as these for the development\nof an equal amount of culture, the daily test can be had for but one year. And\neven this opportunity is denied, by some institutions, to liberal art students.\nThis attitude discourages art culture during the formative period of\nstudents' lives. It nips in the bud their taste for art, or compels them to\nattend an art school and so to be cut off from other culture, or, when a fair\namount of art study is carried on in the high school, to do it without hope\nof university recognition. This condition long continued has made university\npeople generally obtuse in art matters, so that, whatever of progress has been\nmade in this line, has been in spite of university discouragements.\nHundreds of people say, on viewing an exhibition, ''How I wish I might\nhave studied the art side of drawing.\"\nAn arrangement of entrance credits based on the needs of Hfe rather than\nupon traditional conventions and pedantry will assume equally thoro instruction\nin- five fundamental groups, viz., language, humanities, sciences, mathematics,\nand manual arts, and will permit a student to spend, say, half his time in the\ngroup of his greatest efficiency (note the word \"group,\" not subject), and the\nremaining time to equal portions of the remaining groups. Such education\nis both effective and broad.\nBut today, if the list above should be followed, a boy interested in beautiful\nhandwork, and whose best strength can be aroused in no other w^ay, must almost\nentirely forego that field for the eight years of secondary and university education. He trusts his destiny to the school authorities, supposing that they are\neducating him, but instead, his lesser possibilities are worked at, while his\nstrongest nature is dwarfed. Yes, his greatest power for usefulness is made\nimpossible by education. The same experience attends a girl who will find\nconstant use for the practice of simple taste in her future home. She may\nspend as much time as she likes in any study except the one which for her\nwould be the most inspiring center for broad education.\nIs it not strange that, while in orations and writings on the supreme glories of\ncivilization the names of Phidias, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Rembrandt, and\nothers, as well as the beauties of Greek and Roman art should be so generally\nmentioned, the type of culture for which these stand is allowed such a small\ndegree of attention and dignity in the university entrance list ? A teacher who\nwould be discharged for faulty spelling would be forgiven the grossest breach\nof good taste in schoolroom decoration. Happily, many schools are not entirely\ncontrolled by the entrance fist, and so do attain good results.\nAdmitting that literature is more important than art, do the numbers\n\"twenty-four\" and \"one\" of the entrance list represent their relative merits ?\nProposed credits lor drawing entrance. — In view of the foregoing considera-\n\n"} {"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ntions, the following examination questions are offered as implying reasonable teaching in drawing; altho schoolwork is preferable to an examination\nas evidence of merit:\nA. Representation (similar to the college extrance examination above).\nMake two drawings, one in light and shade, one in color, choosing from the following:\n1. Geometrical models, from memory (postition to be described).\n2. A machine detail, as a carpenter's plane, from memory.\n3. Some object in the room, as a vase of flowers, a plant, a cast, or a fellow student.\nB. Design.\nDesign and draw one of the following:\n1. Working-drawings for a rocking-chair to be made of square-edged oak, and to be\nlight in weight.\n2. A sash curtain, with a floral border. Show the color scheme of the curtain, suggest the materials, and method of making, and the predominant color tone of the\nroom.\n3. Design full size the title page for a school program.\nUse a monogram or border.\nC. Appreciation.\nAnswer both the following:\n1. Choose one of the following photographs and tell wherein the merit of the original\nconsists, discuss its thought, its composition, and its technical qualities, as compared\nto the similar pictures of the period preceding.\na) Michael Angelo's \"David\" or \"Creation of Adam.\"\nh) Rembrandt's etching, \" Christ Healing the Sick.\"\nc) Whistler's \"Cremorne Gardens,\" or one of his nocturnes.\n2. A suburban village is to be laid out on one of the banks of a navigable stream;\nthe stream curves in toward the village; hills parallel to the stream rise to an elevation of about three hundred feet a mile back from the river, and two winding ravines\ncut this slope. Sketch a plan of this village, showing the main thorofares and\nscheme for residence streets, the location of public buildings and park system;\nand describe the artistic features of the site which should be utilized.\n\nSuch an exercise as this last, and the criticism of masterpieces in secondary\nschools may seem presumptions, but remember that not technical merit, but\nintensive thinking about these things is to be stimulated; also that similar\ntraining in literature is successful.\nThree credits should be allowed for all of this work, altho one credit may\nbe arranged to cover a simple amount of training in each subhead. And the\ncourse of study can be accommodated to either the technical student in\naccurate representation, or to the girl of artistic taste interested in household\nart.\nThe obstacles to the carrying out of this scheme are, first, the inertia of the\nuniversities, second, the inadequate teaching on the part of many high schools.\nMany teachers are forced to teach with faulty preparation, or with insufficient\ntime for thoro instruction. But the universities are the more to blame because\nthey do not recognize the excellent work which is already being done in many\nplaces, and the pressure bearing on a school to teach only the subjects which\nwill receive university entrance credit is tremendous.\nThe remedy is a campaign of education. Every educator should make it a\nprofessional duty to secure the reports of the conventions of drawing and\n\n"} {"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECT\n\nDRAWING\n\n843\n\nmanual-art teachers and then to read and re-read them and see that school\ntrustees read them; in this way ultimately making whatever of wisdom they\ncontain available and effective for every pupil, teacher, and school trustee in\nthe land.\nIn conclusion we affirm that:\n1. The subject called ''drawing\" is not merely a subsidiary tool of expression like typewriting or stenography, but it is a branch of culture with its own\neducational content of formative art.\n2. Formative art which concerns the spiritual value of many industries,\nand inv^olves 75 per cent, of material costs, exerts such an important influence\nupon life as to demand from a fourth to a fifth of pupils' attention in secondary\nschools, and consequent recognition in university entrance subjects of at least\nthree units.\n3. Effective co-operation and individual effort on the part of art-teachers\nand art-lovers is necessary to bring about desirable conditions of art in education, and in life.\nOBJECT\nEDNA\n\nB.\n\nLOWD,\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF\n\nDRAWING\nDRAWING,\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe French have said that we are only playing with art in America; and at\nthe Berne Congress where the American exhibit aroused much interest and\npraise, a lack of good drawing was deplored by some of our European neighbors. We often feel the same lack ourselves, when viewing our own or our\nneighbors' exhibit. Should we not consider this phase of the drawing-question\ncarefully? Do we not waste much of our drawing-time flitting about from\nthis to that simply because someone else has taken up a little different phase\nof the subject and has some attractive results ? Do we have a definite idea\nin mind toward which we are working ? As I am considering simply the side\nof drawing that deals with the study of form, I am going to assume certain conditions. Most of the drawing in the first eight grades is, and I think should be,\ncreative drawing, illustration, and design. The little object drawing taught\nis presented mostly from the composition standpoint. Classes are large, with\nchance for but little individual attention. Drawing comes two or three times\na week and lessons are more or less complete in themselves. There is not\ntime, nor do I think the grades the place for any real study of objects. Of\ncourse schools and courses of study differ very much as to this, but I am\nassuming a situation that is, I think, becoming more the average condition\neach year. In the ninth year then, the first real study begins. The student\nis able to reason more, at this time, and get at the construction of things and\nhalf of his seeing depends on this.\nMy aim in teaching object drawing is to develop in the student the ability\nand the habit of expressing himself easily and freely in drawings; to appreciate\nthe work of others, and to be so alive to simple beauty that he will demand and\nselect more beautiful common things aU his life.\n\n"} {"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nI believe that all students can learn to draw as all can learn to write, that\nall can learn certain fundamental truths and their application in the drawing\nof cylindrical and rectangular objects. A student may be able to draw and\nexpress form well, and yet not appreciate the beauty about him. He may be\nable to make attractive drawings but that is not the result of any principles or\nstudy of form, but rather in spite of them. One of my teachers once said to\nus that all students have the power to appreciate, and that it is the teachers\nduty to develop this power. The mere drawing of objects alone v/ill not\ndevelop this appreciation tho it may help.\nI have not fully realized my aim, in teaching drawing, nor can I give you a\npositive rule that will enable you to do so. I can only give you some very\ncommonplace suggestions that have been a help to me both as a student and a\nteacher. In your discussion of these papers I am sure you bring me something\nthat will enable me to more fully realize my aim next year, as I trust some of\nmy thoughts may reach your need. Few of these suggestions are original.\nI have made them mine by usage as you doubtless have already made many of\nthem yours.\nAfter considering conditions and deciding what we hope to accomplish as\nour ultimate aim, we need to plan a regular series of definite steps to lead toward\nits fulfillment. We must reduce things to their simplest terms, leave out all\nnon-essentials, go slowly and so surely that good habits are formed and things\ntaught so well that nothing will later need to be unlearned. Help the student\nstart a foundation that is just as sure to build on later as his start in grammar,\narithmetic, writing, or English. We can not make fine suggestive drawings\ntill we can picture things in their entirety. No amount of fine phrases nor\ntheory will enable a student to draw, nothing but intelligent practice, which\ncomes in today's definite lesson and tomorrow's definite lesson. As Mr.\nHenry T. Bailey puts it, **If at first you don't succeed, draw, draw again.\"\nCylindrical objects seem easier in some ways, so we start with these. Our\nimmediate aim is to get good placing and proportion. One definite step\ntoward this aim is the ability and habit of blocking-in a drawing. Make\nsure that each understands what you mean by a blocked-in drawing. By\nlimiting the extreme dimensions of the -object in our drawing, we get better\nproportions between objects or parts of objects and between the size of the\ndrawing and the paper. In blocking-in a drawing, too, we must see things in\na large way; the main proportions, the main lines. It pays to insist\non this from the start and you'll have to insist hard to get it if you have\nmy experience. To be sure each is starting right — call for their papers at the\nend of two or three minutes often. What do you find ? Often a hard-lined\ncompleted ellipse and no other mark on the paper ? How students do hate to\nchange this first start! Are your students apparently afraid they can never\nmake another ellipse no matter how badly this one is drawn ? And do they\nmaneuver everyway to save this ? Do they crowd the drawing, miss proportions, anything and everything, to save that ellipse ? This is one of the things\n\n"} {"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECT\n\nDRAWING\n\n845\n\nI work hardest for from the start — to have students willing to change things\nand to keep changing, things till the drawing looks right; to have a really good\ntime putting things in with a loose, gray line and watching them grow; to\nknow that nothing bad will happen to him if he has a good many lines on the\nside of an object or if the drawing is not a success. We want the ability to\ndo, not a few labored results. Leave out ellipses till he finds where he wants\nthem. Keep in the blocked-in stage till good placing and correct proportion\nare secured. This much is a good drawing, a complete blocked-in drawing.\nThen sketch in curves making all ellipses complete so we can get the proper\nrelation of planes. Here we have a positive, definite thing. A horizontal plane\non the level of the eye seems to be a straight line, above or below, it is less foreshortened. This is simple but it takes a long time to make it one's own sometimes. You all know and use some of the helps for those who do not see a\nforeshortened circular plane as an ellipse such as cutting the circle in cardboard and hinging it so it can be turned in any position. I have often found\nstudents who did not understand using pencil measurements after taking them.\nAren't we apt to forget that our students are children even in high school and\nassume too much and go too fast for the majority ? The few who draw well\nwill get along all right with little individual help — give that freely to the ones\nwho need the special help.\nIn selecting objects for models we can plan very definite steps and so simplify\nthe work— cylinders, like a glass of water, bowls, vases, cups with handles.\nAnd here it pays to have lessons on handles alone, all kinds, thick and thin.\nWe learn that it is often the line of high light that makes a handle look thick in\na drawing and often the breaking or graying of a line that fastens a clay handle\nto the dish — makes it seem to grow from the body of the dish as all good handles\nshould. Then objects with noses — pitchers and teapots — and special lessons\nhere — then noses and handles. As the handle is usually opposite the nose on\na dish a line from center of handle through center of ellipse will touch the\ncenter of the nose no matter what the position of the teapot or other dish. If\nwe have succeeded in drawing with a soft gray line we can select and line in\nthe correct line accenting nearer parts, the characteristic bits or the shadow\nside as we prefer, and no erasing is needed.\nMuch drawing by the teacher all the time in pencil as well as on the board\nis a great help to students. Sometimes to take a student's drawing, to make\nthe necessary corrections, and to finish the drawing will help him much to see\nthat he needs only to study a little harder to make his drawing better ; that his\nstart is all right; that he only needs to keep on to do what your greater experience\nhas enabled you to do.\nMany quick memory sketches are fine practice. If there is a tendency to\nthink drawing is a waste of time, ask students to write the meaning and\nmake illustrations of some of the things talked about, as a blocked-in drawing, a sketch ; state the principle used in drawing cylindrical objects ; define\nforeshortened, proportion, and other terms used in class. This may seem to\n\n"} {"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nyou too narrow for art instruction, but you'll find out some of the things\nthat are still hazy to your student and he'll find there are some few definite\nthings among the many more or less indefinite, and will realize that he needs\nto be more awake in the drawing-class.\nIn groups, the only added problem is to get the larger objects on paper\nwithout crowding and to be sure that each object has plenty of table space. If\nblocking-in and completing bases has become a habit these points are taken\ncare of.\nIf the step to rectangular objects is made simply by posing a berry box\nor similar object and nothing is said at first of the perspective problem, it\nis taken more easily and naturally. I like to use Fred H. Daniels little railroad track scheme as given in the Schools Arts Book, and which illustrates in\nso familiar a way the fact that ''distance makes things smaller and grayer.\"\nWe can apply it directly to our box or book ; can see why parallel receding\nhorizontal edges incline toward each other; can understand that if parallel,\nreceding, horizontal edges converge in the track, and down the hall and in the\nlarger box that the same thing is true in a small cube or book and we must\ndraw it so, even though we cannot see this convergence.\nOur principle of horizontal planes is still and always will be needed.\nAfter studying a few boxes and good-sized cubes we prove a few of each\nstudents' carefully, by extending edges with a string. Then he can see that\nparallel, receding, horizontal edges not only appear to converge to a point on\nthe level of the edge but must be drawn so that, if extended they will meet on\nthe level of the eye if the drawing is correct.\nAfter practicing on cubes in all positions it is a good test to draw two lines\nof a cube on the board or in blue pencil on paper for the student to complete\nand then locate, that is, tell whether above or below the eye, parallel or at an\nangle to the observer.\nIn studying the posed rectangular objects so often the relation of the objects\nto the edge of the shelf or table on which it is placed is confused with its relation to the observer. This is especially troublesome if the table is not directly\nin front of the student. The use of a picture plane, if thoroly understood,\nwill help clear this point. By picture plane I mean an imaginary, vertical plane\nalways parallel with the observer and which is represented by the paper of the\nstudent. For illustration, I use a common window screen. By holding this\nparallel with the student and near the object he can readily see that the relation\nof the object to his individual picture plane has nothing to do with the relation\nof object to edge of table which he is not drawing; also that the vertical edge\nnearest the picture plane is the edge that must be drawn nearest the bottom\nof his paper. He can also understand more clearly that when a rectangular\nobject is parallel to the picture plane the top or bottom and front face only\nshow, when at an angle three faces show. Then to, it is often a help to draw\nwith chalk on the screen to clear some point.\nSketching cubes, plinths, etc., and transforming into piles of books, tables,\n\n"} {"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECT\n\nDRAWING\n\n847\n\nstools, or skeleton chairs, i. e., a chair with only one line for rungs and legs\nkeep the student interested and help him to see the necessity of being able to\ndraw cubes and other rectangular framework well, that is without struggling.\nAfter this stools, tables, and chairs from the objects themselves are much more\nintelligently reasoned out.\nFor testing angles I like to use the two little strips of paper, but not till after\nthey have had considerable practice in perspective, as they are apt to depend\nupon them too much if given at first.\nIn the first simple interiors or exteriors, after locating the level of the eye\nand blocking in main angles, it seems best to test these and correct before going\nfarther, as the angles are hard to judge at first. In the square legs of a chair\ndrawn parallel to the end of a hall, etc., the student learns the exceptions to the\nrule that only the top or bottom and front face show in a rectangular object\nwhen parallel to the observer. It is less confusing to learn these exceptions to\nthe general rule at this time than at the beginning.\nIt seems best to me in all of this drill in getting the multiplication table of\ndrawing to work in outline. There can be no ''mumbled English\" places that\ndo not show as such. Each line says something, therefore the student has\nto study to tell the things frankly and squarely.\nIn beginning the light-and-shade work in pencil this Httle scheme has been\na help both in pencil-handling and in the understanding of the difference between\nlight and shade, and light and dark. First, make a scale of five values using\na standard scale to work from, then a series of small drawings working from a\nscale numbering the values from light to dark. Obj. i, B. G. 3, F. G. 2;\nObj. 4, B. G. I, F. G. 2; Obj. 3, B. G. i, F. G. 4; then Obj. i, B. G. 3, F. G. 2,\nshowing H. L., light and shade, and cast shadow and then the dark and medium\nvalue object in same way. In the study of more difficult objects, work very\ndirectly with the fact impressed that no erasing can be successfully done in a\nlight-and-shade pencil drawing as it destroys the surface of the paper. The\ngroups must be so lightly sketched in that the lines used become a part of the\ntone, the aim all the time being to leave out just as much as possible and tell\nthe story clearly.\nTinted papers with a touch of colored crayon add interest to the later work.\nA very thin water-color wash over the pencil is interesting especially for little\nroof scapes from the upper windows. Whether the student becomes a housekeeper, dressmaker, milliner, teacher, architect, engineer, or what not, he will\nfind the little pencil ever ready to help him and he can often save hours of\nwriting by a simple drawing, to say nothing of the pleasure and appreciation\nit affords him. Students usually like to work in pencil and by sketching with\nthem, showing your sketchbook, copies of the pencil-work of Woodbury,\nHornby, Vernon Howe Bailey, and others, you can influence them to do much\nmore along this line to form a habit. Charcoal tone studies worked in a big\ndecorative way are very helpful and most fascinating to the student. I Hke to\nput this after the pencil-work because it is more showy and students are there-\n\n"} {"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nfore not so easily interested in pencil after the tonework. At first limit the\ntone studies to three values — later use four or five. A group strong in contrast\nof dark and light or a brown and v^hite bean jar is a good object to start with.\nCommon white paper is all right. First decide what values are to be used\nand where and make a note in the corner of paper ; then make a medium tone\nall over the paper, rubbing down the charcoal with a soft cloth, or better still\na sponge rubber. Wipe out the lights and put in the darks, keeping all tones\nflat and making the spotting very simple. Tinted paper adds interest. Select\na color that will represent the Hght side of the lighter object and proceed as\nwhen white paper is used. Colored crayons that are not waxy may be used to\nsuggest the other colors in the groups, and chalk the high fights. ' Common\ningrain wall paper works well if you can get no other, or you can take more\ntime and color the paper with vegetable or ''Easy Dyes\" and get most beautiful\nresults.\nNature-sprays, fruits, vegetables, bits of buildings and pose all lend themselves nicely to this treatment, and as you cannot erase much without losing\nthe flat tones it is excellent practice in direct work.\nA tone study on white paper can be fixed, the white paper wet and color\nwashes added in a very satisfactory way. Heavier paper often works best for\nthis. By gradually decreasing the charcoal tone, that is, making it lighter each\ntime, and using the color in fuller value, the step to Hght and shade in color is\nmade easier. Backgrounds are difficult as we all know from our student days,\ntoo difficult for average high-school students it seems to me. Using tinted\npaper as background and relating the drawing to this background so all is\nharmonious, is more within the fimits of the timef and ability of the average\nstudent, and about as far as we can hope to take him in four years' work in a\ncourse well balanced in representation, composition, and construction.\n\n"} {"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 1907\nThe Department of Music Education met in the First Congregational Church and\nwas called to order by President Hamlin E. Cogswell, director of Conservatory of Music,\nIndiana, Pa., at 2:30 p. m.\nThe session was opened by music by the Krause String Quartette, of Los Angeles,\nwith Op. 18, No. 6, Beethoven, as follows: (a) \"Allegro con Brio;\" (6) \"Adagio ma non\ntroppo;\" (c) \"La Malinconia Adagio;\" (\nand end with truss roof.\n\n"} {"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRIMARY\n\nLESSON\n\nIN GARDENING\n\nWhat does it cost to manufacture adobe brick in southern California ?\nThe cost is very Httle, if you live in a locality where there is adobe mud.\nHow are the bricks made ?\nThey are molded, then laid in the sun to dry.\nWhat is the price of lumber in southern California ?\nAbout ten dollars per thousand feet.\nHow do you know ?\nThe carpenter told me.\nProblem\nAlfred, at ten dollars per thousand, find the cost of the lumber for the framework of\nthe house Ray has just planned.\n62 pieces of studding 2X4\n6 plates\n2X4 n. by 10 ft. —\n413J\n128 ft.\n8 plates\n2X4 n. by 18 ft.—\n8 sills\n2X4 n. by 24 ft, —\n6f\n4 sills\n2X4 n. by 18 ft.—\nn.\nby\n14\nft.\n—\n2 sills\n2X6\n16 floor joists 2X12 n. by 18 ft.—\n162\n9 ceiling joists 2X6 n. by 18 ft.—\n168\nn,\nby\n18\nft,—\n18 rafters\n2X4\nn, by 14 ft. —\n\nTotal number of feet of lumber.\n$10. 576\n$16,880\n\n§X 10 = 20/3 or\n\n72\n\n96\nPeter exhibited the model which he made of a house built\nafter\nthe\nplans\ndrawn\nby\n$16.\n36\nRay. He handled and told the name of each part, measuring and giving dimensions, and\nset up the framework of the house.\n\nPRIMARY\nPRESENTED\n\nLESSON\n\nIN GARDENING\n\nWITH A CLASS OF INDIAN PUPILS\nTEACHER,\nSHERMAN INSTITUTE,\n\nBY MISS CARRIE\nRIVERSIDE, CAL.\n\nM. DARNELL,\n\nBy correlating the classroom subjects with the industrial work of the school,\npupils, while learning to speak, read, and write English, gain a great deal of\nvaluable information concerning work of all kinds: they draw pictures of\nobjects handled, they write first words, then phrases, which gradually lead up\nto short sentences, such as, rake; the rake; my rake; I have a rake; we have\ntwo rakes; Juan has a little rake; thus action words and governing words are\ngradually introduced. Little counting lessons and number problems also\ncreep in; for example,\n2 rakes and i rake are 3 rakes.\n\n2 rakes\nI rake\n\n4 hoes\n2 hoes\n\n3 rakes\n\n2 hoes, etc.\n\nI frequently write the word upon which I am drilling. To make the transition from script to print easy, I typewrite all words or sentences, just as I have\nwritten them on the board, and let pupils read them in that form. When the\nwords are mastered I turn to a lesson in some reader, on the subject we have\nstudied in class. Pupils usually find but little difficulty in reading the printed\n\n"} {"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "I028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian'\n\npage. The industrial work given in the classroom furnishes action, which\nthe child requires, and enables the teacher to clothe dull, prosy classroom\nsubjects with interest.\nTo those who may say this lesson has been given before, I explain that it\nwould be tedious to you to listen to the continuous drill which is necessary in\nteaching non-English-speaking pupils the common words of a new language;\nand you would have no idea of the results. I have drilled for many months\non the simple words in daily use in our language, and give this lesson to show\nyou what results may be accomplished by perseverance and industry, and by\nusing objects which appeal to the child mind. You will find it necessary to\ninterest the child in something he can grasp. Words alone convey notliing\nto his little mind, but when preparing a nice luncheon (in teaching cooking in\nthe classroom) words stand for objects that enlist his interest.\nIndustrial work, therefore, gives rudimentary knowledge on a variety of\nsubjects. The work in this demonstration lesson cannot be given in one\nlesson in the schoolroom. It will depend upon the mental development of\nthe children, and their knowledge of English. So the work must be given more\nslowly to some than to others. All work should be given gradually, one word\nat a time, and to those who grasp it less readily, persistent drill and infinite\npatience on the part of the teacher will be necessary.\nI will give a brief lesson showing how we correlate garden work with\nclassroom subjects:\nQ. All the beautiful vegetables and flowers have a home, just the same as the boys\nand girls. Where is this home ?\nA. In the soil.\nQ. Name some of the kinds of vegetables that like to live down under the soil.\nA.. Potatoes, beets, turnips, onions, etc.\nQ. Give me the names of some of the vegetables that live above the soil and see the\nsunshine.\nA. Tomatoes, beans, corn, melons, etc.\nQ. Why do we make gardens ?\nA. To have things to eat and to sell.\nQ. Each may name some vegetable we raised in our little garden at Sherman.\nA\nQ.\nA.\nQ.\n\nSusie, how large is your garden ?\nFour feet by six feet.\nSusie may measure on the floor the length and breadth of her garden.\n\nA. Susie says: \"This ruler is one foot long; six times this ruler will be six feet;\nfour times this ruler will be four feet.\"\n'Q. When may we make our school gardens ?\nA. In the spring or in the autumn.\nQuincy may pass to the board and write the answer to aiy questions.\nQ. What is done first in making a garden ?\nA.\nQ.\n\nQuincy writes: \"The ground is plowed.\"\nJuan may read what Quincy has written.\n\nA.\nQ.\nA.\n\nQuincy writes: \" To turn over the soil.\"\nSusie may read what Quincy has written.\nThe other pupils may answer orally.\nTo soften the ground; to loosen it so we can sow the seed.\n\nWhy did they plow the ground ?\n\n"} {"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nQ.\nA.\nQ.\nA,\nQ.\nA.\nQ.\nA.\n\nPRIMARY\n\nLESSON\n\nGARDENING\n\n1029\n\nHow is the garden bed made ?\nIt is sunken in the ground two inches.\nWhy made this way ?\nSo it will hold the water.\nWhere did you plant the seeds ?\nIn little furrows, one inch deep.\nThen what did you do ?\nCovered the seed over with soil.\n\nQ. Why ?\nA. So they will be in the dark;\nthe roots.\nQ.\nA.\nQ.\nA.\n\nIN\n\nto get moisture to sprout;\n\nso the sun will not burn\n\nThen what did you do ?\nWatered it.\nHow often should we water our gardens ?\nOnce a week.\n\nQ. Why water the garden ?\nA. So the plants can take food from the soil.\nQ. When the plants came up what did you do ?\nA. Pulled up the weeds.\nQ. Why pull up the weeds ?\nA. They drink the water and choke the plants.\nQ. Frances, John, Rosario, each may draw a picture of one of the vegetables raised\nin your gadren.\nA. I raised a turnip. (Drawing.)\nI raised a radish. (Drawing.)\nI raised a beet.\n(Drawing.)\nJuan may go to the board and write answers to my questions.\nQ. How many radishes did you raise ?\nA. I raised twenty- four radishes.\nQ. What did you do with them ?\nA. I ate four radishes and sold two bunches.\nQ. You may write upon the board how many radishes you had in one bunch.\nA. Ten radishes.\nQ. How many radishes in two bunches ?\nA. 10 radishes\n10 radishes\n20 radishes\nQ. How many radishes did you sell ?\nA . Twenty radishes.\nQ. How much money did you get a bunch ?\nA. I got five cents a bunch.\nQ. Write how much you got for two bunches ?\nA. 2X5 cents are 10 cents.\nQ. Sarah, tell us of your beets ?\nA. I raised two rows of beets.\nQ. How many beets in each row ?\nA. 1 had nine beets in one row and 8 beets in another row.\nQ. You had nine beets in one row and sold four beets out of that row, how many\ndid you eat out of that row ?\nA. 9 — 4 equals 5. I ate 5 beets out of that row.\nQ. You had eight beets in the other row, how many did you eat ?\nA. I ate four beets out of that row.\nQ. How many beets did you have left ?\n\n"} {"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "I030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nA. I had eight less four which equals four, so I had four beets to sell.\nQ. How many beets did you sell ?\nA . I sold four beets from one row and four beets from the other row, four and four\nare eight, or four beets and four beets are eight beets.\nQ. How much money did you get for these beets ?\nA. I got six cents for each bunch, I had two bunches; two times six cents are twelve\ncents.\n\n"} {"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF TECHNICAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nWEDNESDAY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nMORNING,\n\nJuly io, 1907\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the Polytechnic High School, by J. H Francis, of\nLos Angeles.\nAfter opening prayer by Rev. Robert J. Burdette, of Pasadena,\nCal., Louis C.\nMonin, dean of Armour Institute of Technology was chosen chairman, and Alfred Guillou,\nThroop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, CaL, secretary.\nUpon motion the chair appointed the following committee to nominate officers for\nthe coming year:\nA. H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nMrs, Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.\nJ. H. Francis, Los Angeles, Cal.\nLouis C. Monin read a paper, \" The Scope of the Department of Technical Education.\" After discussion the tentative conclusion was reached that this department should\ninclude collegiate and secondary technical education.\nMrs. Ella Flagg Young, of the Chicago Normal School, then read a paper, \"The\nProper Articulation of Technical Education within the System of Public Education.\"\nGeorge P. Phenix, Hampton Institute, Virginia, discussed the paper.\nPresident Joseph Edward Stubbs, of Nevada State University, Reno, read a paper,\n\"Aims and Methods of Technical Education as Compared with the Aims and Methods\nof a Liberal Education.\"\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nAlfred Guillou, Secretary.\nTHURSDAY\n\nMORNING,\n\nJuly ii\n\nThe department met in the First Methodist Church, and was called to order by\nChairman Monin.\nE. H. Barker, of the Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal., was appointed to\nact as secretary of the meeting.\nAnnouncement was made that an invitation had been received from Rev. Robert J.\nBurdette, stating that the subject of his next Sunday's discourse would be \"Head, Hand,\nand Heart \" and inviting the Department of Technical Education to attend. The secretary\nwas instructed to reply expressing appreciation.\nThe first paper of the session on \"The Agricultural College and Its Relationship\nto the Scheme of National Education\" was read by E. J. Wickson, dean and acting director\nof the College of Agriculture, University of California, Berkeley, Cahfornia.\nA paper on \"Trade Schools and Trade Unions\" was read by George A. Merrill,\nprincipal of the California School of Mechanic Arts, San Francisco, Cahfornia.\nA paper on \"Technical Education in High Schools and Rural Schools\" was read by\nArthur H. Chamberlain, dean and professor in Throop Polytechnic- Institute, Pasadena,\nCalifornia.\nA brief discussion then followed.\nThe Nominating Committee presented its report as follows:\nFor President — Louis C. Monin, dean of Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago,\nFor Vice-President — A. B. Storms, president of Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\nFor Secretary— GeoxgQ A. Merrill, principal of California School of Mechanical\nArts, San Franci.sco, Cal.\n103 1\n\n"} {"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "1032\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nThe report was adopted and the nominees elected.\nMr. Merrill suggested the appointment of a permanent Committee on Co-operation\nbetween the educational and industrial organizations and aUied interests. It was moved\nand carried that the officers of the Association act during the present year as that committee, adding to their number as may seem desirable, the same to be called a \"Committee on Co-operation.\"\nOn motion it was ordered that a Committee of Seven on Admission Requirements to\nTechnical Colleges be appointed by the chair to make a partial report at the next meeting\nof the Association.\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nE. H. Barker, Secretary.\nThe following have accepted appointment as members of the committee of seven on\nEntrance Requirements to Technical Colleges :\nPresident Fred W. Atkinson, Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute (Chairman).\nProfessor Harry W. Tyler, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.\nDean M. E. Cooley, University of Michigan.\nDean Frederick A. Goetze, Columbia University.\nDean A. Marston, Iowa State College.\nProfessor Ira O. Baker, University of Illinois.\nProfessor Dexter S. Kimball, Sibley College, Cornell University.\nIrwin Shepard, General Secretary.\n\nTHE\nLOUIS\n\nSCOPE\nC.\n\nOF THE\n\nMONIN,\n\nDEAN\n\nDEPARTMENT\nEDUCATION\n\nOF ARMOUR INSTITUTE\nCHICAGO,\nILLINOIS\n\nOF TECHNICAL\nOF\n\nTECHNOLOGY,\n\nI. HistoricaL — In the course of the year 1903, several members of the\nNational Educational Association interested in the cause of technical and\nindustrial education conceived the plan of petitioning the Association for the\norganization of a new department, to be known as the Department of Technical\nEducation. Having received the promise of active co-operation from many\nof the most prominent educators of this country and enthusiastic replies from\na great number of teachers from every state of the Union, the twenty-five\nsignatures necessary to make application to the Board of Directors for the\nestablishment of such a department were secured and the formal petition was\ntransmitted to the Board on December 29, 1903, as provided in Article II,\nsections i and 2, and Article IV, section 8, of the Constitution. The petition\nwas signed by the following:\nGeorge N. Carman, director, Lewis Institute, Chicago.\nEdmund J. James, president, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\nCyrus Northrop, president, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.\nV. C. Alderson, president, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo.\nM. C. Humphreys, president, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J.\nLouis E. Reber, dean, School of Engineering, Pennsylvania State College, State\nCollege, Pa.\nF. O. Marvin, dean. School of Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.\nA, S. Draper, commissioner of education, Albany, N. Y.\nGeorge A. Merrill, principal, California School of Mechanic Arts, San Francisco,\nCal.\nF. Paul Anderson, dean, School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, State\nCollege of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.\nAlston Ellis, president, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.\nT. M. Brown, Lehigh University, South Bethlehem, Pa.\n\n"} {"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] SCOPE\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\n\nOF TECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1033\n\nCharles S. Howe, president, Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio.\nC. L. Mees, president. Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, Ind.\nRobert L. Slagle, president, State School of Mines, Rapicf City, S. D.\nJ. L. Snyder, president. State Agricultural College, Agricultural College, Mich.\nFrederick S. Pratt, president, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nA. B. Storms, president, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, la.\nLyman Hall, president, Georgia School of Technology, Atlanta, Ga.\nGeorge W. Plympton, director of Cooper Union, New York City, N. Y.\nG. Stanley Hall, president, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nJames MacAlister, president, Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlfred Bayliss, superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.\nH. H. Belfield, dean. University High School, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nJ. J. ScHOBiNGER, dean, Harvard School, Chicago, 111.\nJ. G. Grant, dean, Kenwood Institute, Chicago, 111.\nL. C. MoNiN, dean, Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, 111.\n\nAt the meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational\nAssociation at Asbury Park, N. Y., July, 1904, upon the motion of Director\nCrabtree, the petition was referred to the executive committee with power to\nact. This committee, in session at Louisville, Kentucky, February 28, 1906,\ngranted the report and appointed Professor Louis C. Monin, of the Armour\nInstitute of Technology, Chicago, to effect the organization of the new department and to call the preliminary meeting to order at the July meeting of the\nAssociation in San Francisco. As the San Francisco meeting was postponed\non account of the great calamity which befell the city, the organization of the\nDepartment of Technical Education has to be effected at this time. By this\ninclusion of one of the most important forms of education the scheme of the\nNational Educational Association will be rounded out.\nA word of thanks is due to all who a year ago offered their help in mapping\nout a program for the San Francisco meeting.\n2. Suggestions and problems. — Many suggestions in regard to work and\ninvestigation have been received by eminent educators, and are now brought to\nthe attention of the members of the department for discussion and action.\n(i) President Eliot, Harvard. — ^Jerome D. Greene, his secretary wrote March 22,\n1906, President Eliot is very glad to see that a section of the new Department of Technical\nEducation is to be devoted to trade schools. In his opinion the trade schools are to be one\nof the most important educational developments in the immediate future and they ought\nto be a part of the public-school system.\n(2) Dr. Fred W. Atkinson, president Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., writes,\nI am very much interested in the fact that there is to be a department of technical education in the National Educational Association. The wonder to me is, that this has not\nbeen arranged for before. Engineering education is first education and only incidentally\nengineering. The idea of including this new department in the National Educational\nAssociation appeals to me strongly, and I rejoice in it.\nA committee on admission requirements should be appointed to tabulate the present\nadmission requirements and to recommend a minimum standard. The technical schools\nwhich are free to do so should agree among themselves what is absolutely necessary for\nthe applicant for admission to offer.\nSomeway, instructors in engineering schools should lend their aid to general\neducation. The establishment of a department of technical education in the National\nEducational Association is an important step. But personal work, leadership, service is\nneeded to support those who are developing manual training in all grades of the public\nschools and to aid in the establishing in every large city of trades and technical high schools.\n\n"} {"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nIt is my experience as a public-school man taking up the work of directing a college of\ntechnology that professors and instructors of our technical colleges are neglecting their\nduty which they are particularly well-fitted to perform, and, I might say, are under obligations to perform. From the kindergarten, thru the primary and grammar grades, the\nhigh-school idea of systematic orderly handwork runs. Strengthen and foster this idea\nand you will have better-trained students in the technical colleges. But that is not all — •\nyou will give a greater dignity, arouse a greater degree of public appreciation for the socalled practical, industrial, etc.\nThe men who are instructing in our technical colleges, can, if they will, give a broader,\nricher meaning to the term \"education.\" They can, as it were, double the aim of pubhc\neducation. Education must give mental training, but it must be good, and good for something, some special thing. Why not have besides a committee on admission requirements,\na committee of eight on courses in technical colleges ? It is generally known that the committee of ten performed a rare and useful service for the secondary schools of the country.\nI believe a similar committee could perform as unique a service for the technical colleges.\nFor example, there is a great difference in the courses in mathematics taught in our technical\ncolleges. In some, differential equations are required of all; some perhaps spend too\nmuch time on the calculus. Would it not be possible for the leading professors of mathematics to get together and give us something worth while as the result of their meeting ?\nIs not the same true of the other technical subjects? Could not, perhaps, ideal\ncourses in civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering be put on paper as ideals\ntoward which all technical colleges could be working ?\n(3) Professor Samuel Sheldon, consulting engineer, Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. — He had intended to attend the San Francisco meeting last year and to\nread a paper on \"Recommendations concerning the Standardization of Methods of Instruction in Civil, Electrical, and Mechanical Engineering Courses.\"\n(4) George A. Merrill, principal of the California School of Mechanical Arts. —\nIn the organization of the new department it would be a mistake to separate trade schools\nfrom other secondary technical schools. Trades schools are secondary technical schools.\nI hold, even, that the best manual-training school is a trade school; at any rate, the future\nAmerican trade school will evolve out of the present manual-training high school. It is\nmy opinion that the department of technical education should have two sections, higher\ntechnical education and secondary technical education.\n(5) C. L. Mees, president. Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, Ind. — In the\norganization of the department I think that provision should be made for an intimate\nrelationship between the association and the American society for the advancement of\nengineering education.\n(6) James N. White, dean, College of Engineering, University of Illinois. — The\nSociety for the Promotion of Engineering Education will always, I think, furnish better\nopportunities for the discussion of higher technical education than will any organization\nin connection with the National Educational Association, but I do think that we ought to\nfoster the new department with a view to developing elementary technical education in\nthe secondary schools of the country, so that the universities may expect them to do much\nof the elementary work of the freshman years and quite possibly some work of the sophomore years.\nI know that Michigan is working toward the five-year course in engineering. Lehigh\ntried the same thing some years ago and failed and it does not seem to me that the five-year\nproposition is going to be successful in the near future. In order to give any more advanced\nwork in our technical schools, it will therefore be necessary to raise the entrance requirements, and I hope the time will come when we can include not only the usual cultural\nsubjects given in the high schools, but also many elementary technical subjects; and it\nseems to me that thru the new department we should be able to accomplish our purpose,\n\n"} {"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] SCOPE\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\n\nOF TECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1035\n\nand that the public-school men would be very glad to have some more advanced work\ndelegated to them.\n(7) Alfred Bayliss, superintendent of public instruction, State of Illinois. — In regard\nto the policy of the department in its organization. I can only suggest that I should like to\nhave the plan such that it would reach down as far as possible into the grades of the common\nschools and have such adaptation as is practicable to the needs of the ungraded country\nschool.\n(8) A. B. Storms, president, Iowa State College. — We have been obliged at the\nstate college to consider the problem of cultural studies in our technical courses. It seems\nquite evident that these courses are becoming more and more exclusively technical. It is\nprobable that higher entrance requirements will be demanded in the future in the interest\nof a broader culture.\n(9) J. L. Snyder, president, Michigan Agricultural College. — It seems to me that\ninasmuch as the land grant colleges are institutions of higher technical training, they\nshould play quite an important part in this new department. Our agricultural colleges at\none time patronized the Department of Industrial Education, which was later changed to\nmanual training, I believe. When the department was changed in name, and to some\nextent in the character of its work, we naturally dropped out. I hope, however, that you\nmay be able to interest the agricultural and mechanical colleges in this new department.\n(10) V. C. Alderson, president, Colorado School of Mines. — Technical education\nis one of the greatest needs of an enlightened democracy and should not be left to private\nenterprise. We should follow the example of Switzerland and, recognizing the dependence\nof national prosperity upon technical education, set about the task of providing an education for all classes of workers suited to their callings.\n\nAccording to these suggestions it may be proper to divide the work of the\ndepartment into two sections, each considering distinctive pedagogical and\nadministrative problems, viz.:\n(i) Higher (collegiate) technical education (including the argicultural\ncollege).\n(2) Secondary technical education (including the technical high school,\ntechnical courses in the high school, mechanic arts schools, trades schools,\nschools of home economics).\nThere is no intention to curtail or to overlap any work of the other departments. But much may be done in the future in the direction of adjustment and\nproper assignment of fields of investigation.\nIt is not for me to outline a policy nor even a definite plan or program of\nwork. My few remarks merely serve the purpose of announcing to you the\nfact that the National Educational Association proposes to include the latest\nand very important phase of the educational development of our country\namong the topics worthy of systematic consideration. May the suggestions\nmade by the eminent men mentioned prove helpful in our efforts to start the\nnew department upon its career of usefulness.\nEducation according to Pestalozzi must be more than the acquisition of\nuseful knowledge or even the training of mental powers; it must be amelioration of the individual and of the race and this, whether it be education for\nself -development, i. e., liberal education, or, education for self-support, i. e.,\ntechnical education. For the end of life, as well as of education, is always\nan ethical one and teaching is more than mere instruction; it must be an inter-\n\n"} {"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\npretation of life and must \"invigorate life thru knowledge.\" The old saying that\nknowledge is power is only a half-truth. We have come to see that knowledge\napplied is power. In this respect common-sense observation and the latest\nphase of the movement of philosophic thought are in accord. Pragmatism\nas set forth by Pierce, James, Dewey, and others, points out that our notions\nmust be interpreted by tracing their respective consequences; that our beliefs\nare really rules for action. \"To develop a thought's meaning,\" says James,\n\"we need only determine what conduct it is fitted to produce, that conduct is\nfor us its sole significance;\" and \"ideas become true just in so far as they\nhelp us to get into satisfactory relation with other parts of our experience.\"\nTechnical education, then, is not a thing apart from liberal education, but\nif rightly understood it is both liberal and technical, as it aims at such a development of the individual that will at the same time render him or her capable of\nself-support.\nFour fundamental problems confront the educators of today in regard to\nthe boys and girls under their care;\n(i) To make them good (this they are when they serve God and their fellow-men),\n(2) To make them strong (they are strong when they have attained self-mastery).\n(3) To make them do common things well (for only a very small minority of men is\nprivileged to deal with the uncommon, the so-called \"great opportunities\" of life).\n(4) To make them realize \"that man lives by admiration, faith, and hope.\"\n\nTechnical education fully recognizes these four demands thus conceived;\nit is primarily an educational problem, and only secondarily an engineering\nor an industrial or an economic problem. It will be one of the chief tasks of\nthe new department to make clear this position of the educator. Education\nmust not only consider the pupil's needs, but also furnish him with what the\ncommunity will once require from him in the form of character, skill, knowledge, and efficiency.\nThe art of life consists chiefly in making clear distinctions between that\nwhich is fundamental in knowledge, character, and conduct, and that which\nis supplemental or merely incidental. In the same manner technical education,\nwhich at the present time is in an experimental state, as far as secondary schools\nare concerned, must in the near future be clearer in regard to its fundamental,\nsupplemental, and incidental elements. For, said Rousseau, \"The art of\nliving is the trade we teach.\"\nWe are far yet in our country from that ripe completeness of system which\nwe must admire in European school affairs, altho with greater flexibility we\ncombine more individual freedom. But as the demands made upon graduates\nfrom technical schools will increase from year to year, and as the schools will\naim at curricula more and more exacting upon the time and physical and\nmental strength of the students, it becomes the great, nay, let me say, sacred,\nduty of an association like ours to see to it that the individual is not sacrificed\nto the whole, but rather is given every opportunity of \"realizing himself in the\nwhole.\"\nThis, I hold, is the chief task and the platform of the new department\n\n"} {"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nARTICULATION\n\nOF TECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1037\n\nof technical education. We must be on our guard against methods too rigid as\nwell as against excessive individualism.\nTechnical education is bound to be the most favored phase of education\nof our nation, because its chief principle is that of self-activity, engaging the\nstudent's interest, compelling him to imitate patterns, devices, and methods,\nand to improve them, and thus, above all, teaching him at all times the significance and saving power of effort. For the man capable of sustained effort\nis the man who wins!\nLooking over the entire field of technical and industrial education there\nemerge four distinct classes of problems worthy of serious consideration by the\nmembers of the new department:\n(i) Educational (pedagogical) problems; i. e., problems of ends and aims and of\nmethods; problems of the relation of the cultural elements to the technical subjects.\n(2) Administrative problems; proper relations between the different schools, proper\narticulation of courses, training of teachers, etc.\n(3) Social problems; relation of technical and industrial schools to the public and\nto other organizations; especially to the society for the promotion of engineering education,\nand to the society for the promotion of industrial education.\n(4) Problems dealing with state support and control; i. e., considering the union of\nnational, state, or municipal support and control with the activity of private associations.\nTechnical and industrial education should become part of the public-school system. How\nsoon this will be realized is a matter for the people to decide. But our department should\ninsist that technical and industrial education should receive adequate support from the\nstate and not be left to the efforts of charitable organizations and to private enterprise.\n\nThe scope of the department of technical education, therefore, embraces\nin its deliberations all phases of technical and industrial education, laying\nespecial emphasis upon the development of secondary technical education;\nto infuse a spirit of culture, justice, and of altruism into the aims and methods\nof all such schools, and furthermore, insists upon the truth that all instruction\nmust be educative, making for manhood, womanhood, and citizenship.\nThe common problem, yours, mine, every one's,\nIs — not to fancy what were fair in life\nProvided it could be, — but, finding first\nWhat may be, then find how to make it fair\nUp to our means. — Browning.\n\nTHE\n\nPROPER\nARTICULATION OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION\nWITHIN THE SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION\nELLA FLAGG\n\nYOUNG,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nCHICAGO\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThis paper will not treat the subject of technical education as including\nboth the sciences and the arts, nor will it present a scheme for the articulation\nin the public-school system of the manual arts, already established as they are\nin the upper grades of the grammar school and in the manual-training high\nschool. It will consider the introductory use of the material and method that\nare fundamental in the sciences leading into engineering and technical analysis.\nTo decide what the material is, is not always easy. Altho subject-matter\n\n"} {"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nis divided into formal groups, two groups will sometimes have command of the\nsame matter, and this is particularly true in the case of technology and the\nmanual arts. For instance : in the schools below the institutes of technology,\ntraining in the graphic and manual arts is much nearer to training in architecture than it is to technical education, for while it is beyond doubt that\nmodern architecture is based on an understanding of the principles underlying\napplied mechanics, strength of materials, and architectural engineering, it is\nequally certain that the appearance which is designed in accord with the\nprinciples of art, and the simple construction which is made under the\nleadings of the manual arts, will make the chief appeal to the naive mind not\nyet trained to scientific appreciation. So much by way of explanation of the\nomission of any reference to architecture and the arts underlying its\npractice.\nThe subject of this paper does not necessarily require a full discussion of\nthe questions of specialization in education early in life. It does, however,\nraise the problem, on the one hand, of making a positive effort to lay the\nfoundations for a scientific attitude of mind, and to acquaint children of the\npractical type with the attractions of the study of applied science; and, on the\nother hand, of finding a place, in courses of study already crowded beyond\nreasonable limits, for enough technical instruction to be valuable. Until\nwe dethrone the theory that keeps many groups of studies abreast in the upper\ngrammar and high-school grades, our public schools will continue to send\nout recruits for the ranks of the unskilled and the idle. The preparatory\nschools of technical instruction are working out the problem satisfactorily,\nfor a single class of students — those interested in things having a practical\nvalue in everyday life. The public school has a more complex problem with\nits several classes of boys and girls, all of whom are not interested in one\ngroup of studies. The problem is solvable, but this is not the time or the\nplace to present the solution in full. Stated so briefly as to seem to beg the\nquestion, the solution lies in making, in the upper grammar grades, groups\nof subjects the cores about which different lines of work will center, and in\nusing the capital ahready gained in other subjects as incidental to that to be\nacquired in the main group.\nWhether this be called partial specialization or training in science, manual\narts, or cultural studies, matters little. The discussion will from this point\nbe restricted to technical instruction.\nAt the age of ten or eleven years, children should begin a substantial line of\nwork in physics. Such work should have as its object the starting of children's\ninterest and activity along the line of scientific inquiry. Instead of being an\nincidental subject taken up once or twice a week, it should be in the foreground daily. A prominent feature of the work should be experimentation\nwith the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, using simple apparatus constructed bythe children ; but the experimentation would fail of its possibilities\nif it did not lead to a discovery of the mechanical advantage involved and to\n\n"} {"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nARTICULATION\n\nOF TECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1039\n\na recognition of this advantage in machines of all sorts that fall within the\nobservation of the children.\nAnother line of work — that leading to technical analysis — should be of a\npractical nature in connection with foods, plant fibers, and other useful plant\nproducts. In the following year this scientific study should be extended to\nexperimental work on the effects of heat and cold on solids, liquids, and gases,\nand a recognition of the effects in a variety of things; a study of the gases of\nthe atmosphere and of atmospheric pressure, involving hydraulic pressure,\nwith a number of applications; a study of ventilation; practical work on the\npreservation of foods. In the eighth grade there should be a study of the\nelectric battery, current electricity and its application in simple electric devices;\na study of the eye, some work with lenses and the problem of lighting.\nThis program would give boys and girls between the ages of ten or eleven\nand fourteen or fifteen years a good experiential basis in physics, chemistry,\nand biology, and in the practical or industrial arts. The method of handling\nwould, in large measure, limit the young minds to the mechanical point of\nview, or stimulate those penetrative and constructive tendencies that underlie one of the freest and richest modes of mental activity — the scientific\nimagination. If the method be the one commonly followed in elementary\nscience-teaching, that of demonstration by the teacher, the capital that was\ngained in primary construction or handwork is not invested by children of\naverage mental ability; motor images are not integrated in the experience;\nthat experience is one-sided, sensory only. If the generalizations underlying that recognition of principles which is essential to scientific thinking are\nderived in considerable part from the leadings or hints of the demonstrator,\nthere is for the members of the class slight or no deepening of the moments\nof experience. The impulse to handle, to shift, and to adjust the bar, the.rope,\nor cord; the power to estimate the pressure which the fiber withstands, the\namount of heat, the quality of the electric current, and to appraise the value\nof the experience that comes almost imperceptibly by way of the adjustments\nof the body — much of this impulse and this power is lost out of the work in\nscience when the teacher adopts the method of demonstration. It may seem\nthat too much time and space are here devoted to the educational phase of\nelementary science. I think not. If technical training is to be articulated\nin the elementary-school course, it must be jointed in, not tagged on.\nIn the high schools, the question of specialization is in a fair way to be\nsettled satisfactorily. The commercial, the manual training, the academic\nhigh schools are all now recognized as necessary divisions of the system between\nthe elementary school and the college. Within a period of less than forty\nyears, the example of Washington University in establishing a manual-training high school has been followed by the cities and towns thruout this country.\nThe commercial high school has not made such marked progress in public\nfavor, due probably to the fact that its curriculum, like that of the academic\nhigh school, is based on bookwork instead of on the line of work which gives\n\n"} {"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "I040\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nplay to the fondness of the practical type of mind for doing something with\nthe hand. Public high schools for technical training are not numerous.\nThe explanation of the difference in the spread of the technical training\nhigh-school idea, and that of manual training high-school idea, is not difficult\nto find : the technological institutions do a considerable amount of preparatory\nwork, taking students directly from the elementary schools. The endorsement\nof these preparatory departments or academies by the parents of the pupils\nis an endorsement of the principle of partial specialization for children of the\nage of thirteen or fourteen years; the training in scientific lines is more positive\nbecause there are not so many groups of studies carried on simultaneously\nas in the academic high schools, altho the cultural studies are not omitted.\nIn the course of time the growth of cities with their steel and cement construction, the multiplication of inventions for bringing electricity into the serviceof man, the improvements in safer means of transportation, the analyses made\nnecessary by legislation regarding foods, the advance in the quality and character of American dress materials and other stuffs, will bring more actively\ninto public consciousness the desirability of education in civil, mechanical,\nand electrical engineering, and the relative values of foods, fibers, oils, ores,\nand other materials in the industrial arts. Whether the tendency to combine\nmanual and technical training in one school will meet the needs of the situation,\nor whether the combination of academic and technical training under one\nadministration will bring into harmonious relation two apparently opposed\nmodes of education that yet have a method in common, no one can now foresee.\nOne thing is evident: we have courses with the classics, or the modern language.-,\nor shop work, or trade and its balance as the central unit; we need that the\nhigh schools shall offer a course of training of which the core shall be science.\nThe scope of this paper does not permit a consideration of engineering\nand other departments of technology in the state universities. There is,\nhowever, in the system of public education, one school beyond the high school\nin which the problem of technical education presents itself in a somewhat\ndifferent form from that in the institutions of technology. This is the normal\ncollege, limited as yet to the training of teachers for the elementary schools.\nAn overwhelming majority of the normal-college students are young\nwomen. Their training in science before entrance is derived largely from\ntextbooks and work in high-school laboratories. Only a few are familiar on\nthe practical side with machines, electricity, the influence of heat and light on\nfoods, of chemical action on bacteria and molds. The custom in homes of\nrelegating sewing and cooking to persons employed to do that work and of\nreserving the daughters for the demands of the school has cut off the embryonic\nteacher from that experience which is an essential in even the most elementary\nacquaintance with the nature side of life. Here the normal college has a\ndouble problem: (i) to study the material with which the student-teachers\nwill make an environment stimulating the sixth, seventh, and eighth-grade\nchildren to experimentation, and to the first steps in scientific imagining and\n\n"} {"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n1 04 1\n\nreasoning; (2) to study the material for itself. For example: In the college\nthe study of the roots and fleshy parts of plants is made from the standpoint\nof the plant; in the elementary school, they are studied as food products for\nman. The study of plant fibers is made, on the one hand, from the standpoint\nof plant tissue,, and on the other, from that of their use to man. In physical\nscience, the study of heat becomes in the college, with the laboratory work in\nfuels and combustion, a study of cause and effect; but in the grammar grades\nit is solely a consideration of the effects. The normal-college students want a\nbattery for electrolysis and ionization, while the practice-school children want\na battery to furnish an electric circuit thru an electro-magnet or a telegraph\ninstrument.\nIf the public school is to aid in developing, in its great constituency, not\nonly an interest in science, but a scientific spirit, there is no point in its whole\nsystem where highly equipped instructors are more needed than in the department of science in the normal college. Such instructors must be at once scientists and intelligent students of the interests and attitudes of mind in its different\nstages of progress. Not only must the laboratory work be thoro as such, but\nit must connect at all available points with everyday life, and in such a way as\nto awaken in the students an appreciation of law, of its harmonious working\nin the world of nature, and of its application in the inventions of man.\n\nTHE\n\nAGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP\nTO THE SCHEME OF NATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nE. J. V^ICKSON,\nDEAN\nOF COLLEGE\nOF AGRICULTURE\nAND DIRECTOR\nAGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT\nSTATION, UNIVERSITY\nOF\nCALIFORNLA,\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nOF\n\nLittle more than ex-parte statement can be expected from one whose thought\nand work have lain wholly on one side of a subject, and with such consciousness\nof lack of breadth I am impelled to explain that my subject is not of my\nchoosing and if I should overexalt the importance of the agricultural college\nand its relationship to the scheme of national education, may I escape censure\nbecause I neither offered to write nor chose the subject of the writing? I\nsimply go to Nineveh and cry as commanded.\nAnd yet all who observe, even but casually or remotely, the progress of the\nworld's effort at institutional education are aware that the various forms of\napplied knowledge commonly termed ''practical education\" are overwhelmingly popular; that governments and in^iividuals give most freely for their\npromotion; that pupils flock to their dispensaries; and that statesmen of all\ncivilized and being-civilized countries invoke them and count the degree of\ntheir popular attainment the measure of future national achievement. Probably every nation in the world, if called upon to propose a scheme of national\neducation for a nation just about to be born, would lay out a curriculum of\nbird songs and flowers, mud pies and hammer strokes, wheels and levers,\nlathes and looms, dynamos and dynamite, atmospheric nitrate-making, and\n\n"} {"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "I042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nadvanced commercial methods which might obscure even the three R's of\nblessed memory. These older nations for themselves are curbed in their\neducational reforms by vested rights and ancestral beliefs and thus prevented\nfrom realizing popular ideals in education too rapidly, but one can easily see\nwhat revolutions might occur were these wholesome restraints removed.\nWith such a strong bent of the popular will toward the practical in\neducation it is very clear that the next half-century will see great changes in\neducational methods and materials, if not in the very ideals of education. It,\ntherefore, becomes worth while to endeavor to descry the relationship of what\nwe have to that which we may attain; and this will be the line along which I\nshall pursue the agricultural college and its relationship to the scheme of\nnational education.\nIn the first place, I must ask that the term agricultural college be considered\na synonym of agricultural instruction. Those institutions which have ''agricultural college\" as a distinctive name do not comprise or contain the agricultural instruction of the United States. There is only one pure college of\nAgriculture in the United States — that of Massachusetts. The reports of the\nUnited States Commissioner of Education endeavor to segregate and classify\nhigher institutions into two categories: {a) ''universities, colleges, and technological schools; \" {h) \"agricultural and mechanical colleges;\" but it has to\nbe stated that institutions of the land-grant class are also included in the\nstatistical tables of the former class, so that after all the grouping is not by\ninstitutions, but by subjects of instruction, so far, at least, as technological\nundertakings are concerned. The Commissioner's Report for 1905 enumerates\nthe following:\nUniversities, colleges, and technical schools\nSchools of technology\nAgricultural and mechanical colleges\n\n619\n44\n66\n\n•\n\nAs already stated, these figures do not represent numerical segregation\nbecause the first group includes most of the second and third. They are not\navailable for strict classification by subject either, because on this basis many\nmore of the first group should reappear in the second or third group ; for example,\nHarvard University with its Bussey Institution and Yale University with its\nSheffield School are both omitted from the agricultural group, to which they\nare conspicuously entitled to admi:,sion. Many other higher institutions\nshould also be claimed as agricultural. In discussing statistics of this sort\nDr. True and Mr. Crosby in their pamphlet on The American System of\nAgricultural Education fitly remark: \"Owing to the complicated organization\nof many of the institutions having courses in agriculture, .... it is impracticable to show by statistics with exactness the means and facilities for strictly\nagricultural education. The general statistics of the land-grant institutions\nmay, however, serve to show with how great an enterprise, devoted chiefly\nto higher education along scientific lines and industrial Hues, agriculture has\nbeen joined in permanent alliance, and to indicate in some measure how exten-\n\n"} {"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n1043\n\nsive are the educational facilities at the command of the youth of the country\nwho have suflScient intelligence, courage, and perseverance to follow out\nlong and thoro courses of study in agriculture.\" The authors quoted evidently\nare apprehensive lest the statistics of the land-grant colleges should include\ntoo much for agriculture. I believe that, tho this may be true, they also exclude\ntoo much : but how excess and lack stand related I do not know.\nIt may be important, however, to \"show with how great an enterprise agriculture has been joined in permanent alliance,\" by citing the progress in value\nof institutional property, income, teachers, and pupils of the sixty-six\nagricul1,539\ntural and mechanical colleges.\nYear\n\nValuation\n\nRevenue\n\n1895\n1900\n1905\n\n$51,274,546\n59,325,119\n81,251,764\n\n$5,178,580\n6,431,038\n11,767,154\n\n2,013\nInstructors\n\nStudents\n25,723\n\n2,672\n39,505\n\nSurely \"enterprise \" is just the word for an effort which more than doubles its\nincome and its opportunities in a decade. It would be pleasant to undertake\n,518\nanalysis of these figures and to determine the causes operating strongly in53the\nprevious decades, which forced this wonderful development of an educational\nidea just at the hinging of the two centuries in which we are permitted to live\nand act. The limitation of this paper, however, precludes reference to causes\nand agencies.\nTwo claims of significance must be presented:\nFirst, the gains in property and income of the agricultural and mechanical\ncolleges are far greater than their proportion of the gains of all institutions for\nhigher education, viz.:\nTotal property valuation of 619 universities and colleges\n1900\n1905\nand schools of technology\n$391,230,784 $514,840,412\nIncome of the same institutions\n33,259,612 41,775,101\nTotal property valuation of 66 agricultural and mechanical\ncolleges\n59,325,119 81,497,445\nIncome of the same institutions\n6,431,038 11,659,955\nBy subtraction then (because the 619 institutions include the 66):\n\nTotal value of property of 553 institutions\nIncome of same institutions\n\n$331,905,172 $433,342,967\n26,828,574 30,115,146\n\nTherefore, while 553 other institutions made a property gain in five years\nof $101,437,795, 66 agricultural colleges gained $22,172,326; or 11 per cent,\nof the institutions made 24 per cent, of the gain. In income the contrast is\nfar more striking. The increase of the income of 553 institutions was\n$3,286,572, while the increase of income of the 66 was $5,264,917; or 11 per\ncent, of the institutions made about 61 per cent, of the total enhancement of\nrevenue of the whole list of universities, colleges, and technological schools of\nthe United States. This indicates most clearly the popularity of these institutions and as their support comes from governments and not from individuals,\nit argues generosity springing from popular appreciation and expectation which\nfar surpasses private munificence.\nSecond, it is significant also that the revenue of our agricultural colleges\n\n"} {"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "I044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nis increasing at a more rapid rate than their property valuations. This is a\nworking-capital; something to work with, not to wait for. It is, of course,\nadmitted that a vast endowment would be a surety of the future, and, therefore, earnestly to be desired, but the fact that such large sums of money are\nvoted to be immediately used is really a very clear token of popular confidence\nand anticipation of immediate benefit. The actual endowment of these\ninstitutions is the wealth and outlook of the nation and of the states, than\nwhich there is nothing more productive and secure.\nThe second division of the subject assigned to me is the \"relationship of\nthe agricultural college to the scheme of national education.\" Here, too, I\nmust ask to speak of the subject of agriculture rather than of the college of\nagriculture as an institution. Fifty years ago the need of such institutions and\ntheir prospective relationships were popular subjects of discussion. Today\nwe find them strongly established in every state and territory; generously supported, asfigures already cited indicate; and doing such a commendable work\nin instruction and research that, in addition to other sources of increase, grants\nfrom the general government for both lines of effort have practically doubled\nwithin the last twenty years. They are thus deeply and permanently planted in\nthe scheme of national education of the United States, and I confess I cannot\ndiscuss their relationship to such a scheme as tho they were apart from it\nor a thing still to be provided for it. The place of the higher institutions providing instruction in agriculture within the scheme of national education, and\ntheir duties and opportunities therein seem to me more fruitful subjects for\ncontemplation.\nIt is, I believe, particularly fortunate that instruction in agriculture has\ndeveloped almost entirely in institutions which were also devoted to the promotion of other branches of learning. The success of the Massachusetts\nAgricultural College, with a purely agricultural curriculum, cannot be cited\nas pointing in another direction, because in such a small commonwealth, so\nwell provided with other outfits for higher education, it is in effect, tho not in\norganic act, a department of agriculture. Such a result could not have been\nattained in a larger or a newer state without agencies for higher education.\nThe association of agriculture with mechanic arts ''without excluding other\nscientific and classical studies\" in the original Morrill act of 1862 was so wise\nin its conception and grand in its results that it is hard to fully measure its\ninfluence, not only upon the general educational advancement of the country,\nbut upon the recognition of agriculture as the greatest of applied sciences and\na treasure-house of the best pedagogical materials. It seems to me unquestionable that the isolation of agriculture and mechanic arts from other studies,\nas might have been accomplished if the Morrill act had not ordered ''liberal\nand practical education of the industrial classes,\" would have postponed indefinitely the intellectual and industrial advancement which the great central\nand western regions of the country have now attained. For the association\nof agriculture with broad culture has given us leaders and teachers of depth\n\n"} {"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n1045\n\nand grasp and its association with other technological studies and researches\nhas produced experts and engineers for all the various undertakings which the\ndevelopment of agriculture on a great American scale required. The elevation\nof agriculture to its proper place in economics, and of the farmer himself to\nindustrial self-consciousness, both of which advantages may now be claimed to\nhave been fairly attained, are due to the scientific method and scientific achievements which have illumined and advanced policies and practices. Thousands\nof years of poetic and oratorical tributes to the nobility of agriculture accomplished less than a few decades .of modern science and the wisdom of leading\nagriculture to the educational altar, where science awaited her approach, is\ngrand to contemplate.\n''Wisdom is justified of her children.\"\nAnd now agriculture has risen to a capacity for wider service, not only to\nherself but to humanity. In the scheme of enriched and widely distributed\ntechnical education which the present state of the world demands, agriculture\nholds the position of leadership, and all educational undertakings for advancement of manufactures, commerce, transportation, are largely related to it or\nconditioned upon it. This is true, first, because of the fundamental character of agriculture as a world-supporting industry. Agriculture underlies\nall industries and draws upon all sciences. There is no work of man so deep\nand so broad. Agriculture leads all technical education in our national scheme\nbecause no other branch of it has such high value in its instructional outfit\nnor such breadth in its geographical distribution. It is true that the number\nof pupils is still incommensurate with the provision made for them, but, judging\nby recent increase, this will soon be changed.\nIt is fortunate for the advancement of technical education generally, which\nboth public and private generosity join in promoting, that agriculture is the\nsort of applied science and comprehensive art that it is. Its very nature constitutes ithe best foundation for such advancement and the one upon which\nit is easiest to build. Its relation to many sciences and its universality as a\npursuit of men are phases of its suitability for the educational issue which is\nnow arising. There is reason to believe that a third term will henceforward\nbe employed in describing educational branches which are in good standing.\nFirst came ''letters,\" and for centuries it practically covered educational effort.\nA few decades ago \"science,\" after a long struggle, arose to honorable recognition as educational material, and the formula was \"letters and science.\"\nThe third term which must ere long be added is \"industry,\" and \"letters,\nscience, and industry\" will be recognized as equally capable of pursuit toward\nan equally satisfactory and honorable educational end. Industry as a pedagogical quantity must, of course, be used in accordance with sound pedagogic\nprinciples and for true educational ends, which may, however,- require increasing in number because an industrial point of view and purpose must be included\nas worth knowing, not only for use but for culture. The changes in present\neducational philosophies and curricula to include the item \"industry,\" and all\nthat pertains to it in thought and action, will not prove so great and appalling\n\n"} {"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "1046\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nas those which confronted \"letters\" when science claimed its seat. Nor is\nit apprehended that the actual teaching of \"industry\" will be any more crude\nor inadequate than were the beginnings of either letters or science. In fact\nenough has been done already to demonstrate that the elements of industry\nare as capable of presentation and demonstration to attain true ends of education as are the elementary facts and theories of letters or science, and because\nof our broader view of educational means and ends there is every reason to\nexpect that the elements of industry will enter our lower schools and the\ninspiring researches and expositions of industrial materials, methods, relations,\nand point of view will occupy our higher institutions, in much less time and\nin a more satisfactory way than science has done, because the scientific method\nis now existent and forceful and will include all these quantities in its comprehensive grasp. When science began its educational career this method\nhad to be developed and to win recognition.\nNow if I may assume that this view is tenable, what are the duties of the\nagricultural colleges to the attainment of such ends ? Several suggest themselves :\nFirst, the agricultural college should demonstrate by living instances the\nvalue of an agricultural course for general educational ends. This can be done\nby good teaching, by effective research, by scholarly aspiration, and by breadth\nof view. It is important to show that a thoro agricultural course not only\nleads to vocational expertness and success, but is promotive of manhood and\nefficient citizenship. To this end the cultural elements as embodied in history,\neconomics, languages, and literature should not be repressed or excluded.\nTo be a man among men has never been sufficiently considered an agricultural\nattribute, but in the future it cannot be disregarded. Whatever it may be\ndeemed wise to do in improving and advancing our agricultural colleges in\ntechnical lines, or how much pre-prof essional work may be provided for in the\nfour years' course, it will not do to pursue these plans too far. Requirement of\npostgraduate study for professional qualification is a much lighter burden upon\na man than condemnation to narrowness and isolation. It is essential, therefore, to maintain a good amount of general culture work in the agricultural\ncourse, not only for the sake of those who follow it, but that it may exert an\ninfluence in favor of a greater amount of liberalization in other technical courses\nwith which it may be associated. Such courses are now too narrow and their\nproduct not symmetrically developed. A graduate should not only be a technical expert but a \"gentleman and scholar,\" manifesting such quality by daily\nwalk and conversation and not by his \"locked, lettered and braw, brass collar\"\nfurnished on commencement day. Robert Burns's standard was not written\nfor men.\nSecond, the agricultural element in higher institutions must join with other\nelements of applied science in the earnest maintenance and promotion of the\npure-science elements. From such sources in the recent past have come to\nindustry some of its most effective promoting forces. The very existence of an\n\n"} {"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n1047\n\napplied science is obviously conditioned upon the discovery of truth to apply.\nIt would be destructive to undertake to lift a stream above its source. As\nagriculture is above all industries the one to which the greatest number of\nsciences make contribution, it should be the disposition of those who are now,\nby the Adams act, especially endowed for \"original researches or experiments\nbearing directly on the agricultural industry\" to appreciate the loftiness of\nscience for its own sake and to win students to proper contemplation of its\npoint of view. The term science is becoming so common that there is quite a\ndanger of an inadequate conception of its character and function.\nThird, the foregoing are incidental; the crowning duty and opportunity of\nthe agricultural colleges at the present time are to demonstrate the educational\nvalue of the so-called agricultural studies and to prepare teachers to render\nthat value available. Here again it is fortunate that agriculture touches so\nmany branches of natural science, and so many arts, at so many points of\ncontact; it is not only fortunate but this nature of agriculture, as already\nintimated, is its essential qualification for leadership in the wide acceptance\nof technical subjects in educational work of all altitudes which is evidently\nimminent and such leadership imposes heavy duties and responsibihties.\nIt is not necessary now to contend that elementary science has pedagogic\nvalue in the lower schools; that is universally conceded. It should not be\nnecessary either to contend that elementary science instruction is rendered\nconcrete, rational, and successful by employing it to arouse and strengthen\npowers of accurate observation and correct reasoning in the child-mind,\nand that the scientific method is capable of reduction to such simple terms that\na child can not only grasp its purpose, but is awakened and delighted with it.\nThe duty of the agricultural college of each state to lead in the effort to render\nthis branch of instruction spirited, correct in method, and effective, and to\ndisplace as fast as possible perfunctory work and to exclude fadism, seems\nclear. To this end it should directly assist the normal schools by preparation\nof special teachers and otherwise promoting their undertakings in these lines\nand should co-operate with the educational departments of institutions with\nwhich it may be a part to secure qualification of teachers for such work in\nprimary and secondary schools. The assumption of a new line of work in\nthis direction is provided for by the Nelson Amendment to the Agricultural\nAppropriation Act, approved March 4, 1907, which provides that the agricultural colleges may use a portion of the additional money accruing to them by\nthis act, \"for providing courses for the special preparation of instructors for\nteaching the elements of agriculture and the mechanic arts.\"\nThe situation with the colleges of agriculture with reference to this undertaking iscarefully set forth in an excellent article in the Experiment Station\nRecord for February, 1907, from which the following summary statement is\ntaken :\nA careful survey of the whole field reveals the fact that there is as yet no adequate\nprovision for the preparation of teachers to take charge of agricultural courses in schools\n\n"} {"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nof agriculture, normal schools, or other secondary schools, nor is there any definite attention\nor encouragement given to the professional training of instructors for the agricultural work\nin agricultural colleges. The normal schools as at present organized cannot do this higher\nwork, nor can it be done by the great universities unless they maintain colleges of agriculture.\nThe duty of training teachers of agriculture for both colleges and secondary schools\nwill, therefore, under present conditions, fall upon the agricultural colleges, and the needs\nof the time are so great as to make this duty almost imperative. Some of the larger agricultural colleges, especially those which are departments of universities, might well provide\nfacilities and encouragement for fundamental research in the science of education in its\nrelation to agricultural subjects, and all should make provision for training teachers of\nagriculture.\n\nThus is outlined a service which the agricultural colleges can clearly render.\nAs elementary industrial subjects are rising in educational recognition and\nservice, an opportunity for the colleges of agriculture in universities to come\ninto closer co-operative connection with the departments of education and of\nthe natural sciences and of commerce in joint efforts for school enrichment and\nimprovement, should be enthusiastically accepted. It will strengthen the\nposition of the agricultural colleges within their immediate environment and\nincrease their influence with the public at large.\nThe relationship, then, of the colleges of agriculture \"to the national scheme\nof education, \" as my subject phrases it, is that of leadership in the most important work of rendering the curricula of the lower schools more rational ; their\nmaerials better suited to their environment and more effective in helping\nthe youth to find himself in life-work and associations. These institutions\nmore than any others, perhaps, are so placed that they can lay a firm hold upon\nscience and higher branches of learning with one hand and upon the essentials\nof industrial efficiency and right Hving with the other. The association of\nthese elements in individual character is the problem of the ages. It was\ndescried by the ancients in the dawn of civilization; it will be solved in the\nmillennium. Exceptional activity in the phase which it presents to this generation iscertainly within the scope of the agricultural colleges.\nTRADE\nGEORGE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nA. MERRILL, PRINCIPAL OF THE CALIFORNIA SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ARTS AND DIRECTOR OF THE WILMERDING\nSCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS, SAN FRANCISCO,\nCAL.\n\nThe most remarkable thing about trade schools is their absence— which\nis almost complete. They exist mainly in the minds of those two or three\nmillion people, more or less, that represent the thinking portion of our census\npopulation of eighty odd millions. Of those two or three million, many have\npositive, and most of them partisan, views as to what a trade school ought to be.\nIt is widely, if not generally, assumed that there is a natural and logical antagonism between trade schools and trade unions. This assumption, I hope to\nshow, is both premature and pernicious. It is a first impression which takes\nAt least it is capable of consideron a different aspect upon closer scrutiny.\n\n"} {"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\n1049\n\nable qualification. It is based upon the single — and unwarranted — supposition that the graduates of such schools would tend to flood the labor market\nwith superior mechanics according to trade-school enthusiasts, and with a host\nof educated but unpractical workmen, as conceived by those on the other\nextreme. It stands, above all other consideration, as an obstacle to the immediate establishment of secondary technical schools as an integral part of our\npublic-school system. The demand for trade schools is admittedly imperative.\nEven if all were agreed upon the wisdom of establishing and promoting them,\ntheir practical administration would still be confronted with difficulties equal\nto any that have been contended with in the history of American education.\nBesides the usual problems of school administration, they must face also social\nand economic, as well as labor problems of a most perplexing sort. Of the\nfew that have been attempted in this country, nearly all have either failed\nentirely or have been diverted from their original purpose, because this combination of educational, social, economic, and labor problems has been too\ncomplex for practical solution. Schools, like other things, are inclined to\nmove along the line of least resistance. The wording of the bequests under\nwhich a number of our present so-called scientific institutions were founded\nindicates that they were intended to be schools of a more practical sort, if not\nactual trade schools, but they have slipped over to the literary and purely\nscientific side, avoiding the more difficult problems which their founders wanted\nto solve and which were not very different from those that we are trying to\nsolve today.\nIt is needless at this time to po'nt out that the ordinary manual-training\nhigh schools are not trade schools. They have specifically disavowed vocational\naims, claiming to teach toolwork only for its educational and disciplinary\nvalue. What, then, and where are the trade schools? In the South there are\nsome for negroes. There are a few for watchmakers; a few textile schools;\na number of dressmaking schools — the last named frequently for the purpose\nof teaching special systems for drafting garments. In some of the reform\nschools trades are taught. There are institutions with trade-school features\nfor dependent youths, such as the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades,\nand Girard College. There are a number of evening supplementary schools,\nsome that have developed out of the work of manual-training high schools,\nand others that are maintained incidentally by religious, charitable, and\nphilanthropic societies. Several large manufacturing concerns have organized\ntheir apprentice systems in a manner approximating actual schools. Some\nhave been established by private, and some by organized effort in opposition\nto labor unions. Some are conducted on a strictly business basis for personal\ngain. The New York Trade School, the largest of all, admits young men from\nseventeen to twenty-five years of age, and teaches them trades during an\nattendance of three and four evenings a week, from 7 to 9 : 30, for one, one and\none-half, and two years, the length of time being different for different trades.\nThat is the list of American trade schools — all but complete. It will be observed\n\n"} {"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "1050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nthat they all deal with special classes of people or with special conditions — for\nnegroes, for dependent and delinquent children, for the promotion of special\nindustries, for local reasons, etc. These all have their place and value, especially as temporary expedients and as contributors of experience to the general\ngood of the cause; but their importance is nevertheless a minor one in our\nconsideration of the real trade-school problem that confronts this nation\ntoday. What are we going to do, not for the exceptional, but for the average,\nnormal, free, white, American boy who wishes to learn a trade in conjunction\nwith his general education and as a part of his preparation for life ? Where\nare the institutions to which a boy may pass directly from the grammar school\nand in which he may learn a trade, or even the rudiments of a trade, together\nwith such other things as he may need in his future career as an intelligent\nmechanic and a worthy citizen ? That is the kind of trade school to be desired,\nand it is the establishment of schools of that sort that we have in mind when\nwe speak of the trade-school problem — and I repeat what was said in the beginning, that the most remarkable thing about them is their absence. Yet they\nare the only kind worth making a national question of. A plea for them was\nentered a number of years ago by Elmer E. Brown, now United States commissionor of education, in an address before a woman's congress in San\nFrancisco. He directed attention to the fact that we have law schools, medical\nschools, schools of pharmacy, commercial schools, and other secondary and\nhigher technical schools, but none for the mechanical pursuits. In the expenditure of public money for educational purposes the future mechanic is entitled\nto equal opportunities for intelligent advancement, as compared with those\npreparing for professional and commercial careers. There are some who\nsay that it would not be good policy to use public money in that way, but it\nis not easy to see how a line can be drawn between one class of vocational\nsubjects and another.\nIt is asserted, and not often denied, that labor unions have deliberately\nrestricted the number of apprentices in their respective trades, for obvious\nreasons. Reasoning from this, it is anticipated that they will be hostile to\ntrade schools. I speak in the future tense because in the first place the present\nnumber of trade schools is so few, and for the more important reason that the\nattitude of labor unions, and especially of organized labor, on the question\nof trade schools has never been defined. In the Seventeenth Annual Report\nof the United States commissioner of labor (1902), which dealt exclusively\nwith trade and technical education, an attempt was made to deal with that\nphase of the matter, but the result of extensive inquiries that were made at\nthat time among labor representatives indicated that the subject of trade\nschools had not become a live topic among the trade unions. True, the\nquestion is in the air, but so far as the labor unions are concerned their position\nin the premises is one of suspense. Since the matter is thus in a speculative\nstage, let us treat it somewhat analytically and see whether there are not good\nreasons why labor interests will not and should not be unfriendly to trade schools.\n\n"} {"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\n105 1\n\nIn the first place, does anybody suppose that the street-car men, or the\nteamsters, or the garment-makers care how many boys learn bricklaying or\nblacksmithing, or any other trade ? On the contrary, they claim for their\nown children the right to learn any trade they see fit to. If the bricklayers'\nunion, or even the national brotherhood of bricklayers' unions, should object\nto a school of bricklaying, it seems reasonable to suppose that they must stand\nalmost alone in their contention. Labor unions and labor unity are two very\ndifferent things. There are certain fundamental principles upon which the\ndifferent unions are strongly united, but the trade-school question will not be\none of them. We must draw a line between trade unions and organized labor;\nthe latter is not likely to take a stand in opposition to trade schools.\nLet us probe still deeper and see whether it may not be that even the\nindividual unions will find trade schools acceptable. Possibly such schools\nwill prove to be a medium thru which the number of apprentices can be regulated in a way that will be agreeable to all concerned — an institution, in fact,\nin which labor and capital may sink many of their differences. Lacking\ndirect evidence of observation, let us take a hypothetical case — one that will not\ncome about in the near future, yet not entirely in the category of miracles.\nSuppose that, by some wise beneficence, there were trade schools enoughscattered over the land, and that employers and employees were agreed\nthat any boy who might wish to be employed in a mechanical occupation must\nfirst spend at least two years in an appropriate school. Would an arrangement of that sort tend to regulate the number of apprentices and would the results be beneficial to the boy, to his employer, and to the labor cause ?\nFirst, the business of instructing apprentices would be taken from the\nshoulders of the journeyman and placed in the hands of specialists, where it\nbelongs. This proposition needs no extended discussion. All are agreed\nthat modern conditions make it practically impossible for journeymen to devote\nany time worth while to teaching apprentices. The nation seems convinced\nthat our only hope lies in the direction of suitable schools, where boys may\nreceive the same careful and all-around instruction that they used to acquire\nbefore the decadence of the old-time apprentice system.\nSecond, every mechanic knows that a large proportion of the young men\nwho begin apprenticeships fail to serve out the full four years. I have no\nprecise statistics on this point, but it seems safe to say that not more than onehalf complete their time. Those who fail have kept out an equal number of\nworthy young men who were entitled to the opportunity. If all were required\nto spend the first two years in a trade school, those unfit for mechanical vocations or for the trades they have chosen would be eliminated more effectively\nand with an avoidance of friction. The management of trade schools being\nmy sole occupation, the only one I ever had, I venture to offer the trade unions\na word of advice. If they wish to regulate — restrict, if they will — the\nnumber of apprentices, they will find a most effective and advantageous means\nof doing so by seeking to bring about some such arrangement as I have outlined,\n\n"} {"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "1052\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nrequiring every apprentice to spend his first two years in a trade school. It\nwould not be necessary to place a limit upon the number of schools or the number of boys admitted to them. The thing to control would be the output and\nnot the input, and the output could be controlled by setting suitable standards.\nLet the labor interests have a hand in their management. Few will object\nto any standards they may see fit to set, howsoever high, for the purpose of\nweeding out the incompetent mechanics in favor of the intelKgent, skillful,\nworkman. There will be no complaint if the boy fails to meet high standards,\nprovided he has had a fair opportunity. The opportunity is all that is demanded\nand the trade-school question will never be settled in the minds of the American\npeople until that is accomplished and every boy shall have a fair chance.\nUnder present conditions the labor unions are charged with restricting the\nnumber of apprentices by force and compulsion, and by the same means\nmaintaining a maximum scale of wages and a minimum rate of work done.\nThe plan that I have proposed would accompHsh a proper restriction of\nnumbers by putting a premium on skill and intelligence. It would accomplish\nall that the unions accomplish now, and incidentally it would disarm their\ncritics.\nThird, if it were reasonably certain that trade schools would lower standards\nof workmanship, trade unions would be justified in opposing them — and so would\neverybody. It is true that most mechanics regard with contempt, or at least\nwith considerable doubt, the quaUty of instruction given in mechanical schools.\nMany of them think it is not possible to teach in a school anything substantial\nin the way of a trade. This lack of confidence is not unjustified. It is only\ntoo true that educators have not met, or even approximated, the view-point\nof the bread-winning masses, and the result has been a constant procession of\nboys who have prematurely dropped out of school. Even the manual-training schools have not leaned sufficiently to the practical side. Their motto,\n''we learn by doing,\" needs revision. We learn by doing, but we do not\nlearn by half doing or by making believe doing. We do not know anything\nthat we have not actually experienced. Now that the theory of formal discipline is going out of fashion, the manual-training high schools are showing\nmore of a tendency to get into touch with the industrial world. Out of them\nI look for the future trade school to evolve, thru an improvement and extension\nof their work in a way that will win the confidence of the entire community.\nThere is no logical reason why culture and useful knowledge should not be\nimparted at one and the same time.\nFourth, just as trade schools will not be allowed to lower standards of\nworkmanship, so they are not likely to reduce wages. Four years spent in a\nschool, earning nothing, will represent an investment on the part of tradeschool graduates, and in the long run they could not afford to accept wages below\nthe current standard.\nSo much for the prospective attitude of labor interests toward trade\nschools,\nOn the other side, the thought that trade schools will assume, or\n\n"} {"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\n1053\n\nlong maintain, a position hostile to trade unions can be disposed of in a\nsingle sentence. It is absurd to suppose that they will take a stand against\ntheir own organization, many of whom have joined — and many more will\njoin — the unions. This is not a theory, but a practical condition that I have\nmet in my daily work for a number of years. I would now find myself in an\nembarrassing position in my work, if it were not that the schools under my\ndirection have always maintained a stand of neutrality on all labor questions.\nTo contend with all the difl&culties confronting it, and to do, even approximately, what is expected of it, the future trade school must have the united\nsupport of all concerned, and to this end it must serve the interests of all — the\nboy, the calling to which he seeks admittance, the employer, the community\nat large, the state, and the nation. It must preserve harmonious relations\neverywhere. It must not be dominated by any single interest or by anj set\nof interests. It must be absolutely neutral on the labor question, just as it\nmust be absolutely unsectarian. Labor unions should be invited to take an\nactive interest in them, even to the extent of appointing committees to examine\ninto the work of the school and the qualifications of its graduates. Nothing\nless than actual contact will answer the purpose; put before the average union\nas an abstract question the matter of their attitude toward trade schools and\nthere is no telling what fate it would meet at the hands of their lodgeroom orators.\nThe two schools under my direction — the California School of Mechanical\nArts and the Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts — have graduated a fairly\nlarge number of young men in mechanical trades and most of them have entered\nthe unions. Heretofore it has been our policy to avoid agitation of the tradeschool question among the unions, for two reasons. First, we have felt that\nwe should stand on neutral ground and not take any action that would tend\nto influence our graduates one way or the other in the matter of union afl&liation.\nSecond, we preferred not to force the unions to premature action, having confidence that time would dispel any doubt or fear that might exist among them.\nNow, however, I believe the time is ripe to extend to them an invitation to\njoin hands in this movement, and I now suggest that the National Educational\nAssociation extend such an invitation to the National Federation of Labor.\nThis will not please some of the employers, of course, but let me tell you\nthat competition and other circumstances will prevent employers, as a class,\nfrom being overgenerous in their immediate relation to trade schools, notwithstanding their present willingness to promote the cause. This does not refer\nto those bodies of patriotic and unselfish men who have taken the initiative\nin recent movements in favor of industrial education, but to the average employer\nwho may be counted on to rate trade-school graduates as low as he can.\nWith both employer and employee actively connected with them, it is not\nunreasonable to look forward to trade schools as a medium for correcting\nmany existing evils and for adjusting many existing contentions between labor\nand capital, whereas, with either side predominating in their management,\nthey will tend only to widen the breach.\nThe trade school that is conceived\n\n"} {"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "I054\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nin a spirit of antagonism cannot survive; it must not be an institution in\nwhich labor and capital may perpetuate their differences.\nBesides the necessity of safeguarding these important features, there are\nother attributes that trade schools must possess and other dangers that they\nmust avoid. They must not break too harshly with established conditions\nin the educational field; they must borrow the best elements from our own\nestablished schools and from those of other countries, and must not neglect\nthe accrued experience of past centuries. They need courage to cut loose\nfrom wornout traditions, and yet a middle course will prove a safe one.\nThey must be well articulated with the grammar school — altho there\nfollows from this as a corollary the most serious consideration of all. Under\nour present scheme of eight elementary grades a child, beginning at the\nage of six should finish at fourteen, and usually does finish at about fifteen.\nEntering a trade school at fifteen he should graduate at nineteen, and many\nwould be only seventeen or eighteen, which is far too young for their acceptance\nas full journeymen. This phase of the situation is admirably handled in the\nreport of the Massachusetts Commission of Industrial and Technical Education,\nwhich appeared a year or so ago and which has been so widely and so favorably\nnoticed. The years from fourteen to eighteen are therein called the ''wasted\nyears\" in the lives of most children, because during those years they are drifting\nabout in fruitless and often degrading employments, which are the only occupations open to them until they become old enough to begin apprenticeships in\nthe higher classes of trades. The New York Trade School, as I have mentioned\nadmits young men between the ages of seventeen and twenty-five only. That,\nyou see, is clearly a matter of expedience, and does not go far toward solving\nthe real problem. The commonwealth of Massachusetts having put its\nfinger on the sore spot and having set out to find a remedy, the outlook is\nfar brighter today than ever before.\nIn fact, this movement in Massachusetts is only one indication of what\nseems to be a general awakening thruout the land. A few months ago there was\norganized a National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education.\nIt has representatives present at this meeting of the National Educational\nAssociation for the purpose of promoting the general movement and to urge\nthe next step in their program, which is the organization of state committees\nthruout the United States. Another movement having an important bearing\non this subject is the Social Education Congress, recently organized in Boston.\nThat ascociation also has large plans and promises much, if one may judge\nfrom the high character of the papers presented at the initial meeting. The\nnational importance of developing industrial education beyond its present\nstatus was also urged by President Roosevelt in his last message to Congress.\nThe time is ripe and there is a splendid opportunity for this newborn\ndepartment of the National Educational Association to take up this work as\nan important part of its province. You asked me, Mr. Chairman, to come\nhere prepared to offer suggestions concerning the function to be assumed by\n\n"} {"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1055\n\nthis department. I would suggest that, among other things, we take it upon\nourselves to serve as a clearing-house for the National Society for the Promotion ofIndustrial Education, for the Social Education Congress, for associations of manufacturers, for the National Federation and other organizations\nof labor, and for all other interests and elements that will patronize us — not\nomitting our chief concern, the grand army of American boys and girls.\nTECHNICAL\nARTHUR\n\nH.\n\nEDUCATION IN HIGH\nCOLLEGES\n\nCHAMBERLAIN,\nACTING\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nINSTITUTE,\nPASADENA,\nCAL.\n\nSCHOOLS\nTHROOP\n\nAND\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nThere are many qualities essential to success and to the mental and moral\ngrowth of the individual and of the state. Honesty, responsibility, simplicity,\njudgment, leadership — these attributes are at the very foundation of our\nwelfare. But the culmination of all the virtues, the final aim of the sum total\nof our faith and our endeavor is the doctrine of service. In the bustling, moneymaking, ambition-loving, progressive life of this twentieth century, when the\nconflict for place and for power takes the not always imaginative form of a\nhand-to-hand encounter; when money too often counts for more than the\nman and selfishness and greed seem to overshadow the finer qualities of human\nnature — now it is that the value of service stands out clear and distinct.\nIn the last analysis the whole civic state is built upon the gospel of service;\nall moral and social virtues, all standards of right living, all ideals of life, and\nall rules of conduct bear a close relation to and find their roots in the spirit of\ntrue service. It is the beginning and the end. It is the rendering of true\nservice that makes possible the establishment of moral and educational institutions and it is the necessity for service that makes imperative the need everywhere for organizations that ennoble and uplift.\nService is another word for life. It is the spirit that prompts us to aid\nour friend, our brother, our neighbor; to seek out those who have fewer\nopportunities and are more unfortunate than ourselves and lend assistance\nwhere it is most needed. To be of service to our fellows we must be not\nthinkers and dreamers only, we must be doers as well. It is not enough to\nbe willing to do, to help, to assist; we must actually take hold, and work,\nand accomplish results. As Edward Everett Hale says, \"Look up, and not\ndown; look forward and not back; look out, and not in; and lend a hand.''\nEducation is the process of training for service. Whether we contend that\neducation should train for citizenship or for life; whether it is designed to\nfit for participation in the world's activities or in life itself; whether it should\naid in the unfolding of the human powers or furnish that which shall make\npossible a complete development; whatever we may determine the purpose\nof education to be, we are lost in the vagaries of terminology and mean only a\ntraining for service.\nThe high school and college offer large opportunity for such training and\n\n"} {"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nespecially is this true in technical education, owing to its broad and intensive\ncharacter and its humanistic tendency.\nIn this discussion the term technical education implies a wider field than\nthat usually considered under the head of manual training. In the elementary\nschool we speak of occupation, motor activity, constructive work, handwork.\nTo designate work of a more advanced character we speak of manual training\nor industrial training. The term technical education carries with it not only\nthe idea of processes, of something planned and constructed, but it implies\nan advance over the former both in kind and quality. It signifies also a\nmore definite aim; a specific rather than a general tendency.\nBut after all the whole question is one of relative values. Many find it\ntoo easy to insist that this or that form of work carried on in a particular\nclass or grade of school is the only kind of education that will bring results.\nLet me illustrate the danger of this narrow tendency.\nAt a recent education convention an able paper touching the possible\neliminations from the curricula of the schools had been presented and able\nmen and women had been chosen to lead the discussion. The first speaker\nagreed with the general tenor of the paper; he would eliminate much of the\nwork as now taken up but there was one school subject that must not be given\na shorter time allowance on the program. In fact he favored an increase\nof time in this particular subject, and as he proceeded in his argument we\nlearned he was a specialist in the line he sought to magnify. Another speaker\nvoiced views of a similar character regarding the curriculum in general, but\nheld stoutly for an increased time allowance in one subject, this finally proving\nto be the one he was teaching. Still others followed, all specialists, and fearful\nlest too little time be devoted to their individual lines of work while ignoring\nthe claims of allied subjects.\nIn the same way the elementary school is considered by this or that individual to be of first importance. Commercial education is, to the mind of\none, the imperative need of the hour, while to another an agricultural, a classical, or a technical training is the thing to be desired. Let it be understood that\nthe writer attempts to give full value to all forms and grades of education\neven while advocating an extension and a complete recognition of the\nvalue of technical work in the college and the high school.\nIt is the contention of many that we should have no so-called manualtraining or technical high school, or a classical or English high school, per se.\nEvery high school should be all of these in one; in other words every completely equipped high school should offer courses in technical training as well\nas in Greek and stenography. The one subject need not necessarily be made\ncompulsory more than the other, but all students should have open to them\nthe possibilities of instruction in manual and technical lines and at no other\nexpense than that incident upon attendance at a public institution of learning.\nIt will at once be observed that those who advocate this plan favor what\nmay be called the educational phase of the question.\nIf all high schools are\n\n"} {"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1057\n\nto offer instruction in technical lines and all students are eligible to participate\nin the courses offered, then it follows that the special or trade element could\nhere have no place. No subject taken as an elective, or as one of the several\nelements in a regular four-year course in high school, can be sufficiently analyzed\nand mastered as produce specialists.\nAgain there are those who hold that schools of secondary grade should be\nspecific rather than general in character. The assumption is that having completed his eighth school year, the student knows something of his own capabilities, his likes and dislikes, and is thus quahfied to estimate and judge for himself. His parents and teachers are also able to advise him in making a choice.\nThis being the case, he should, if his inclinations so direct, enter at once a\nspecial school in which technical education is the chief feature of the course.\nWhile I am in favor of early speciaKzation, when in a given instance a\nstudent shows marked ability in and a desire to concentrate upon a subject,\nI can hardly sanction the plan just outlined. If carried out, the secondary\ninstitution would be, in the last analysis, a trade school.\nThere is no doubt in my mind that every high school should offer technical\ninstruction, including domestic science, domestic art, applied arts, drawing,\nand household economy for girls; agriculture, drawing, work in wood and\niron at the bench, lathe, and forge for boys. But the success of such courses\nif introduced into the schools, depends upon the kind and character of work\noffered and of the instruction given ; and while much good has been accomplished\nthus far, the results achieved in many localities are not such as to convince the\nkeen, analytic man of affairs that technical education in the high school has\nbeen reduced to an entirely satisfactory basis.\nThe people must be convinced of the value of the instruction offered in\ntechnical lines. Such instruction must appeal to them from the utilitarian side.\nWhile the trade school is not needed in this connection, nor is trade instruction demanded, the work should always be eminently practical, that is, useful.\n''We should never work contrary to trade practice,\" says one who has studied\nthe question thoroly. Whatever tool is used should be a tool the tradesman\nwould use for a like purpose. Special or miniature tools should have no place.\nThe method of procedure should also be that of the man of the trade, while\nthe material upon which the students work should be such as an expert would\nselect in the world of activity. In other words, the students should, by reason\nof the technical training carried on at school, have nothing to unlearn when\nthey face the searchlight of actual living.\nIn a study of literature in the school only the best is chosen, that which\nin style, composition, force, and power to uplift and instruct is pre-eminently\nsuperior. That which in mature years will appeal to the individual as literature is studied as such in the school. So it should be with the industrial and\ntechnical forms of work, its tools, its methods, its materials, its output. A\nprocess is not necessarily lacking in educational value simply because it possesses commercial worth and is made after the shop pattern or is given the\n\n"} {"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "1058\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLTechnical\n\nhandling of the craftsman. Depend upon it, those who work, day by day, at a\ngiven process or along a given industrial or technical line are, broadly speaking,\nusing the most economical methods, the most desirable tools, the most satisfactory materials. To be sure the educational principle should be applied in\nthe school but always in the light of the practice of the tradesman.\nIn dealing with the problem of technical training in high schools it is not safe\nto attempt to educate the taxpayers to the value of making things that have\nno utility and such as possess no beauty, no intrinsic worth. We must proceed\nrather from the standpoint of values as held by the community members.\nThere are schools where the course of study in technical lines is on such a\nscientific and pedagogic basis and so educational in its application, that should\na student bring from home a piece of furniture to be repaired, he will be allowed\nthis privilege only as he completes successfully a definite exercise or article\nin a prescribed series. The procedure should be directly reversed. The\nmending of a window sash, the rehanging of a door, the doweling of an umbrella\nhandle, the gluing of a picture frame, the hinging of a chest cover, the construction for a definite purpose of a table, tabourette, chair, stool, bench, cupboard, cabinet, bookcase — this is typical of the work in tool construction in\nwood that should have first place in the high school and prescribed courses\nof study should be brought forward only in emergency cases.\nBut what has been said applies chiefly to the work of the beginner. In the\nmore advanced years of the high school when metal work, at the forge and\nthe lathe is to be taken up, and particularly when tool and machine construction form the technical processes involved, less latitude may be allowed;\nbut even here each environment demands a treatment and interpretation\ndistinctly different from that given elsewhere, and in any event the natural\naptitude and desire of the student cannot be ignored.\nThe question may here be raised as to where competent teachers are to be\nfound. One school board makes the bald statement that the less the teacher\nknows of the subject the better teacher he is, for under such conditions the\nstudents do their own work. The expert is too prone to rob the boy of the\nbenefits he should receive by himself performing the difficult details, the excuse\nfor so doing being that more ground is thus covered and a better showing\nmade. Whether or not the argument of this school board is germane, in\ntechnical training as elsewhere in education, common sense is the first essential.\nThe time is fitting for a word on technical training for girls in the high\nschool. Many mothers have small favor for domestic economy in the school.\nThis, they claim, can be learned at home. Here again popular sentiment must\nbe aroused. While the processes must proceed along educational lines, the\nindustrial spirit or commercial handling must be present. If the mothers are\nto be educated to the appreciation of certain economic and scientific points\nof view it must be by beginning with processes they understand, with methods\nthey can appreciate, and with equipment and utensils with which they are\nfamiliar.\nIf it be demonstrated to them that the tools they possess can be\n\n"} {"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1059\n\nused to better advantage, they will not be long in acquiring new methods.\nMuch can be taught at home but it is unnecessary to suggest here why industrial and technical occupations, including sewing, cooking, and allied\nsubjects cannot be fully or adequately thus taught. Such economic and\nsociological questions are involved as seem to be a barrier to home teaching\naltho the value of home instruction is unquestioned.\nWork for girls should include not only sewing and cooking in their narrow\naspects, but a study of the chemistry of foods, simple analyses, marketing in\nits economic aspects, heat, light, ventilation, house sanitation, plumbing and\ndisinfectants; proper methods of sweeping, dusting, laundry, and care of the\nhome; hygiene, nursing, and emergency aid; a knowledge of accounts and\nbusiness forms; domestic architecture and planning of the house and grounds;\ngardening and tree and floral culture where possible, and much more that in\nthe Swiss schools is included under the term \"female handwork,\" and which\nis both practical and cultural.\nIf technical education is to develop and be a general factor in the educational life of the country, such education must justify itself and stand out as\nbeing eminently superior. There must be no question as to the seriousness,\nthe intensity, the real worth of such work. In institutions offering education\nof a technical character, the subjects must be pre-eminently of an educational\nand practical value and the curriculum, the methods, the teachers, the work\naccomplished must be such as to command the attention of those desiring such\neducation; the institution must be in every way so attractive that boys and\ngirls who might otherwise enter the field of practical life at an early age, will\nbe drawn to and induced to spend here three or four of the best years of their\nlives, not in learning about living or doing merely, but in living and doing;\nnot swept thru the channels of reformation and change, but directed over a\nself -constructed highway of formation and growth.\nA distinct effort must be made to bring together the various school subjects\nso as to form a more perfect union and an organized whole. Harmony must\nexist between the various studies; the several lines must so work together as to\navoid needless duplication, while at the same time principles learned in one\nsubject shall find application elsewhere. In so doing much time can be saved\nthat is now entirely wasted. The necessity for this change is particularly\nnoticeable at this time owing to the serious overcrowded condition of the\ncurriculum.\nAs to organization, the school with its many interests and activities should\nbe a unit. While tending toward the individual development of each student,\none central, all-embracing policy must animate thruout, and all work must\nbe subordinate to and flow in to enrich this central policy. No curriculum\nalone, however good it may be, will suffice to bring desired results. There\nmust be a definite, direct, clean-cut motive at the center. The policy then\nmust be understood by all and the school's organization such as to permit the\ncarrying out of such policy.\n\n"} {"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Technical\n\nJust what lines of technical training should be offered in a secondary school\nis a question of considerable importance. Tradition and practice have marked\nout a fairly well-defined road in shop practice for boys; in general, one year of\nwood construction, one of iron, and two of pattern- and machine-work. For\nthose students who are not to put their knowledge of machinery to immediate\naccount, this second year of machine-shop may be omitted, and a general\ncourse be pursued. This might be an applied-art course, demanding a\nknowledge of constructive design, and of wood and iron processes, and would\ncomprehend work in any media including copper, brass, enameling, glass,\nleather, etc. Unless a student was to enter a technical college later where an\nextended knowledge of machine construction would be essential, such a\ngeneral course would prove of great value. In the technical high school, too,\nthe student may be allowed to specialize to the extent of taking two years of\nwork in a given shop — turning in wood, cabinet-making, pattern-making,\nforging, and the like.\nTime will permit of no adequate discussion of the work of the technical\ncollege. One thing is certain. While the opportunities and field for such\ninstitutions is becoming vastly greater and broader and the need of technically\ntrained men more and more apparent, the fact is also clear that the training\nin such schools is too narrow and restricted. This is but the natural revolt\nagainst the old scholasticism. From a college training in letters merely, the\ntendency has been too strongly marked in the opposite direction, and pure\nscience and technique in the abstract has characterized the technical courses.\nThen, too, just as the general high school should offer technical training to all\nwho seek entrance, so should the colleges everywhere offer certain technological\ncourses to balance and complete their curricula.\nThat the training given in the technical college be not over-narrow and\nrestricted, to the sciences, mathematics, drawing, and shopwork must be added\nsuch of the humanities as experience may determine essential. The graduate\nof an engineering college or of a school of technology frequently finds himself\nin possession of sufficient facts connected with his profession, but with a knowledge of the language he uses so inadequate as to seriously handicap him in\npursuing his vocation. The business side of his education he also finds, when\ntoo late, has been sadly neglected. To adequately express oneself and to\nperfectly understand all common business forms, such as papers of conveyance,\ndeeds, bills of lading, etc., are matters, to be ignorant of which is absolutely\ninexcusable. Details of common law, training in questions of national and\npolitical economy and of general history are fundamentally essential. A\nstudy of the technical college courses will show that everywhere, and especially\nin Germany, a strong reaction is taking place, and the feeling is growing,\nthat a well-trained engineer must be a man broad in his sympathies and\npossessing a knowledge of people and things that shall give him place\nanywhere and always. The Emperor William, on the occasion of the\nCharlottenburg celebration, used these words to indicate what was to\n\n"} {"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nhis mind the connection\ntechnical college:\n\nbetween\n\nEDUCATION\n\nthe\n\ntechnical\n\nhigh\n\nschool\n\n1 06 1\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nIn the relation of the technical high schools to the other highest educational establishments, there is no opposition of interests, and no other competition than this, that each\nof them and every member of them for his own part, should do full justice to the claims of\nlife and science, mindful of the words of Goethe:\n\"Neither be like the other, but each be like to the highest! How is this to be done ?\nLet each be complete in itself.\"\n\nWe close where we began. In the technical college as elsewhere the\nultimate purpose of the training offered is for service. But the service rendered\nmust be given, not with the hope of material gain only or of selfish reward.\nRecent events in our country have shown us most clearly a great lack in our\npresent social attitude. We have men — trained specialists, professional,\ntechnical, and commercial, and we need more of them, but if we are to meet,\nsuccessfully the present state of social unrest and solve the economic and political problems that confront us, they must be men of broad social vision, men\nwho realize the needs of society and who are willing to assume to the full\ntheir individual and collective responsibilities. The technical college must do\nits part by broadening its purely technical character in the lines which I have\nattempted to indicate.\nBut the proper results in technical education cannot be attained without\nwork, and there will be much opposition. We must be leaders as well as\nlearners and followers. We must be open-minded always, definite in our\npurposes, and willing to stand alone if in the right. What Burke says of\nParliament finds its application with us in America, whether it be in politics, in\nthe religious world, or in education :\nTheir one proper concern is the interest of the whole body poHtic, and the true democratic representative is not the cringing, fawning tool of the caucus or the mob, but he who,\nrising to the full stature of poHtical manhood, does not take orders but offers guidance.\n\n"} {"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONFERENCE OF NATIONAL COMMITTEE\nAGRICULTURAL EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\nWednesday,\n\nON\n\nMINUTES\n\n2:30 p. m., July 10, 1907\n\nThe conference under the direction of the National Committee on Agricultural Education met Wednesday afternoon, July 10, in the State Normal School, Los Angeles.\nE. C. Bishop, deputy state superintendent of Nebraska, was chosen leader and E. E.\nBalcomb of Southwestern Normal School, Weatherford, Okla., secretary.\n*' The Work of the National Government in Extending Agricultural Education through\nthe Public Schools\" was the subject of an address by Dick J. Crosby, expert in agricultural education. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.\nA paper on \"What Has Been Done and Is Being Done by Normal Schools and Agricultural Schools for Popular Education in Agriculture\" was read by E. E. Balcomb,\ndepartment of agriculture, State Normal School, Weatherford, Okla.\n\"The Work in Agriculture as Conducted by the State and County Organizations of\nYoung People in Club Contests\" was considered in an address by E. C. Bishop, deputy\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Neb.\nA discussion followed.\nBy reference to the minutes of a meeting of the Board of Directors held July 8, 1907\n(see pp. 44, 45), it will be seen that in answer to a petition, the estabhshment of a Department of Rural and Agricultural Education was authorized. It is understood that the\npetitioners will organize at a later date and will present a program at the next annual\nconvention.\nE. E. Balcomb, Secretary.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT IN EXTENDING AGRICULTURAL EDUCA TION THRU THE\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nDICK J. CROSBY, EXPERT IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, UNITED STATES OFFICE\nOF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, WASHINGTON,\nD. C.\nThe work of the national government in aid of agricultural education maybe outlined under two main heads: (i) The giving of funds to the different\nstates and territories to support and encourage agricultural education and\nresearch; (2) The giving of expert assistance to educators, educational institutions, and the officials of education, by the different executive departments\nof the government.\nFINANCIAL\n\nAID\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nFEDERAL\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nThe government is now giving annually to the states and territories more\nthan $2,000,000 for the support of institutions in which agricultural education\nand research are the leading features, and legislation recently enacted provides\nfor the gradual increase of this amount1063until a total of $3,840,000 is reached.\nIncidentally this recent legislation also provides for the use of a part of the\n\n"} {"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 064\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nfederal appropriation in the preparation of teachers of agriculture. In addition,\nthese same institutions receive a total of $760,000 annually from funds derived\nfrom the federal land-grant of 1862. In a few years, then, the states will be\ngetting from the federal government over four and one half million dollars\nannually, which must be used largely for education and research in agriculture.\nRelatively this is not a large sum (nearly as much is spent for a single\nbattleship), but it has had a wonderful influence in stimulating local activity\nin organizing agricultural education, and local taxation in support of agricultural education. It is only fifty years since the first agricultural college opened\nits doors, but there are now sixty-five state educational institutions which\nreceive aid from the federal government, and sixty-three of these are giving\ninstructions in agriculture. They receive two million dollars from the federal\ngovernment and more than twelve and one-half millions from the states and\nother local sources. The aggregate value of their equipment and endowment is\"estimated at eighty-four million dollars.\nThese institutions are now training over nine thousand students to a better\nappreciation of the problems of the farm and the farm home, and directly or\nindirectly, they are reaching over a million people annually thru farmers'\ninstitutes, and nobody knows how many thru agricultural high schools and\nthe teaching of agriculture, nature-study, and school gardening in public\nand private schools.\nSuffice it to say that the agricultural college has been the parent, the inspiration, the wise counsellor, and the guide for the whole movement in education\nwhich finds expression in the study of common things for the sake of knowing\nthem better and appreciating their importance in the everyday problems of\nlife. And the federal government has had no small share in the establishment and development of the agricultural colleges.\nEXPERT\n\nASSISTANCE\n\nFROM\n\nFEDERAL\n\nEXECUTIVE\n\nDEPARTMENTS\n\nSeveral of the federal executive departments publish bulletins, maps, charts,\nand other material used ipore or less in the public schools, but only two of these,\nthe Department of the Interior and the Department of Agriculture, are directly\ncharged with duties relating to the education of our youth. The Department of the Interior thru its Indian service is charged with the management\nof Indian schools and has made provision for the teaching of elementary\nagriculture in these schools; thru its Bureau of Education it is charged with\nthe direct management of schools in Alaska and given certain duties in connection with all colleges and schools receiving public funds. The Department of Agriculture thru its office of experiment stations is given the task of\npromoting more effective instruction in agriculture thru farmers' institutes\nand agricultural schools.\nThe functions of both these federal bureaus are in the main advisory.\nThey may collect, collate, publish, and disseminate information concerning\neducation in this country and abroad, but there their duties practically end.\n\n"} {"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PURLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1065\n\nThey may recommend certain changes, but they have no way of enforcing\ntheir recommendations. They may co-operate with educational institutions\nand officials in the different states but not coerce them. They are intended\nto be co-ordinating agencies — the clearing houses of education.\nTHE\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nThe work of the Bureau of Education touches all phases of education —\nsupervision, methods, relative values; all subjects — the humanities, mathematics, sciences, and arts — among them agriculture. One who is familiar with\nthe meager funds given this important bureau would not expect it to give\nmuch special attention to this recent subject, agriculture, but an examination\nof the literature emanating from this source will show a number of important\nand helpful publications on nature-study, school gardens, and other phases\nof the subject. This bureau is now getting out a bulletin on agricultural\neducation which will be an important contribution to our knowledge of this\nsubject. The Commissioner of Education, in a recent address at the celebration ofthe fiftieth anniversary of the opening of the first agricultural college\nin the United States, expressed a warm and hopeful interest in agricultural\neducation, and I am sure that teachers of agriculture who write to him will\nbe given every assistance he is able to extend.\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\nIn order that what I shall say regarding the work of the United States\nDepartment of Agriculture may bear the stamp of official approval, allow\nme to quote very briefly from the President's message at the opening of the\nsecond session of the Fifty-ninth Congress:\nThe Department of Agriculture has broken new ground in many directions, and year\nby year it finds how it can improve its methods and develop fresh usefulness. Its constant\neffort is to give the governmental assistance in the most effective way; that is, thru associations of farmers rather than to or thru individual farmers. It is also striving to co-ordinate\nits work with the agricultural departments of the several states, and so far as its own work\nis educational, to co-ordinate it with the work of other educational authorities. Agricultural\neducation is necessarily based upon general education, but our agricultural educational\ninstitutions are wisely specializing themselves, making their courses relate to the actual\nteaching of the agricultural and kindred sciences to young country people or young city\npeople who wish to live in the country.\n\nWhile the office of experiment stations is the agency thru which the United\nStates Department of Agriculture deals with matters concerning agricultural\neducation, I wish to defer speaking particularly of the work of this office until\nafter I have mentioned briefly the efforts of other bureaus of the department\nto promote the teaching of agriculture in public schools.\nThe Weather Bureau has representatives in all parts of the country who are\ndoing much to instruct the people concerning meteorological conditions in\nrelation to agriculture. Last year these men gave regular courses of instruction in fourteen universities, colleges, and scientific schools and at least forty\nother officials of the bureau gave occasional lectures or addresses.\nThe\n\n"} {"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Agricultural\n\nbureau furnishes the daily weather chart to many schools to be used for educational purposes, and sends out also a leaflet to explain the chart.\nFor a number of years the Bureau of Plant Industry has been co-operating\nwith the normal schools in the City of Washington in conducting schoolgarden experiments to determine the value of such work and discover the\nbest methods of conducting it. The bureau is now furnishing two greenhouses, two acres of land divided into plats for two hundred and fifty children\nand the necessary seeds, manure, and teamwork for carrying on this work.\nThe normal schools provide the teachers and pupils. As a result of these\nexperiments nearly every school in the District of Columbia has undertaken garden-work or schoolground improvement. Congress has appropriated a small amount for teachers of gardening, making it possible to start\nfour other school-garden centers, and the children of Washington bought in\nthe spring of 1907 over 160,000 packets of seeds for home gardens. A report\non this work and on similar work in other cities is pubHshed in Bulletin 160,\nof the office of experiment stations entitled School Gardens. The Bureau of\nPlant Industry has also prepared and published farmers' bulletins on School\nGardens, Annual Flowering Plants, The Decoration oj Home Grounds, and\nthe Propagation oj Plants, which are much used in public schools.\nDuring 1906-7, the bureau corresponded with over twelve thousand\nschools on school gardens and schoolground improvement and distributed\nabout seventy-five thousand sets of seeds to be used in this work.\nThe forest service is conducting an energetic propaganda to impress upon\nschool oflScials and teachers the importance of giving some instruction in\nforestry in the public schools. This it is doing thru publications, thru addresses\nand lectures, thru the press, and thru correspondence. It has within six\nmonths sent publications to over one hundred thousand individual publicschool teachers. It has made addresses before teachers' institutes, normals,\nand other gatherings of teachers in eastern, southern, and middle-west states.\nIt has prepared maps for publishers, suggested text-matter for schoolbooks,\nand begun to formulate exercises and methods for teachers of nature-study.\nIt has furnished local examples in many regions of proper methods of planting forest trees and caring for wood lots, thru the plans which it has prepared\nand put into operation on the lands of private owners. It has identified\nmany hundreds of forest specimens submitted by school-teachers, loaned\ncollections of lantern slides, loaned, sold, and given away forest photographs,\nand met a large and growing demand for miscellaneous information thru\ncorrespondence. It sent out during the month of April of the present year\nover one hundred and seventy thousand copies of a circular for the use of\nteachers in connection with Arbor Day. Certain of its publications are used\nwidely for supplementary reading, and to some extent as textbooks. It makes\nspecial effort to respond to requests for publications which are useful for school\nlibraries. All of this work is aiding powerfully, tho for the most part indirectly,\nto bring education in forestry as a branch of agriculture into the public schools.\n\n"} {"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1067\n\nSeveral features of the work of the Bureau of Chemistry find a way into the\npublic schools, especially those relating to the adulteration of foods and other\nagricultural products and to methods of analysis. The schools in which\ndomestic science is taught make frequent use of the publications of this bureau.\nThe officers of the Bureau of Soils are in close sympathy with the movement for the extension of agricultural education. They have furnished lecturers for teachers' institutes, soil maps and reports for use in public schools,\nand soil samples for use in agricultural colleges. They have made special\nsoil maps of school farms, notably in Alabama and Georgia, and have aided,\nare now aiding, these schools in planning and carrying out soil-improvement\nexperiments.\nThe Bureau of Statistics under plans suggested by Hon. Willet M. Hays,\nAssistant Secretary of Agriculture is making a careful statistical study of the\norganization, cost, and effectiveness of consoHdated rural schools, especially\nin relation to the introduction of work in agriculture and home economics into\nsuch schools.\nThe division of publications is the agency of the Department of Agriculture in charge of the printing and distributing of its publications. The editor\nis quite partial to teachers and recognizes the fact that the dissemination of\ndepartment publications thru the public schools is one of the very best uses\nthat can be made of them, but he solemnly charged me not to boom the\ndistribution of department publications. The printing fund is already inadequate to meet the large demand from educational institutions, teachers,\nand students, and any increase in such distribution would necessitate a large\nincrease in the fund for printing. If the friends of education would prevail\nupon Congress to deal more liberally with the division of publications they\nmight expect a cordial response in the way of a freer distribution of department publications.\nTHE\n\nOFFICE\n\nOF EXPERIMENT\n\nSTATIONS\n\nDirector A. C. True, of the office of experiment stations, is deeply\ninterested in all phases of agricultura education, and he is quite generally\nrecognized as a leader in this field. He has been twice called to the deanship\nof the Graduate School of Agriculture and will act in the same capacity at\nthe third session of that school at Cornell University next summer. For many\nyears he has been chairman of a standing committee on Instruction in Agriculture, of the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.\nIn this capacity he has had much to do with the formulation of courses in\nagriculture for colleges and schools of different grades, and this work has had\na wide influence in the creditable beginning that has been made to reduce\nthe teaching of agriculture to pedagogical form. Under the leadership of\nDirector True the work of the office of experiment stations in relation to agricultural education has become so broad and the demands upon the office on the\npart of the educators have become so varied that it has been found necessary\n\n"} {"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "io68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nto organize the work under two sections, one dealing with the agricultural\ncolleges and schools and the other with farmers' institutes and other forms\nof extension work in agriculture. I shall speak only of the work in relation\nto colleges and schools which may be conveniently grouped under four heads,\n(i) The collection and publication of information regarding the progress\nof agricultural education at home and abroad: This includes the annual\nstatistics and organization lists of agricultural colleges and experiment stations;\nlists of schools in which agriculture is taught, suggestive courses in agriculture for schools of different grades; laboratory exercises in agriculture for\ncolleges, secondary schools, and elementary schools; popular articles describing features of instruction in agriculture in successful schools; lists of textbooks and works of reference in agriculture, and reviews of the literature of\nthis subject in the official journal of the office ; the Experiment Station Record.\n(2) Studies of different grades of American and foreign schools in which\nagriculture is taught: This involves visits to many of these schools, and a\nstudy of their literature with a view of giving wide publicity to the commendable features of their work. This branch of our work has made it necessary\nto examine over one thousand foreign publications during the past year. In\nthis connection we maintain a card index containing over three thousand six\nhundred cards relating to institutions in which agriculture is taught, twelve\nhundred of these referring to American colleges and schools.\n(3) Work in co-operation with the Association of American Agricultural\nColleges and Experiment Stations: This is primarily committee work and\ncorrespondence relating to courses in agriculture. It is lacking in spectacular\nfeatures but has nevertheless an important bearing on the extension of agricultural education in public schools. A bulletin from the committee on Exercises in Elementary Agriculture came from the press May 24, and the entire\nedition of seven thousand copies is now exhausted. It will be reprinted and\nlater will be supplemented with circulars containing special exercises on the\nchemistry of agriculture, root crops, cotton, fruits, etc. A report on a Secondary Course in Agronomy is nearly ready for the printer. The field for work\nof this kind is almost unlimited. I am sorry that the funds of the office do not\nallow us to cultivate it more fully.\n(4) The giving of aid to agricultural colleges and schools and to state and\nlocal school authorities along lines of agricultural education: This is our\nmiscellaneous work — ever changing, ever new and interesting, each feature\nof it presenting a new problem to be solved by some method yet to be formulated. At one time it means a Christmas trip to California, a Thanksgiving\ntrip to Virginia, or a midsummer trip to Lake Champlain to give an address\nor an illustrated lecture before a state convention of teachers; again it may\nmean a drive of one hundred and fifty miles over the dusty roads of Kansas\nto arouse enthusiasm for an agricultural school, or an April campaign in Maine\nsnow-banks to stir up the normal schools on forestry, or a week's conference\nwith school men in Georgia to formulate courses for a whole system of state\n\n"} {"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nPOPULAR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1069\n\nagricultural schools. A score or more of such trips have been taken during\nthe past year.\nIt may consist of less spectacular but no less effective work in the office —\ncorrespondence, conferences, the sending out of lantern slides and other illustrative material, the preparation of special data for school officers or members\nof Congress. Last summer upon invitation we sent a young man, a teacher\nwho had displayed special aptitude in teaching elementary agriculture, to\nWisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Maryland for five weeks to give instruction\nin agriculture at teachers' institutes. We could have kept him constantly\nemployed in this and similar useful work, but our funds would not allow it.\nWe were compelled to furlough him for eight months to superintend the starting of a rural agricultural high school in Maryland. He is now with us again\nand will put in his whole time up to September i, in teachers' institutes in Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, Illinois, and Wisconsin. Then we shall have\nto let him go back to his school, where he will do excellent work, tho in a field\nmuch narrower than we could offer him if Congress were disposed to be more\nliberal with us in appropriating for the educational features of our work.\n*' Aye, there's the rub !\" We find little difficulty in getting adequate appropriations tofight the cotton boll weevil or the browntail moth, or to engineer\nsome irrigating project — anything with commercial interests back of it, but\nwhen we ask for $10,000 or $15,000 to aid in improving the minds of our\nchildren — to make the coming generations of farmers less dependent upon\nCongress for aid — there is none so valiant as to raise lance in our behalf.\nSuch in brief is the educational work of the national government so far\nas -it has a bearing upon agriculture. Speaking more particularly for the\nDepartment of Agriculture, we find that there is a large demand for such\nassistance as we are able to give. We would like to increase our facilities and\nbroaden our work, not to the extent of undertaking work which the states can\njust as well do for themselves — education is primarily a function of the state —\nbut to the extent of co-operating more effectively with the different agencies\nconcerned in the education of our youth — the state agricultural colleges, the\nnormal schools, state and county superintendents of education, and teachers.\nThe big problem of the immediate future, it seems to me, is to prepare teachers\nof agriculture. Until that problem is solved we shall have to be content with\n''hitting the high places\" — introducing agriculture where favorable conditions\nprevail.\nWHAT\n\nHAS\n\nBEEN\n\nE. E. BALCOMB,\n\nDONE BY NORMAL SCHOOLS AND AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES FOR POPULAR EDUCATION\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE\nWEATHERFORD, OKLA.\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nSCIENCE,\n\nThe reports from the various state normal schools and agricultural colleges\nof what they have done and are doing for popular education in agriculture has\n\n"} {"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "1070\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nproven very interesting reading to me. It shows that the educational ideal\nis now changing, that there is a sentiment to make agriculture the center of\ncorrelation. The manifested eager desire of men in both systems of education\nto be of real value to the people of our great commonwealth shows that our\neducators are not mere theoretical pedagogs, but real, live, practical, publicspirited men, working and planning to create true and active citizens. And\nit makes one rejoice that one is permitted to be even a small factor in this.\nTo secure definite, reliable, and live information upon this subject I mailed\nto the president of each agricultural college, each state normal school, and\nto certain other schools in the United States the following questions with a\nrequest to answer them in full for this report: (i) What has your school done,\nand (2) what is your school doing, for popular education in agriculture ?\n(3) What work are you planning for the next two years ? (4) What would you\nwish to have your school undertake if conditions were made favorable ?\nThe questions were made thus general so that each school would certainly\nmention its own characteristic work. The last two questions while not called\nfor in the Subject assigned was the best means of bringing forth the attitude\nof educators upon the need and desirabihty of popular agricultural education.\nInformation was received from ninety-one state normal schools, with all\nthe states but Florida, Arkansas, Kentucky, and Georgia represented. Over\nthirty reports from private normal schools and secondary schools offering\nagriculture were received, and I regret that lack of space prevents including a\nsummary of their most successful work. The presidents of all state agricultural colleges except those of Alabama, Arkansas, Idaho, Louisiana, Michigan,\nand Vermont responded, making forty-two replies in all. This is an extremely\ngood showing and altho not complete is certainly representative and\nindicates the attitude toward this subject in the United States.\nAs the one responsible for securing this information for the Association I\nheartily thank these more than busy men for their generous response. It\nmeans much to answer in full such questions and it is a further proof of the\ninterest of these men in practical education. I regret that I cannot quote\nmany of these letters in full. It would be an inspiration to you.\nOf the ninety-one state normal schools from which information was received,\nseventy-fiye believe in instruction in agriculture, and are either giving it in some\nform or desire to do so. Of the sixteen not so expressing themselves, nine give\ngood reasons, four give no reasons at all, and only three express themselves\nas questioning the course or as being opposed to it.\nThe fourteen not giving courses but desiring to do so make statements\nlike this one from President Jones of Ypsilanti, Mich.:\nIt is my fervent hope to place a professor of agriculture in charge of a department nere\nwho shall give his entire attention to the building-up of standards and ideas of agriculture\nin the minds of the children in the rural schools and to prepare teachers so that they may\nenforce such instruction.\n\nSixty-one state normal schools are now offering courses, or have made\n\n"} {"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nPOPULAR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n107 1\n\ndefinite plans for next year. Seven of these are giving only a little agriculture\nin connection with science courses, nature-study, and gardens but are looking\ntoward something better. These are Emporia and Hays City, Kan.; Lock\nHaven and Bloomsburg, Pa. ; Cortland and Fredonia, N. Y. ; and Charleston,\n111. Eight others are doing still more in connection with school gardens and\nare planning on extending the work: Millersville and Philadelphia, Pa.;\nWinona, Minn. ; Los Angeles, Cal. ; Oswego, N. Y. ; Johnson, Vt. ; Greeley,\nColo. ; and Trenton, N. J. The remaining forty-six are teaching the principles\nof agriculture more definitely as such. Fourteen of these give an elementary\ncourse but indicate no special emphasis on the work: Huntsville, Tex.; Livingston and Troy, Ala.; Dillon, Mont.; River Falls, Superior, and Milwaukee,\nWis. ; Farmville, Glenville, and West Liberty, W. Va. ; Alva, Okla. ; San Jose,\nCal. ; Brockport, N. Y. ; and New Haven, Conn. Ten others are emphasizing\nthe work more: Shepherdstown and Huntington, W. Va.; Baltimore, Md.,\nCastine, Me.; Plymouth, N. H.; Kalamazoo, Mich.; Bellingham, Wash.;\nBridgewater, Mass.; Valley City, N. D., and Menomonie, Wis. Twenty-two\nothers seem to be expending still more energy upon agriculture : Florence and\nJacksonville, Ala.; Normal and Macomb, 111.; Kirksville, Springfield, Cape\nGirardeau, and Warrensburg, Mo.; Kearney and Peru, Neb.; Whitewater\nand Stevens Point, Wis.; New Paltz and Rochester, N. Y.; State Normal\nSchool, No. 2, Washington, D. C; Chico and San Diego, Cal.; Salt Lake\nCity, Utah; Weatherford, Okla. ; Rock Hill, S. C; Spearfish, S. D. ; Natchitoches, La. These last thirty reports, especially, are full of interesting\nmaterial.\nRock Hill, S. C, has been giving the course for twelve years. A few schools\nhave been offering the course for seven, six, and five years, but most of them\nhave introduced it within the last few years. The length of the course varies\nfrom ten to thirty-six weeks, with a very strong feeling that there should be at\nleast a twenty weeks' course required.\nThe courses vary in material presented and in methods of presentation.\nSome give the course in connection with the sciences, some as a part of naturestudy, still others base the work on the school garden. Others base their work\nupon a text giving about the subject-matter outlined in Burkett, Stevens, and\nHill, or in Goff and Mayne. Some schools are handicapped for lack of grounds,\nequipment, and teaching force. Others are blessed with garden plots and\nfields, nurseries, orchards, vineyards, and greenhouses, and some do dairying\nand poultry-raising. Many desire to have miniature farms and to do experimental work to demonstrate all phases of farm life, to raise crops and allow\nstudents to earn wages, etc. Macomb, 111., has planned experimental crops\nin connection with the Illinois University which may be a very suggestive plan.\nIt is not the desire of the normal schools to compete with the agricultural\ncolleges.\nAs President McFarland of Valley City, N. D., says:\nI would not have this work compete, .... but it would show how the farming processes might be brought to the common schools.\n\n"} {"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "1072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nAnd President Scudder of New Paltz, N. Y., says:\nThe aim being not to make expert agriculturists of our teachers in training but to interest\nthem in the farming conditions of the country, making them intelligent about farm life in\nits various phases, and showing them how work can be carried on at the school to reflect\nthe interests of the neighborhood, but still more how the children can be induced to\ndo more careful and intelligent work at their homes, etc.\n\nCertain schools are assisting and encouraging the teachers in the field.\nWeatherford, Okla., lectures at teachers' associations and institutes, giving\npublic demonstrations of work that may be successfully carried on in the rural\nschools, outlines state reading circle courses, issues bulletins. Chico, Cal.,\nhas issued an excellent school garden bulletin. Salt Lake City, and Normal,\n111., pubhsh most helpful material. Professor Upham of Whitewater, Wis.,\nhas an excellent outline study for elementary work. Cheney, Wash., is planning abulletin. Natchitoches, La., is sending out a man to assist graduates\nin introducing agriculture into their schools.\nSome work is done in addition to the preparation of teachers. Many\nschools report giving lessons directly to model school children. Natchitoches,\nLa., reports garden plots for each of 295 children, with definite instruction.\nRochester, N. Y., and Baltimore, Md., have done much city-work. The\ngarden work thruout Washington, D. C, came from the influence of Normal School, No. 2. Normal, 111., Warrensburg, Mo., and others improve back\nyards and encourage definite home planting. Kalamazoo, Mich., has a rural\nprogress lecture course. Kearney, Neb., has organized corn contests. Weatherford, Okla., lectured at farmers' institutes and furnished articles for the press.\nW^e cannot say just what influence this had, but from some influence the proposed constitution has a clause requiring agriculture for the common schools.\nSpearfish, S. D., has seventy acres of land and has experimented with the best\nvarieties of small fruits adapted to their climate, raising one year 60,000 quarts,\nputting up about 3,000 for dormitory use. The work was nearly all done by\nstudents. This encouraged fruit-growing in that section. This spring they\ndistributed 1,000 poplars. President Cook has been successful and the experiment isinteresting. It is a question for discussion whether all normal schools\nshould undertake as much. New Paltz, N. Y., has held conferences in several\nof the country schools which adult members and teachers of several communities have attended. Sessions were held Saturday mornings and afternoons,\nthe visitors bringing lunches. The aim was to arouse the people to the importance of manual training, domestic science, and agriculture. One talk was on\nfertilizers and the desirability of having experimental school garden plots.\nAnother talk given by an expert fruit-grower of the neighborhood was on\npruning, grafting, etc. The examples were finished with wax. The\nmaterials for making the wax, the oil stove, and other utensils were\nbrought from the normal school. This illustration shows how very\nanxious some of the normal-school men are to be helpful and make\neducation practical.\n\n"} {"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nPOPULAR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n1073\n\nNearly all agricultural colleges conduct or assist in farmers' institutes.\nIn addition to this Oklahoma reports lectures at fairs and picnics ; New York,\nMaryland, and New Hampshire at clubs and granges. Indiana maintains a\nlecturer and a dairy expert in the field. Kentucky, New Hampshire, Ohio,\nNebraska, and South Carolina have sent out lecturers accompanying \"good\nfarming\" trains. South Carolina reports these cars fitted with model dairies,\nmodel farms, horticultural exhibits showing methods :n horticulture, and\ndemonstrations and lectures in other departments. New Mexico proposes\na traveling agricultural school which shall spend two or three weeks in each\nagricultural district. Nebraska has well-equipped trains. President Andrews\nsays:\nThey stop at each station for the twenty-five minute lecture on good seed and the way\nto tell it. The minute a train stops, one, two, or three cars are filled with farmers and\nfarmers' boys eager to learn. A passenger car, one end fitted up with charts, pictures,\nsamples, and a little platform, is an excellent classroom. As the whistle sounds, out go\nour pupils and the train sweeps forward to the next station on the program where the\nexercise is repeated.\n\nMany colleges help in popularizing agriculture by offering short-term\ncourses to farmers and young people of ten days, ten and twenty weeks, etc.\nWisconsin's short-term students organized a club of 91 1 members. Mississippi\nreached 30,000 people last year thru farmers' institutes and had a round-up\nat the close of the season to bring the farmers into closer touch with experimentstation methods.\nOhio, Colorado, North Dakota, Kentucky have boys' and girls' produce and\nlivestock contest clubs. Mississippi is planning for this. New York has\norganized study clubs and has encouraged children's exhibits at town, county,\nand state fairs. In Ohio the boys and girls clubs are organized in the rural\nschools. The boys study planting and experimenting with corn and other\nfield crops, the girls a similar work in floriculture, gardening, and yard decoration. North Dakota is working thru the county superintendents and has\neighteen out of forty counties. Professor Randlett who was detailed to this\nwork exclusively gives an excellent report. Kentucky has distributed a large\nnumber of penny packets of garden seeds to the schools. They are planning\ncorn-raising contests.\nWe find a number of colleges interested in introducing agriculture into\nthe public schools in accordance with the following brief outline:\nNew Hampshire is co-operating with the state superintendent; introducing agriculture into the common and secondary schools.\nKansas, Pennsylvania, Florida, and New Mexico are lecturing to create a sentiment\nfor it; Kansas has an assistant to the director detailed to this work.\nPresident Scott of Oklahoma urges consolidation of schools as the best means of\npopularizing agriculture.\nMassachusetts and Iowa have just elected men for organizing and directing and\ninspiring superintendents, principals, and teachers.\n\n"} {"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "I074\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agrkultura\n\nColorado is planning to get a bill two years hence requiring elementary agriculture\nfor public schools and more advanced for high schools. Five county high schools have\ncourses.\nMaryland is trying to come into close contact with the country school boards and\nteachers and is seeking to obtain appropriations for introducing agriculture into high\nschools.\nPresident Bryan of Washington desires to see agriculture permeate common schools,\nnot separate agricultural high schools, but agriculture in all the high schools.\nIndiana is interesting the state board in agriculture for the public schools.\nNew Jersey is co-operating with the state board in planning a curriculum for agricultural courses in high schools and also in the establishment of summer courses for teachers.\nIllinois has been developing and planning courses in agriculture for secondary-school\nwork and for the country schools. Professor Bartow: \"I believe agriculture in public\nschools will be supplemented and supervised by agricultural colleges thru supervisors who\nvisit the schools.\"\nMaine helps with gardens in some sections. She has a man engaged for next year who\nwill spend his time helping teachers in their schools.\nMontana is co-operating in estabUshing courses in high schools. Two have such\ncourses and others are investigating.\nOhio is giving her attention to the public-school work. She has a superintendent of\nagricultural instruction who is interesting teachers. The work is proving very valuable.\nOne-half of the townships are teaching agriculture in elementary grades. One-fifth of\nthe high schools are giving it in science courses.\nIn Missouri, Professor Waters says, \"We consider the introduction of agriculture in\nthe primary and secondary schools the most important extension work in agriculture that\ncan be undertaken.\" \"To reach the country school we are arranging to hold a series\nof one-day meetings in every school of several counties, demonstrating and lecturing to\npupils, teachers, and patrons.\"\nCalifornia encourages agriculture in the schools. She has influenced the establishment of a secondary school of agriculture.\nNew York, as early as 1902 was actively engaged in several lines of activity, all bearing\ndirectly on agricultural education.\nThe colleges are assisting in preparing teachers for this work.\nNew York, Ohio, Illinois, Maine, and Maryland have provided lectures at teachers '\ninstitutes and associations. The Maine college faculty has lectures at state normal schools\nand are to assist in giving summer courses. The North Carolina college gives courses at\nthree colored normal schools.\nColleges supervising work have already been mentioned.\nThe following schools are offering summer courses: Illinois, offering two courses — one\nfor high-school teachers and one for rural teachers; Utah, North Carolina, Connecticut,\nCahfornia, New Jersey, Mississippi, New York, and Missouri. Professor Waters, of\nMissouri regrets that their summer course does not reach rural schools since the work\nrequired by the college is for teachers in the better high schools. Rhode Island is planning\ncourses.\n\nSome of the colleges have regular courses for teachers. Illinois is training\nteachers for high- and normal-school positions; the course is taken by seniors\nand post graduates. North Dakota and Rhode Island have a department of\nagricultural education and are arranging a course for rural-school teachers.\nNew Jersey is planning to arrange for a two-years' course. California, in\nconnection with the university department of education, hopes to establish\na department of agri-pedagogy. Mississippi has a department of industrial\neducation preparing men to teach agriculture.\nWyoming hopes to give\n\n"} {"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nPOPULAR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1075\n\nagricultural courses in connection with the teachers' college. New Hampshire\nleaves it to the normal schools. Connecticut gives a two-years' course to\nprepare for rural-school agriculture or to teach nature study in graded schools.\nNew York, planning a regular normal department, already has a two-years'\nnature-study course. Maryland proposes to open a department. For Massachusetts, President Butterfield has planned an ideal department for preparation, organization, and supervision of teachers of agriculture. Iowa has\njust elected a man for a similar purpose.\nOklahoma and North Dakota have given correspondence courses. Maine\nand lUinois are prepared to do so.\nIn addition to the excellent experiment station bulletins which nearly all\nthe colleges publish, certain colleges issue bulletins to assist teachers and\npupils. Those reporting are lUinois, Washington, Colorado, Maryland,\nUtah, Missouri, Maine, Ohio, and New York. Ohio distributes 10,000\nmonthly. Cornell University has done by far the greatest work in popularizing\nagricultural education. To March, 1905, there were 446 junior naturalists'\nclubs with a membership of 13,525. The members of the clubs had written\nthe college 20,000 letters. Over 25,000 persons were taking the reading courses.\nThese bulletins for farmers, for farmers' wives, for children's and teachers'\nreading-circle courses are most excellent and are read the country over. Dr.\nBailey has well shown what organization and good literature can do.\nIn this connection I wish to speak of the excellent leaflets on farm crops,\nfarm animals, and horticulture, prepared especially for school use by men of\nthe lUinois College. C. M. Parker, editor of the School News, Taylorville,\nlUinois, has assisted much in agricultural education by furnishing these leaflets\nat a penny per copy, and by publishing articles in the School News.\nThese reports show that the best and quickest means of disseminating\nagricultural education is thru the schools.\nIt has been impossible in this paper to do little more than to give cold facts.\nI should like to quote from the many excellent letters to give warmth and color\nto these facts, and make you feel the throbbing heart beats of this movement;\nmake you feel the earnest, devoted, inteUigent, progressive work by men and\nwomen of normal schools and colleges; make you reaUze the thousands and\nthousands of farmers and their famiUes who have not only been benefited\nfinancially and interested in their vocation, but whose Uves have been broadened and enHvened; make you reaUze the thousands of teachers who have\nbeen awakened to the educative and cultural material in the child's environment, who have been brought into closer sympathy with both parents and\nchildren, and have been inspired to educate the farm boys to master the\nproblems of their lives ; the hundreds of thousands of children who have been\nstimulated to observation and experimentation, and so made industrious,\nhappy, contented, and progressive citizens.\nWhat these schools have done is to blaze the trail for the great new practical\neducation which is about to follow — the education in which the chief industries of our nation shall be the center of correlation.\n\n'^\n\n"} {"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "1076\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nAGRICULTURE, DOMESTIC ART, AND MANUAL\nWITHOUT FUNDS OR EQUIPMENT\n\nTRAINING\n\nE. C. BISHOP,\n\nLINCOLN,\n\nDEPUTY\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEB.\n\nIn the encouragement of agricultural education thru the public schools,\nthe particular phase of the subject with which I shall deal in this discussion\nis so interwoven with manual training and domestic art that in order to properly\ndiscuss the one, the other two must be included.\nI am reminded of a prevailing tendency in discussions which seek to settle\nthe rural-school problem. After the usual recital deploring the conditions\nas to inadequate equipment, poorly trained and poorly paid teachers, small,\nirregular attendance, lack of interest in the school, etc., we close by declaring\nthat the only safe, sure, and lasting remedy is in the consolidation of rural\nschools. And it is true that the consolidation of rural schools has done and\nis doing the good we have expected.\nWhere are we short ? Not in the encouragement of consolidation ; but in\nthe absence of consolidation we are neglecting the means which are at hand\nfor the betterment of rural conditions. Lack of proper state legislation and\nthe common conservatism, which hesitates to sacrifice the old for the new,\nprevent the early widespread establishment of consolidation. It is coming,\nslowly, surely. But it is not our part to look, wait, and work for consolidation\nto the exclusion of action which will not only bring us nearer to consolidation\nbut which will in the meantime provide better things for the rural youth, who\nin great numbers, even in some of our most favored sections, will grow to\nmaturity, to old age, and pass away before consolidation becomes general thruout the country.\nIf we are to perform any service which will bring general relief to the rural\nconditions in this generation, we must, while encouraging consolidation, do\nthose other things which can now be done without consolidation. It is easy\nto sum up all the ills of the rural school, to gather together all the possibilities\nfor good and then proclaim consolidation as the great healer and the great\nbenefactor. In time, we shall have our reward for all the good thus accomplished. But greater shall be our reward if we follow our ''thus should it be \"\nwith a \"thus is it \" and a ''thus must it be.\" The one-room rural school is yet\na strong factor in many sections and in many other sections it is a weak factor,\nyet it is the only present means thru which better things can be reached.\nWhile we hold strongly for the consolidated school, let us utilize the one-room\nrural school until it is evolved into something better.\nIn due time the consolidated school with its trained teachers and adequate\nequipment will educate in agriculture, manual training, and domestic art in\na degree worthy of the long-continued effort necessary for its establishment.\nIn the meantime we should do what we can without such facilities in organization and equipment.\nThis brings me to my subject.\nDiscussion of education in agriculture, manual training, and domestic art\nhas been confined largely to special schools of agriculture, manual training,\n\n"} {"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWITHOUT\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\n1077\n\nand home economics, or to high schools provided with special courses of study,\nand necessary facilities for carrying on the work. But these schools are so few,\nand for several decades will be so few, that while one rural youth attends such\na school, scores of his neighbors go no farther with their education than that\nprovided by the home school, where, from lack of proper facilities, education\nfor the home life is neglected. The schools provided with agricultural laboratories, manual-training, and domestic-art equipment will continue to grow\nin favor and to increase in number. But for each one of such schools there\nare hundreds of rural, town, and city schools where this work, however much\ndesired, is not introduced because of lack of what is considered necessary\nfunds and equipment and teachers especially trained for the work.\nAs in the consolidated-school proposition, we can wait and watch and work\nfor ideal conditions and thus aim to shift responsibility, but the better course\nis to work for ideal conditions and at the same time make the best use of real\npresent-day conditions.\nI am reminded of a teacher who taught the rural school over in Floyd\nCounty, Iowa, where, several years, ago, I occupied a pupil's desk and cultivated my ambition to achieve greatness. She could not utter a single musical\nnote but she cleared the way and gave the school an opportunity to sing.\nAnd she discovered and brought to light more hidden music than any former\nteacher ever knew existed in the souls of that score of country boys and girls.\nSinging-books, charts, instruments, and singing-teachers seem to be necessary\nadjuncts to prescribed courses in musical training, but soul music and heart\nexpression should not remain bottled up because of a lack of these helpful\nagencies. Give the natural tendencies a chance to develop, then the need\nfor devices and means for full development will be felt and proper provision\nmade for supplying them.\nSince the one-room rural school must for yet many years play an important\npart in the education of the people of rural communities; and since it must\nbe the rural school and its co-operative agencies thru which a desire for better\nthings can be created and where that desire will lead to action that will secure\nbetter things, our part is to bring to the rural school those influences which\nwill reach into present actual conditions, do good along the way, and lead to\nbetter things.\nSo long as the people are led to, or are permitted to, cHng tenaciously to\nthe three R's to the exclusion of other educative influences, the rural school\nin its old form, will remain in the background of modern development. The\nrural community can and will have as good a school as it wants. The spiritualization of the rural school has its beginning in the changing of the attitude of\nthe people toward their need. To see the way to supply such need is not\nonly the battle begun, but the battle won.\nThe teaching of agriculture in rural schools has not brought the results\nhoped for and confidently expected. There are two strong general reasons\nfor this.\n\nFirsH\n\ntoo many\n\nfarmers\n\ndo\n\nnot feel the need of such instruc-\n\n"} {"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "IC78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ntion; second, too many teachers are not prepared to properly teach\nagriculture.\nA teacher properly supplied with knowledge, and the power of right application can in one year make the study of agriculture the most popular educational work in the community. Another teacher can in less than one year,\nby attempting to teach agriculture, cause it to become unappreciated as an\neducative force, unpopular as a subject, and despised as a task.\nThe unsuccessful teacher of agriculture generally makes one or more of the\nfollowing mistakes :\n1. He fails to have the pupii and the patron approach the subject with the proper\nkind and degree of interest.\n2. He fails to begin to teach and to continue to teach in proper order, the right subdivisions ofthe subject as applied to the community.\n3. His lack of knowledge of the subject or of skill in its presentation invite confusion\nand failure.\n4. He fails to utilize the means at hand for doing the things that can be done in the\nparticular locality at the particular time.\n\nWhat I have said and shall say appHes as forcibly to domestic art\nand to manual training as to agriculture, and recognizes general conditions,\nthe conditions which must be considered in a general discussion of the subject.\nSince the farmer is not interested in agricultural education we must awaken\nsuch interest, tho it is not always necessary to call such effort agricultural\neducation, a term sometimes not popular with some people. Since teachers\nare not properly prepared to teach agriculture, we must take the teachers as\nthey are and help them to do the things which they can do. Since teachers\nand members of the community fail to utiUze the means at hand for doing things\nthat can be done, we must help the teachers and help the community to see\nand to do.\nFor reasons already mentioned, agriculture, domestic art, and manual training have not become generally established as recognized parts of public-school\nwork. Special schools of agriculture, home economics, and manual training,\nas now existing in university, college, and high-school organizations, have,\nwithin their respective fields, done a good work. Well-equipped departments\nin one or more of these arts are in successful operation in some high schools,\nsome grade schools, and in some private schools. But such schools are too\nfew, too little known, and too distant from the people whom they should serve.\nTo reach more than a very small percentage of our young people we must in a\nmeasure bring these schools into the home if we would reach the great mass\nof the people.\nAny new agency for doing good must show its power for good before it will\nbe accepted and supported by the pubHc. If we wait for Congress, for state\nlegislatures, and for boards of education to make appropriations and provide the means for doing this work where there is greatest need for it to be\ndone, this generation shall pass away without seeing much accomplished. In\nthis democratic countrv of ours, before legislative bodies take action and before\n\n"} {"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWITHOUT\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\n1079\n\nboards of education establish changes in courses of study and equipment for\ncarrying out such courses, there must come a desire from the homes of the\npeople for action.\nLet us first enter the home. We must bring these industrial schools into\nthe home if we would reach the people and thru them establish public measures. Our young people are the entering wedge to the home. When we\ncannot lead the father and mother we can sometimes lead the child, who in\nturn leads the father and mother. Measures which lead the boy and girl to a\nkeener interest in the home, to a better appreciation of home life, and to the\ncultivation of a greater degree of individual efficiency as a factor in the home\nand in the community Hfe — these are educative in the highest sense and represent a necessary part in the proper development of the civic, moral, and industrial Hfe of the nation.\nThe boy who carefully cultivates and studies the growth of a patch of corn,\nsugar beets, potatoes, wheat, or other plant will gain a new interest and a better\nappreciation of the value of careful thought applied in the study of seed selection,\nsoil fertility, and the intelligent culture of plants. Further, he will become\ninterested in the best methods of marketing, and of the use of these plants\nas food for nian and animal. This will direct him to study, to discussion, and\nto investigation, leading to a knowledge of systematic feeding and caring for\nlive stock, to a study of animal adaptation and needs, and to a careful consideration of the financial and social problems involved.\nThis is education.\nThe girl who learns by actual experience to successfully cultivate one flower,\none vegetable; who learns to bake a loaf of bread, to prepare an edible dish\nfor the table, to can a jar of fruit, to make an apron for the use of herself or a\nmember of the family, to neatly darn or patch a garment — if she seeks to know\nand to perform these simple yet important duties the best way, combining\nwith her work cheerfulness, careful thought, and intelligent study — is being\neducated.\nThe homes of which such boys and girls are members and the communities\nin which such homes are located will soon demand for all of the young people\nthat kind of training which has been shown by actual demonstration to be\ntruly educative.\nThe problem stated is this: Without funds, equipment, or sufficient state\nor community interest, what method of procedure will bring about the necessary interest in these Hues of industrial education and what action will lead\nto measures which will provide the necessary funds and equipment for giving\nthis work its proper place in the public schools ?\nThe introduction to this paper is concluded. The introduction includes\nmost of what I have to say.\nThe Bancroft Plan. — The Bancroft school is an eighth-grade ward school of Lincoln,\nNebraska. Courses in cooking and in manual training have been maintained for the\npast four years in some of the ward schools of Lincoln. In schools where such courses\nwere established, efl&cient teachers and proper equipment have been provided for doing\n\n"} {"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nthe work in a most satisfactory manner. As the funds and inclinations of the board of\neducation have permitted, these courses were extended to different ward schools. The\nBancroft school is so situated and equipped with building facilities that the day seemed\nfar distant when cooking and manual training departments could be added. The school\ngrounds were too limited in extent to permit school gardening. Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle,\nprincipal of the school, had faith in the virtue of training in domestic art, manual training,\nand elementary agriculture.\nThe Bancroft school building stands between the North Western and Burlington railway tracks on the west and north, the University of Nebraska on the east, and the crowded\ncity on the south. The pupils come from homes as varied as the character of the surroundings indicate. There was no extra room, no funds, and no equipment for this work.\nWork began in agriculture. In the study of seeds and of plants the pupils in all grades\nwere led to a desire to know, by seeing and doing, the wonderful processes of germination,\nleaf and stalk development, budding, blooming, and ripening of the seed. A local seed\nfirm sold, by request, small packages of flower and vegetable seeds for one cent each.\nEach pupil purchased such seed as he desired, spaded up his own back yard or front yard\nor neighboring vacant plot, planted his seed, cultivated his plants, watched their development, reported results, brought samples of flowers or vegetables to his teacher, and escorted\nhis teacher and other visitors out to his little experimental plot when occasion permitted.\nThe work in folding, paper cutting, sewing, molding, and water color in the primary\ngrades, evolved into needle-work, in making the simpler forms of wearing apparel and\nhouse ornament, by the girls, and in whittling out models of ladders, swings, tables, and\nchairs, in the making of broom-holders, towel racks, coat-hangers, knife boxes, pencilholders, match safes, spice boxes, and other articles for the home, schoolroom, or business\ndesk.\nThis work was done at home with whatever tools or equipment the pupil could secure.\nResults were brought to school and showed to teacher and schoolmates. Originality and\nskillful workmanship were encouraged.\nThe eighth grade had lessons in cooking. Once each week a recipe was written on\nthe board or read to the pupils, who copied it. These recipes were secured from the School\nof Domestic Science at the University. The teacher first tried the recipe and presented\nonly what she had proven with her own hands to be practical with the beginner in cooking.\nDuring the week each pupil, unaided, in his own home, cooked the article, as many times\nas desired, and reported, with sample of cooking when practical, at the regular time of the\nlesson the following week when free discussion was participated in by all members of the\nclass. The cooking was done on stoves with fuel of gas, coal, wood, cobs, or trash, and with\nutensils varying from the most simple and undesirable to the most expensive and best\nadapted cooking-vessel. These varied conditions brought experiences interesting to hear\nand profitable to know.\nBefore the close of school in the spring, patrons' day was observed. A part of the forenoon was spent in placing on the walls and on the seats across which boards had been laid,\nspecimens of the work in each room. This included the various kinds of regular schoolwork and results of work in the industrial lines before mentioned.\nIn the afternoon the pupils of each room, in charge of their respective teachers, passed\nthru the various rooms viewing the work of the other grades. Patrons were permitted\nto examine any of the work in any of the rooms at their leisure. While the results in the\nregular schoolwork attracted the usual attention, it was the work in cooking, sewing, and\nmanual training that excited the greater interest and attention of the visitors.\nAt the noon hour a temporary table was arranged in one of the primary rooms and\nthe eighth grade served luncheon to their teachers and some invited guests, the cooking\nand serving being done entirely by members of the eighth grade. Even the boys were\nproud to have a hand in it. The lessons given in cooking had not been restricted to\ngirls.\n\n"} {"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWITHOUT\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\n1081\n\nThis briefly is the plan of the Bancroft school. From this crude beginning\nthe work in these three lines has been systematized, and teachers, pupils, and\npatrons have become more confident in the possibility of getting good results\nwithout the use of expensive equipment and means other than their own\nresources; homes have been reached; the school children appreciate the\nopportunities they have ; the patrons recognize the value of the work and feel\nthat between the school and the home there is a relation which if properly\nsustained will make better homes, better schools, and better citizens.\nThe Crete plan. — Crete is a prosperous little town of 3,000 inhabitants in a fertile\nagricultural section of Nebraska. Superintendent G. A. Gregory has faith in industrial\ntraining as a healthful auxiliary to the regular schoolwork. One corner of a basementroom was cleared out, some common wood- working tools secured, and the Crete school\nboys were given a chance to learn to do things. They were encouraged to establish workshops at home, make use of the old saw, chisel, plane, and hammer, and provide necessary\narticles for use or ornament about the home. The boys liked it. The patrons began to\nlike it.\nBut there were the high-school girls crowding their heads with schoolbook lore, and\nneglecting training of the hand, the eye, and the sense of weight, size, and condition. There\nwas no unused room that could be cleared and fitted for a cooking-class. There were no\nfunds for providing equipment or teacher. But something must be done. Mrs. Gregory\nis a good cook. She became interested. Another lady who belongs to a prominent family\nof the town and who is likewise a good cook, became interested. A few other ladies from\nthe best families in Crete joined the little circle and Superintendent Gregory's plan was\nput on an operating basis.\nEach lady volunteered her services and her kitchen once a week. Not to exceed ten\ngirls gathered at each of these homes under charge of the volunteer, free service, home\nteacher and demonstrator and took a lesson in cooking. At one place it was bread; at\nanother, soups; at another, gravies; at another cookies, etc. The school girls watched\noperations, asked questions, made notes, went home, and during the following week tried\ntheir hands at making the specified article, and when successful, reported and showed\nresults to the home teacher who now became the judge as to whether the proper degree of\nproficiency had been acquired. The girls who attended the bread-making demonstration\none week were invited to pass on to another division the following week until the complete\nrounds were made once, and oftener if necessary.\nThis was a volunteer course not only on the part of the teachers but on the part of the\npupils. The second and third years found all high-school girls enlisted in the work.\nThe cooking-course has now been added to the high-school curriculum. The following\nconditions prevail:\n1. Any high-school girl may take the work any year or years from freshman to senior\ninclusive.\n2. The v/ork when completed is counted as a regular high-school credit.\n3. The teacher of each special division and one other member of the teachers' club\nare judges who decide when satisfactory results have been attained in each respective division.\n4. No fixed time is set for the completion of the work by any student. Ability to\nshow satisfactory results in each division of the work is the measure of work completed. In\nthe making of bread the pupil is required to bring to the judges samples of her work in\neach of the different kinds of bread required to be made. In the division of pies the\npupil is required to submit samples of one- and two-crust pies. In the cooking of meats the\npupil is required to bring to the judge samples of meat cooked as required and also to show\nevidence of her ability to select meats and to properly serve them.\nThis applies in other\n\n"} {"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ndivisions of the work.\nOn the completion of the twenty different divisions of work outlined\nin the course, the pupil is given high-school credit for the same.\nIn agriculture the work is likewise homework. Each pupil from the first grade up is\nencouraged to become acquainted with the growth of plant and animal life. Each pupil\nis encouraged to learn to do something worth being done, to learn to do the thing which\nhis surroundings permit, and learn to do well whatever he undertakes.\n\nThree years ago last spring before the closing of the school year superintendent Gregory and his teachers left with pupils of the school the feeling\nthat during the summer vacation it would be well for each one to learn to do\n.with his own hands something worth being done. In the fall after the opening\nof school, on inquiry by the teachers, it was learned that nearly all the pupils\nhad accomplished something. Some had raised flowers, some vegetables;\nsome of those living in the country had cultivated quite extensive plots of\nground; some had raised and cared for different kinds of animals as pets;\nsome had learned to sew, to cook, to can fruit, to make articles for use about\nthe home and to make models of various kinds, such as bridges, houses, ladders,\nwheelbarrows, and other articles which appeal to a boy.\nIn order that the pupils might each see what the other had accomplished\nand that teachers and patrons might see what had been done, one Friday afternoon was set apart for an industrial exhibition. School was dismissed in all\nthe grades. The lower rooms in the central school building were prepared for\nexhibiting by placing boards across lengthwise on the rows of seats and the\nwalls were utilized for hanging exhibits of sewing. The children were asked\nto bring any article they had made or any pet they had raised during the\nsummer. No prizes were offered. Entry cards were provided. Each article\nbore the name of the maker. One room was set aside for vegetables, one for\nflowers, one for sewing and manual training, one for cooking. The pets were\nbrought in boxes of various sizes with wire or wire screen fronts and were\narranged on benches strung around the outside of the school building. One\nspotted calf raised by a girl and a two-thirds grown lamb raised by a boy, were\ntied to the school-yard fence. The pets included chickens, ducks, geese, guineas, pigeons, rabbits, white rats, kittens, puppies, canary birds, pet pigs, and\none twelve-year-old girl exhibited her baby sister as the pet which had occupied\nher time all summer. The cooking included several kinds of bread, cake,\npies, cookies, candies, canned fruits, and other household articles; sewing\nincluded aprons, sofa-pillow covers, dusting caps, various articles of ordinary\nwear and house ornaments. The manual-training work included coat hangers,\nsleeve boards, broom-holders, match boxes, knife-holders, pen-holders, boxes\nof various descriptions, chairs, jardiniere stands, stools, wheelbarrows, ladders,\nand models of various kinds. One boy exhibited a home-made engine with a\ncoal car and coach attached. Among the vegetable exhibits were every common\nvegetable and several exhibits of peanuts. The flower department contained\nexhibits of potted plants and bouquets grown in the homes and gardens of the\npupils.\nNo awards were made, each pupil getting his reward in the satisfaction of\n\n"} {"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWITHOUT\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\n1083\n\nknowing that he had accomplished something, that what he had done was\nworthy of the interest of others and that he had gained the ability to do\nsomething worth doing.\nThis industrial exhibition was repeated the next two years, continuing to\ngrow in interest. The last year the exhibit was made in the high-school building where electric lights were available and the exhibit was open during the\nafternoon and evening thus giving business men a chance to view the exhibit.\nAt nine o'clock in the evening a brief program of music and addresses was\nheld in the high-school auditorium. The people of Crete are now asking why\nthey cannot have an up-to-date manual-training and home-economic department in their public schools.\nThe way is easy now.\nThe Bradshaw plan. — In the village of Bradshaw, where a ten-grade, four-room school\nis maintained, the high-school and grammar-school girls organized a domestic-science club\nunder the direction of one of the teachers. They met once a week outside of school hours.\nTheir first work was sewing. They got an instruction book and studied out what they\nwished to try first; all worked at the same thing and brought results to the next meeting.\nThey made articles of clothing for themselves and for members of their family. They\nmade raflSa hats which they themselves delighted to wear during the summer. The boys\nof the high-school and grammar-school grades organized an agricultural club, had regular\nmeetings at stated times, on which occasions some members read papers or gave demonstrations concerning the subjects in which they had become interested. Sometimes the\nwork included study of one of the different breeds of sheep, cattle, horses, hogs, or poultry;\nat other times, corn, potatoes, alfalfa, sugar beets, peanuts, or some other article in the\ngrain or vegetable line received attention. The primary grades had a school and home\nimprovement club, under the direction of the two primary-grade teachers. This club in\nthe spring time secured the use of some vacant lots on which they raised flowers and vegetables. Nearly all members of each of the three above-mentioned clubs had home gardens\nin which they cultivated flowers and vegetables.\nThe Pawnee plan. — District No. 20, the Lower West Branch School, is a rural school\nin Pawnee County eight miles southwest of Pawnee City. From twenty to twenty-five\npupils are enrolled and a class of from one to four pupils graduate from the eighth grade\neach year. The school building is the ordinary box-car form but kept in good repair.\nThe school children collected stones and made borders for flower beds in front and at one\nside of the building. They also trained vines over the outbuildings and maintained a\nsmall experimental garden. At intermission periods the teachers and pupils talked over\nplans by which they might learn to cook and to sew, to make various articles, and to cultivate certain plants. Recipes were sought and distributed, each girl experimenting in her\nown home. Results were reported at their little informal meetings, and when desired,\nsamples were submitted. In this way the girls learned to make bread and other common\narticles of diet, to can fruit, to sew, and to cultivate flowers and vegetables. The boys took\nespecial interest in corn- and potato-growing and other agricultural lines that especially\nappealed to the individual. At the county corn contests and at the state contests this school\nis always represented by creditable exhibits in the various lines of work and by delegates\nsent by the school to attend the meeting. The teacher, Miss Lulu Wolford, was re-employed each year at an advanced salary. Her school ranks among the very best in the\ncounty and in the state in the quality of work done in the regular branches. The community has been much benefited in the interest taken by the young people in the work of the\nhome. The school had been much benefited by the interest awakened among the patrons\nof the school.\n\nThe examples just cited give the work done in these particular city, town.\n\n"} {"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "io84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nvillage, and country schools. These results have been repeated in other schools\nand in other states. I am led to believe that the results gained are in some\ninstances better than results in this same work where funds, equipment, and\ntrained teachers are provided for carrying on the work as an organized part\nof the school course. The work has this virtue: A child learns to make the\nbest use of his opportunity; he learns that efficiency is the aim and that individual effort wins. In all the above-mentioned instances the work has been\nencouraged by the existence of the school district, the county, and the state\norganizations of boys and girls, which have for their purpose the development of individual efficiency; the object being to provide suggestion and\ndirection rather than instruction.\nDepartments of manual training and cooking have recently been established\nin the high schools at York and Geneva as a direct result of the interest taken\nin the work of the county and state boys' and girls' associations. In other\nlocalities, both rural and urban, thru the activity of the young people, the\ncommunities have been led to a higher appreciation of the value of education\nin agriculture, home economics, and manual training as encouraged by our\n8,000 active members scattered over the state.\nAgricultural and domestic science clubs thruout the United States are\ndoing this same work of spreading the inspiration that comes from individual\neffort along lines of activity that bring the school, the home, and the community\ninto closer communion and recognize the necessity of all-around development.\nReferring again to the thought suggested at the beginning of this paper in\nthe discussion on the consolidation of schools, let us make application to the\nsubject under discussion. Insomuch as we should make the best possible\nuse of the one-room rural school in our work of evolution toward the consoHdated school, so is it necessary to make use of the facilities at hand if within\nthe present generation we see the establishment of the work in agriculture,\nmanual training, and domestic science in our schools where most needed.\nThe extension work in agriculture and home economics which is being rapidly\ndeveloped now by many of our leading universities ; the organizations of boys\nand girls working thru the pubhc-school system; the reading courses made popular because of their adaptation to the real conditions as found in the homes of\nthe people ; the traveling schools of agriculture, which may later bring traveling\nschools of home economics ; all these movements which stimulate the activity\nof our young people in a simple, earnest, effective way are doing more for creating a proper degree of respect for industrial efficiency; are helping more to\ndignify the calling of the farmer and the home-maker than are textbooks,\nlectures, special schools, and other of the more dignified methods we have\nbeen using, yet in which we feel the need of a more effective means of reaching\nthe home and of extending the work.\n\n"} {"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "IWecroloa?\nFrom May, 1907, to January i, 1908\n\nReports of the death of the following-named life and active members have been\nreceived since May, 1907; the date of decease follows each name.\nOliver Cromwell Arey (December, 1907) ....\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\nClarence D. Baker (December 14, 1906)\n....\nDes Moines, Iowa\nGeorge S. Beane (October, 1907)\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nSarah F. Buckelew (April 27, 1907)\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\nHoward Champlin (June 2, 1907)\nCincinnati, Ohio\nEzEKiEL Hanson Cook (November 8, 1907) ....\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nJ. B. Cunningham (November 11, 1907)\nBirmingham, Ala.\nEdward C. Delano (June 8, 1907)\nChicago, 111.\nZ. C. Ebaugh (April I, 1907)\nReisterstown, Md.\nS. L. Frogge (August 2, 1907)\nGreenville, Ky.\nEnoch A. Gastman (August 3, 1907)\nDecatur, 111.\nRuFUS Henry Halsey (July 25, 1907)\nOshkosh, Wis.\nG. R. Hamman (April 24, 1907)\nFort Worth, Texas\nCharles Herbert Harrington (July 21, 1907) . . . Buda, 111.\nJohn S. Locke (December 5, 1907)\nSaco, Me.\nC. E. Mann (June 30, 1907)\nBatavia, 111.\nFred B. Maxwell (November 6, 1907)\nOak Park, 111.\nNathan J. Morrison (April 12, 1907)\nWichita, Kans.\nWilliam H. Payne (June 18, 1907)\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nWm. F. Phelps (August 22, 1907)\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nB. P. Snow (February 13, 1907)\nAlfred, Me.\nEvelina Williams (July 3, 1907)\nNew York, N. Y.\nTotal\nPhilo Jesse Williams (March 21, 1907)\nEverett,23 Mass.\n\n1085\n\n"} {"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERSHIP\nIN\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\nCLASSIFIED\n\nFOR THE YEAR\n\nI907\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBY\n\nSTATES\n\nTO\n\nJANUARY\n\n11,\n\nI908\n\nLos Angeles Meeting\nLife\n\nors\nDirect-\n\nbers\n\n28\n\nTotals\nNorth Atlantic Division\nSouth Atlantic Division\nSouth Central Division\nNorth Central Division\nWestern Division\nDependencies\nPoreig:n (inch Corres. Members)\nNorth Atlantic DivisionMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\nSouth Atlantic DivisionDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\nFlorida\nSouth Central DivisionKentucky\nTennessee\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nArkansas\nOklahoma\nNorth Central DivisionOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\nWestern DivisionMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah\n,.\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nLife\n\n116\n\nMem-\n\nFormer\n264\nActive.\n274\n4,543\n27\n\n85\n\nship\n\n29\n\nNew\nActive\n\nTotal\nActive\n\n637\nAssociate\n\n107\n149\n\nTotal\nMember17,324\n\n1,985\n5.044\n286\n1,887\n292\n\n1,882\n1,696\n26\n\n14\n\n12,280\n25\n\n821\n35\n2,850\n\n358\n\n7,879\n7\n\n367\n22\n26\n34\n24\n187\n323\n\n34\n\n19\n\n532\n\n53\n917\n296\n\n198\n325\n\n290\n53\n15\n\n9\n332\n55\n47\n1\n948\n237\n22\n16\n\n1,113\n2,622\n\n4,737\n35\n8,411\n\n22523\n8\n\n223\n25\n\n116I\n\n25\n321\n\n8\n4\n\n87\n\n22\n37\n16\n22\nIS\n31\n\n' 60\n\n10\n240\n23\n2\n\n5\nI\n\n26\n3II\n2\n51\n303\n\n4 30\n\n32\n16\nS8\n\n57\n\n1,188\n\n68\n448\nII\n\n60\n550\n40\n\n36\n\n54\n114\n31\n293\n\n40\n\n55\n\n46\n\n139\n\n123\n20\n116\n117\n404\n136\n\n. ..\n\n64\n86\n\n52\n\n40\n312\n202\n\n46\n\n77\n\n79\n\n39\n\n1,149\n83\n294\n\n128\n349\n50\n93\n\n13\n207\n729\n\n41\n252\n\n160\n\n288\n284\n3\n4491\n\n21\n12\n\n12\n\n129\n154\n\n77\n289\n122\n\n40\n216\n80\n149\n\n13\n\n18\n\n124\n\n453\n22\n\n84\n145\n\n216\n19\n48\n42\n420\n\nIS\n\n94\n\n565\n665\n58\n\n501\n\n95\n\n278\n108\n137\n53\n\n68\n\n125\n\n91\n33\n\n381\n315\n\n45\n1^\n\n75\n249\n135\n\n68\n362\n42\n\n58\nS9\n26\n\nDependencies\nForeign (including Corres. Members)\n\n17\n\n240\n62\n\n6\n9\n5\n102\n\n204\n21\n42\n40\n68\n28\n71\n\n121\n6,13s\n\n37\n5687\n\n150\n\n368\n160\nIII\n6,384\n\n588\n\n362\n392\n\n34\n\n30\n\n1086\n58\n\n38\n\n"} {"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "RECORD\n\nOF TOTAL\n\nMEMBERSHIP\nIN\n\nNATIONAL\n\nBY STATES\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR EACH YEAR FROM\n1895-I907, INCLUSIVE\nHeavier numbers show membership from the state in which the meeting of the year was held.\nNo meeting was held in 1906. The record is for the Active (permanent) Members for that year.\n.9\n\n189s\n\nN. Atlantic Div.\nS. Atlantic Div.\nS. Central Div.\nN, Central Div.\nWestern Div...\n...\n\nForeign\nN. Atlantic Div.\nMaine\nN. H\nVermont\nMass\nR.I\nConn\nNew York...\nNew Jersey ...\nPennsylvania\nS. Atlantic Div.\nDelaware\nMaryland....\nDis. of Col...\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nN. Carolina .\nS. Carolina .\nGeorgia\nFlorida\nS. Central Div.\nKentucky. . . .\nTennessee... .\nAlabama .. . .\nMississippi.. .\nLouisiana\nTexas\nArkansas\nOklahoma. . .\nInd. Ter\nN. Central Div.\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin . . .\nIowa\nMinnesota. . .\nMissouri\nN. Dakota . .\nS.Dakota...\nNebraska . . .\nKansas\nWestern Div...\nMontana\nWyoming . . .\nColorado\nNew Mexico .\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington .\nOregon\nCalifornia\n. .\nDependencies . .\nForeign\n\n289\n\n899\n1,462\n\n1897\n\n27\n13\n33\n\n1 5 1 1\n1898\n\n237\n\n9,072\n2,940\n\n'\n\n5,083\n\n377\n\n■ ' 'i\n\n13\n\n13656\n1,877\n\n172\n\n1,492\n1,146\n1,587\n\n14\n\ne\n13\n\n818\n\n304\n\n5,074\n\n942\n5,314\n15\n\nI\n\n7\n159\n6\n\n17\n\n35\n43\n\n2,132\n29\n\n521\n\n53\n47\n19\n\n36\n62\n176\n\n66\n84\n\n49\n.294\n41\n23\n108\n\n159\n\n6\n\n411\n\nno\nII\n14\n\n13\n21\n\n43\n25\n25\n\n411\n\n15\n\n29\n\n509\n63\n172\n\n27\n\n57\n\n558\n\n31\n22\n\n69\n65\n\n382\n\n16\n113\n22\n\n31261\n229\n\n54\n\n57\n63\n31\n\n565\n\n357\n\n78s\n\n221\n\n8\n9132\n7\n\n47\n\n60\nII\n\n1.340\n\n354\n267\n.1,216\n580\n\n287\n\n164\n379\n\n303\n\n543\n333\n\n591\n383\n\n578\n\n53\n187\n\n795\n361\n\n363\n\n118\n251\n\n43\n177\n\n53\n\n1,313\n\n1,870\n28s\n\n34\n406\n\n6\n\n6\n\n375\n\n13\n223\n\n9\n\n26\n103\n\n45\n\n786\n8\n7\n\n89\n557\n46\n24\nno\n\n86\n\n166\n\n65\n86\n\n13\n\n137\n\n87465\n331\niS8\n106\n49\n\n8\n3\n\n3\n12\n\n70\n\n79\n4,357\n12\n\nII\n20\n156\n\n1087690\n\n51\n\n30\n\n28\n62\n33\n\n408\n\n229\n508\n62\n114\n\n231\n210\n2,653\n55\n\n12\n\n677\n\n293\n\n1,247\n\n2,193\n357\n1,142\n46\n\n261\n187\n\n486\n\n444\n1.5\n\n15\n41\n52\n801\n109\n2,498\n25\n\n415\n71\n141\n\n13\n372\n196\n\n88\n382\n19\n348\n217\n986\n3430\n45\n16\n81\n\n27\n\n17\n\n308\n60\n390\n10\n\n74\n22\n157\n\n7\n\n32\n\n654\n\n1906\n2,097\n\n47\n\n402\n30\n\n98\n\n1,086\n1,383\n4,013\n1,078\nIrl76\n\n1,974\n26\n\n9,647\n\n5,168\n\n24\n\n307\n\n8,411\n25\n223\n\n857\n33\n414\n129\n\n57\n39\n\n38\n45\n71\n47\n74\n93\n194\n189\n195\n28\n37\n51\n39\n199\n\n93\n\n22\n\n321\n17\n\n33\n406\n\n87\n\n66\n\n27\n190\n103\n2,299\n\n76\n\n41\n\n14\n\n34\n\n349\n\n35\n\n66\n\n1,744\n263\n\n38\n\n15\n3,105\n\n579\n\n26\n508\n\n48\n202\n\n108\n251\n\n95\n70\n146\n21\n\n39\n\n42\n\n60\n550\n40\n\n38\n31\n54\n77\n79\n36\n\n43\n\n94\n83\n\n9\n\n1,149\n294\n\n60\n83\n237\n128\n473\n345\n\n565\n58\n41\n665\n\n15\n151\n014\n9168\n\n252\n\nlOI\n\n18\n\n26\n67\n\nII\n\n36\n68\n448\n\n58\n\n122\n289\n\n131\n\n12\n\n130\n\n22\n31\n\n1,188\n\n39\n293\n\n357\n211\n392\n\n82\n\n340\n\n30\n22\n\n121\n\n30s\n\n47\n\n135\n241\n60\n56\n\n393\n521\n\n939\n\n15\n269\n325\n15\n64\n\n269\n32\n79\n179\n65\n\n70\n701\n14\n42\n\n7\n55\n\n25\n\n23\n\n211\n15\n\n161\n271\n\n25\n\n4,737\n\n780\n\nI,\nIII\n27\n1,471\n\n707\n26\n\n1,113\n\n103\n\n611\n15\n47\n1,558\n79\n213\n\n24\n\n17,324\n\n2,621\n1.306\n\n32\n\n131\n145\n\n363\n\n1907\n\n11,156\n23,642\n\n8\n\n37\n35\n700\n\n28\n\n7539\n\n65\n\n29\n293\n\n1,048\n\n47\n\n37\n\n1\n\n8,132\n1,504\n\n67\n20\n\n501\n50\n\n14\n130\n\n39\n\n86\n14\n\n278\n\n52\n\n'i2S\n\n11\n95\n\n51\n\n45\n\n16\n65\n\n315\n\n381\n\n20\n143\n\n4\n\n46\n\n30\n\n25\n\nj 114\n108\n\n46\n35\n196\n74\n\n58\n\n26\n\n150\n\n368\n6384\nIII\n160\n\n588\n\n. 105\n392\n\n31\n\nS6\n56\n\nIII\n\n26\n\n38\n35\n20\n148\n56\n116\n\n118\n\n38\n18\n\n432\n\n186 32\n313\n\n325\n\n453\n\n\" 196\n1\n6 382\n\n10I\n\n33\n\n286\n96\n187\n\n405\n24\n\n15\n\n35\n73\n\n545\n\n25\n2,323\n335\n315\n2.025\n\n97\n\n43\n17\n\n507\n\n7,4S9\n441\n\n137\n\n108\n\n55\n\n21\n173\n71I\n\n19\n\n25\n27\n\n21\n13\n2\n\n77\n39\n76\n\n67\n\n29\n\n47\n209\n388\n\n385\n\n41\n\n691\n\n1905\n\n85\n\n4,940\n21\n\n481\n27\n\n22\n215\n\n189\n\n13\n26\n301\n\n512\n\n27\n18\n\n82\n16\n121\n\n8\n10\n21\n\n7,532\n\n281\n\n7\n\n81\n145\n5750\n\n593\n\n20\n\n7\n\n16\n10\n\n196\n13\n673\n\n145\n\n16\n\n677\n937\n\n15,618\n\n595\n116\n68\n\n4\n\n67\n\n1,640\n\n363\n\n196\n29\n\n323\n137\n\n.3\n1904\n\n34,983\n14,163\n1,954 8,108\n\n25\n\n21\n173\n\n93\n\n72\n\n589\n413\n83\n\n325\n\n482\n3\n6\n\n7\n\n50\n\n41\n42\n\n41\n327\n\n105\n1,556\n\n327\n\n26\n68\n74\n\n100\n146\n92\n408\n30\n\n1,174\n58250\n\n742\n\nII\n14\n\n768\n\n136\n\n248\n76\n257\n\n14\n\n59\n\n1,171\n\n78\n89\n1,136\n26\n\n157\n18\n\n46\n99\n536\n\n9\n\n1,845\n\n28\n\n60\n\n28\n\n11\n154\n\n879\n756\n\n205\n2\n\n1,086\n1,113\n\n39\n\n1\n\n1903\n25\n\n25\n\n1902\n\n686\n\n344\n24\n6\n\n5\n8\n\n36\n80\n\n52\n77\n\n17\n\n6,891\n\n139\n12\n\n1299\n\nII\n\n592\n321\n193\n188\n\n16\n23\n\n414\n1,903\n\n16\n294\n\n8\n\n16\n10\n25\n4\n257\n19\n\nB\n\n1^\n\n473\n\n23187\n\n99\n\n1,495\n204\n\n783\n1,177\n4,640\n\n190a\n13\n10,182\n1309\n\n325\n\n495\nI\n\n1900\n\n39\n\n179\n\n168\n\n437\n\n361\n\n5,882\n\n24\n362\n\nII\n10\n\n55\n\n5,475\n12\n\n23\n\n14\n\n7\n1978\n191\n26\n\n1\n\n10,355\n\n13\n\n10,532\n\n7,107\n\n419\n\n1,403\n24\n7,211\n\n1\n\n.52\n\n.3(Si\n\n1899\n\n1896\n\n11,297\n\nTotals\n\n1 nif»n IPC\nV/UIU)I ICO\n\n8\n\n11\n\nState or\nTerritory\n\n.9\n\n32\n\n71\n\n441\n31\n\n70\n\n"} {"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "INVENTORY AND PRICE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION IN THE DEPOSITORY AT WINONA, MINN.,\nJULY I, 190S\nPROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION\nPrices in Price per sin-\n\nliN PAPER covERSj\nFiN PAPER covEKsl\n1857\n1858\n1859\ni860\n1861\n1862\n1863\n1864\n186s\n1866\n1867\n1868\n1869\n1870\n\nPhiladelphia (organized)\nCincinnati\nWashington\nBuffalo\n(No meeting)\n(No meeting)\nChicago\nOgdensburg\nHarrisburg\nIndianapolis\n(No meeting)\nNashville\nTrenton\nCleveland\n\nBOUND\n1871\n1872\n1873\n1874\n187s\n1876\n1877\n1878\n1879\n1880\n1881\n1882\n1883\n1884\n1885\n1886\n1887\n1888\n1889\n1890\n1891\n1892\n1893\n1894\n1895\n1896\n1897\n1898\n1899\n1900\n1901\n1902\n1903\n1904\n1905\n1906\n1907\n\nVOLUMES\n\nOF THE PROCEEDINGS\n\n.%\n\n.\n\n.\n\nriEge not\nvolume,\n'^^^' ^^^carriage\n^^^^'\nprepaid prepaid\n*\n*\n*\n♦\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n♦\n*\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nSt. Louis\nBoston\nEhnira\nDetroit\n...\nMinneaj)olis\nBaltimore\nLouisville\n(No meeting)\nPhiladelphia\nChautauqua\nAtlanta\nSaratoga Springs\nSaratoga Springs\nMadison\nSaratoga Springs\nTopeka\nChicago\nSan Francisco\nNashville\nSt. Paul\nToronto\nSaratoga Springs\nChicago (International Congress of Education)\nAsbury Park\nDenver\nBuffalo\nMilwaukee\nWashington, D. C\nLos Angeles\nCharleston\nDetroit\nMinneapolis\nBoston\nSt. Louis\nAsbury Park and Ocean Grove\nFiftieth Aimiversary Volume\nGeneral Index (from 1857-1906, inclusive)\nLos Angeles Volume\n\nEDUCATION\n\n.\n.\n\n♦\n*\n*\n*\n♦\n♦\n♦\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n*\n*\n$1.25\n1.25\n1.25\n1.25\n1.35\n\n*\n*\n$1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n\n1.25\n1.25\n1.25\n*\n*\n1.50\n*\n1.50\n1.50\ni . 50\n1.50\n1.75\n1.75\n1.75\ni 75\n1.75\n1.75\n1.7s\n1.75\n*\ni.7S\n1.75\ni.7S\n1.75\n1.7s\n1.7s\n1.75\n1-75\nfree\ni-7S\n\n1.50\n1.50\ni . 50\n*\n*\n1.75\n*\n1.75\n1.7s\ni . 75\n1.75\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n*\n2.00\n2.00\n2 00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n1.00\n200\n\nA complete General Index of all published proceedings from 1857 to 1906 inclusive\nhas been issued in a separate volume, bound in cloth, uniform with the volumes of proceedings. The index will be sent free of charge to those who purchase five or more volumes;\nto others it will be sent postpaid for $1.00. The index volume will be supplied to active\nmembers for 50 cents for postage, wrapping, etc.\n♦ Stock exhausted.\n1088\n\n"} {"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "•25\n•25\n)-25\n\nREPRINTS\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\n\nVOLUMES\n\nOF\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\n•25\nPrice copy\nper\nsingle\n.25\n\n[bound in paper covers]\n'PROCEEDINGS\n1891\n1892\n1894\n1898\n1900\n1901\n1902\n1903\n1904\n1 90s\n\nOF THE\n\n237 pages\n147 \"\n184 \"\n194 \"\n120 \"\n118 \"\n16s \"\n166 \"\n167 \"\n128 \"\nOF THE\n\nSaratoga ^\nSan Francisco\nNashville\nSt. Paul\nToronto\nAsbury Park\nDenver\nBuffalo\nWashington\nCharleston\nDetroit (Henry Barnard Number)\nBoston\nSt. Louis\nREPORTS\n\nsReport of Committee\n3Report of Committee\nReport of Committee\nReport of Committee\nReport of Committee\nReport of Committee\nReport of Committee\nReport of Committee\nReport of Committee\nReport of Committee\nReport of Committee\n\n• 25\n••25\nby mail\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nBrooklyn\nPhiladelphia\nRichmond\nChattanooga\nChicago\nChicago\nChicago\nCincinnati\nAtlanta\nMilwaukee\nPROCEEDINGS\n\ni88s\n1888\n1889\n1890\n1891\n1894\n1805\n1896\n1898\n1900\n11903\n901\n1904\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nNATIONAL\n\n.\n\n.\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n120 pages\n75\n98\n80\n114\n86\n81\n78\n102\n67\n150\n76\n50\n\n.'\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\n• 25\n• 25\n15\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nof Ten on Secondary Schools\nof Fifteen on Elementary Schools\nof Twelve on Rural Schools\non College-Entrance Requirements\non Normal Schools\non Public Libraries and Public Schools\non Salaries, Tenure and Pensions of Teachers\non Taxation as Related to Public Education\non Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communities\non Instruction in Library Administration in Normal Schools\nof Seventeen on Preparation of High School Teachers\n.\nREPRINTS\n\n• 25\n\nANNIVERSARY\n\n249 pages\n\nfo.30\n• 30\n.10\n• 25\n.10\n•.10\n50\n.10\n\n2385 \"\"\n14622\n188 \"\n\nVOLUME\n\nHistorical Chapter containing various historical papers concerning the N. E. A. and\nother Associations\nTitles of Papers and Discussions for 1857-1006, arranged chronologically and by Deportments\nClassified BibUography of Topics for 1857-1906, arranged under 59 classes .\n\n4 \"\"\n60\n8\n107 4\npages\nS8 \"\n86 \"\n\n\"\n\n7\nThe Anniversary Volume (cloth bound, 950 pages), which is one of the most 9valuable\nof the entire series, will be sent to any address, express prepaid, on receipt\nof\n$2.00,\n71\n\"\nA Table of Contents of this volume will be supplied on application.\n89\nSeparates of the papers of the various departments at the Boston meeting and of the\nSt. Louis meeting can be supplied at a nominal cost. A list of these separates, with prices,\nwill be sent on application.\n1 All orders for reprints should be accompanied by remittance; a discount of 20 per\ncent, will be allowed on orders for ten or more copies to one address, by prepaid express.\n2 Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence previous to 1891 71were printed\nby the Bureau of Education at Washington, D. C.\n3 The Report of the Committee of Ten and of the Committee of Fifteen are printed\nand sold by the American Book Co. for 30 cents each, postage paid.\nAll reprints noted above are included in the bound volumes of Proceedings except\nthe Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools; The Report of the Committee\non Salaries, Tenure and Pensions of Teachers; the Report of the Committee on Taxation\nas Related to Public Education; The Report of the Committee on Industrial Education\nin Schools for Rural Committees; The Report of the Committee on Instruction on Library\nAdministration in Normal Schools.\n\nAll publications listed above can be obtained of the undersigned.\n1089 Shepard, Secretary N. E. A.,\nIrwin\nWinona, Minn.\n\n"} {"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n[Names of department presidents and authors of formal papers are set in small caps.]\n\nAcademic instruction provided especially\nfor secondary teachers, 621\nAcademic preparation, 657\nActive members, Business meeting of, 35;\nRecommendations of Directors on incorporation, 36; Adoption of Act of Incorporation, 38; Adoption of by-laws, 38;\nElection of officers, 39; Resolution on\nnational university, 40\nActive membership, Statistical table of, 1086\nAct to incorporate the National Education\nAssociation, i\nAdams, John, — A significant lack in educational terminology, 138\nAdaptation in mathematics (Charles\nAmmerman), 669\nAdmitting that our schools are defective,\nwho is responsible for the present conditions? (Payson Smith), 173\nAddress before Department of Indian\nEducation (Elmer Ellsworth Brown),\n1022\n\nAddress of welcome (Robert J. Burdette),\n55; Response (W. T. Harris), 56\nAffiliation of the university and college in\nCanada, 735\nAgricultural college and its relationship to\nthe scheme of national education (E. J.\nWickson),\n\n1 04 1\n\nAgricultural colleges, 1073\nAgricultural Education, Conference of\nNational Committee on, 1063\nAgricultural Education, Department of\nRural and, authorized, 42\n1063\nAgricultural\neducation in the public schools,\n\nAims of art education in the public schools\n(E. C. Colby), 822\nMcIver),\n984 education. The (M. N.\nAims\nof special\nAlexander, Magnus W. — Industrial\ntraining as viewed by a manufacturer, 796\nAlmy, Frank F, — What equipment is\nrequired to successfully teach physics in\nsecondary\nschools? 951; Secretary's\ntion, 951\nminutes, Department of Science InstrucAmerican ideal in the kindergarten. The,\nAmerica, Problems of greater, 191\nAmerican schools. Standards suggested for,\n616\nAmmerman,\n— Adaptation in\n456\nmathematics, Charles.\n669\nAndrews, E. Benjamin. — Problems of\ngreater America, 191\nArt Education, Department of, 821;\nRelation to everyday life, 825\nArt education in the public schools. Aims\nof, 822\n\nArticulation of technical education, 1037\nAs ofWELL,\nJames B.—\nthe nation?\n152 Is the child the ward\nAthletics, The organization and administration of,930; The evils of, 932\nAtkinson, Mrs. Ada I. — The notebook:\nIts value and its limitations, 676\nAt what should the ungraded school aim\nand for what class of pupils should it\nprovide?\nsion, 318 (C. R. Frazier), 316; DiscusAvailable means and additional means\n\nAgriculture, Department of, 1065\nrequired for the preparation of commercial teachers (H. B. Brown), 884\nAgriculture, The consohdated school and\nthe new, 277\nAvery, Lewis B. — Discussion, 688; SecreAgriculture, domestic art, and manual\nEducation,\n523 Department of Secondary\ntary's minutes.\ntraining without funds or equipment\n(E. C. Bishop), 1076\nBaker, James H. — Discussion, 378\nAgriculture in the classroom. DemonstraBalcomb, E. E. — Agriculture in normal\ntion lessons, 1007\nschools : courses of instruction and finanAgriculture in normal schools: courses of\ncial support, 752; Discussion, 279;\ninstruction and financial support (E. E.\nSecretary's minutes. Department of\nBalcomb), 752\nNormal Schools, 740; What has been\nAgriculture: in what schools it may be\ndone by normal schools and agricultural\ntaught, 426\ncolleges culturefor\n? 1069popular education in agriAgriculture, Popular education in, 1069\nAgriculture, Spiritualization of, 278\nBall, Katherine. — Discussion, 836\nAhrens, August. — Manual training for\nBarker, E. H. — Secretary's minutes, Department ofTechnical Education, 1032\nelementary grades from the point of view\nof the teacher of manual arts, 7;6o\nBarnard, Miss Grace Everett. — The\nAmerican ideal in the kindergarten,\nSecretary's minutes, Department of\nManual Training, 760\n109 1\n\n"} {"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "1092\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBarnes, Clifford W. — Moral training\nthru the agency of the public school, 373\nBarrett, H. M. — The professional preparation of high-school teachers, 541\nBartholomew, W. H. — Discussion, 379\nBasis of grading teachers' salaries, The\n(Edwin\nG. Cooley), 94; Discussion,\nlOI\n\nBaxter, C. J.— Discussion, 269\nBaylor, Adelaide Steele. — Discussion, 133\nBennett, Miss Laura B. — Secretary's minutes. Department of Child-Study, 905\nBiology classes. The use of the microscope\nin, 688\nBiology, Microscopic projection in, 697\nBishop, E. C. — Agriculture, domestic art,\nand manual training without funds or\nequipment, 1076\nBlair, Francis G. — Discussion, 202\nBlaisdell, Thomas C. — Dramatizing, 485\nBoard of Directors, 1906-7, Annual Meeting of, 42; Action on recommendations\nof Board of Trustees, 43; Authorization\nof Department of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation, 44\nBoard of Directors, First meeting of,\n1907-8, 46\nBolton, Frederick E. — Requirements\nand standards for the professional preparation of high-school teachers, 600\nBooks helpful to teachers in recommending\nsuitable reading to high-school pupils, 541\nBoynton, F. D. — Discussion, 233\nBrooks, Stratton D.— The professional\npreparation of high-school teachers, 547\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth. — Address\nbefore Department of Indian Education,\n1023; President's address, National\nCouncil of Education, 337; What are\nthe essentials in subjects in the elementary-school course? 227\nBrown, George Leroy. — Indian education, 1002\nBrown, H. B. — Available means and\nadditional means required for the preparation ofcommercial teachers, 884\nBrown, J. Stanley. — The meaning and\nfunction of manual training, 701; The\nprofessional preparation of high-school\nteachers, 551\nBruce, Wm. C. — Secretary's minutes,\nDepartment of School Administration,\n959\nBryan, W. J. S.— What fraction of the\npupils in our secondary schools cannot\nderive compensating advantages therefrom ?194\nBuchanan, G. V. — The overcrowded\ncurriculum, 308\nBucHNER, Edward Franklin. — The professional preparation of secondary teachers in the fifteen southern states. 618\nBunker, Frank F. — A discussion of the\nReport of the Committee on Instruction\nin Library Administration in Normal\nSchools, 363\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ncome, 55\nBurdette, Robert\n\nJ.— Address of wel-\n\nBurks, Jesse D. — Can the school Ufe of\npupils be prolonged by an adequate\nprovision for industrial training in the\nupper grammar grades? 787; Publicschool finance; what next ? 343\nBush, George C. — The value and Umitations of quantitative\nwork in physics and\nchemistry,\n684\nBusiness Education, Department of, 877\nBusiness Meeting of Active Members, 35\nBy-Laws, adopted July 10, 1908, 5; Art. I,\nMembership, 5; Art. II, Officers and\nCommittees, 6; Art. Ill, Duties of\nOfficers, 6; Art. IV, Board of Directors,\n7; Art. V, The National Council, 7;\nArt. VI, Departments, 7; Art. VII,\nMeetings, 8; Art. VITI, Amendments, 8\nCadet teaching, 642\nCalendar of meetings, 10\nv\nCall\nnothing 134\ncommon (Benjamin Ide\nWheeler),\nidea in, 735\nCanada, The university-college affiliation\nCan the school life of pupils be prolonged by\nan adequate provision for industrial trainD. Burks),\ning in the upper\n787 grammar grades ? (Jesse\nCapacity and limitations of the Normal\nSchool in the professional preparation of\nhigh-school\nteachers (John W. Cook),\n628\n723\nCare ofson),freshmen.\nThe (W. O. ThompCare and training of children before they\nare admitted to the public school, 157\nCarpenter, Estelle. — The vitalizing of\nthe child thru song, 856\nCarr,\nJ. W. National\n— Discussion,\n380;\nSecretary's\nminutes.\nCouncil\nof Education,\n337\nCarroll, Clarence F. — Discussion, 230, 319\nCary, C. p. — Rural school-board conventions, 288\nCertificate of Incorporation, 9\nCertificates, Teachers', 653\nCertification of secondary-school teachers,\n252\n\nChamberlain, Arthur Henry. — Manual\ntraining in rural schools, 273; The relation of art education to everyday life —\nFrom the utilitarian side, 831; Technical\neducation in high schools and colleges,\n1055; Discussion, 777\nChamberlain, George A. — Discussion, 320\nChamberlain, James Franklin. — Geography in the life of the pupil, 497\nChancellor,\nWilliam E. — Order of\n684\ndevelopment and studies suited to each\nstage, 210\n\nChemistry and physics, The value and\nlimitations of quantitative work in,\nChild's\n905 emotional life, The training of the,\n\n"} {"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nChild-Study, Department of, 905; Twentyfive years of, 910\nChild's training, Should the school attempt\nthe circle of the, 170\nCitizenship, Has product of schools reasonable fitness for, 181\nCity Superintendents of Larger Cities,\nRound Table of, 310\nClark, A. B. — University entrance credits\nin drawing, 838; Discussion, 837\nClark, William Arthur. — The pedagogical laboratory in the scientific study of\neducation, 747\n\nCommittee of Seventeen on the Professional\nPreparation\nReport of, 523of High-School Teachers,\n\nCleveland,\ntion, 50 O., Approved for next convenClifford, W. N. — Discussion, 326\nColby, E. C. — The aims of art education\nin the public schools, 822\nCollege studies for a teacher of classics,\nSchedule of, 568\nCollege studies for a teacher of English,\nSchedule of, 567\nCollege studies for a teacher of physics.\nSchedule of, 569\n895\nCommercial\nbranches, Co-ordination\nin,\n\nConference\nof National Committee on\n279\nAgricultural Education, 1062\nschools in, 433\nConnecticut,\nIndustrial work in rural\n\nCommercial and general education, 899\nCommercial geography, Emphasis of, 507\nCommercial\nof, 883 _ instruction, Present standards\nCommercial schools. Courses of study and\npreparation of teachers for, 878\nCommercial teachers. Methods of improving, 890; Preparation of, 885\nCommittee on Agricultural Education,\nConference, 1063\nCommittee on Co-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries,\n337\nCommittee on an Equal Division of the\nTwelve\nYears in the Public Schools\nbetween the District and High Schools,\n705\nCommittee on History, Report of the, 235\nCommittee on Industrial Education for\nRural Schools, Members, 53\nCommittee on Industrial Education in\nSchools for Rural Communities, Report\nof the, 409\nCommittee on Instruction in Library\nAdministration in Normal Schools, 363\nCommittee on National University, authorized, 49; Names of, 52\nCommittee on Nominations, Names of, 27;\nReport of, 38\nCommittee on Provisions in Public Schools\nfor Exceptional Children, authorized, 49;\nMembers of, 53\nCommittee on Resolutions of General\nAssociation, Names of, 26; Declaration\nof Principles, 29; Resolutions] of Thanks,\n\nConventions, Rural school-board, 288\nCook, John W. — Capacity and limitations\nof the normal school in the professional\npreparation of high-school teachers, 628\nCooLEY, Mrs. Alice Woodworth. —\nPresident's\naddress. 476\nDepartment of\nElementary Education,\nCooLEY, Edwin G. — The basis of grading\nteachers' salaries, 94; Discussion, 358\nCooper, F. B. — Discussion, 357\nCo-ordination of individual and class\ninstruction in commercial branches (F.\nF. Showers), 894; Discussion, 898\nCornell rural schoolhouse, The, 418\nCouncil of Education, The National, 329\nCounty\nstate superintendents. Round\nTable and\nof, 264\n\n34\nCommittee\non Science Instruction in\nSecondary Schools, 151\nCommittee of Seven on Admission Requirements to Technical Colleges, 1032\n\nCommittee on Shortage in Supply of Teachers, authorized, 49; Members of, 53\nCommittee on Teaching Morals in Public\nSchools, authorized, 49; Members of, 53\nschools, 195 advantages in secondary\nCompensating\nCompensation\nfor teachers. Other forms of,\n108\nthe teacher,\n77 J.— The personality of\nCoNATY,\nThomas\n\nConsoUdated school and the new agriculture. The (O.J. Kern), 277; Discussion,\nContagious diseases and public health, 923\nContributions of twenty-five years of\norganized child-study in America to\neducational theory and practice, as\napplied\nto grammar\nB. Dresslar),\n910 grades (Fletcher\n\nCountry school and its betterment. The, 264\nCourse of study for the district school\n(M. Bates Stephens), 269\nCourses for elementary and secondary\nschools, 290\nCourses of study and preparation of teachers or commercial schools (H. M.\nRowe), 878\nCourse\nof, 278of study, Vitalization of the course\nCousins, R. B. — Discussion, 268\nCrabtree, J. W. — Discussion, 201\nCraig,\nKatharine.\nrural schools,\n264 — How to improve\nCraig, Oscar J.— Secretary's minutes,\nDepartment of Higher Education, 712\nCrosby, Dick J.— The work of the national\ngovernment in extending agricultural\neducation thru the public schools, 1063\nCUBBERLEY, Ellwood P. — The professional preparation of high-school teachers,\n555\nCurriculum, The overcrowded, 308\n\n"} {"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "I094\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDarnell, Miss Carrie M. — Primary\nlesson in gardening, 1027\nDavis, Miss Emma C. — Secretary's minutes, Department of Elementary Education, 476; Story-telling and the poem,\n482; Discussion, 777\nDeaf, Public day schools for the, 986\nDe Cora, Miss Angel. — Native Indian\nart, 1005\n\nDefective children. Education of, in smaller\ncities, 301; Their separation from the\nregular school, 321\nDefectives — How can they be made selfsupporting, 993; Schools for, in connection with public schools, in\nDeGarmo, Charles. — The professional\npreparation of high-school teachers, 558;\nProfessional training of teachers for the\nsecondary schools of Germany, 638\nDemocracy and education (Albert BoynTON Storms), 62\nDemonstration lessons, correlating arithmetic and carpentry (Clarence L.\nGates), 1025\nDepartment of Art Education, 821; of\nBusiness Education, 877; of ChildStudy, 905; of Council of Education,\n329; of Elementary Education, 475;\nof Higher . Education, 711; of Indian\nEducation, looi; of Kindergarten Education, 455; of Library, 961; of Manual\nTraining, 759; of Music Education, 849;\nof Normal Schools, 739; of Physical\nTraining, 925; of School Administration,\n959; of Science Instruction, 951; of\nSecondary Education, 521; of Special\nEducation, 983; of Superintendence,\n145; of Technical Education, 103 1\nDepartment of Educational Committees\nof National Organizations of Women,\nauthorized, 51\nDepartment of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation, Authorization of, 44\nDepartment of Technical Education, The\nscope of, 1032\nDepartments, officers for 1907-8, 17\nDependent and delinquent children in the\nhome environment as a school problem\nQ. K. Stableton), 914\nDevelopment of an adequate course of\nstudy in manual training for elementary\ngrades: I, From the point of view of the\nteacher of manual art (August Ahrens),\n760; II, From the point of view of childstudy (Fletcher B. Dresslar), 766;\nIII, From the point of view of the school\nsuperintendent (Charles H. Keyes),\n771; Discussion, 774\nDevelopment, Order of, 210\nDexter, Edwin G. — The present train644 ing of teachers for secondary schools,\nDietrich, John. — What should the smaller\ncities attempt for the education of defective children — physical, mental, and\nmoral? 297\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors,\nAnnual Meeting of\nBoard of, 1906-7,\n42\nDirectors, First Meeting of Board of, 19078,46\nDiscussion of the Report of the Committee\non Instruction in Library Administration\nin Normal Schools (Frank F. Bunker),\n363; Discussion, 369\nDistrict school, Course of study for the, 269\nDomestic art without equipment, 1076\nDramatizing (Thomas C. Blaisdell), 485\nDrawing, Object, 843\nDrawing, University entrance credits in.\n838\nDresslar, Fletcher B. — The contributions of twenty-five years of organized\nchild-study in America to educational\ntheory and practice, as applied to grammar grades, 910; Manual training for\nelementary grades from the point of view\nof child-study, 766\nDriggs, Frank M. — Self-support, 990\nDuRELL, Fletcher. — Purpose, nature,\nand method of presentation of original\ndemonstrations in geometry, 671\nDyer, F. B. — Is there need for industrial\nschools for pupils unlikely to complete\nthe regular elementary-school course ? 310\nEastmond, Elbert H. — Rational art and\nmanual training in rural schools, 804\nEckels,\nJames165H. — The financial value of\neducation,\nEconomic relations of education. The\n(W. O. Thompson), 87; Discussion, 93\nEducation of the child race, 1003\ncities,\nEducation297of defective children in smaller\nEducation, Democracy and, 62\nEducation, The economic relations of, 87\nEducation, Enlarged scope of, 65\nEducation, The financial value of, 165\nEducation of Indians, 70\nEducation, The National Council of, 329\nEducational campaigns. The value of,\n282\n\nEducational ideal, A new, 278\nEducational Organizations in Other Countries, Committee on Co-operation with,\n337\nEducational periodicals, 541\nEducational problems. Relation of primitive\nhandicraft to, 815\nEducational progress of two years. The,\n1905-7 (Ella Flagg Young), 383\nEducational\nterminology,\nA significant\nlack in, 138\nEdwards,\nWalter A. — History in the\nlife ofaidthethechild,\n513;? How\nrian\nteacher\n978 can the UbraEffect of multiplicity of subjects, 203\nEffects of refinement of methods, 203\nElementary Education, Department of, 475\nElementary grades.\nManual training for,\nhool\nry-sc\na\nt\nials\n.\nn\ne\nElem\ncourse\nEssent\nin\nsubjects in the, 227\n\n"} {"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nElementary teacher, Minimum qualifications of the, 239\nElementary schools. Courses for, 290\nElementary schools and industrial courses,\nsion, 19\non,\nEmer3s10 al Henry P. — Discus\n3\ng\nn\n,\nn\no\ni\nEmoti\nlife. The train\nof the child's\n905\nEmphasis of commercial and industrial\ngeography (S. L. Heeter), 507\nEmployment for adult deaf, blind, and\nfeeble-minded, 994\nEnlarged scope of education, 65\nEssential features in the education of the\nchild race (George P. Phenix,) 1003\nEssentials in subjects in the elementaryschool course, 227\nEthics of democracy, 63\nEthics and sociology — List of books on, 540\nEvans, Lawton B. — Should the school\nattempt the circle of the child's training\nor address itself to the school segment ?\n170\n\nEvils of athletics, The, 932\nExceptional Children, Committee on Provisions in Public Schools for, authorized,\n49; Members of, 53\nExceptional children in the public schools,\nProvisions for, 360\nExperiment stations. Office of, 1067\nExpression by the hand (I. C. McNeill),\nFairbanks,\nHarold W. — Illustrative ex491\ncursions for field sight, 504\nFerguson, James. — Present standards of\ncommercial instruction, 883\nField sight, Illustrative excursions for, 504\nFinance, Public-school, 343\nFinancial value of education. The (James\nH. Eckels), 165\nFiske, W. A. — Discussion, 687\nFitzpatrick, F. A. — Discussion, 354, 362\nFranklin, George A. — Discussion, 301\nFrazier, C. R. — At what should the ungraded school aim and for what class of\npupils should it provide ? 316\nFree musical education a necessity to the\nmusic art of a republic (Miss Fanny\nEdgar Thomas), 865\nFreshmen, The care of, 723\nFriedman, M. — Manual training in the\nIndian schools, 810\nGardens, School, 420\nGates, Clarence L. — Demonstration lessons, correlating arithmetic and carpentry, 1025\nGates, W. A. — The training of the incorrigible, 995\nGeneral, history of education and educational classics — List of books, 540\nGeneral sessions, 55\nGeography, Emphasis of commercial and\nindustrial, 507\nGeography in the life of the pupil (James\nFranklin Chamberlain), 497; Discussion, 502\n\nGeometry, Original demonstrations in, 671\nGermany, Home and school life in, 467\nGermany, Standards in, 615\nGillan, S. Y. — Discussion, 164\nGordy, Wilbur\nF. — Growth: how continued, 256\nGreen, James M. — The relation between\ngeneral\nand 369\ncommercial education, 899;\nDiscussion,\nGreenwood, J. M. — A seven-year course\nfor elementary\nschools and a five-year\ncussion, 355\ncourse for secondary schools, 290; DisY Trancoso),\nGreetings\nfrom a 75\nsister republic (M. Uribe\nGrenfell, Mrs. Helen L. — The influence\nof women's125 organizations on public\neducation,\nGrowth: how continued (Wilbur F.\nGordy), 256\nGuillou, Alfred. — Discussion, 803\nHall,\n1002 Harwood. — President's address,\nHalleck, Reuben Post. — Report of the\nCommittee of Seventeen on the Profesers,\n523 .of High-School Teachsional Preparation\nHamilton, A. L. — Discussion, 502\nHamilton, Samuel. — Has the product of\nour schools reasonable fitness in scholarship and personal qualities for citizenship ? 181\nHarris, Miss Ada Van Stone. — What\nshould the public do for the care and\ntraining of children before they are\nadmitted to the public school ? 157\nHarris, J. H. — Secretary's minutes. Department of Superintendence, 151\nHarris, W. T. — Response to address of\nwelcome, 56; Discussion, 356\nHarvey, L. D. — Is there need for industrial\nschools for pupils unhkely to complete\nthe regular elementary-school course ?\n310; Report\nof theinCommittee\non Industrial Education\nSchools for\nRural\nCommunities, 409\nPas the product of our schools reasonable\nfitness in scholarship and personal\nqualities for citizenship ? (Samuel Hamilton), 181\nHastings, Wm. W. — How can physical\ntraining become the instrument for making theoretical teaching of school physiology of practical value for school life ?\n925\nHatch, William E. — Discussion, 360\nHayden, Philip C. — Secretary's minutes.\nDepartment of Music Education, 850\nHealth and development inspection of the\npublic schools, 922\nHeaton, T. L. — Discussion, 837\nHeeter,\nS. L. — geography,\nEmphasis of commercial\nand industrial\n507\nHetherington, Clark W.— The organization and administration of athletics, 930\nHigher Education, Department of, 711\n\n"} {"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHigh-school\ncertification, Requirements,\n601\n\nLeupp),and70 their education (Francis E.\nIndians\n\nHigh-school curriculum, The place of\nmodern history in the, 678\nHigh school. Practice teaching in the, 624\nHigh-school\nstudents, Microscope work\nfor, 693\n\nIndustrial courses in elementary schools —\nI (L. D. Harvey), 310; II (F. B. Dyer),\n\nHigh-school teachers, Preparation of, from\nthe standpoint of the normal school, 712;\nReport of Committee on Professional\nPreparation of, 523; Short course of\nprofessional reading for, 538\nHigh schools, Their relation to industrial\nlife, 698\nHigh schools and colleges. Technical education in, 1055\nHill, Joseph H. — The preparation of highschool teachers from the standpoint of\nthe normal school, 712\nHistorical and descriptive, United States\nand Germany — List of books, 540\nHistory of education and educational\nclassics — List of books, 540\nHistory in the life of the child (Walter A.\nEdwards), 513; Discussion, 518\nHistory, Report of the Committee on, 235\nHistory Round Table, 676\nHodge, Miss Ruby M. — Relation of primitive handicraft to present-day educational problems, 815\nHofer, Miss Amalie. — Discussion, 164\nHogg, Alexander. — Discussion, loi\nHolland, E. O.— Professional preparation\nof high-school teachers, 577\nHome and school life in Germany (Miss\nAmalie Nix), 467\nHow to improve rural schools (Katharine\nL. Craig), 264\nHow can individual defectives be made\nself-supporting ? 993\nHow can the librarian aid the teacher?\n(Walter A. Edwards), 978\nHow can physical training become the\ninstrument for making theoretical teaching of school physiology of practical\nvalue for school life? (Wm. W. Hastings), 925\nHow the teacher can help the librarian\n(Miss Mira Jacobus), 974\nHunt, R. H. — Discussion, 682\nIdeal in the kindergarten, The American,\n\nIndustrial Education\nin Rural Schools,\nCommittee on. Members of, 53\nIndustrial Education in Schools for Rural\nCommunities, Report of Committee on,\n409\n\nIdeal\n456 supervisor, The (Frederick H.\nRipley), 851\nIllustrative excursions for field sight\n(Harold W. Fairbanks), 504; Discussion, 506\nIncorporation, Act of, i; Certificate of, 8\nIncorrigible children — Their separation\nfrom the regular school, 322\nIncorrigible, The training of the, 995\nIndian art. Native, 1005\nIndian education (George Leroy Brown),\n1002\n\nIndian Education, Department of, looi\nIndian schools, Manual training in the, 810\n\nIndustrial\neducation,\nIts Relation to public\ninstruction,\n778\n\nIndustrial geography. Emphasis of, 507\nIndustrial\nto, 698 life. The relation of high schools\nIndustrial schools in rural communities.\nThe preparation of teachers for, 446\nIndustrial training in the upper grammar\ngrades, 787\nIndustrial training as viewed by a manufacturer (Magnus W. Alexander), 796;\nDiscussion, 803\nIndustrial work in rural schools in New\nEngland,\nNew\nYork,New\n429 Jersey, Pennsylvania, and\nInfluence of women's organizations on public education (Mrs. Helen Grenfell),\n125; Discussion, 133\nIngersoll, Mrs. Ernest. — Discussion, 837\nIngerson, Carl I. — Discussion, 687\nIn Memoriam William Harold Payne, 406\nInstruction of all prospective teachers in\nthe contents and use of libraries (Miss\nElizabeth T. Sullivan), 967\nInsubordinate children — Their separation\nfrom the regular school, 322\nIsaacs, E. K. — Discussion, 892\nIs the child the ward of the nation ? (James\nB. As well), 152\nIssues confronting the normal schools, 740\nJack, Frank M. — Why Wisconsin believes\nin public day schools for the deaf, 986\nJacobus,\nMira. — 974\nHow the teacher\ncan help Miss\nthe librarian,\nJohnson, B. W. — Manual training versus\nindustrial training in the high school,\nation f ibrarians\non, . .\no l\nD B — Prepar\nJohns\nfor public-school libraries, 962\nJohnson,\nMartha J.— The relation of\nmusic to physical education, 940\nJoint recommendations\nof the Committee\n780\nof Seventeen\non the Professional Preparation of High-School Teachers, 536\nJ ONES; Edmund A. — What has been the\neffect upon the individual pupil of the\nmultiplicity of subjects of study and the\nrefinement of methods ? 203\nJournal of Proceedings, General Sessions,\nJUDD, C. H. — Professional preparation of\nhigh-school teachers, 582\nKern,\nO. J.\n— The consolidated\nschool and\nthe new\nagriculture,\n277\nKern, Walter M. — Purpose of work with\nthe microscope, 688\n\n"} {"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nKeyes, Charles H. — Manual training for\nelementary grades from the point of view\nof the school superintendent, 771;\nTeachers' pensions, 103\nKindergarten, The American ideal in the,\narten\nment\non,\nKind4e5r6g\nEducati\nDepart\nof,\n455\nKinds\n693 of microscope work valuable for\nhigh-school students (H. F. Wegener),\n\nKirk, John R. — Should the school furnis\nchild h?\nbetter trainin for the non-av\nof the issueersagenow con221; A stategm\nfronting the noernmtal schools of the United\nStates, 740; Will the same trainin in the\nnormal school serve to prepar the g teache\nr\ne\nand high-s\nfor both elemen\nchool\ntarywork? 661\n898\nKnight Thoma H. H. — Discus\nof\nLange,, Alexis T. — The prespiaorn,\ns\na\nt\nfrom the stanidopn\nteache\nhigh-s\nr\nc\no\ns\nh\ni\no\nnt\n718\nof the uniovlers\nit\nof\nrelatio\nFrank y, M. — The\nLeavit\nn\nt\n,\ni\nt p\ne\nindustr\nial ducation o ublic nstruction,\nE. — Indians and their\nFranci\nLeupp,\ns\nconfer\nRound7\ne1d07u17c58at\nence,\nion, 0;\ntable\nas a teacher The (J. N. Wilkin\nLibrar\nianson), 972\n,\nHow the teache can help, 974\nLibrar\nr\nian\nP\nlibrari\nLibrar , for public\n-schoo\nes, repians aration of, 962\nl\nin the use of, 967\nInstru\nLibrari\nc\nin Norma Schools\nLibrar es,Admini tion\nl\ny\nstrati\n,\nof thoen Report of the ComA discus\nmittseeiono, n363\n961\nLibrar Depart\nLibrar y The smcehonotl, and the, 117\ny,\nJ B — The purpos of the microLillar\ne\nd, scope,.691 .\nf\nr\nLists of books for profes\nsional eading or\nhigh-school teachers, 538\nLowD, Edna B. — Object drawing, 843\nLucKEY, George W. A. — The professional\npreparation of high-school teachers, 587\nLyttle,\nE. W. — The relation of high\nschools to industrial life, 698\nMaine, Industrial work in rural schools in.\n43o> 436\nMartin, A. B. — Discussion, 688\nMartin,\nGeorge\nH. — The professional\npreparation\nof high-school\nteachers,\nale,\nd\nn\nation of\ni\nr\nt\na\nMar 92\niWn.ate C. — The sreripgible\nd\nr\no\n5\nb\nu\no\nthe ins om\narnd inc ,\nchildren fr tnhge, regula school 322\nl\nManua traini g, 421\nn\nl\ntment\nManua Traini ng Depar ment, of, 759t\nl raini\nt\na\nr\nu\na\nn\np\nneques of,\na\ne\nM\nT ttee D\nigatiRo\nfor Cormimatiion, of Invest\nand an\n0\napprlop\n5\ny\nr\na\ng\nt\n,\nn\nManua traini ng for elemen\ngrades 76s0\nManual\ntraimnain), in the Indian school\n(M. Fried\n810\n\nManual training, The meaning and function\nof, 701\nManual training in rural schools (Arthur\nH. Chamberlain), 273\nManual\nin rural schools, Rational\nart and,training\n804\nManual training in rural schools of Indiana\n(Ellsworth Robey), 705\nManual training without equipment, 1076\nManual training versus industrial training\nin the high school (B. W. Johnson), 780\nManufacturer, Industrial training as viewed\nby a, 796\nMassachusetts,\nwork in rural\nschools in, 432,Industrial\n438\nMathematics Round Table, 669\nMcBrien, J. L. — The value of educational\ncampaigns, 282; Discussion, 381\nMcClure, a. H. — Discussion, 948\nMcIvER,\neducation,M. 984N. — The aims of special\nMcNeill, I. C. — Expression by the hand,\n491; Discussion, 370, 382\nMcPherron,\nJ. Melville, — Time\nof\nintroduction and limitations in original\ndemonstrations in geometry, 671\nMeaning and function of manual training.\nThe Q. Stanley Brown), 701\nMedical examination of pupils, 922\nMeetings, By-Law concerning, 8; Calendar\nof, 10\nMembership,\nTotal, Statistical Table of, 1087\nMental\nand moral development\nversus\nphysical, 305\nMerrill, George A. — Trade schools and\ntrade unions, 1048\nMethods of improving commercial teachers\nnow ^9at\ncussion, 892 (F. C Weber), 890; Dis3 work\n\nMicroscope\nin biology classes, The use of,\n688\nMicroscope,\nThe purpose of the, 691;\npurpose of work with the, 688\nMicroscope work for high-school students,\n697\nMicWright),\nproje\ni b\n( T\nrosco\nction n iology C- .\npic\nMiller, Cap E. — Discussion, 280\nMiller,\nE. L — The place of modern\nhistory in the high-school curriculum, 678\nMillspaugh, J. F. — Discussion, 361\nMinimum qualifications of the elementary\nteacher (Ashley Van Storm), 239\nMinimum qualifications for the training\nand\ncertification of secondary-school\nteachers (Henry Suzzallo), 252\nModel rural school, 415\nModern history in the high-school curriculum, The place of, 678\nMonin,\nLouis\nC. — The Scope of the\n1032\nDepartment\nof Technical\nEducation,\nMoore, Miss Harriett. — Discussion, 837\nMoral training thru the agency of the\npublic school (Clifford W, Barnes),\n372; Discussion, 378\n\n"} {"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioqS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMorals in Public Schools, Committee on\nTeaching, authorized, 49; Members of, 53\nMorrison, Gilbert B. — Report of the\nCommittee on an Equal Division of the\nTwelve Years in the Public Schools\nbetween the District and High Schools,\n70s\nMorse,\nMary\nS. — Secretary's\nminutes,\nDepartment of Art Education, 822\nMotive for work (Miss Margaret\nE.\nSchallenberger), 462\nMott, T. A. — Discussion, 93, 775, 837\nMusic art of a republic, Free musical education a necessity to the, 865\nMusic Education, Department of, 849\nMusic and physical education, 940\nMusic terminology reform (Charles\nI.\nRice), 872; Discussion, 875\nNape,\nMiss\nMaggie. — Orange\nculture,\nlOII\n\nNash, George W. — Other forms of compensation for teachers, 108\nNational Committee on Agricultural Education, 1063\nNational Council of Education, 329; Constitution of,329; Officers of, for 1907-8,\n331; Committee of, 332; Members of,\n332; Secretary's\nminutes,\n334\nNational\nEducation\nAssociation\nof the\nUnited States, i; National Teachers'\nAssociation, 1857-70, i; National Educational Association, i; Act of Incorporation, I\nNational University, Committee, Names of,\nNative\n1005 Indian art (Miss Angel de Cora),\n52\nNeed for special classes, The, 310\nNew Agriculture, The, 277\nNew Hampshire, Industrial work in rural\nschools in, 430, 437\nNew Jersey, Industrial work in rural\nschools in, 429\nNew York, Industrial work in rural schools\nin, 435» 442\nNix, Miss Amalie. — Home and school\nhfe in Germany, 467\nNon-average child. Training for the, 221\nNormal school in the professional preparation of high-school teachers, 628; Professional training of teachers for the\nsecondary schools of Germany, 638;\nThe present training of teachers for\nsecondary schools, 644; Will the same\ntraining in the normal school serve to\nprepare the teacher for both elementary\nand high-school work ? 661\nNormal schools, 631; Agriculture in, 752;\nDepartment of, 739; Issues confronting\nthe, 740\nNotebook, The: its value and its limitations (Mrs. Ada I. Atkinson), 676\nObject-drawing (Edna B. Lowd), 843\nOffice of experiment stations, 1067\nOfficers of General Association for 1905-6,\nalso 1906-7, 12; for 1907-8, 16\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOlsen, J. W. — Rural-school supervision,\n266; The school and the library, 117\nOral reading and oral language, 478\nOrange\nculture (Miss Maggie Naff),\nlOII\n\nP development and studies suited to\nOrder93of\neach stage (William E. Chancellor),\n210\n\nOrganization and administraiton of athletics. The (Clark W. Hetherington),\nOriginal demonstrations in geometry, 671;\nI, Purpose, nature, and method of presentation (Fletcher Durell), 671;\nTime of introduction and limitations\n(J. Melville McPherron), 675\nO'Shea, M. V. — The professional preparation of high-school teachers, 597\nOther forms of compensation for teachers\n(George W. Nash), 108\nOvercrowded curriculum, The (G. V.\nBuchanan), 308\nPalmer, Irving O. — Discussion, 956\nPardee,\nGeo.\nC. — PubUc-school finance;\nwhat next\n? 347\nPayne, WilUam\n\nHarold — In Memoriam^\n\nto aid,\n58\nPeace\nmovement.\nWhat can the schools do\nPearse, C. G. — Schools for defectives\nin connection with the pubHc schools, 1 1 1 ;\n406\nThe separation of physically and mentally defective children from the regular\nschool, 321; Discussion, 359, 372\nPedagogical instruction provided for secondary teachers, 623\nPedagogical\nlaboratory in the scientific\nClark),of 747\nstudy\neducation (William Arthur\nPennsylvania,\nschools in, 429Industrial work in rural\nPeril of republics. The, 64\nConaty), 77\nPersonahty\nof the teacher (Thomas\n\nJ.\n\nPhenix, George P. — Essential features\nin the education of the child race, 1003\nPhillips, J. H. — Discussion, 294\nPhysical education. The relation of music\nto, 940\nPhysical examination of pupils, 922\nPhysical examination of teachers, 922\nment, 305\nPhysical versus mental and moral developPhysical Training, Department of, 925\nPhysical\nteacher?training\n742 — What can it do for the\nPhysical training and school physiology,\n927\nPhysics and chemistry. The value and\nlimitations of quantitative work in, 684\nPhysics in secondary schools, 951\nPlace of modern history in the high-school\ncurriculum (E. I. Miller), 678; Discussion, 682\nPractice teaching in the high-school previous to employment, 624\n\n"} {"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nPreparation of high-school teachers: I,\nFrom the standpoint of the normal school\n(Joseph H. Hill), 712; II, From the\nstandpoint of the university (Alexis F.\nLange), 718\nPreparation of librarians for public-school\nlibraries (D. B. Johnson), 962\nPreparation of teachers for commercial\nschools, 878, 885\nPreparation of teachers for industrial\nschools in rural communities, 446\nPresent standards of commercial instruction\n(James Ferguson), 883\nPresent training of teachers for secondary\nschools (Edwin G. Dexter), 644\nPresident's\nfer), 58 Address (Nathan C. SchaefPresident's address. Department of Indian\nEducation (Harwood Hall), 1002\nPresident's address, Department of Elementary Education (Mrs. Alice Woodworth Cooley), 476\nPresident's address, National Council of\nEducation (Elmer Ellsworth Brown),\n337\nPrice List of Publications, 1088\nPrimary lesson in gardening (Miss Carrie\nM. Darnell),\n\n1027\n\nPrince, John T. — Discussion, 363\nProblems of greater America (E. Benjamin\nAndrews), 191\nProceedings of General Sessions, Journal\nof, 25\nProfessional reading for high-school teachers, A short course of, 538\nProfessional preparation of high-school\nteachers,\nReport\nof committee\non,\n523\nProfessional preparation of secondary\nteachers in fifteen southern states (Edward Franklin Buchner), 618\nProfessional studies, 570\nProfessional training of teachers for the\nsecondary schools of Germany, (Charles\nDeGarmo), 638\nProper articulation of technical education\nwithin the system of public education\n(Ella Flagg Young), 1037\nProvisions for exceptional children in the\npubHc schools, 360; Discussion, 360\nPoem, The story and the, 478\nPoem, Story-telling and the (Miss Emma\nC. Davis), 482\nPotent factors in oral reading and oral\nlanguage: I, The Story and the poem\n(Henry Suzzallo), 478; II, Storytelling and the poem (Miss Emma C.\nDavis), 482; III, Dramatizing (Thomas\nC. Blaisdell), 485; IV, Expression by\nthe hand (I. C. McNeill), 491; Discussion, 494\nPsychology, general method, and philosophy ofeducation — List of books on,\n539\nPublic day schools for the deaf, in Wisconsin, 986\n\nPublic education. The influence of women's\norganizations on, 125\nPublic\ninstruction,\neducation\nto, 778 Relation of industrial\nPublic-school\nfinance:\nwhat next?\nI\n(Jesse D. Burks), 343;\nII (Geo. C.\nPardee), 347; Discussion, 354\nPubHc-school\nPreparation\nof\nlibrarians for, libraries.\n962\nPublic\ntraining thru the\nagency school.\nof the, Moral\n373\nPublic schools, Art education in the, 822\nPurpose\nof work with the microscope\n(Walter M. Kern), 688\nPurpose\nof the\nLillard),\n691 microscope. The (J. B.\nRational art and manual training in rural\nschools (Elbert H. Eastmond), 804\nReed, Grace. — Discussion, 234\nReel, Miss Estelle. — Secretary's minutes,\nDepartment of Indian Education, looi\nRefinement of methods. Effects of, 203\nReid, Geo. W. — The relation of the physical nature of the child to his mental and\nmoral development, 305\nReigart, J. F. — Discussion, 496\nRelation of art education to everyday life — .\nFrom the culture side (Miss Katherine\nLois Scobey), 825; from the utiHtarian\nside (Arthur Henry Chamberlain),\nRelation between general and commercial\neducation, The (James M. Green), 899\nRelation of high schools to industrial life\n(E. W. Lyttle), 698\nRelation of industrial education to public\ninstruction: Introduction by the president (Frank M. Leavitt), 778; I,\nManual training versus industrial training\nin the high school (B. W. Johnson), 780;\nII, Can the school life of pupils be prolonged by an adequate provision for\nindustrial training in the upper grammar\ngrades ? (Jesse D. Burks), 787\nRelation of music to physical education.\nThe (Miss Martha J. Johnson), 940\nRelation of the physical nature of the child\nto his mental and moral development\n(Geo. W. Reid), 305; Discussion, 307\nRelation of primitive handicraft to presentday\neducational\nM. Hodge),\n815 problems (Miss Ruby\nRehgious education in the state universities\n(Wallace N. Stearns), 729\nReport of Board of Trustees, Twenty-first\nAnnual, 1906-7, 22\nReport of the Committee on an Equal\nDivision of the Twelve Years in the Public Schools between the District and High\nSchools (Gilbert B. Morrison), 705\nReport\nof the Committee\non History (J. H.\nVan Sickle),\n235\nReport of the Committee on Industrial\nEducation in Schools for Rural Com409\nmunities (L. D. Harvey, chairman),\n\n"} {"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nReport of Committee on Instruction in\nLibrary Administration in Normal\nSchools, A discussion of, 368\nReport of Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations, 48; Action on same\nby Board of Directors, 49\nReport of Committee on Nominations, 38\nReport of Committee on Resolutions of\nGeneral Association, 29\nReport of Committee of Seventeen, Printing\nof, authorized, 46\nReport of the Committee of Seventeen on\nthe Professional Preparation of HighSchool Teachers (Reuben Post Halleck); Joint recommendations of the\ncommittee, 536; A short course of professional reading, 538; Papers on the\nprofessional preparation of high-school\nteachers, I (H. M. Barrett), 541;\nII. (Stratton D. Brooks), 547; III.\nQ. Stanley Brown), 551; IV. (Ellwood P. Cubberley), 555; V. (Charles\nDeGarmo), 558; VI. (Paul H.\nHanus), 563; VII. (E. O. Holland),\n577; Vm. (C. H. JuDD), 582; IX.\n(George W. A. Luckey), 587; X.\n(George H. Martin), 592; XI. (M.\nV. O'Shea), 597; XII. Requirements\nand standards (Frederick E. Bolton),\n600; XIII. In the fifteen southern\nstates (Edward Franklin Buchner),\n618; XIV. Capacity and limitations\nof the normal school in the (John W.\nCook), 628; XV. For the secondary\nschools of Germany (Charles De\nGarmo), 638; XVI. The present training of teachers for secondary schools\n(Edwin G. Dexter), 644; XVII. Will\nthe same training in the normal school\nserve to prepare the teacher for both\nelementary and high-school work ?\n(John R. Kirk), 661\nReport, Treasurer's Annual, 1906-7, 20\nRepublic, Greetings from a sister, 75\nRepublics, The peril of, 64\nRequirement of scholarship and training, 618\nRequirements and standards (Frederick\nE. Bolton), 600\nRequirements for high-school certification,\n601\nResearch and the commercial test, 69\nResponsibiUty for present conditions in\nschools, 173\nRhode Island, Industrial work in rural\nschools in, 433\nRice, Charles I.— Music terminology\nreform, 872\nRipley, Frederick H. — The ideal supervisor, 851\nRoBEY, Ellsworth. — Manual training,\nin rural schools of Indiana, 705\nRound Table of City Superintendents of\nLarger Cities, 310\nRound-table conference, Department of\nIndian Education (Chairman, Francis\nE. Leupp), 1015\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nRound-table conferences, 669\nRound Table, History, 676\nRound Table, Mathematics, 669\nRound Table, Science, 684\nRound Tabletendents,of264 State and County SuperinRound\nCities,Table\n290 of Superintendents of Smaller\nRowe, H. M. — Courses of study and preparation ofteachers for commercial schools,\n878\nRulon, Miss Elva E. — Secretary's minutes.\nLibrary Department, 961\nRural and Agricultural Education, Department of, authorized, 42\nRural Communities, Report of Committee\non Industrial Education in, 409\nRural school, A model, 415\nRural school, The small, 426\nRural school-board conventions (C. P.\nGary), 288\nRural schoolhouse, The Cornell, 418\nRural school supervision (J. W. Olsen),\n266; Discussion, 268\nRural Schools, Committee on Industrial\nEducation for. Members of, 53\nRural schools, How to improve, 264\nRural schools. Industrial work in, 429\nRural schools, Manual training in, 273\nRural schools. Rational art and manual\ntraining in, 804\nSalaries, The basis for grading teachers', 94\nSchaeffer, Nathan C. — What can the\nschools do to aid the peace movement?\nSCHALLENBERGER,\nMotive for work, MiSS\n462\n\nMARGARET\n\nE. —\n\nScholarship and training. The requirement\nof, 618\nSchool Administration, Department of, 959;\nFacts\n117 concerning, 344\nSchool-board conventions. Rural, 288\nSchool gardens, 420\nSchoolhouse, The Cornell rural, 418\n58 life in Germany, 467\nSchool and home\nSchool and the library. The (J. W. Olsen),\nSchools for defectives in connection with\nthe pubUc schools (C. G. Pearse), hi\nSchools, Special or separate, 421\nScience Instruction, Department of, 951\nScience Instruction in Secondary Schools,\nCommittee on, 151\nScience Round Table, 684\nScientific\nstudy ofineducation.\ncal laboratory\nthe, 747 The pedagogiScobey, Miss Katherine Lois. — The\nrelation of art education to everyday\nlife — From the culture side, 825\nScope of the Department of Technical\nEducation (Louis C Monin), 1032\nSecretary's minutes. Department of Art\nEducation, 822; of Business Education,\n877; of Child-Study, 905; of Elementary\nEducation, 475; of General Association,\n25; of Higher Education, 711; of Indian\n\n"} {"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nEducation, looi; of Kindergarten Education, 455; of Library, 961; of Manual\nTraining, 759; of Music Education, 849;\nof National Council, 334; of Normal\nSchools, 739; of Physical Education, 924;\nof School Administration, 959; of Science\nInstruction, 951; of Secondary Education, 521; of Special Education, 984;\nof Superintendence, 145; of Technical\nEducation, 103 1\nSecondary Education, Department of, 521\nSecondary-school teachers, Minimum qualifications for the training and certification\nof, 252\nSecondary schools. Compensating advantages in, 194\nSecondary schools, Courses for, 290\nSecondary teachers. Academic instruction\nfor, 621\nSecondary teachers, Pedagogical instruction for, 623\nSelf-support (Frank M. Driggs), 990\nSeminary work, 642\nSeparation of the insubordinate and incorrigible children from the regular school\n(W. C. Martindale), 322; Discussion,\n\nIIOI\n\nStandards in Germany, 615\nStandards suggested for American schools,\n616\nState\nandof,County\nSuperintendents, Round\nTable\n264\nStatement of the issues now confronting\nthe normal schools of the United States\nQoHN R. Kirk), 740\nthe, 729\nState universities, Religious education \"in\nStatistical Table of Active Membership, 1086\nStatistical Table of Total Membership, 1087\nStearns, Wallace N. — Rehgious education in the state universities, 729\nStephens, M. Bates. — Course of study for\nthe district school, 269\nStevens, W. L. — Discussion, 318\nStewart, J. A. — Discussion, 307\nStone, Mason S. — Discussion, 287\nStorm, Ashley Van. — Minimum qualifications of the elementary teacher, 239\nStorms,\nAlbert\nBoynton. — Democracy\nand Education, 62\nzallo),\n478\nStory and the Poem, The (Henry SuzStudies suited to each stage of development,\n210\n\nSeparation\nof physically and mentally\n326\ndefective children from the regular\nschool (C. G. Pearse), 321\nSeven-year course for elementary schools\nand a five-year course for secondary\nschools (J. M. Greenwood), 290; Discussion, 294\n\nSubjects, Efifects of multiplicity of, 203\nSullivan, Miss Elizabeth T. — Instruction of all prospective teachers in the\ncontents and use of Ubraries, 967\nSuperintendence, Department of, 145\nSuperintendents,\nCounty, 264 Round Table of State and\n\nShafer, Harry M. — Secretary's minutes.\nDepartment of Physical Training, 925;\nWhat can physical training do for the\nteacher ? 942\nShortage in the supply of teachers, 369\nShort course of professional reading for\nhigh-school teachers, 538\nShould the school attempt the circle of the\nchild's training, or address itself to the\nschool segment ? (LawtonB. Evans), 170\nShould the school furnish better training\nfor the non-average child? (John R.\n\nSuperintendents of Smaller Cities, Round\nTable of, 290\nSupervision, Rural school, 266\nSupply of teachers. Shortage in, 369\nSuzzALLO,\nHenry. — Minimum\nqualifications for the training and certification of\nsecondary-school\nteachers,\n252;\nThe\nstory and the poem, 478; The training\nof the child's emotional life, 905\nSwain, Joseph. — Discussion, 383\nTeacher, How can librarian aid, 978\nTeacher, the personality of the, 77\nTeachers' certificates, 653\nTeachers,\n103 Committee on Shortage in Supply\nof, 49; Members of, 53\nTeachers for industrial schools, 446\nTeachers, Other forms of compensation\nfor, 108\nTeachers' pensions (Charles H Keyes),\n\nKirk), 221\n\nShowers, F, F. — Co-ordination of individual and class instruction in commercial\nbranches, 894; Secretary's minutes,\nDepartment of Business Education, 878\nSignificant lack in educational terminology\n(John Adams), 138\nSmith, Payson. — Admitting that our\nschools are defective, who are responsible\nfor the present conditions ? 173\nSoldan, F. Louis. — Discussion, 234\nSpecial classes. The need for, 310\nSpecial Education, Department of, 983;\nThe aims of, 984\nSpecial scholarship, 630\nSpecial or separate schools, 421\nSpiritualization of agriculture, 278\nStableton, J. K. — The dependent and\nthe delinquent children in the home environment as a school problem, 914\n\nTeac\nsala\nThe basi for gradin\n94\nTechhneirs' Collreiegs. Commi s\nof Sevegn, on\nt\ne\nc\ns\nt\na\n,\ne\nl\ne 1032\nAdmission Requirements to,\n1055 education. Articulation of, 1037;\nTechnical\nDepartment of, 103 1\nTechnical education in high schools and\ncolleges (Arthur H. Chamberlain),\n\nTechnical Education, The scope of the\nDepartment of, 1032\nTerminology,\ncational, 138A significant lack in edu-\n\n"} {"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "II02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThomas, Miss Fanny Edgar. — Free\nmusical education a necessity to the\nmusic art of a republic, 865\nThompson, W. O. — The care of freshmen,\n723; tion,The\n87 economic relations of educaTrade instruction in elementary schools,\nTrade schools and trade unions (George\nA.310Merrill), 1048\nTraining of children before they are\nadmitted to the public school, 157\nTraining of the child's emotional life\n(Henry Suzzallo), 905\nTraining, Department of Physical, 925\nTraining of the incorrigible. The (W. A.\nGates), 995\nTraining for the non-average child, 221\nTraining-schools\nfor high-school teachers'\n610\nTraining for secondary versus elementary\nteachers, 634\nTraining of secondary-school teachers, 252\nTrancoso, M. Uribe y. — Greetings from\na sister republic, 75\nTreasurer's Annual Report, 1906-7, 20\nTrustees, Twenty-first Annual Report of\nBoard of; 1906-7, 22\nTwenty-five years of child-study, 910\nUngraded school — Its aim, 316\nUnited\n1065 States Department of Agriculture,\nUniversity-college\nafl&liation idea in Canada, 735\nUniversity and the college as trainingschools for high-school teachers, 610\nUniversity entrance credits in drawing\n(A. B. Clark), 838\nUse of the microscope in biology classes,\nThe, 688\nValue of educational campaigns, The,\n(J. L. McBrien), 282; Discussion, 287\nValue and limitations of quantitative work\nin physics and chemistry (George C.\nBush), 684; Discussion, 687\nVan Sickle, J. H. — ^Report of the Committee on History, 235; Discussion, 360\nVermont, Industrial work in rural schools\nin, 432\nVitalizing of the child thru song, The,\nI (Miss Estelle Carpenter),\n856;\nII (Mrs. Francis E. Clark), 862\nVitalization of the course of study, 278\nWalker, J, Franklin. — Discussion, 687\nWard of the nation. Is the child the, 152\nWeber,\nF. C. — Methods\nof improving\ncommercial teachers now at work, 890\nWegener, H. F. — ^The kinds of microscope\nwork valuable for high-school students,\n• hn S. — ^Discussion, 494\n3 Jo\nWelc69h,\n,\n7\nWestcott, C. M. — Discussion 68\n,\nWestcott, Oliver S. — Discussion 372, 383\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWhat has been' the effect upon the individual\npupil of the multiplicity of subjects of\nstudy and the refinement of methods?\n(Edmund A. Jones), 203\nWhat are the essentials in subjects in the\nelementary-school course ? (Elmer Ellsworth Brown), 227; Discussion, 230\nWhat equipment is required to successfully\nteach physics in secondary schools ?\n(Frank F. Almy), 951; Discussion, 956\n1069has been done by normal schools and\nWhat\nagricultural colleges for popular education in agriculture (E. E. Balcomb),\nWhat fraction of the pupils in our secondary\nschools cannot derive compensating\nadvantages therefrom ? (W. J. S. Bryan),\n194; Discussion, 201\nWhat can physical training do for the\nteacher?\nM. Shafer), 942;\nDiscussion, (Harry\n948\nWhat should the public do for the care and\ntraining of children before they are\nadmitted to the public school? (Miss\nAda Van\nsion, 164 Stone Harris), 157; DiscusWhat should the smaller cities attempt for\nthe education of defective children —\nphysical, mental, and moral? (John\nDietrich), 297; Discussion, 301\ncommon, Benjamin\n134\nWheeler,\nIde. — Call nothing\nWhy Wisconsin beHeves in public day\nschools for the deaf (Frank M. Jack),\nWiCKSON, E. J. — The agricultural college\nand its relationsihp to the scheme of\nnational education, 1041\nteacher, 972J. N. — The librarian as a\nWilkinson,\n986\nWill the same training in Normal schools\nserve to prepare the teacher for both\nelementary and high-school work ? Qohn\nR. Kirk), 661\nWolfe, L. E. — Discussion, 362, 369, 497,\nWomen's organizations. Influence of, on\npublic education, 125\ncation, 457 Minnie C. — Secretary's minWood, Miss\nutes. Department of Kindergarten EduWork, 776\nCree T. — ^Discussion, 776\nWork, Motive for, 462\nWork of the national government in extending agricultural education thru the\npublic schools (Dick J. Crosby), 1063\nWright, C. T. — Microscopic projection in\nbiology, 697; Discussion, 506\nYoung, Ella Flagg. — ^The educational\nprogress of two years, 1905- 1907, 383;\nThe proper articulation of technical\neducation within the system of public\neducation, 1037; Discussion, 164\n\n"} {"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": ""} {"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\nNational Education Association\n13\nof the United States\nN3A13\nAddresses and pro1907\nceedings...\n\nPLEASE DO NOT\nCARDS\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"} {"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}